What distinguished France in the seventeenth century? • France had a population of 19 million – Double that of Spain and triple that of England • French art, architecture, and fashion were widely copied throughout Europe – Louis XIV was a strong patron of the arts and sciences, establishing royal academies for arts and sciences • He favored classicism and its order, harmony and hierarchy • Salons organized by upper-class women – Meeting grounds for the artistes, writers, philosophers, and social critics – Became enduring features of Parisian life. How absolute was French absolutism? Why did the French people accept it? • Absolutism was limited at first – Localism in economic and political life and traditions – Institutions like the parlements, which were courts of law with the right to decree royal decrees unconstitutional • Feudal liberties became associated with disorder – Aristocratic rebellions like the Fronde created instability in the sixteenth century • In practice, absolutism meant that the king, although not legally bound by other institutions or persons, was dependent on a host of advisors and had to compromise with local traditions and vested interests. • The Fronde was a rebellion in 1648 against the monarchy (regent Cardinal Mazarin) – Led by the parlements and the nobility (who will do the same in 1789) – Asked for the calling of the Estates General – Accompanied by a great deal of violence both in Paris and in the countryside – Ultimately, the bourgeoisie and the parlements withdrew their support from the raucous nobles who had invited in Spanish troops, and the populace as a whole welcomed a strong monarchy. • In 1661, Louis XIV,age 23, announced he would rule on his own – Without a chief advisor or dependency on the nobility. – Advanced the authority of the state • Louis claimed to embody these sovereign powers himself – The chief intellectual defender of the right of the lawful king to monopolize power was Bishop Bossuet, who argued that the king was responsible to God. • Continuously at war abroad while creating stability and order at home. How did Louis XIV achieve his goals of centralization of political power? • Transformed the army – Removed it from aristocratic control – Quadrupling it in size – Made war an activity of the state – Army units were reorganized, coordinated with each other and with artillery units • Placed under an official chain of command – Officers responsible for recruitment and equipment of soldiers – Uniforms and discipline replaced the informality and incoherence of earlier military life – Civilian administrators constituted the first war ministry. • Louis awed the nobility by his impressive palace at Versailles – Close to but not in Paris – Splendid and enormous – Set the standard for monarchs all over Europe – Created a highly elaborate set of daily rituals • Prestige going to those lucky nobles who attended the King – Louis weakened the nobility who strove to live at Versailles • Easily watched over by the King's spies. • Louis avoided giving key positions to hereditary nobles – Chose councilors of wealth but common background – Intendants, generally of bourgeois origin and often ennobled by the King, were dispatched as the King's representatives to every district • worked with local institutions, organizing army recruitment and famine relief when necessary • Answered to the monarch alone • Helped create uniformity of administration and centralization of power. • Louis enriched the bourgeoisie by encouraging mercantilist practices through his advisor Colbert. • Finances were a chief preoccupation of the king – Nobles were not taxed on their property – Only the commoners paid direct taxes • Burden fell mostly on the peasants • Merchants often were exempted – To fund his ever-expensive wars, Louis sold titles of nobility and offices, town rights, and army commissions, • Colbert's policies aimed at self-sufficiency – He reduced internal tariffs – Replaced local business codes by a national commercial code – Built roads and canals – Offered subsidies, tax relief, and monopolies to selected industry • Textiles to promote local manufacture and export – Established colonies – Forbade exports of foodstuffs to keep bread prices low – Many segments of the economy flourished to feed the ever-increasing appetite for military supplies. • Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685 – Ended religious toleration for the next 100 years – Hoped to achieve religious unity – Hundreds of thousands of French Protestants emigrated – Jansenists and other Catholic dissidents were also persecuted. What were Louis XIV's goals in the Dutch War, and to what degree were they thwarted by the European powers? • Louis aimed to weaken the Habsburgs both in Spain and in Austria – Spain was already weakened, so in 1667, Louis sent his armies, unsuccessfully, into the Spanish Netherlands – Five years later Louis invaded the Dutch Republic • This time he faced an array of states against him. – The compromise freed Holland but gave him the Franche-Comte. • Louis then moved against Strasbourg – Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I was battling Hungarians and Turks. • Louis enemies, both Catholic and Protestant, organized the League of Augsburg in 1686 – Soon joined by the new king of England – The war ended with status quo What were Louis XIV's goals in the War of Spanish Succession, and to what degree were they thwarted by the other European powers? • Spanish king died in 1700 without a successor • Louis claimed the crown of Spain – Hoped to have it worn by the same grandson who would wear the crown of France – If Bourbons ruled in both, French influence and power would increase enormously • Holy Roman Emperor (Leopold I), also a Habsburg, also had a legitimate claim • William III organized the Grand Coalition of 1701 against French ambitions – Each nation fought for a combination of political and economic goals. Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 • Partitioned the Spanish empire – The British got Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain • Nova Scotia and Newfoundland from France – Savoy got Sardinia – Austrian Habsburgs took control over Milan, Naples and Sicily • Belgium known as the Austrian Netherlands • Spain retained its colonies in America • Louis XIV's grandson became King Philip V of Spain – No one person could inherit the crowns of both Spain and France • Bourbons became the ruling dynasty of Spain (lasting to 1931) • Although it retained Franche-Comte and Alsace, the war considerably weakened France – Caused poverty, depopulation, and misery, and renewed opposition from aristocrats and parlements • Dutch seriously weakened and ceased to play an important role in European affairs • Savoy and Brandenburg both significantly increased their territory and their influence • England emerged as the great winner of the war – Increased its presence in the New World and the Mediterranean – Wealth increased enormously when they were granted the asiento • Right to provide slaves to the Spanish colonies • Allowed them to more easily penetrate other Spanish markets What were Louis XIV's goals in the War of Spanish Succession, and to what degree were they thwarted by the other European powers? • When the imbecilic Spanish king died in 1700 without a successor, Louis claimed the crown of Spain – Hoped to have it worn by the same grandson who would wear the crown of France. – As long as Bourbons ruled in both, French influence and power would increase enormously. • The Holy Roman Emperor (Leopold I), also a Habsburg, also had a legitimate claim. • William III organized the Grand Coalition of 1701 against French ambitions. – John Churchill, the Duke of Marlborough, led the Allied forces to important victories like Blenheim – Each nation fighting for a combination of political and economic goals. • Peace was made at Utrecht in 1713, partitioning the Spanish empire. – The British got Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain • Nova Scotia and Newfoundland from France – Savoy got Sardinia – Austrian Habsburgs took control over Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Belgium, which became known as the Austrian Netherlands. – Spain retained its colonies in America. – Louis XIV's grandson became King Philip V of Spain • Agreement was reached that no one person could inherit the crowns of both Spain and France • The Bourbons became the ruling dynasty of Spain (lasting to 1931). • Although it retained Franche-Comte and Alsace, the war considerably weakened France – Causing poverty, depopulation, and misery, and renewed opposition from aristocrats and parlements. • The Dutch too were seriously weakened and ceased to play an important role in European affairs. • Savoy and Brandenburg both significantly increased their territory and their influence • England emerged as the great winner of the war – Increasing its presence in the New World and the Mediterranean. – Their wealth increased enormously when they were granted the asiento • The right to provide slaves to the Spanish colonies • Allowed them to more easily penetrate other Spanish markets. • The contest between Tories, who were dominant in the House of Commons, and Whigs, who controlled the House of Lords, over the ratification of the treaty ended with the House of Lords ceding to the will of the House of Commons – Ensuring the political dominance of the alliance of landed aristocrats and merchants. • The war itself had distinctive features – Hallmarked the typical war of the eighteenth century • Fought by professionals and with relatively little civilian damage. – It was the first major war fought in which religion played no role but where instead commerce and industry were the prizes. – It was also the first "world war" fought overseas as well as in Europe. • The negotiations of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 continued the practice of a congress of all belligerents (members of the European system) to make the peace they began in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. .