ast Meets West When the people of Rus’ accepted Christianity from Byzantium the central image. Considered to be the Gospel in paint, early icons in 988, they inherited a mature religious tradition, consisting of a were prized for their enduring consistency in an ever-changing coherent and theocratic world view. One manifestation of this world world, and they were understood to represent a direct and faithful view was the making and veneration of icons. The purpose of the connection to the true and never-changing word of God. Essentially icons, as with all Byzantine art, was to support the relationship copies of one accepted original, their unwavering continuity was between the liturgy and ritual of the Orthodox Church. Additionally, favored over individual artistic interpretation. the veneration of icons served as a personal link between the worshipper, the figure honored by the icon, and the ideals they The later icons in this exhibition also have their roots in Byzantium, represented. Descendants of Greco-Roman funerary portraits and yet like all works of art, they reflect the time in which they were later the mosaics at Ravenna, Italy, Byzantine icons could trace made. With the advent of Russia’s new relationship with the West, their aesthetic lineage to the early days of Christianity; this con- the taut symbolism of the early icons began to give way to artis- nection imbued them with both symbolic and historic significance. tic license and the elements found in representational painting. The taste for naturalism, popular in 17th- and 18th- century European painting, soon infiltrated the realm of the icon painters: outlines softened, figures became fuller, Renaissance perspective was employed, and shadows appeared. Once portrayed as distant and divine, Christ and the saints were now depicted as more man than god, more mortal than immortal.
Roman funerary portrait. Mosaic of Christ Pantocrator from Ravenna. The earliest icons favored by the Russian Orthodox Church adhered conceptually and stylistically to icons brought from Byzantium. Characterized by a directness and flatness, the imagery favored simplified forms, and the figures floated in spiritual space. A limited palette, minimal detail, severe lines, and a penetrating gaze kept the viewer focused on the divine and spiritual nature of Icon in the traditional Byzantine style. Icon showing Western influences.
A Curatorial Conundrum The Puzzle of MAG’s St. George Slaying the Dragon by Nancy Norwood Curator of European Art, MAG
St. George and Russia Based on style, color, and formal characteristics, the icon St. George Slaying the Dragon entered MAG’s collection as originating in the mid-1300s from the Russian city of Novgorod. As the patron saint of Moscow and of the Russian princes, St. George played a special role in Orthodox religious practice and was a frequent subject of icon paintings. According to Christian tradition, George, who was born during the third century into a Christian family, joined the Roman army. During his travels, he came across a city that was being terrorized by a dragon. At the moment of George’s arrival, the dragon, who had already eaten all of the farm animals and had begun to consume the townspeople, was preparing to swallow the king’s daughter. With the help of Christ, George overcame the dragon and killed him with his spear, thus saving the city from ruin. He later became a saint when he was martyred by the Romans for his Christian beliefs.
The most popular depiction of St. George in Russian icons represents his struggle with the dragon, a scene that also represents the victory of Good over Evil. MAG’s St. George follows the iconography prevalent among icon painters in the city of Novgorod, where the saint was particularly admired. Cloaked in a red mantle and mounted on a white horse, George stabs the dragon directly through the mouth with his spear as the dragon’s body is trampled by the horse’s hooves. A protective angel hovers near George’s head, while the hand of God reaches toward him from the upper right corner of the painting. The red color of the cloak symbolizes the blood of martyrdom; the white horse represents Divine Light. The small images of saints that appear on the left and right sides also suggest Novgorod as the place of origin, as patrons there frequently commissioned icons with saints who held special personal significance. Those saints served as protectors of both the individual patron and the icon itself.
Courtesy Russian Museum, St. Petersburg. Courtesy Hillwood Museum & Gardens Washington, D.C. Courtesy State Tretyakova Gallery, Moscow. Courtesy Russian Museum, St Petersburg. Rochester History
St. George Slaying the Dragon arrived in Rochester around 1920 via the world-renowned landscape architect and Pittsford native Fletcher Steele, who acquired it during a brief sojourn in Russia immediately after World War I. Anecdotal evidence suggests that he obtained it through a Russian friend, although he did once write about the chaotic conditions at the Hermitage after the Revolution: “Anyone there now can purchase some of the greatest works of art for only 50 kopeks in real cash.”
When Fletcher Steele died in 1971, the icon became, through his bequest, the property of the Rochester Historical Society.
Fletcher Steele At a silent auction held for the benefit of the Society, Professor George Ford and his wife Patricia, who had made four trips to Russia and were especially entranced by medieval icons, saw the St. George and purchased it for their home. Experts on Russian art who later examined it called the icon a rare and remarkable classic example of Novgorod icon painting. At that time, the Fords felt that the icon should be safeguarded for future generations, and generously donated it to the Memorial Art Gallery.
The Conundrum
From the time that Fletcher Steele acquired the St. George until 1993, when an interested conservator consulted with Russian colleagues, there was no doubt that the icon was exactly what it was purported to be—medieval, of exceptional quality, and very rare. There were several repairs to the damaged board on which it was painted, including the addition of a new cradle support to the back. Cracks had been repaired, and both painting and gilding had been refreshed during the course of the icon’s long and difficult life. It was common practice to extend the life of these sacred paintings through such interventions, and many icon painters were trained in complex restoration techniques. Russians began actively collecting icons in the 1840s, and the prices for old icons reached their peak just prior to the outbreak of World War I. Then, in the 1920s, the anti-religious activities of the Soviet regime released large quantities of icons onto the international art market, and foreign private collectors and museums began to amass their own collections. Some icon painters served this emerging Western market through renewal and restoration— as well as deliberate falsification. As a result, many icons that arrived in the West during that time have become suspect and are being re-evaluated, both through iconography, style, and the use of advanced technologies. Revisiting MAG’s St. George In 1993, the icon was sent to a conservation lab because of its fragile condition. A conservator with a special interest in icons took photographs and paint samples to Russia in order to consult with icon specialists. One felt that St. George was a wonderful example of 16th- century icon painting; another, however, felt that despite similarities to other Novgorod icons of St. George, the drawings and proportions of MAG’s icon were questionable. While acknowledging that it was imperative to examine the icon in person, she suggested that it could date to the 1500s but was at some point damaged and repainted, or that it could be a forgery on an old board. Technical analysis of two paint samples was inconclusive. Despite the fact that the medieval blue pigment azurite was found in one of the small saints in the border, the Russian analyst felt there should be more natural pigments overall.
Future Exploration In May of 2008, MAG began working with imaging specialist Dan Kushel in the Art Conservation Department at Buffalo State University, one of the pre-eminent conservation training programs in the United States. To date, he has performed both x-ray and infrared imaging, which suggest the painter followed traditional practices. In these images, the icon is seen through x-radiography (left), infrared reflectography(IRR)(center) and high-resolution photog- raphy taken under visible light (right). X-rays can reveal changes that may have occurred throughout the history of the work, particularly as they regard types of pigments and metals. The x-ray allows us to see “through” the icon. The grid pattern is a cradle, or support, that was added to the icon in the late 19th or early 20th century. An open-weave fabric is visible in several areas, but it is unclear whether this fabric is the original support for the gesso or was added later to support areas of damaged wood. IRR imaging is particularly useful for studying the preparatory stages of a work, including identifying any drawing or painting that lies under the visible layer of paint. Neither is apparent in this image, although it is clear that no additional paint layer has been added on top of the varnish.
Future plans include dating the wood through the science of dendochronology and more comprehensive paint analysis. Most importantly, experienced specialists will examine the icon with attention to structure, design, and style. Despite these efforts, we know there may never be a conclusive answer to the question of whether the icon is a forgery or restored original. Whatever the results, however, St. George Slaying the Dragon will remain an invaluable and educational work in the Memorial Art Gallery’s collection.
The MAG gratefully acknowledges Dan Kushel, professor of Technical Examination and Documentation in the Art Conservation Department at Buffalo State University, who generously donated his time and expertise to provide us with these images.