From Oral to Written: a Text-Linguistic Study of Wakhi Narratives

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ACTA UNIVERSITATIS UPSALIENSIS Studia Iranica Upsaliensia 35

From Oral to Written A Text-linguistic Study of Wakhi Narratives

Jaroslava Obrtelová

A PDF of this book as well as a PDF of Appendix E is available online at: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-381858 Dissertation presented at Uppsala University to be publicly examined in Ihresalen (21-0011), Engelska Parken, Thunbergsvägen 3, Uppsala, Friday, 14 June 2019 at 10:15 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The examination will be conducted in English. Faculty examiner: Docent Henrik Liljegren (Stockholm University).

Abstract Obrtelová, J. 2019. From Oral to Written. A Text-linguistic Study of Wakhi Narratives. Studia Iranica Upsaliensia 35. 333 pp. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. ISBN 978-91-513-0664-3.

Wakhi is one of the endangered “Pamir” languages belonging to the East Iranian group of Indo-European. A total of around 72,000 Wakhi speakers live in the border areas of four countries: Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and China. This study focuses on the Wakhi spoken in Tajikistan, which for a long time was unwritten. Recently, however, native speakers have made significant efforts to preserve and develop their mother tongue in written form. This study examines textual differences between oral and written narratives in Wakhi from a discourse-pragmatic perspective. It addresses issues relating to the transition from an unwritten to an early-stage written language. Rather than finding a clear boundary between the two, it proposes a continuum with spontaneous narratives at one end and written narratives at the other, and identifies both syntactic and textual differences between them. Oral narratives prepared in advance differ from the spontaneously told ones and share some characteristics with written narratives. The first and most extensive part of the study compares interclausal coordinate and subordinate relations in the oral and written narratives. Coordination in written narratives is usually achieved using unmarked forms and with fewer types of coordinating devices than in oral narratives. Unmarked patterns of complementation are also more frequent in written than in oral narratives. However, temporal subordinate clauses in written narratives favour the post-nuclear form that is described as marked, whereas oral narratives prefer the unmarked pre-nuclear order. The second part analyses significant differences between the two forms of expression from the perspective of their function in the overall structure of narratives. One significant difference concerns story development techniques. Development in oral narratives is marked primarily through a “then”-type conjunction, but in written narratives is signalled through certain forms of references to agents. An annotated corpus of 29 written and 13 oral narratives accompanies the publication (available in electronic format).

Keywords: Wakhi, Iranian languages, text-linguistics, oral narratives, written narratives, discourse analysis

Jaroslava Obrtelová, Department of Linguistics and Philology, Box 635, Uppsala University, SE-75126 Uppsala, Sweden.

ISSN 1100-326X ISBN 978-91-513-0664-3 urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-381858 (http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-381858)

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2.1.3. Perfect

(18) a. Йәм з̌ай в̌изит а рәт [W_Z12: 2.1–2.2] yǝm δay wizi-t a r-ǝt dem1 man come-3sg emp to down-dem2

диёр, рәшт тә х̌ы хун. diyor rǝṣ̌-t tǝ x̌ы xun village go-3sg to own house

The man arrived [v] in that village, he went [v] to his house.

b. Йәм татнанищ, йәм хиштборищ хёләв кәрк yǝm tatnan-iš yǝm xiṣ̌tbor-iš xyol=ǝv kǝrk dem1 parent-pl dem1 relative-pl assuming=3pl do.pf

ки, яв̌ алба мәрткәй. ki yaw alba mǝrtk-ǝy sub he perhaps die.pf-i

His [lit. ‘these’] parents, his [lit. ‘these’] relatives thought [lit. ‘think.pf’] perhaps that he had died [lit. ‘die.pf’]. The perfect is also used to convey inferential and mirative meaning (Obrtelová forthc. 2019), as in Example (18b) above.

(19) яв̌ жы пәтрәт жы зман нәтуәтк, [W_N01: 6.1] yaw ẓ̌ы pǝtr=ǝt ẓ̌ы zman nǝ-tuǝtk he my son=and my child neg-be.pf

ту, мар сдыйд ки, хтоәш цар. tu mar sdыy-d ki xto=ǝṣ̌ car you.sg to me seem-3sg sub mistake=ipfv make

(The old woman paused in thought and said:) “(...) he won’t be [lit. ‘not be.pf’] my son and my child, it seems to me that you are making a mistake”. The perfect stems are usually accompanied with subject-marking enclitics. These can attach either to the verb or to a constituent prior to the verb. They are the same as those described for the past tense in Table 2 above. The aspectual enclitic particle =ǝš ̣ (ipfv) normally does not occur in perfect. Sometimes, the suffix -i/-ǝy is attached to the perfect stem, like in the past tense. However, its occurrence in the perfect is rare. The question also remains whether this suffix is the same as the one used in the past tense.

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2.2.2.1. Complement clauses A complement clause is defined by Dixon (2010b: 370) as a dependent (subordinate) clause “which fills an argument slot in the structure of another clause”. In traditional terminology, the subordinator ki in the complement construc- tions can be described as a complementizer. As was mentioned above, Farrell (2005) and Levinsohn (2012) claim that, in Balochi, the subordinator ki has a role of interpretive use marker. In Wakhi, the most frequent type of complement clause is a clause represent- ing object arguments of complement-taking verbs such as verbs of speaking, thinking or perception: x̌ ǝnak ʻsayʼ, naql cǝrak ʻtellʼ, pǝrsak ʻaskʼ, nwiš ak ʻwriteʼ, xyol cǝrak ʻassumeʼ, fiqr cǝrak ʻthinkʼ, didɣ̌ ak ʻwatch, seeʼ, vinak/ winak ʻseeʼ, kš ыyaḳ ʻhearʼ, diš ak ʻunderstand, knowʼ, etc. Such complement clauses are post-nuclear and are separated from the main clause by the subordinator ki, which is an enclitic and forms a phonological unit with the verb (in clause-final position) of the main clause. Ki is followed by a comma in written texts, or by a pause in oral texts (Example 42). The Wakhi subordinator cǝ/cǝy is not used in complement clauses.

(42) Йәм татнанищ, йәм хиштборищ [W_Z12: 2.2] yǝm tatnan-iš yǝm xiṣ̌tbor-iš dem1 parents-pl dem1 relative-pl

хёләв кәрк ки, xyol=ǝv kǝrk ki // assuming=3pl do.pf sub

яв̌ алба мәрткәй. {yaw alba mǝrtk-ǝy}CC he perhaps die.pf-i

His [lit. ʻtheseʼ] parents, his [lit. ʻtheseʼ] relatives thought {perhaps that he had died}.

This type of construction is also used in reported speech. The clause introduc- ing the reported speech is the main clause taking the reported speech utterance as a subordinate complement clause (argument of the verb of speech). The reported speech does not necessarily need to be introduced by ki. In Wakhi, there is no distinction between direct and indirect speech in terms of deictic forms. Normally, all reported utterances appear in the form of verbatim quotations35 of what was said. A deictic shift (DS) occurs in these utterances affecting

35Not all such occurrences of reported speech are verbatim quotations in meaning, but they share the same form as those that are verbatim quotations. More discussion on how distancing from the direct speech effect is achieved in Wakhi is found Section 5.2.3.1.

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2. Wakhi language description – selected topics of perception are found in the Balochi text corpus (Barjasteh Delforooz 2010: 366–367, clauses 11–12 and 13–14). If we consider Levinsohn’s interpretation of ki as an interpretive use marker in this construction, we can see parallels here as well, in that it indicates “a representation of an utterance or thought” (Levinsohn (2012: 154), or describes “a state of affairs” (Levinsohn 2015a: 117). Levinsohn (2012: 151 & 154) also points to the backgrounding pragmatic effect of the interpretive use marker ki. This interpretation of the backgrounding effect of ki in Wakhi can very well be applied to the reported speeches, as well as to the clauses that are arguments of an elided verb of perception. Another type of complement clause in Wakhi is a clause that is a complement of a modality verb. This type of complement clause can occur with (Ex- ample 33 above) or without the preceding complementizer (Example 47). The arguments of the two modality verbs/expressions maȷ̌ bur wocǝn ʻbe/become forcedʼ (47a) and iȷ̌ ozat randǝv ʻgive permissionʼ (47b) are finite verbs with their own arguments, and therefore they are analysed as complement clauses.

(47) a. Охирон маҷбур в̌оцән то Москва [W_A05: 8.1] oxiron maǰbur woc-ǝn {to Moskva finally forced become-3pl to Moscow

ариза нв̌ищән (...), ariza nwiš-ǝn}CC (...) request write-3pl sub

Finally, they were forced {to write [lit. ʻwe writeʼ] a request to Moscow} (...)

b. сакәр иҷозат рандәв, рәӵән х̌ы ҷайәр. sak-ǝr iǰozat rand-ǝv {rǝč̣-ǝn x̌ы ǰay-ǝr}CC we-dat permission give-2pl go-1pl own place-dat

Give us permission {to go [lit. ʻwe goʼ] back to our place}.

As mentioned above, the unmarked position of a complement clause is post- nuclear. The complement clause may also be pre-posed, in which case it is topicalized and functions as a point of departure36 for the main clause, as in Example (48).

36Point of departure, as defined by Dooley & Levinsohn (2001: 35), “designates an initial element, often fronted or left-dislocated, which cohesively anchors the subsequent clause(s) to something which is already in the context (i.e., to something accessible in the hearer’s mental representation)”.

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4. Theoretical background and methodology

When comparing written and oral narratives, examining the evaluation is particularly important. Tannen (1982b) refers to evaluation in her study of differences between oral and written narratives. She gives an example of evaluation in a spoken version of a narrative where the speaker’s attitude is ex- pressed by paralinguistic cues and repetition, and notes (ibid.: 10) that “[i]n transferring her spoken story to writing, the speaker necessarily lost the op- tion of showing her attitude, or evaluation (cf. Labov), through paralinguistic cues”. Tannen then lists options for transferring paralinguistic cues into writing, such as evaluation through lexicalization, using diacritics or leaving the information unevaluated. Özyıldırım (2009) focuses on personal experience narratives in Turkish and compares their oral and written versions. This is one of the few studies that analyse a language other than English. Her analysis of narrative categories is based on Labov’s model. The results show that in Turkish personal experience narratives, all categories mentioned by Labov (i.e. abstract, orientation, com- plicating action, evaluation, resolution, and coda) are present in both the oral and written versions. However, a difference was found between oral and written form in the use of the beginning and the ending categories, i.e. abstract and coda. Written versions exhibit a considerably higher number of occurrences of the two categories than oral versions. In oral form the narrative often starts with orientation and ends with resolution (ibid.: 1218). The second part of Özyıldırım’s study focuses on the comparison of evaluation and evaluative devices between written and oral narratives. As she states, “[i]n this study, evaluation receives special attention since evaluative elements carry the point of the story and contribute greatly to narrative pro- duction” (ibid.: 1213). In the analysis she evaluates Labov’s approach, but finds it insufficient. Instead, she refers to the categorization presented by Shiro (2003: 171–172), coded by the following semantic categories: (1) Emotion; (2) Cognition; (3) Perception; (4) Physical state; (5) Intention; (6) Relation; (7) Reported speech – direct / indirect / free. Özyıldırım’s (2009: 1219) analysis, which consists of counting the density of each evaluative category for both oral and written narratives, shows that written narratives are richer in evaluative sentences than oral narratives. As for the distribution of the categories, the most frequent category appears to be that of emotion, followed by cognition, physical state, perception, intention, and relation. This order of frequency appears to be the same for the oral and the written narratives. However, when comparing each category separately, the results show that the emotion category is significantly more frequent in oral narratives. The other categories do not vary so much. Özyıldırım’s study offers some interesting insights and gives deserved attention to evaluation as a key to understanding the point of the story. However, the selected approach is not able to fully grasp the differences in evaluation in

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4. Theoretical background and methodology of the sentence, but not always. As Brown & Yule suggest, “the constituent which is thematised in a sentence is, in some sense, ‘what the sentence is about’ regardless of whether or not the constituent is the grammatical subject” (ibid.: 132). When adverbials are thematized then the theme of the sentence is “about what” or “what happened next”. Thematized metalingual comments do not contribute to the content, but give directions about the type and structure of the mental representation that the hearer should be constructing (e.g., “once upon a time” indicates a fairy-tale model) about the internal structure or the reliability (ibid.: 133). Thus, one function of the theme is to connect back to the previous discourse and serve as a point of departure for the further development (ibid.). Brown & Yule’s study is a useful large-scale theoretical study and evaluation of the existing approaches for dealing with topics related to discourse analysis. Lambrecht (1994) presents a thorough study of information structure – a domain that was studied and addressed in other studies as functional sentence perspective (Prague School of linguistics), information structure or theme (Hal- liday 1967), or discourse pragmatics, and that in Lambrecht’s approach is a sentence grammar where sentences are studied within discourse. Lambrecht (1994: 2) chooses Halliday’s term “information structure” because “special emphasis is placed on the structural implication of discourse-pragmatic analysis”, and he proposes the following definition:

“information structure: That component of sentence grammar in which propositions as conceptual representations of states of affairs are paired with lexicogrammatical structures in accor- dance with the mental states of interlocutors who use and interpret these structures as units of information in given discourse contexts” (ibid.: 5).

Lambrecht indicates (ibid.: 10) that viewing formal and functional approaches as diametrically opposed is not necessary; instead they complement each other. He (ibid.: 11) defines his approach as “located somewhere in between the ‘formal’ and the ‘functional’ approaches to syntax”, since neither of these two approaches can give an exhaustive explanation. Lambrecht refers to the notion of markedness and its role in the expression of information structure. The general rule that he suggests (ibid.: 17) is that

“given a pair of allosentences, one member is pragmatically unmarked if it serves two discourse functions while the other member serves only one of them. While the marked member is posi- tively specified for some pragmatic features, the unmarked member is neutral with respect to this feature.”

A marked member of a pair of allosentences can thus be unmarked in another pair of sentences.

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6. Narrative structure

Oral Written 12 She was so capable, so cleanly that... that frog, right? 13 YAN the other two (brothers) laughed. 1.5 Those two brothers laughed (at the third one) because his arrow reached a frog. 14–15 YAN they laughed, they laughed at him (saying) “Goodness, his (arrow) fell on a frog! His arrow fell in a frog!” 16–17 YAN my dear, he said: “well, what- 1.6 That one [the third brother] ever they do, perhaps that should be my said: “Well, what shall I do, destiny. I (will) marry her.” let my fate be this, I will marry her”. 18 He married her. 1.7 He married that frog. 19a–b YAN he put her in one place, he put her 1.8 Night came and that frog in like a small hut, turned into a beautiful girl, the lad was surprised and understood that this was a fairy.

It is evident that the dynamics of this passage are different in the oral and written versions. In the written version the entire passage represents a coherent sequence of closely related actions. The change in the prominence of partici- pants (i.e. which is the current actor) is marked by a full noun (1.4), by a full noun with a demonstrative pronoun (1.5), or only with a demonstrative pronoun (1.6). However, the action is coherent. A new major development in the action is indicated by a temporal expression (1.3a and 1.8a). In the oral version of the passage (on the left), however, the DM yan also serves to resume and move forward the action that has been halted or slowed down by repetition (6b) or by informative or evaluative background clauses (13) or direct speech (16). Thus, any step forward in the action (not only major ones) can be marked with the DM yan. Similar story development patterns are found in the other group 1 narratives. However, although the above-described pattern is the most typical one for Wakhi narratives, it must be noted that the frequency of the use of the DM yan or other devices marking new developments in narrations can vary depend- ing on the need perceived by narrators/writers to provide clues about the story development for the audience. Thus, in the story Z12 (Bear and Hunter), illustrated in Example (199), many new developments in the oral version (199a) are introduced with the DM yan together with a full noun + a demonstrative pronoun. In the written version

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ACTA UNIVERSITATIS UPSALIENSIS Studia Iranica Upsaliensia Editors: Carina Jahani and Bo Utas

1. CARINA JAHANI, Standardization and Orthography in the Balochi Language. 1989. 2. JUDITH JOSEPHSON, The Pahlavi Translation Technique as Illustrated by Hōm Yašt. 1997. 3. CARINA JAHANI, Language in Society — Eight Sociolinguistic Essays on Balochi. 2000. 4. SHOKOUFEH TAGHI, The Two Wings of Wisdom. Mysticism and Philosophy in the Risālat uṭ-ṭair of Ibn Sina. 2000. 5. ASHK DAHLÉN, Deciphering the meaning of revealed law. The Surūshian paradigm in Shi’i epistemology. 2001. 6. HASHEM AHMADZADEH, Nation and Novel. A Study of Persian and Kurdish Narra- tive Discourse. 2003. 7. FOROGH HASHABEIKY, Persian Orthography. Modification or Changeover? (1850– 2000). 2005. 8. MEHRDAD FALLAHZADEH, Persian Writing on Music. A study of Persian musical literature from 1000 to 1500 A.D. 2005. 9. HELENA BANI-SHORAKA, Language Choice and Code-Switching in the Azerbaijani Community in Tehran. A conversation analytic approach to bilingual practices. 2005. 10. SERGE AXENOV, The Balochi Language of Turkmenistan. A corpus-based grammatical description. 2006. 11. MINOO SHAHIDI, A Sociolinguistic Study of Language Shift in Mazandarani. 2008. 12. JOHN R. ROBERTS, A Study of Persian Discourse Structure. 2009. 13. MARYAM NOURZAEI, CARINA JAHANI, ERIK ANONBY & ABBAS ALI AHAN GAR, Koroshi. A Corpus-based Grammatical Description. 2015. 14. DARIUSH KARGAR, Ardāy-Vīrāf Nāma. Iranian Conceptions of the Other World. 2009. 15. BEHROOZ BARJASTEH DELFOROOZ, Discourse Features in Balochi of Sistan (Oral Narratives). 2010. 16. ERIK ANONBY & PAKZAD YOUSEFIAN, Adaptive Multilinguals. A Survey of Lan- guage on Larak Island. 2011. 17. ANDERS WIDMARK, Voices at the Borders, Prose on the Margins. Exploring the Con- temporary Pashto Short Story in a Context of War and Crisis. 2011. 18. MEHRDAD FALLAHZADEH & MAHMOUD HASSANABADI, Shams al-aṣvāt, The Sun of Songs by Ras Baras. 2012. 19. V.S. RASTORGUEVA et al., The Gilaki Language. 2012. 20. FARIDEH OKATI, The Vowel Systems of Five Iranian Balochi Dialects. 2012. 21. GUITI SHOKRI, CARINA JAHANI & HOSSEIN BARANI, When Tradition Meets Mo- dernity. Five Life Stories from the Galesh Community in Ziarat, Golestan, Iran. 2013. 22. FRANZ WENNBERG, On the Edge. The Concept of Progress in Bukhara during the Rule of the Later Manghits. 2013. 23. ALI MUHADDIS (Ed.), A Historical Poem on the Attack on Iran by the Afghans. Written by Nadīm Mashhadī in 1137 A.H. (1724/5 A.D.). 2014. 24. ERIK ANONBY & ASHRAF ASADI, Bakhtiari Studies. Phonology, Text, Lexicon. 2014. 25. ALI HASSOURI (Ed.), Jām-e Jahān-nemā-ye ‘Abbāsi. The Abbasid “Planetarium Cup”. On the Benefits of Wine. Written by: Qāẓi ebn Kāšef al-Din Moḥammad. 2014. 26. FOROGH HASHABEIKY (Ed.), International Shāhnāme Conference. The Second Mil- lennium. (Conference Volume). 2014. 27. PADIDEH PAKPOUR, Identity Construction. The Case of Young Women in Rasht. 2015. 28. BEHROOZ SHEYDA, Traces of Time. The Image of the Islamic Revolution, the Hero and Martyrdom in Persian Novels Written in Iran and in Exile. 2016. 29. SHOKOUFEH TAGHI, A Typology and Classification of Three Literary Genres. Songs, Folktales, and Initiation Tales in Iranian Oral Literature and their Educational Function. 2016. 30. FARHAD SHAKELY, The Modern Kurdish Short Story. 2016. 31. MARYAM NOURZAEI, Participant Reference in Three Balochi Dialects. Male and Female Narrations of Folktales and Biographical Tales. 2017. 32. JA ROSLAVA OBRTELOVÁ, Narrative Structure of Wakhi Oral Stories. 2017. 33. MAHMOUD HASSANABADI, ROUBIK JAHANI & CARINA JAHANI, A Unified Gospel in Persian. An old variant of the Gospels along with exegetical comments. Written by: Yahyã Ibn Ayvaz-e Tabrīzī-ye Armanī. 2018. 34. ERIK ANONBY & ASHRAF ASADI, Bakhtiari Studies II: Orthography. 2018. 35. JA ROSLAVA OBRTELOVÁ, From Oral to Written. A Text-linguistic Study of Wakhi Narratives. 2019.