A Política Nuclear Soviética: Da Segunda Guerra Mundial Ao SALT I

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A Política Nuclear Soviética: Da Segunda Guerra Mundial Ao SALT I A Política Nuclear Soviética: da Segunda Guerra Mundial ao SALT I Helena dos Anjos Xavier Rodrigo dos Santos Cassel1 RESUMO: O presente artigo objetiva analisar a política nuclear soviética no período que concerne desde as primeiras iniciativas de pesquisa sobre fissão atômica levadas a cabo pela União Soviética – institucionalmente, a partir de 1942 – até 1972, quando da ocorrência da primeira rodada das Conversações sobre Limites para Armas Estratégicas (SALT I). No trabalho, são apresentados momentos importantes para a doutrina nuclear soviética, tais como o estabelecimento do primeiro programa de pesquisa na área, os primeiros testes nucleares realizados, o desenvolvimento da bomba de hidrogênio, a morte de Stalin em 1953, e a consequente reorganização do aparato burocrático encarregado do programa nuclear. Paralelamente, visa-se à apresentação dos condicionantes que levaram a União Soviética a desenvolver um programa nuclear próprio, ressaltando a necessidade de solidificar e proteger o Estado contra a ameaça imediata representada pelos Estados Unidos. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Bomba Atômica. União Soviética. Guerra Fria. Programa Nuclear. 1 Graduandos do 6º semestre de Relações Internacionais pela Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS). 8 A Política Nuclear Sóviética: Da Segunda Guerra Mundial ao SALT I 1 Introdução A nível estatal, a política nuclear da União das Repúblicas Socialistas Soviéticas (URSS), previamente à deflagração da Segunda Guerra Mundial, era pequena ou inexistente. Apenas alguns acadêmicos e físicos, de maneira indepen- dente, desenvolviam pesquisas relacionadas à temática da fissão nuclear. Com o escalonamento do conflito, no entanto, e frente a um cenário no qual as nações ocidentais já empenhavam esforços para o desenvolvimento de tal tecnologia, a URSS, liderada à época por Stalin, passara a estabelecer postos dedicados à pesquisa nuclear. Mesmo assim, foi apenas após os bombardeios de Hiroshima e Nagasaki por parte dos Estados Unidos da América (EUA) que os soviéticos observaram o fato de que, no pós-guerra, as bombas atômicas desempenhariam um papel central no (des)equilíbrio da balança de poder internacional, tornando-se prioritário, a partir de então, o estabelecimento de um programa nuclear nacional robusto. Embora tenham iniciado o pós-guerra em grande desvantagem em relação aos EUA, logo os soviéticos foram capazes de organizar as estruturas internas para o seu projeto de construção da bomba atômica. Assim, em 1949, somente quatro anos após o término da guerra, a URSS já realizava o seu primeiro teste nuclear, obtendo sucesso. A partir disso, diversos outros testes foram levados a cabo, e os esforços relacionados à tecnologia atômica já vislumbravam a bomba de hidrogênio. Conforme será evidenciado posteriormente, no entanto, com a morte de Stalin, em 1953, houve uma reorganização burocrática no comando do projeto nuclear soviético, o que gerou um modesto esvaziamento durante um período de dois anos. Com a posse de Efim Slavsky no Ministério de Construção de Máquinas Médias, órgão encarregado do programa nuclear, a produção voltaria, e, até 1986, seria verificada uma expansão anualmente constante do arsenal soviético. O presente artigo, portanto, além de explorar em detalhes o contexto acima descrito, também visa à elucidação dos motivos pelos quais a União Soviética opta pelo desenvolvimento do referido programa nuclear robusto, isto é, um programa que fosse capaz de se equiparar – ou, até, sobrepassar – ao estadunidense. Para tanto, há de se entender o contexto histórico no qual tal fenômeno estava inserido: nomeadamente, a Guerra Fria, momento no qual dois sistemas econômico-sociais disputavam influência global. Nesse ínterim, o desenvolvimento de uma doutrina 9 REVISTA PERSPECTIVA nuclear soviética estava relacionado à necessidade de proteger a nação de forças externas, as quais buscavam não somente o monopólio de poder internacional à época, mas também a destruição das bases ideológicas sobre as quais o Estado e a sociedade soviéticos estavam assentados. Para tanto, o texto está estruturado em três eixos de desenvolvimento. O primeiro busca descrever as primeiras iniciativas soviéticas acerca da pesquisa no campo nuclear, evidenciando como o Ocidente influenciou tal dinâmica e apontando os fatores internos que restringiam uma produção nuclear soviética em larga escala até então. Posteriormente, o artigo apresenta o contexto do imediato pós-Segunda Guerra Mundial, quando Stalin opta pelo total desenvolvimento de um programa nuclear robusto. Por fim, visa-se ao entendimento das razões pelas quais a União Soviética embarcou em tal programa, apontando, também, os efeitos de tal movimento para a política externa do país na segunda metade do século XX. 2 Primeiros Esforços Soviéticos na Pesquisa Nuclear Ao início da Segunda Guerra Mundial, em 1939, físicos de ambas as partes em conflito – do Eixo e dos Aliados – já possuíam conhecimento acerca da possi- bilidade de utilizar a tecnologia de fissão nuclear como uma arma de guerra. Ainda era desconhecida, no entanto, a forma específica de execução de um ataque nuclear. Com a preocupação de que a Alemanha nazista já estaria a desenvolver tal tecno- logia para fins ofensivos, tanto os Estados Unidos quanto o Reino Unido passaram a ambicionar, internamente, programas nucleares próprios (HERRERA, 2006). Foi apenas após o ataque japonês a Pearl Harbor (1941), contudo, que os EUA iniciaram um processo de investimento maciço na área. Os britânicos, por sua vez, embora possuíssem, à época, uma intensidade de pesquisa nuclear que suplantava a estadunidense, logo ficou claro que o esforço industrial demandado para o desenvolvimento prático da nova tecnologia seria incompatível com a sua economia restrita em tempos de guerra. Como resultado, em 1942, inicia-se um esforço conjunto – contando, também, com a contribuição do Canadá – para a produção de explosivos baseados na tecnologia de fissão nuclear, com a preocu- pação de o fazer antes da Alemanha. A iniciativa, denominada Projeto Manhattan, obteve o seu primeiro explosivo detonado em 1945, no Novo México, sendo este 10 A Política Nuclear Sóviética: Da Segunda Guerra Mundial ao SALT I o primeiro teste nuclear da humanidade – denominado Experiência Trinity. Os incidentes de Hiroshima e Nagasaki viriam a ocorrer um mês depois, também em 1945 (GROVES, 1983). Ao observar o conjunto de Estados envolvidos no Projeto Manhattan, desprende-se a conclusão de que houve uma intenção estadunidense e britânica de alienar a União Soviética (URSS) – o outro ator no comando dos Aliados – das novas tecnologias nucleares sendo desenvolvidas à época. Os soviéticos, entretanto, possuíam acesso a relatórios de inteligência que descreviam avanços tecnológicos na área, os quais eram disponibilizados por espiões do país infiltrados no Projeto Manhattan. Stalin, por outro lado, centrado nos esforços imediatos da guerra, ainda permanecia cético quanto à inteligência coletada, reconhecendo que os relatórios acerca da bomba atômica possuíam desvios propagandísticos e alegando que a URSS não estaria prestes a desenvolver tal forma de “superbomba”. (CHIKOV, 1991, p. 43). Somado a isso, se Stalin já se demonstrava relativamente alheio às discussões sobre o poder nuclear, o escalonamento da guerra, agora atingindo diretamente o espaço soviético, viria a intensificar tal disposição. Nomeadamente, em 22 de junho de 1941, quando da deflagração da Operação Barbarossa – invasão da União Soviética pelas nações do Eixo –, os soviéticos passam a se empenhar em combater a ofensiva nazista em seu território. Como um resultado imediato, quais- quer pesquisas no campo da fissão nuclear foram desmobilizadas até o final do referido ano, de maneira que diversos físicos e químicos, anteriormente dedicados à pesquisa nuclear, tiveram seu foco realocado para funções relacionadas à guerra convencional (COCHRAN; NORRIS; BUKHARIN, 1995). Em 1942, embora já com o fracasso da Alemanha na Operação Barbarossa, a Frente Oriental da Segunda Guerra Mundial continuava operante, e assim se manteria até a derrota do Eixo em 1945. O desenvolvimento da atividade acadê- mica soviética, no entanto, mesmo que enfraquecido, viria a demonstrar sinais de retomada rapidamente. Assim, já em 1942 – nem um ano após o término da invasão nazista – pesquisadores da URSS passaram a notar que estava havendo um esvaziamento na divulgação científica sobre o tema da fissão nuclear por parte de alemães, britânicos e estadunidenses, fato que os colocou em alerta para a 11 REVISTA PERSPECTIVA possibilidade de tais Estados estarem perseguindo programas nucleares de maneira velada. Dentre tais acadêmicos, destaca-se Georgy Flyorov, físico soviético que escreveu uma carta para Stalin, alertando-o sobre os fatos referidos acima e clamando pelo desenvolvimento nacional de uma bomba de urânio (HOLLOWAY, 1994). Já com a inteligência propiciada pelos espiões infiltrados no Projeto Manhattan e com a suspeita dos acadêmicos sobre a possibilidade do desenvolvimento de programas secretos no Ocidente, o fator que viria a representar o ponto de inflexão para as autoridades soviéticas no que tange à bomba atômica seria evidenciado em abril de 1942. Na ocasião, um assistente de Sergei Kaftanov – presidente do Conselho Técnico-Científico da URSS – recebera um caderno capturado de um oficial alemão; nele, havia uma lista de materiais necessários para a confecção da bomba. Como conclusão, Kaftanov passou ao Comitê de Defesa do Estado (Gosu- darstvenny Komitet Oborony - GKO, presidido por Stalin) a
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