s o u A Quarterly of the

Volume XVI, Numbers 1 /2 January/April 1997

"We Come to You as the Dead": placed on the Standing Rock Reservation, under Etbnomusicology, Colonialism, and the control of the United States government. the Standing Rock Reservation Many of the things they spoke of were no longer. They were now the "children" of the 1868-1934 Great Father in Washington, the military was Erik Gooding sent to control them and the Indian agents and missionaries were there to "civilize" them. 1 Introduction Ethnomusicologists have met with some In August, 1913, Old Buffalo, with form of colonialism in Africa, Asia, South Swift Dog, came to McLaughlin, South Dakota, America, and North America. Hegemonic to confer with Frances Densmore. She remarked relationships have existed and still exist in many that "they regarded this conference very areas of the world. Dominant groups throughout seriously" (Densmore 1918:412). Old Buffalo history have subordinated others, forcing stated: changes in indigenous systems: political, social, religious, economic, and musical. This study We come to you as from the dead. focuses on one such relationship, that between The things about which you ask us the Lakota and yanktonai Dakota of the have been dead to us for many Standing Rock Reservation and the United years. In bringing them to our States government, and the effect of this minds we are calling them from the relationship on ethnomusicological research dead, and when we have told during the period between 1868 and 1934. The you about them they will go back to the object of this study is the material collected dead, to remain forever. during the period of intense colonialism by four [Densmore 1918:412] researchers, Frances Densmore, George Herzog, Willard Rhodes, and LaMont West. Old Buffalo and Swift Dog, Lakota men born in This paper is divided into four periods. the mid 1800s, were acutely aware when they Each period begins with a historical section spoke to Densmore of the changes that had used to contextualize the material, which is occurred in their lifetime. They had fought in followed by examples of song types and texts. the intertribal wars; they had fought the United The pre-reservation period leads up to the States army and fled to Canada after the Battle establishment of the Great Sioux Reservation of the Little Bighorn in 1876; and they had in 1868. This section briefly introduces pre­ returned to the United States and had been reservation Lakota-Dakota culture and includes examples distinctive of this period, such as Robert P. Higheagle, she worked with twenty­ music of war expeditions, personal narratives nine male singers and six female singers concerning war and songs of the buffalo hunt. collecting 228 songs together with ethnographic The second period, 1868-1890, descriptions of religious, military, and social documents the settling of the Standing Rock life.2 These included: ceremonial songs, such as Reservation and the initial attempts by the the song of the coming of the White Buffalo United States government to abolish certain Maiden, and songs of the Adoption, Sun Dance, Indian practices, focusing on religion. Examples and Heyoka ceremonies; songs of personal from this period include songs used in the dreams, including songs received from animals, treatment of the sick, songs of the Sun Dance sacred stones, and songs used in the treatment of and of the Ghost Dance. the sick; society songs, including dream The third period, 1890-1918, focuses on societies songs from the Buffalo, Elk, and Horse the transformation of the pre-reservation societies; military society songs from the Fox, political and social system of the Lakota and Strong Heart, Badger, Miwatani, and White Dakota. Examples include those from military Horse Riders; songs of war expeditions and societies, dream societies, Council and Chiefs personal songs concerning war; songs of the songs, as well as the new social forms of music buffalo hunt; Council and Chiefs songs; songs and dance that were beginning to emerge during from dances, including Grass, Shuffling Feet, this period. Night, and Begging dances; game songs, The fourth period, 1918-1934, focuses including moccasin and hiding-stick games; on the new social forms of music and dance and children's songs; honor songs, and love songs. the adaptation of older forms to the new musical From this material she wrote her seminal settings. This period ends with the passage of monograph, Teton Sioux Music, published in the Indian Reorganization Act. 1918. She characterized her work as an From the information presented in these "analytical study of Indian music which chronological periods several questions can be commenced among the Chippewa [and] has explored. First, what kind of ethnomusico­ been continued among the Sioux" (Densmore logical research can be done in a colonial situation, such as at the Standing Rock Reservation; second, how has the colonial Resound situation affected the music of the Standing A Quarterly of the Rock Sioux; and third, what can the collections obtained in such environments tell us about the Archives of Traditional Music music of the Standing Rock Reservation from Jonathan Cargill, Editor 1868-1934. We are pleased to accept comments, letters, and submissions. Please address your correspondence to RESOUND at: The Standing Rock Collections Archives of Traditional Music Morrison Hall 117 Frances Densmore, of the Smithsonian's Indiana University Bureau of American Ethnology, worked Bloomington, IN 47405 primarily among the Blackfeet and Hunkpapa Gloria J. Gibson, Director Mary Russell Bucknum, Associate Director bands of Lakota at the Standing Rock Marilyn B. Graf, Archivist Reservation between 1911 and 1914. With the Suzanne Mudge, Librarian assistance of Lakota interpreter-collaborator ISSN 0749-2472 .

2 1918:v). Her book includes analysis that was victory songs, buffalo hunt songs, akicita songs, customary for the musicology of her day: honoring songs, children's songs, and love musical transcriptions, text transcriptions and songs. These were recorded from seven translations, and musical analysis. Of consultants, three elders over the age of 60, importance to the present study in regard to her Wacinbdeza, No Heart, and Has Tricks, and method of analysis, was her categorization of three younger singers, Edward Afraid of Hawk, songs into "old" and "modem" categories. Old Two Shields, and Jerome Standing Soldier, as songs were recorded by men 65 to 80 years of well as one 45 year old Santee man, Fred Luis, age and were songs that the singers had learned who only recorded 2 songs. For purposes of or received in dreams when they were young comparison and to study variation, Herzog (Densmore 1918:22). Densmore also recorded recorded some of the songs four or five times "comparatively modem songs" from older from as many as four different singers. The two singers. Younger singers, who Densmore stated primary consultants were No Heart, an elder "sing at the drum" on occasions when the religious leader, and Edward Afraid of Hawk, a Lakota assembled, recorded the remaining member of the younger generation of singers; songs. She felt that "these [modem] songs between them they represented the majority of represent a distinct phase of Sioux music, which the male musical repertory of Yanktonai Dakota should not be omitted from a general at Standing Rock; Herzog did not record any consideration of the subject" (1918:22). women's music. Although her research focused on Lakota music, In addition to the song texts and the Densmore did consult several Yanktonai Dakota discussions of the songs, Herzog's field notes ceremonialleaders--including No Heart, with contain 163 pages of ethnographic descriptions whom Herzog would also work--conceming the of societies, religious ceremonies, and social Sun Dance, which previously was performed organization--comparable in subject matter and jointly at Standing Rock by the Lakota and scope to Densmore's material. Intending to Yanktonai Dakota (Densmore 1918:87). complement an earlier Boasian study of Plains In the summer of 1928, George Herzog societies, Herzog had taken with him into the visited the Standing Rock Reservation under the field copies of Clark Wissler's (1912) "Societies auspices of the American Museum of Natural and Ceremonial Associations in the Oglala History to record a representative sample of Division of the Teton-Dakota" and Robert music from the bands of Yanktonai Dakota. The Lowie's (1913) "Dance Associations of the Herzog collection ofyanktonai Dakota music Eastern Dakota." He used these as reference consists of 205 songs, from thirty-two sacred materials in his discussions with consultants, and secular genres. These include: ceremonial who provided him with cognate Yanktonai songs of the Sun Dance, Sweat Lodge, Heyoka, Dakota forms. However, Herzog never prepared and Adoption, as well as Medicine Curing and his material for publication and it is archived in Peyote rituals; songs from the various men's the Indiana University Archives of Traditional societies including the Kakega, Badger, Fox, Music, collection 54-110-F.3 Crow Owner, Strong Heart, Wolf, Yellow Shirt, During his tenure working for the United and Mawatani; dance songs including Kahomni, States Bureau of Indian Affairs (1937-52), Night, Medicine, Buffalo, Grass, Rabbit, Willard Rhodes undertook ethnomusicological Drinking, Horse, and Wiyatapi; and individual fieldwork among various Lakota, Dakota, and songs such as those derived from visions-­ Nakota groups (see McAllester 1993). While including those of Double Women dreamers-- among the Yanktonai Dakota of the Fort Peck

3 Reservation in Montana in mid-August 1947, language, traveled extensively throughout the his consultants, Alvin Warrior and Matt Eagle Northern Plains of the United States and Canada Boy, recommended that Rhodes visit Francis (Farnell 1995, West 1960). In addition to Yellow Lodge and James Vaulter on the filming sign language, West also recorded Standing Rock Reservation. During three music at various reserves and reservations, sessions (August 28, September 3, and including Standing Rock. On November 16, September 5), Rhodes recorded Yanktonai 1956, he recorded Amos Elk Nation at Dakota material from Yellow Lodge and Bullhead, South Dakota. Mr. Elk Nation, a 71 Vaulter, as well as from Leon Spotted Bull year old Hunkpapa Lakota sang eight songs for (from Fort Peck), Charles Tusk, Jerome West: an Honor song for Sitting Bull, a Ghost Hastricks, and Louisa Iron Shield. This material Dance song, a Moccasin game song (Stick includes Victory, Kahomni, Rabbit, Grass, game), a Love song sung during dance, a Curing Love, Patriotic, Contest, Warbonnet, Doorway, song for minor sickness, a Victory song sung on Moccasin Game, Fox Society, Sun Dance, going to war (modem), an Old Victory song, Buffalo Dance, Strong Heart Society, War and a Give-away song (Donation song). These Mother and Honoring songs. recordings are located at the Indiana University While at Standing Rock, Rhodes also Archives of Traditional Music, 65-263-F. collected Lakota material by John Kills Crow and Louis Looking Horse at Little Eagle, South Pre-reservation Sioux and their Music, Dakota. Their material includes War, Sun pre-1868 Dance, Ghost Dance, Lullaby, and Fox Society Historically the American Indian groups songs. In addition to his recordings, Rhodes also of the Great Plains known as the Sioux were collected a few pages of ethnographic comprised of a large number of bands, joined information. together in political units at a tribal level The Rhodes material can be found in (DeMallie 1987). Of the three primary divisions several institutions; the Ethnomusicology of the Sioux, the eastern Santee-Sisseton Archive at the University of California at Los Dakota, the Y ankton-Yanktonai Dakota, and the Angeles (McAllester 1993), the Archives of western Teton Lakota, members of the Traditional Music at Indiana University (54- Yanktonai Dakota and Lakota groups are the 022-F), and at the Library of Congress in focus of this study. Washington, D.C. (9557:B3-9562). According In the early nineteenth century the to McAllester (1993 :260), Rhodes decided to Lakota lived on the prairies and plains of North archive his ethnomusicological recordings and and South Dakota, moving mostly west of the papers at UCLA. However, it appears that his Missouri River by the mid-nineteenth century, field notes are scattered between several while the Yanktonai Dakota lived on the prairies institutions. For example, for the summer of of Minnesota and the eastern portion of North 1939, Rhodes collected ten notebooks of and South Dakota (DeMallie 1987:6-7). material. Notebooks one through five are found Although these two groups share a common in the Library of Congress, while notebooks six language and culture, the two groups speak through ten are found at UCLA. His field distinctive dialects of the Sioux language and material for 1947 is located at the Library of are characterized by subtle but long-standing Congress. cultural variation (see Parks and DeMallie In the late 1950s, La Mont West, Jr., a 1992). graduate student researching Plains Indian sign

4 Their pre-reservation life centered on the warriors! When you say those buffalo, with economic, social and political words, that woman stands organization and religious beliefs and practices smiling. drawing heavily on it (Utley 1993:8). Utley stated that: 3) Song ofa Typical War Expedition, sung by No Heart (Herzog 1928): War and the hunt shaped the tribe's social organization and Mother, come outside, blood political institutions, which were flowing on me, they are bringing loose and ever-changing in me home. Struck by Ree returned response to variations in game saying that. movement and population, the actions of friends and enemies, 4) "Song to Secure Buffalo in Time of Famine" and the highly developed sung by Siyaka (Densmore 1918:445): individualism of the people. [1993:8] That pipe which they [the buffalo] speak of as they walk, Songs of pre-reservation life, such as that one, offering it often, I go; those referring to buffalo hunting and intertribal That red clay paint, which they warfare, reflect major themes in traditional speak of as they walk, that, culture. These themes are represented in the touching it often, I walk; That music associated with these activities. blue-earth which they speak of as Densmore collected fifty-five songs concerning they walk, that, touching it often, war expeditions and four songs concerning I walk. buffalo hunting. Herzog collected one song relating to war expeditions and two songs of the 1868-1890: The Great Sioux buffalo hunt. The following examples express Reservation to the Ghost Dance these themes: The Great Sioux Reservation was 1) Song of a Typical War Expedition, "These established on April 29, 1868, and at that time are not my Interest" sung by Two Shields comprised approximately 20,000,000 acres of (Densmore 1918:334-35): land, extending from the northern boundary of Nebraska north to the forty-sixth degree Friends, as I have often said latitude, and from the eastern bank of the before, there are plenty of Missouri River to the one hundred and fourth common secular matters, to be meridian of longitude (Densmore 1918:3). In sure; but they are not what 1875 an additional tract of land extending north 4 appeal to me, I said. to the Cannonball River was added by an Executive order to the Standing Rock Sioux 2) Song of a Typical War Expedition, "She Reservation (Densmore 1918:4). Stands There Smiling" sung by Dog Eagle Residents of the Great Sioux (Densmore 1918:361): Reservation included the various Yankton Dakota, Yanktonai Dakota, and Lakota groups . . Friends, they are now about to Many bands settled on the Great Sioux charge into camp, as returning

5 Reservation, traveling off it only for seasonal Ghost dance, were discontinued hunts in areas approved by the government. on that reservation, and on Other groups, known as 'hostiles,' etc., March 31, 1895, when I left remained off the reservation, primarily to the Standing Rock as Indian Agent, west and would settle much later on specific there had not been any Indian reservations. dance for the pryceding five The inauguration of President Grant's years among the Indians residing Peace Policy in 1869 led to the assignment of south of the Agency, and only in Indian agencies to the various Christian two camps north of the Agency, churches (DeMallie 1987: II). The Roman . one of which was in the Catholic Church was assigned the Grand River Hunkpati camp in North Dakota, Agency, which would later become the Standing and the Lower Yanktonai camp, Rock Agency. near the Cannon Ball river in On March 2, 1889, twenty three years North Dakota, and these two after the establishment of the Great Sioux dances were held only every Reservation, an Act of Congress divided the second Saturday commencing at Great Sioux Reservation into six distinct noon and ending at Sundown of reservations; Pine Ridge, Rosebud, Standing those days, at which dances no Rock, Cheyenne River, Lower Brule, and Crow returned students or pupils of the Creek (Royce 1896-97:932-934). reservation schools were The Standing Rock Reservation was permitted to participate, and the settled by bands of Yanktonai Dakota and dance thus permitted was that Lakota. Census reports and ration lists divide usually known as the Grass the Yanktonai into Upper and Lower groups Dance, which was also known on with extended family groups designated by their some reservations as the Omaha "chiefs." Standing Rock was also the home to Dance.-[McLaughlin n.d.] two bands of Lakota, the Hunkpapa and the Blackfeet, which were also sub-divided into This early r~servation period is marked extended family units. by attempts by the United States government to The reservation was divided into 5 eliminate various pagan rites, curing rituals, and districts originally; Agency, Cannonball, religious practices. These attempts affected the Bullhead, Wakpala, and Porcupine, and each musical aspects of these practices, both in district had one building which was used for secular and religious music. Secular music, meetings and for dancing. Agent McLaughlin which was performed at the Grass dances, was a summarized the situation of dance and music mixture of various societial songs and would in during his tenure as agent when he stated that: time become the only public outlet of musical expreSSIon. I was Indian Agent at Standing With the ban of the Sun Dance and its Rock Agency from September last performance at Standing Rock in 1882, 30,1881 to March 31, 1895, religious expression among the Lakota and during which time the Sun dance, Yanktonai Dakota, including music, was War dance, Scalp dance, Horse drastically altered. This religious gap would be dance, Kiss dance, Mothers of filled by some with the Ghost Dance of 1890, the brave sons dance, and the another religious expression that was eliminated

6 by the United States government. The Ghost Will Walk," sung by Eagle Shield (Densmore Dance offered a musical outlet for ceremonial 1918:260): music, for the adaptation of existing songs as well as the creation of songs for the new You shall take this holy thing ... doctrine. there soon now, he does walk! The Densmore, Herzog, Rhodes, and West collections contain songs of these rituals 5) Song used in the treatment of the sick, sung as well as individual curing songs. Densmore by No Heart (Herzog 1928): recorded forty songs of the Sun dance, sixteen songs used in the treatment of the sick, and no Here! Look at this, a minute! My Ghost Dance songs, while Herzog recorded nine friend said, "Friend, a good Sun Dance songs, one Ghost Dance song, and medicine I give you" two songs used in the treatment of the sick. Rhodes recorded one Ghost Dance song and one 6) Sun Dance song, sung by Jerome Hastricks Sun Dance, and West recorded one Ghost Dance (Rhodes 1947): song and one curing song. These songs reflect the sacred nature of Wakantanka, pity me. My people the ceremonies, as well as the relation of will live, that's what I want. religion to their culture and society, as indicated by the following song text examples: 1890-World War I Following the Ghost Dance of 1890, 1) Sun Dance song, "Song Sung after Raising dancing on Standing Rock temporarily declined. the Sacred Pole (a)," sung by Red Weasel Agent McLaughlin, commenting to the (Densmore 1918:119): Commissioner of Indian Affairs on the condition of dancing on Standing Rock, noted [So] it was that he said to me, that: "Behold me, I stand in a holy way." On July 4, 1898, the Indian Agent then in charge there 2) Sun Dance song, "Song of Cutting of the invited all Indians of the Sacred Pole," sung by Siyaka (Densmore reservation to assemble at the 1918:113): Agency for that celebration and to stage as the chief feature of the It is because I am after black face day one of their old time tribal paint that I have done this. Grass Dances, and also encouraged these dances at 3) Ghost dance, sung by Edward Afraid of intervals throughout his four Hawk (Herzog 1928): years incumbency ending in 1902, and the dance has been in Mother, come home, little vogue on the Standing Rock brother goes about crying; father Reservation since that time. says you must. [McLaughlin 1922]

4) Song used in the treatment of the sick "You

7 Father Barnard, a Catholic Missionary, wrote to 2) Fox Society song, sung by No Heart (Herzog the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1922 1928): concerning the "evils of divorce and give-away" which were part of the "pagan rituals that the As I return, my voice may be Sioux were participating." Agent Mossman also heard; I come howling; That expressed his opinion to the Commissioner in well-known Fox am I and I am 1922 stated that "the singing that accompanies returning. this dance is the same as the sound y<;>u hear from the religious ceremonies of the lowest 3) Fox Society song, sung by Edward Afraid of savages" (Mossman 1922). Agent Mossman, Hawk (Herzog 1928): sounding more like a missionary, commented that "now when I came to Standing Rock a year Friends, I live dreading the ago I came on the first of July. Let me tell you things you deal with. Hell and damnation were let loose" (Mossman 1922). 4) "Song Concerning a Dream of the The allowance of certain dances created Thunderbirds," sung by Lone Man (Densmore a new outlet for musical expression. New social 1918: 165-166): forms appear during this period, such as Rabbit dances, while the remaining pre-reservation Friends, behold me, I have been musical forms severely decline. Songs of made sacred, military societies, dream societies, as well as Friends, behold me, I have been Council and Chiefs songs vanished or were made sacred, adapted to new musical forms. At the place where the clouds The Densmore, Herzog, Rhodes, and gather, I have been made sacred West collections contain examples of these song Friends, behold me, I have been forms. Densmore contains eleven military made sacred. society songs, nineteen dream society songs, four Council songs, and seven Chiefs songs. 5) "I Fear Not," sung by Siyaka (Densmore Herzog contains twenty-six military society 1918:449): songs, seven dream society songs, and no Chiefs or Council songs. The Rhodes material Friends, no matter what you say, contains military society songs, while the West our leaders are all gone now; I collection has an Honor song for Sitting Bull. might be a poor substitute, but The following are representative examples of still I continue trying to do what these songs forms. is to be done.

1) "Song of the Fox Society," sung by Bear 6) "His Customs I Adopted," sung by Used As Soldier (Densmore 1918: 316) A Shield (Densmore 1918:451):

Fox Society members, there was Because I follow the ways of my a time when no matter what you fathers, I do not have an easy proposed, I was in the lead for it; life. [i.e., the warpath tradition]. but now I am enduring hardship.

8 1918-1934, World War I to the Indian In the Extracts from the 1920 Annual Reorganization Act Reports of Superintendents, the subj ect of World War I brought a resurgence of the dancing returns to the forefront. The pre-reservation warrior traditions among the Commissioner wrote: groups at Standing Rock. Old war rituals, such as victory dances, were perfonned during the The only way to remove the bad war as well as to celebrate the conclusion of the features is to abolish the dance war. Rev. Aaron Beede witnessed such a entirely. As long as Indian victory celebration at the Indian dance hall near dancing is pennitted we cannot the Porcupine River, four miles northwest of expect the Indians either young Fort Yates on November 30, 1918 (Beede or old, to give their full interest 1942). These celebrations continued after the to industrial or moral war. A committee of Indians at Cannonball development. The Indian will district wrote that: live from one such celebration to the other, and it is very difficult After the War was over, we to get them to work when there is started to raise funds to build a an Indian dance or celebration in Memorial Hall for our boys who sight. [Sells 1920] had been killed in the great World War for our country, and During this period, the agents tried to prevent who have given their lives in this young men from participating and did not allow World War, and we also helped children and students who had returned home raise money for the War Mother from boarding schools to attend dances. Organization, which.was To address what was perceived as an organized by Major A. B. Welch, increasing dance problem, Commissioner Cato who has been in this World War. Sells on March 17, 1921, issued Circular 1665. We obtained pennission from the In this, Sells addressed several key issues. In Superintendent to raise money regard to dance, he wrote: for this organization in the Indian dancing. What we have donated It is not the policy of the Indian we do not call it give away like Office to denounce all fonns of the olden time. We never at any Indian dancing. It is rather its time raised money for the above purpose to be somewhat tolerant two purposes without of pleasure and relaxation sought pennission. The money we in this way or of ritualism and raised for War Mothers with this traditional sentiment thus money they help poor and sick expressed. The dance per se is Indians who are sick and who are not condemned. The dance , in need of clothing, and however, under most primitive subsistence and also ex-soldiers and pagan conditions is apt to be who are sick and need help the hannful, and when found to be War Mothers help these young so among the Indians we should soldiers. [Anon. 1923] control it by educational processes as far as possible, but

9 if necessary, by punitive American Indian traditions began to return. measures when its degrading The music of this fourth period, 1918- tendencies persist. [Sells 1921] 1934, focuses on the social forms of music and dance that were either new or older forms that The circular also addressed religious were adapted. The Densmore collection, ceremonials and dances which were deemed although recorded before this period immoral. He wrote: chronologically, contains songs that are of this style. She recorded six songs of the Grass dance The sun-dance and all other and two songs of the Shuffling-feet dance. similar dances and so-called Herzog recorded twenty Grass dance songs and religious ceremonies are seven songs of the side-step dance as well as considered 'Indian Offences' two songs of the new Peyote religion. Rhodes under existing regulations, and collected several Kahomni songs, one of the corrective penalties are provided. new social dance forms, as well as numerous I regard such restriction as examples related to the war that follow in the applicable to any dance which warrior tradition. The West collection contains involves acts of self-torture, an Old-Time victory song as well as a Victory immoral relations between sexes, song from the modern wars. The following the sacrificial destruction of examples represent these song forms: clothing or other useful objects, the reckless giving away of 1) "Side Step song," sung by Edward Afraid of property, the use of injurious Hawk (Herzog): drugs or intoxicants, and frequent or prolonged periods of I desired to see you, so I came from celebration which bring the where I was. Indians together from remote points to the neglect of their 2) "Grass Dance Song, when a man gives away crops, livestock, and home his wife," sung by No Heart (Herzog): interests; in fact any disorderly or plainly excessive performance Your child is brought crying, your wife that promotes superstitious stands weeping. cruelty, licentiousness, idleness, danger to health, and shiftless 3) "Kahomni Song," sung by Edward Afraid of indifference to family welfare. Hawk (Herzog): [Sells 1921] I want to Kahomni and I go to a great In 1934 Commissioner of Indian Affairs deal to do it. John Collier, introduced the Indian Reorganization Act. Over a period of several 4) "Peyote Song," sung by Edward Afraid of years, Collier would create several federal Hawk (Herzog): agencies that would promote Indian arts, crafts, and traditions, as well as the study of Indian I oppose the devil, Jesus, take me please, cultures. With this change in policy away from I want to live. the previous assimilationist perspective,

10 5) "Kahomni Song," Vaulter, Yellow Lodge, native Sioux who grew up at Standing Rock and Spotted Bull, and Tuske (Rhodes): who, like Herzog, was employed by Franz Boas at Columbia University. You have big ear, but you do not hear The material of Rhodes and West, anything. We're related, you'll get along while collected after this period of intense much bett~r if you listen to me. colonialism, contains remnants of the musical traditions of this earlier time period. With the 6) Patriotic Song, Vaulter, Yellow Lodge, passage of the Indian Reorganization Act and Spotted Bull, ·and Tuske (Rhodes): the change in policy in regard to American Indian culture, music, along with many other Throughout the nation, I love my aspects of traditional life, began a public rebirth. country. I've made an effort to see the This new climate allowed for their musical banner wave forever. system to develop new roots and to grow, as well as creating a climate in which ethno­ Conclusions musicological research could flourish. For From the data presented, the three example, both Rhodes and West were able to primary questions concerning colonialism and record from Lakotas several Ghost Dance songs. ethnomusicology can now be addressed. First, The singers that they recorded were probably what kind of ethnomusicological research can not participants in the Ghost Dance, but were be done in a colonial situation, such as at the familiar with its songs. Densmore, who was at Standing Rock Reservation? Standing Rock less than twenty years after the The colonial situation at Standing Rock Ghost Dance did not record any of its songs, Reservation began in 1868, but not until 1911 possibly due to the fear of repercussions, either was any ethnomusicological study undertaken from the United States government, or, from a there. Ethnomusicological research at the higher power. The removal of time from the Standing Rock Reservation from 1868-1934 tragedy at Wounded Knee allowed for these was severely limited by the colonial situation. songs to be sung. Access to consultants with musical knowledge The reservation context restricted not may have been difficult when such knowledge only the types of music performed but it had been discouraged or deemed illegal. formalized the performance situation. What Densmore noted that several individuals would were everyday occurrences in pre-reservation not work with her despite approval from the life became structured and circumscribed agent, for fear of negative repercussions. Many through the imposition of federal laws and of the song types recorded had been aspects of regulations, enforced by the court of Indian rituals or societies that had not been performed offenses. for close to thirty years. Indirectly the colonial situation also Densmore, as an employee of the federal provided assistance to these projects. One result government, was able to interview singers and of the reservation system was the emphasis on to get them to perform freely outside of the formal education. Both Densmore and Herzog usual social context of music, purely for her had the advantage of collaborating with literate research. She was able to record information Sioux individuals--Robert P. Higheagle, Mary that otherwise would have been prohibited. McLaughlin, and Ella Deloria--who were able Herzog's way was paved by Ella Deloria, a to translate and transcribe their native language with a degree of accuracy that many

11 fieldworkers were unable to obtain on their Kakega (1), Badger (1), Fox (4), Crow Owner own. (3), Strong Heart (3), Wolf (8), Yellow Shirt The second question, how did the (2), and Mawatani (1), account for 23 songs, or colonial situation affect the music of the people 12%. Dance songs including Kahomni (7), of the Standing Rock Reservation, can be Night (6), Medicine (3), Buffalo (6), Grass (20), addressed on the basis of the collections made Rabbit (3), Drinking (2), Horse (2), and by Densmore and Herzog. A comparison of the Wiyatapi (2), account for 53 songs, or 27%. song types and the number of songs per type Individual songs such as those derived from reveals many of the effects of colonialism upon visions--inc1uding those of Double Women the music of Standing Rock. Densmore's dreamers (2)--victory songs (2), buffalo hunt recordings focus on religious/ceremonial music songs (2), akicita songs (2), honoring songs such as the song of the coming of the White (15), children's songs (15), and love songs (4), Buffalo Maiden (1); songs of the Adoption (2), account for 42 songs, or 20%. Sun Dance (33), and Heyoka (7) ceremonies; A comparison of these statistics songs of personal dreams, including songs indicates the following. Ceremonial and received from animals (15), sacred stones (20), religious songs make up 41.2% of the Densmore and songs used in the treatment of the sick (16). collection and only 10% of the Herzog These total 94 songs out of228, or 41.2%. collection. Society songs make up 12% of the Society songs, including dream societies songs Densmore collection and 12% of the Herzog from the Buffalo (9), Elk (4), and Horse collection. Dance songs make up 5% of the societies (6); military society songs from the songs in the Densmore collection while the Fox (2), Strong Heart (4), Badger (2), Miwatani Herzog collection is 27% dance songs. Personal (1), and White Horse Riders (2); account for 28 songs make up 8% of the Densmore collection songs, or 12% of the collection. Songs that and 20% of the Herzog collection. center around pre-reservation political and From these statistics it may be economic structure such as songs of war hypothesized that the Densmore collection, expeditions (30) and personal songs concerning collected 14 to 17 years before Herzog's, is war (25); songs of the buffalo hunt (4); council heavily weighted towards ceremonial/religious (4) and chiefs (7) songs, account for 70 songs, music, while the Herzog collection centers on or 30% of the collection. Songs from dances, personal and secular dance music. These including Grass (6), Shuffling feet (2), Night numbers would appear to reflect the impact of (1), and Begging dances (2), account for 11 colonialism upon the Sioux at Standing Rock. songs, or 5%, and game songs, including Third, what can collections obtained in moccasin (6) and hiding-stick games (3) , such hegemonic environments tell us about the account for 9 songs, or 4%. Personal songs such music of the Standing Rock Reservation from as honor songs (12), children's songs (3) and 1868-1934? These collections, through their love songs (3) account for 8% of the collection. song texts, are a direct reflection of the situation The Herzog collection contains the present on the Standing Rock Reservation following songs and percentages. Ceremonial during this time period. Songs texts become a songs of the Sun Dance (9), Sweat Lodge (2), form of commentary as expressed in the Heyoka (1), and Huka (4), as ,well as Ghost following song by Sitting Bull: "Once I was a dance (1), Medicine Curing (2) and Peyote warrior, but now all that is past; I am helpless, rituals (1), account for 20 songs, or 10%. Songs suffering all things" (Densmore 1918:459). This from the various men's societies including the song illustrates Sitting Bull's transition from an

12 independent warrior on the Plains, to a Beede, Aaron sedentary fanner of the reservation. 1942 "The Dakota Indian Victory Dance." These collections show the adaptability North Dakota Historical Quarterly 9. of songs to switch genres and to remain in DeMallie, Raymond J. circulation and to change functions in certain 1987 "Lakota Belief and Ritual in the rituals from the sacred to the secular. Herzog Nineteenth Century." In Sioux Indian recorded 18 songs that were recorded by Religion, edited by Raymond J. Densmore over a decade earlier. Certain songs DeMallie and Douglas R. Parks. and song types remained stable throughout the Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. colonial situation. Material from the Rhodes and Densmore, Frances West collections illustrate that certain types of 1918 Teton Sioux Music. Bureau of American songs persist, though the rituals may not have Ethnology. Government Printing Office. been practiced for several decades. Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of During the period between 1868 and American Ethnology Bulletin 61. 1934 intertribal visiting was high. Several new 1945 Prelude to the Study ofIndian Music in social dance forms were introduced to the Minnesota. Minnesota Archaeologist Standing Rock Reservation, but in each 11 :27-31. instance, an existing Lakota or Yanktonai F amell, Brenda Dakota song form was adapted to the new 1995 Do you See what I Mean?: Plains Indian dance. Their musical tradition has remained Sign Talk and the Embodiment of stable throughout the colonial situation, with Action. Austin: University of Texas very little outside influence. Press. These things about which Old Buffalo Lowie, Robert spoke, however, did not 'go back to the dead to 1913 "Dance Associations of the Eastern remain forever.' They are there for us, because Dakota." Anthropological Papers ofthe of researchers like Densmore, Herzog, Rhodes, American Museum ofNatural History and West, and because of individuals such as 11:101-142. Old Buffalo. Densmore wrote, "An old Indian McAllester, David P. said, after recording his songs: 'I am glad that 1993 "Willard Rhodes." Ethnomusicology my voice is to be preserved in Washington, in a 37:251-62. building that cannot burn down'" (1945:31). McLaughlin, James She continued, "I, too, am glad that so many n.d. Letter to Commissioner of Indian Indian songs are preserved and it is expected Affairs. that ... copies of recorded songs may be 1922 Letter to Commissioner of Indian available to students of Indian music" Affairs. (1945:31). As a student of Indian music, I too, Mossman, E. am glad. 1922 Letter to Commissioner of Indian Affairs. References Parks, Douglas R. and Raymond J. DeMallie Anon. 1992 Sioux, Assiniboine, and Stoney Dialects: 1923 Letter to Commissioner of Indian A Classification. Anthropological Affairs. Linguistics 34:233-55. Sells, Cato 1920 Annual Report ofSuperintendents.

13 1921 Circular 1665. Commissioner of Indian Charlotte Heth, Judith Gray, and Raymond Affairs. DeMallie. Utley, Robert M 1993 The Lance and the Shield. New York: 2. Densmore was also assisted throughout this Holt and Company. four-year period by several individuals when West, LaMont Jr. Higheagle was unavailable, including Mrs. 1960 The Sign Language: An Analysis. Ph.D. Mary McLaughlin, wife of the Indian agent and Dissertation, Indiana University. a Mrs. Lawrence, who, like Higheagle had been Wissler, Clark a student at Carlisle Indian School (Densmore 1912 "Societies and Ceremonial Associations 1918:365). in the Oglala Division of the Teton­ Dakota." Anthropological Papers of the 3. The Herzog collection, as well as the other American Museum ofNatural History Yanktonai materials discussed in this paper; 11:1-99. form the core materials of a Yanktonai Dakota musical ethnography I am currently Notes undertaking. 1. This paper is an excerpt from a larger piece written in 1992. The author wishes to thank 4. Free translations of the song texts are either Gloria Gibson, Ruth Stone, Marilyn Graf, by the author, the author and Raymond J. DeMallie, or from Ella Deloria (1937).

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