ABSTRACT Why Label Alevi Islam as Shi`ite?: A Comparative Inquiry into Alevi Identity Outside of the Sunni-Shi`ite Framework by Reyhan Erdogdu Basaran The Alevis represent the most significant minority religious group in Turkey and the Alevi question represents a unique ethnic and religious challenge for the Turkish state. Although the number of academic studies on Alevism have dramatically increased in the last three decades, the question of whether Alevism is a branch of Shi`ism still remains a neglected subject of the Alevi literature. The majority of recent works on Alevism have automatically and straightly classified Alevism as Shi`ite due to the shared religious elements by the two groups. They did not intend, however, to analyze, compare and contrast those Shi`ite currents as to how they are applied/perceived in Shi`ism and Alevism. By using a comparative study of religion methodology, this research seeks to provide an elaborative analysis on the distinguishing features of the Alevi belief system, in relation to the Alid cause. While analyzing the contemporary approaches and archival of the official and historical records on Alevi belief, the particular focus of this dissertation is to understand, decode, and theorize the status of Alevism in conjunction with and separate from Sunnism and Shi`ism. In doing so, this dissertation argues that most of the existing scholarship fails to conceive of the Alevi differences outside of the Sunni-Shi`ite framework. Acknowledgments I would first like to acknowledge the Turkish Ministry of Education for honoring me with a full fellowship to pursue a graduate degree in the United States of America and for their funding of the first two years of my Ph.D. education at Rice University. I would also like to thank the Department of Religion at Rice University for offering funding to cover the remaining three years education of my Ph.D. life. This dissertation would not have been possible without the financial support of both of these respected institutions of learning. Most of my research was done during my visit to the British Library in London and Gazi Üniversitesi Türk Kültürü ve Hacı Bektas Veli Arastırma Merkezi in Ankara. A good number of the archival and historical records and modern materials that I was able to scan and copy in these places paved the way for my writing. I am also very grateful to the staff of the Interlibrary Loan System at Rice University and to the staff of the ISAM (Islam Araş tırmalar Merkezi) Library in Istanbul. Their help and support enabled me to keep working on my research. I am deeply thankful to my advisor, Prof. David Cook, for believing in me since the beginning of my graduate education at Rice until the final stage of this journey and for his endless support, encouragement, and patience. I could always knock at his door when I was in need. His feedback, suggestions and critical review of my work helped me to improve the theme, argument and quality of my research. My sincere thanks also goes to Prof. Jeffrey Kripal whose classes not only made me ‘a confused scholar’ (as we are meant to be), but have inspired me to think critically and taught me to challenge myself as a scholar. It is through such professors as Cook and Kripal that I have come to know that there are great scholars who not only teach their students, but also help identify and guide them through the trouble spots in their work. My gratitude also goes to Lora Wildenthal, who very timely stepped in with her kindness and support to be the third reader of my dissertation. I would like to take this opportunity to express my deep gratitude to all of the iv professors at Rice University, particularly to April D. DeConic, who as chair of the Department of Religion has become to me a leading role model, and to Anthony Pinn and William Parsons who have always been supportive. I am also thankful to Sylvia Louie who was at Rice when I began and was always ready to respond to my questions with kindness and patience. Special thanks go to Lydia Westbrook whose assistance helped me get through the challenges that I faced during the end of my Ph.D. journey. She was always there when I was most in need of administrative help. I am particularly thankful to the professors and staff of the Center for the Study of Women, Gender, and Sexuality for their intellectual engagement and relational support. The classes provided by the Center enabled me to educate myself and flourish in my understanding of gender studies. My sincere gratitude goes to my dear friend, Ian Coulter, for his friendship and scholarly engagement. Meeting with him was one of the best things that happened to me in Houston. We met in 2011 when I was invited to his home for a meal on Thanksgiving Day by his beloved late wife, Mary Coulter. He showed me his rich library consisting of books on Christianity and Islam. Our conversation, regardless of our age difference, bonded us since that day. He has read my work and offered me his thoughts, through which I was able to improve my argument. I am also indebted to the beautiful and brainy colleagues, Erin Prophet, Minji Lee, Itohan M. Idumwonyi, and Linda Ceriello for their friendship and intellectual engagement. Their comfort, and unconditional support made Houston become a second home to me. I would also like to thank Wambui Wa-Ngatho, Renee Ford, Claire Villarreal, Sravana Borkataky-Varma and Rachel Schneider for their friendship and guidance. To Rukhsana Chughtai who welcomed me to her home each time I came to Houston and offered me her sincere friendship, which I cherish. I am indebted to all of my friends of different nationalities — American, Turkish, Arabian, Persian, Korean, Japanese, and Pakistani — for their hospitality and friendship over the years I have spent in Houston. Through their love and generosity, I was able to overcome all the difficulties of living in a new country. To my mother and father, sisters and brother who provided me emotional and spiritual support throughout my life. Also to my family-in-law who helped me to achieve this success by taking care of my son when I was away from home. v I dedicate this dissertation to the three great men of my life: my beloved husband, Erhan Basaran, and my two sons, Yusuf Bahadır and Mert Mustafa. The love, friendship, support and encouragement of my partner enabled me to balance my life, to be a good mother, and to pursue my dream to be an ambitious scholar. In 2011, when we were newly married, we came to the Rice University Intensive English Program with the intention to pursue graduate studies at Rice University. In 2012, our dream came true as Erhan began his masters at the Department of Earth Science, and I got accepted to the Department of Religion for a Ph.D. degree. The respect and love we offered one another successfully brought us to the end of this journey. Thank you for supporting me to attain my academic and professional goals. Having Yusuf in my life was the main source of joy during the long stress-filled process of writing this dissertation. While preparing myself to defend my thesis, I am excited to hold my second boy, Mert, in my arms. Contents ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................ iii Contents ............................................................................................................................ vi Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 What Alevism Really is in Terms of Sectarian Discourses? ........................................... 1 Literature Review ............................................................................................................ 7 Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................... 26 The Assessment of the Current Scholarship that Links Alevis with either Shi`ism or Sunnism ............................................................................................................................ 26 1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 26 1.2. History: From Kızılbas Movement to Alevi Belief ................................................ 28 1.3. The Proposed Theories on Alevi Belief ................................................................. 34 1.4. Nationalization or Sunnitization: the Phenomena of Heterodoxy, Orthodoxy and Metadoxy ....................................................................................................................... 37 Critics of Heterodoxy and Orthodoxy ....................................................................... 41 1.5. Recognition of the Shi`ite Sentiments in Anatolia: Before and After the Safavid Influence ........................................................................................................................ 49 Before the Safavids .................................................................................................... 49 After the Safavids ...................................................................................................... 56 1.6. Associating/Disassociating Alevism with/from Shi`ism ........................................ 60 The Questions over the Identification of Alevism as