Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-49596-7 — the Amorites and the Bronze Age Near East Aaron A

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-49596-7 — The Amorites and the Bronze Age Near East Aaron A. Burke Index More Information

INDEX

ꜤꜢmw (Egyptian term), 145–47 See also Asiatics “communities of practice,” 18–20, 38–40, 42, (Egypt) 347–48 decline of, 350–51 A’ali, 226 during Early Bronze Age, 31 ‘Aa-zeh-Re’ Nehesy, 316–17 Ebla, 38–40, 56, 178 Abarsal, 45 emergence of, 23, 346–47 Abda-El (Amorite), 153–54 extensification of, 18–20 Abi-eshuh, 297, 334–35 hollow cities, 178–79 Abisare (Larsa), 160 Jazira, 38, 177 Abishemu I (Byblos), 175 “land rush,” 177–78 Abraham, 6 Mari, 38–40, 56, 177–79, 227–28 abu as symbolic kinship, 268–70 Nawar, 38, 40, 42 Abu en-Ni’aj, Tell, 65 Northern Levant, 177 Abu Hamad, 54 Qatna, 179 Abu Salabikh, 100 revival of, 176–80, 357 Abusch, Tzvi, 186 Shubat Enlil, 177–78, 180 Abydos, 220 social identity of Amorites and, 10 Achaemenid Empire, 12 Urkesh, 38, 42 Achsaph, 176 wool trade and, 23 ‘Adabal (deity), 40 Yamḫ ad, 179 Adad/Hadad (deity), 58–59, 134, 209–10, 228–29, zone of uncertainty and, 24, 174 264, 309–11, 338, 364 Ahbabu, 131 Adams, Robert, 128 Ahbutum (tribe), 97 Adamsah, 109 Ahktoy III, 147 Adba-El (Mari), 153–54 Ahmar, Tell, 51–53, 56, 136, 228 Addahushu (Elam), 320 Ahmose, 341–42 Ader, 50 ‘Ai, 33 Admonitions of Ipuwer, 172 ‘Ain Zurekiyeh, 237–38 aDNA. See DNA Ajjul, Tell el-, 142, 237–38, 326, 329, 341–42 Adnigkudu (deity), 254–55 Akkadian Empire. See also specific ruler Aegean generally, 18, 41 mural style from, 284–89, 340 agropastoralism, impact of military intervention trade with, 197, 331 on, 349 Afghanistan, 196–98 Amorite kingship, model for, 150, 187–88 Afis, Tell, 77 Amorites and, 18, 20–21, 40–42, 59 aga-ús mar-tu (foot soldiers), 162 aridification, impact of, 62–63 Age of Amorites, 16, 261–62, 363 Ebla, military intervention in, 57–61 agropastoralism fall of, 70, 85–86, 101, 350 generally, 14, 56 First Intermediare Period compared, 145 Akkadian military intervention, impact Gutians, military intervention against, 130 of, 349 Hurrians in, 55 aridification, impact of, 349 imperial control in, 59–61 Ashkelon, 236 language in, 95–96 Assur, 227–28 Mari, military intervention in, 57–61 Banat, 40 mar-tu, military action against, 59–60

411

412 INDEX

Akkadian Empire (cont.) Amuraya (person), 205 mercenarism in, 300–1 amurru(m) migration, impact of military intervention on, 72, ꜤꜢmw, Egyptian term and, 146 88 deity, 205, 254–56, 364 military expansion of, 14–15, 20, 22, 59–61 as description of things, 261, 328 military specialists in, 130 name for Amorites, 21–22, 41–42, 145–46, monuments in, 191 348–49 names in, 95, 98–99 state, 368 Nawar, military intervention in, 58 tribe, 97, 182, 265 resistance to, 20 western territory, association with, 261 royal legitimation in, 194 amurru¯tum ala¯kum (military service), 162 rulers of, 60 Amutpiel (Qatna), 257 stelae in, 137 ‘Anat (deity), 169, 264 warfare, model for, 174, 365 Anatolia wool trade in, 23 aridification in, 73–74 Akkadian (language) burial customs in, 204–5, 248–49, 324 names compared to Amorite names, 262–63 direct-axis temples in, 304, 315–16 Western Peripheral, 189 fortifications in, 193 Akkar Plain, 79–80, 234, 352 Hurrians in, 144 Akko, 224, 233–36, 239–40 intermarriage in, 251–52 Alahutm. See Alalakh migration in, 73–74, 351 Alalakh seals in, 158 direct-axis temples in, 311–14 trade in, 16, 196–205, 331 land tenure in, 335–36 anchor communities, 25–26, 38, 45, 48, 56, 347. murals in, 286–87 See also Ebla, Chuera, Mari, Nawar (Tell Brak), palaces in, 282, 284 Tuttul urbanism in, 232 An (deity), 125, 264 ‘alamu (Egyptian term), 146 Anitta (Kültepe Kanesh), 315–16 Albright, William Foxwell, 6 Ankhtifi, 146–47 Aleppo. See Halab Ansan, 109 Alexander the Great, 273–74 Aphek, Tel alliances, 293–94 generally, 233, 239, 267, 326 altars, 260, 314, 318 MB I ceramic sequence, 234 Amanus Mountains, 104, 182 Apiak, 121 Amar-Sin (Ur III), 118 Apil-Kin (Mari), 124 Amenemhet I, 148, 163–64, 167–68, 171, 173, 358 Apishal (Amorites), 59 Amenemhet II, 164–66, 168–69, 173, 197, 224, 358 Apsu, 188 Amenemhet III, 165–66, 168–69, 175, 217–18, 222 Apum (Damascus), 26, 176, 257–59, 267, 270 ‘ammu/hammu, 146, 361 Arameans Ammunenshi (Retenu), 173 Amorites and, 6 Amnanum (tribe), 160–61, 265, 268, 271, 293 language of, 95–96 Amorite hypothesis, 60, 90, 241–42 Arbid, 26 Amorite language Arbid, Tell, 248–49 Amorite koine and, 259 arboriculture, 30 as distinct language, 96 archers, 131 Hebrew compared, 263 Archi, Alfonso, 21–22 Hurrians, linguistic differences with Amorites, aridification. See also specific location 55–56 generally, 14, 20, 62–63 as Northwest Semitic (NWS) language, 95–96 agropastoralism, impact on, 349 placenames, 266–68 al-Rawda, Tell, 75–76 Shulgi and, 96 Anatolia, 73–74 social identity of Amorites and, 2, 94, 96–97, 262, Canaan, 162–63 265, 354 dating of, 63–65 socioeconomic context of, 263 Euphrates Valley, 14–15, 63, 65–66, 74–75 Amorites. See specific topic Halab, 76 Amos (prophet), 4 identification of, 62–63 amtum, 202 impact of, 61–62 ‘Amu. See Hamu (deity) Mesopotamia, 20, 63, 83

INDEX 413

migration, effect on, 65, 72–73, 87–88, 351–52 Amorite influence in, 338–39 Nawar, 63–64 Amorite rule in, 270 Qatna, 77–79 Asiatics (Amorites) in, 148, 207, 212–13, 219, 338, refugees, impact on, 72–73, 83, 351–52 359–61 resettlement following (See resettlement burial customs in, 207–17, 247, 340 following aridification) caravans in, 215–16 socioeconomic effects, 353–54 ceramics of Levantine types, 209–10 urbanism, impact on, 351–52 direct-axis temples in, 316–17 Urkesh, 65 dress in, 208–9 Armi. See Banat, Tell Eastern Town, 210 ‘Aroer, 50 equid burials in, 329 Arqa, 176 foreigners in, 16 artisans, 333–34 foundation of, 167–68 Asherah (deity), 317 houses in, 207–8, 210 ‘Ashir, Tel, 50 Hyksos, rejection and expulsion of, 341–42, 367 Ashkelon Hyksos rule in, 259, 270, 332, 339–40 agropastoralism at, 236 independence from Egypt, 338 Amorite name of, 267 Kanesh compared, 205–6, 208 Amorites in, 175–76, 257–59, 270 murals in, 285–87 burial customs in, 340 palaces in, 282 DNA (See DNA) population of, 207 Egypt, military threat from, 238 seals in, 332 establishment of, 176 security concerns in, 215–16 exogenous source of changes in, 233 size of, 205–6 fortifications in, 238 temples in, 338–39 intermarriage in, 254 trade in, 206, 331–32 Sanctuary of the Silver Calf, 304 warrior burials in, 207–8, 210, 213–16 settlement of, 234–38 Awal, 121 trade in, 197, 223–26, 331–32 axes, 131–32, 204–5, 208, 210–11, 215, 221, 225, urbanism in, 239–40, 358 250, 327–28, 361 Ashur, 158 Ashurbanipal (Neo-Assyria), 5 Ba’al (deity), 169, 188, 338, 341–42 Asiatics (Egypt) Bab edh-Dhra’, 50, 65 generally, 15–16, 37, 71–72, 145–49, 163–73, ba¯btum, 266 217–22, 338, 352–53, 356–57, 361 Babylon. See also specific ruler Egyptian literature, 145, 147, 149, 168, 171–73, 217 generally, 3 Execration Texts (See Execration Texts) Amorite rule in, 160, 174, 176, 257–59 mortuary stelae of, 220 Amorites in, 1, 12 Nile Delta, 1, 16, 338, 352 direct-axis temples in, 307 terms for, 145–49 divination in, 317 ass. See donkey (Equus asinus) First Dynasty, 343 aššatum, 202 forced labor in, 334 Assur. See also specific ruler intermarriage in, 252 agropastoralism in, 227–28 mercenarism in, 162, 300 burial customs in, 204–5, 248–49, 323 sack of, 343, 367 direct-axis temples in, 307, 310 segregation of Amorites, 343 Isin and, 155 trade in, 197–98, 331 legacy of Amorites in, 5 urbanism in, 227 Mari and, 178 bád mada (Wall of the Land), 117, 129 trade in, 195, 198–205, 331, 359–60 Baghouz, 213–16 Assyria Bahlukullim (Tuttul), 293 generally, 3 bala tax, 114, 119 Amorite rule in, 1–2, 174, 176 Balikh, 26, 68, 82 military activity of, 357 balkanization of Amorites, 367–68 rejection of Amorites, 342–43 Banat, Tell Assyrian King List (AKL), 5, 271, 368 agropastoralism at, 40 Avaris (Tell ed-Dab’a) burial customs in, 51–56 generally, 205, 207, 213, 236, 239 settlement at, 27

414 INDEX

Baqet III (Egypt), 148, 163 direct-axis temples in, 141, 225 Barama (deity), 40 Egyptian influence on, 225, 332 Barri, Tell, 248–49, 323 fortifications in, 231–32 ba¯rûm, 317 prestige weapons in, 328 Basar, 104. See also Jebel Bishri (Mount Bashar) royal tombs (Tombs I-IV), 332 Batrawi, Tell, 142 social identity in, 144 Beaulieu, Paul-Alain, 256 standing stones in, 50 Beni Hasan, 148, 163, 220–22 Temple à escalier, 225 Benjaminites, 22, 265. See also Yaminite (tribe) Temple of the Obelisks, 225 Bensimalites, 22, 265. See also Simalite (tribe) temples in, 49, 141, 225 Ben-Tor, Ammon, 270 trade in, 197, 205, 224, 238–39, 331–32, 359–60 Beth-Anath, 268 tribal organization in, 97 Beth-El, 268 Ur, 132 Beth-Shean, 197 urbanism in, 230–32 Beth-Shemesh, 176, 268 Byblos run, 35, 140, 205, 224 Beth-Yerah, Tel, 30 betyls. See stelae Caliciform ware, 142 Beydar, Tell, 26, 54 Canaanites, Amorites and in biblical tradition, 5 B’ia, Tell. See Tuttul (Tell B’ia) Canaanite store jar, 209, 222–24 Bietak, Manfred, 148, 207, 209, 212, 329, 340 Canaan (Southern Levant). See also specific site and Bilalama (Eshnunna), 153–54 period Bilgamesh and the Netherworlds, 188 abandonment of settlements in, 141 b¯ıtum, 266 Amorites in, 163–64, 167, 357–58 bows, 221, 300–1, 332 aridification in, 65, 162–63 Brak, Tell. See Nawar (Tell Brak) biblical geneaology of, 4 Braudel, Fernand, 13 burial customs in, 141–43, 246, 249, 324–26 Breithaustempel, 338–39 direct-axis temples in, 246, 314–15 brigandage, 334–35, 360 economic decline in, 143–44 Buccellati, Giorgio, 39 equid burials in, 54, 216 Burak, Tell el-, 234, 285, 287–89 exogenous source of changes in, 233–34, 240–43, burial customs 359–60 correlations in, 53 intermarriage in, 252–53 Early Bronze Age, 50–51, 56–57, 99–100, 348, Middle Kingdom (Egypt) military expansion 354 into, 163–67, 344 Egypt, 220 population decline in, 355–56 of Elamites, 55 population of, 141, 162–63, 241, 359–60 equid burials (See equid) ports in, 223–26, 232–33 extramural burials, 324–25 prestige weapons in, 328 “funeral kits,” 326 royal patronage in, 244–46 household burials, 322–24 socioeconomic change in, 233 of Hurrians, 52–55 trade in, 232–33, 240–41, 243, 358–59 hypogea (See hypogeum) urbanism in, 30–37, 141–42, 230–43, 355–56, infant burials, 53, 324 359–60 kingship and, 289–93 warrior burials in, 142–43, 327–28 Middle Bronze Age, 204–5, 322 canals, construction and maintenance of, offerings, 269 297–98 prestige weapons and, 327–28 caravans, 35–37, 196–97, 215–16, 220–22, 331, rituals, 326–27 360–61 royal burial crypts, 52–53 Carchemish, 73–74, 86, 182, 334 royal patronage and, 247 cattle, 173, 207, 219, 229 tumuli, 325–26 (See also humu¯su¯) Cedar Mountains, 182 warrior burials (See warrior burials) ceramics. See specific ware or vessel type Byblos Chagar Bazar, Tell, 26, 248–49, 323 generally, 140–41, 143, 172–73 charters. See genealogies; political charter Abishemu I, 175 children Amorites in, 1, 175–76, 257–59, 270 depictions of, 221 archaeological sources from, 355 infant burials, 53, 324 Baalat Gebal, 225 from intermarriage, 169 Chapelle orientale, 225 naming conventions, 169, 252

INDEX 415

Choga Zanbil, 248–49 deportation, 32, 88, 121, 299–300 Chuera, Tell, 26, 45, 48, 347 Der, 117 city laments, 123, 156, 184–85 Deshashe, 37 civil service, 127–28, 153 Didanum, 161, 182, 271. See also Tidnum clans, social identity of Amorites and, 42, 56. See also (tribe) gayûm Dilmun climate change, 11, 13. See also aridification; Amorite rule in, 257–59, 269 environmental change burial customs in, 269, 325–26 Cohen, Abner, 199 trade in, 197–98, 226, 331 communities, social identity of Amorite, 9–10, 14, direct-axis temples (in antis style) 266 generally, 45–50, 56, 137–39, 302–5, 317, 362 communities of practice, 18–20, 38–40, 42, 347–48 Alalakh, 311–14 competition, 1, 16, 52, 203–4, 227, 260, 289, 357, Amorite koine and, 259–60, 366 362–63 Assur, 307, 310 competitive emulation, 193–94 Avaris, 316–17, 338–39 conceptual frameworks, 7–11 Babylon, 307 conscription, 294 Byblos, 49, 141, 225 conspicuous consumption, 192, 284–85, 306 Canaan, 246, 314–15 Cooper, Elisabeth, 51 cella (See papa¯ḫ um) “copper corridor,” 34–35 “communities of practice” and, 348 copper trade, 33–36, 143 construction of, 306–7 Coronation of Ur-Nammu, 194 decentralization of cult and, 56 courtyards, 282–84 Ebla, 48–49, 245 craftsmen, 333–34 Eshnunna, 138, 307–9 Crete, 331 Hazor, 311, 314, 317 crown, symbolism of, 194–95, 276–77 Kanesh, 315–16 cult “long-room” temples, 304 ancestor cult, 124 Mari, 48, 134–35, 138, 305, 310–11, 354–55 in antis direct-axis temple type, role of, 302–3 Shamshi-Adad I and, 309–10 Ebla and centers of, 40, 291–93 Ur, 138, 354–55 Mari, 124 Uruk, 47 patronage, 302 Yamḫ ad, 312–14 Ur III Dynasty, cult of, 124 divination, 317–18 cultural exchange Diyala, 87, 162, 307, 357 Elamites and, 334–35 Djaty, 148 mercenarism, role of, 334–35 DNA merchants and, 202–5, 332 evidence, 254 trade and, 202–5, 332 mobility and aDNA, 254 warfare, effect of, xv–xvi, 16, 334–35, 365 donkey (Equus asinus). See also equid; kunga; onager cultural memory, 5–7, 175, 256, 270–73 (Equus hemionus) Curse of Akkad, 101, 122, 180 generally, 24, 328–30, 347 Cyprus, 225, 331, 342 “Amorite,” 261 burian offerings, 269 Dab’a, Tell ed-. See Avaris (Tell ed-Dab’a) sacrifice, 328 Dadusha (Eshnunna), 281 Drehem, 130 dagger, 21, 131–32, 197, 208–11, 215, 225, 261, dub-sar mar-tu (scribe of Amorites), 162 327–28 Dumuzi (deity), 104 Dagon (deity), 264 Dur-Abieshuh, 334–35 Dalley, Stephanie, 264 Dur-Addu, 228 Damascus. See Apum (Damascus) Durand, Jean-Marie, 243 dam-gar (merchants), 114 Dur-Samsi-Addu, 228 Damiq-ilishu (Isin), 155, 254–55 Dur-Sharrukin, 5 Dan, Tel, 233, 324, 326 Dur-Sumula-el, 228 D’Andrea, Marta, 34–35 Dur-Yahdun-Lim, 228 Deganya A, 142 demography and demographic data Ea (deity), 264 Amorite names, 95, 264–65, 357–58 Eanna (deity), 303 4.2 ka BP event, 20 Early Dynastic Period, 20–21, 23 population estimates (See specific location) Early Transcaucasian Culture (ETC), 55

416 INDEX

Ebla. See also specific ruler First Dynasty, 145 generally, 29, 125, 143 First Intermediate Period, 35, 37, 71, 163, agropastoralism at, 38–40, 56, 178 353 Akkadian military intervention in, 57–61 Fourteenth Dynasty, 316–17, 338–41 altar, 318 Fourth Dynasty, 32–33 Amorite rule in, 174–75 New Kingdom, rise of, 367–68 Amorites in, 14, 18, 347 Ninth Dynasty, 146–47, 172 as anchor community, 25 Second Intermediate Period, 220, 339 archaeological sources from, 355 Seventeenth Dynasty, 341–42 Archaic Palace, 139–40 Sixth Dynasty, 32–33, 145–46 aridification in, 76–77 Tenth Dynasty, 147, 172 burial customs in, 51–53, 56, 290–93 Thirteenth Dynasty, 165–66, 210, 225, 238 circular fortifications in, 45 Twelfth Dynasty, 149 “communities of practice” and, 348 warfare and the failure of Southern Levantine direct-axis temples in, 311–12, 314 urbanism, 32–33 early references to Amorites, 21–22, 40–42 Ekallatum, 179, 227–28, 331, 357 economic opportunism in, 34 Ekron, 238 fortifications in, 231 Elamites. See also specific ruler growth of, 18 generally, 41, 105, 110, 353 as “hollow city,” 178–79 Akkadian military intervention against, 130 internal conflict in, 33 Amorites and, 18, 357 Ishtar Temple, 311 burial customs of, 55 land tenure in, 335 cultural exchange and, 334–35 Mardikh, Tell, 45 mercenarism and, 300–1, 360 mar-tu and, 348–49 migration and, 72, 352 migration in, 76–77, 81 military service for Ur, 109, 131 military activity of, 347 as refugees, 351 Palace G, 25, 52–53, 58–59, 139 social integration and, 70–71 palaces in, 340 Ur, role in fall of, 126, 185 rebuilding of, 139–40 El (deity), 264, 268 Red Temple, 49 elite emulation, 247–51 ritual in, 272 Emar, 21, 58, 74, 334 social identity in, 144 emergence of Amorites, 13–14, 20–23 social structure of Amorites in, 83–84 emissaries, 88, 132, 140, 151, 239, 244, 360 stelae in, 318 emulation, 1, 16, 227, 363 Temple of the Rock, 49, 58–59, 140 Emutbalum (tribe), 160–61, 265, 268. See also temples in, 48–49, 245 Yamutbalum (tribe) territory associated with, 28 Englund, Robert, 118 Tomb of the Lord of the Goats, 292 Enki and the World Order, 122 Tomb of the Princess, 292 Enki (deity), 104, 309 trade in, 196, 360 Enkidu, 187 tribal organization in, 97 Enlil-bani (Isin), 276 in Ur, 132 entanglement. See social entanglement urbanism in, 230–32, 352 Enuma Elish, 188 wool trade in, 58–59 environmental change Yamḫ ad and, 174–75 aridification (See aridification) Ebla Texts, 21, 25, 27, 41, 43, 83–84, 144 effect on cultural and social change, 13 economics migration caused by, 20, 65–66 military power and, 356, 367–68 Epic of Gilgamesh trade (See trade) Amorites in (See Bilgamesh and the Netherworlds) Edict of Ammisaduqa, 319–20, 343 Enkidu in, 187 edubba (scribal schools), 190 fortifications in, 45, 192–93 Egypt. See also specific ruler Humbaba (See Humbaba) generally, 3, 143 ideal kingship and, 277–79 Eighteenth Dynasty, 145, 171–72, 341–42 scribal tradition and, 181, 184, 186–88 Eleventh Dynasty, 147 shepherd symbolism in, 194 Fifteenth “Hyksos” Dynasty (See Hyksos) Epic of Zimri-Lin, 272, 278–79 Fifth Dynasty, 32–33 Eppihimer, Melissa, 158

INDEX 417

equid circular enclosures, 44–45 burials, 54, 216–17, 329 Early Bronze IV, 348 Equus asinus (See donkey [Equus asinus]) Ebla, 45, 231 Equus caballus (See horse [Equus caballus and Equus Epic of Gilgamesh, 45, 192–93 ferus przewalski]) Hazor, 231–32 Equus ferus przewalski (See horse [Equus caballus Middle Bronze Age, 358, 362 and Equus ferus przewalski]) Northern Levant, 193, 294–97 Equus hemionus (See kunga; onager [Equus Old Babylonian, 193–94, 294–98 hemionus]) royal legitimation and, 192–93 eren mar-tu (military rank), 162 Sinai, 164 Eridu, 106, 156 4.2 ka BP event, 61–62, 65, 72, 76–77 Erishum I (Assur), 158 “Fragile Crescent,” 24. See also zone of uncertainty Eshnunna. See also specific ruler Frankfort, Henri, 138 generally, 181 frescoes. See murals Amorite military action against, 357 Amorites in, 153–54, 178–79 gal mar-tu (military rank), 162 direct-axis temples in, 138, 307–9 Garfinkle, Steven, 108, 111, 114, 131 expansion of, 228 Gatumdu (deity), 104 Laws of Eshnunna, 247, 319–21 gayûm, 266 palaces in, 192, 282 genealogies seals in, 158, 226 generally, 270–73, 364 Temple of Shu-Sin, 138 Assyrian King List (See Assyrian King List (AKL)) ethnicity fictive, 270–73 generally, 40–41 genealogical charters, 271–72, 364 communities versus, 349–50 Hammurapi of Babylon (See Hammurapi identity versus, 7–8, 11–12 (Babylon)) mar-tu as ethnic term, 348–49 palû (See palû) ethnogenesis, 11, 40, 347 as political charter, 155, 185, 247 Euphrates Valley social identity and, 4 Amorites in, 18, 21–22 Sumerian King List (See Sumerian King List) anchor communities in, 25 geographic social identity of Amorites, 41 aridification in, 14–15, 63, 65–66, 74–75 George, A.R., 116 early Amorite settlement in, 27, 346 Gerisa, 236–40 migration in, 74–75, 80–81 Gesher, 213–15 population of, 27 Geshtin-anna (deity), 310 refugees in, 82 Gezer, 238 urbanism in, 352 Ghanem al-’Ali, Tell, 74 Execration Texts, 164–67, 175, 222, 236, 252, 267, Gilgamesh, 45, 277, 297, 299, 364. See also Epic of 270, 357–58, 361 Gilgamesh Ezbet Helmi, 340 Giparu, 138 Ezbet Rushdi, 167–68 goats. See sheep Ezekiel (prophet), 5 Great Revolt against Naram-Sin, 181–82, 272 Fadous-Kfarabida, Tell, 254 Greece Failaka, 226 generally, 3 Feast of Ishtar, 272 Amorites compared, 12 Feldman, Marian, 288–89 koine Greek, 273–74 festivals, 246–47, 260 trade with, 197–98 fictive genealogies. See genealogies Gre Virike, 51–52 figs, Amorite, 261 Gudea (Lagash) First Intermediate Period. See Egypt generally, 41, 71, 132–33 Fitzgerald, Madeline, 244 Akkadian rule, attempt to reestablish, 126 forced labor, 334 building projects under, 92, 102–4, 129, 352–53 fortifications. See also walls emblems of kingship, 277 Amorite koine and, 259 legitimacy of kingship, 70 Anatolia, 193 lion symbolism, 195 Ashkelon, 238 military expansion under, 103 Byblos, 231–32 royal patronage and, 244

418 INDEX

Gudea (Lagash) (cont.) shepherd symbolism, 194 shepherd symbolism, 194, 353 stelae of, 107, 191, 194–95, 298 Shulgi compared, 105, 116 titles, 269 significance of, 105–6 warfare and, 293–94, 299 social justice and, 105 Hamu (deity), 71–72, 145–46, 264, 293 social order and, 111–12 Haneans statuary and, 105 generally, 265, 300 stelae and, 137 eponymous founder, 271 Ur-Nammu compared, 106 Hanum (tribe), 271 Gungun (tribe), 265 Hanum (tribe). See Haneans Gungunum (Larsa), 159–60, 177, 192–93, 226, 244 Hanun-Dagan (Mari), 134, 191–92 Gutian period Harageh, 220 generally, 14–15, 70, 126, 132 Harmal, Tell. See Shaduppum Amorites and, 101–2 Haror, Tel, 311, 315, 329 First Intermediate Period compared, 145 Harradum (Khirbet ed-Dineyeh), 178–79, 228–30, Gudea of Lagash (See Gudea [Lagash]) 307, 309, 334–35 urbanization and, 86 Harran, 6, 86 Gutians Harriri, Tell. See Mari (Tell Harriri) generally, 18, 55, 85–86, 100–2, 105, 353, 357 Hatti, 342, 367–68. See also Hittites Akkadian Empire, role of Gutians in fall of, 101 ḫ ayaram qata¯lum, 265–66, 328 Akkadian military intervention against Gutians, Hayyat, Tell el-, 236, 245–46, 311, 314, 359 130, 349 Hazor migration and, 72, 101, 352 altar at, 318 as refugees, 351 Amorite name of, 267 social integration of, 70–71 Amorite rule in, 257–59, 270 in Sumer, 352 Amorites in, 1, 12, 176 Ur, role of Gutians in fall of, 126, 185 ceramics in, 176 direct-axis temples in, 311, 314, 317 ḫ abba¯tum, 301 divination in, 317 ḫ a¯biru, 301 exogenous source of changes in, 233 habitat-tracking, 14 fortifications of, 231–32 Hadidi, Tell, 54, 100 laws of, 319–21 Hajr Mansub (Jordan), 50 lion symbolism in, 195 Halab (Aleppo) skilled labor in, 334 generally, 174–75 trade in, 331, 360 Amorite rule in, 257–59 urbanism in, 232 aridification around, 76 Hebrew Bible early Amorite settlement in, 26 Amorites in, 4–5, 21, 319, 368–69 migration in, 80 Amos (prophet), 4 sack of, 343 Ezekiel (prophet), 5 Halawa, Tell, 48, 54, 248–49, 323 Genesis, references in (See Table of Nations) Halif, Tel, 33 Mamre the Amorite, 5 Hammam, Tell el-, 34 Sihon (Amorite), 5 Hammam et-Turkman, Tell, 248–49 Table of Nations (See Table of Nations) Hammoukar, Tell, 26 Hebrew language, 95–96, 146, 263 Hammurabi (Yamḫ ad), 335–36 Hefer, Tel (Tell Ifshar), 223–24, 234–36 Hammurapi (Babylon) Henenu (Egypt), 149 generally, 273, 343 Herakleopolis, 147–48 accession of, 257 herding, 24. See also agropastoralism; cattle; Akkadian Empire compared, 15 pastoralism; sheep Akkadian rule, attempt to reestablish, 126 histoire événementielle, 13 Amorite identity and, 3, 16 Hittites, 367–68. See also Hatti genealogy of (See genealogies) hollow cities, 178–79 Laws of Hammurapi (See Laws of Hammurapi) Horowitz, Wayne, 320 lion symbolism, 195 horse (Equus caballus and Equus ferus przewalski), 54 Mari, conquest of, 134, 178, 269 trade in, 332 mercenarism and, 300 horticulture, 30, 227, 242 name of, 216, 264 Horum Höyük, 73–74

INDEX 419

household. See b¯ıtum Asiatics, 37, 71–72 Humbaba, 187–88 Gutian period, 101 humu¯su¯, 318 Mari, 133 hunting, 24. See also onager (Equus hemionus) Northern Levant, 80 Hurrians social identity and, 127–28 generally, 22–23, 55, 105, 110, 213 Sumeria, 70 Akkadian Empire, 55 Ur III, 86–88, 127 Amorites and, 42, 357 vintages of, 83 Anatolia, 144 Inanna (deity), 104, 264 burial customs, 52–55 in antis temple style. See direct-axis temples (in antis cultural differences with Amorites, 57 style) early identification of, 61 Indus River, 16, 197–98, 226 expansion of, 367 infant burials, 53, 324 Gutians compared, 101 Innaya, 205 identity of, 41 Instruction of King Amenemhet I for his son Senworset I, linguistic differences with Amorites, 55–56 171 Nawar and, 42, 55 intermarriage. See marriage Northern Levant, 144, 169 Iphur-Kish (Kish), 60 as refugees, 82 Ipiq-Adad II (Eshnunna), 228 Ugarit and, 368 Ishbi-Erra (Isin), 122–25, 127, 133, 153, 155, 162, 227 Ur, 109 Ishkun-Ningirsu, 266 Urkesh and, 55 Ishkun-Shamash, 266 Hyksos Ishkun-Sin, 266 generally, 16, 270, 339–40 Ishkun-Warad-Sin, 266 Fifteenth Dynasty (See Egypt) Ishme-Dagan (Isin), 192, 195, 299 identification as Amorite, 339–40 Ishtar (deity), 134, 228–29, 257, 307–12, 364. See also palaces of, 340 Feast of Ishtar rejection and expulsion of, 341–42, 367 Ishtup-Ilum (Mari), 134 rule at Avaris in Egypt (Fifteenth Dynasty), 16, Isin. See also specific ruler 210, 259, 270, 339–40 generally, 124, 151–53 seals in, 332 Amorites in, 153 trade with Mesopotamia and Northern Levant, Assur and, 155 340–41 burial customs in, 248–49, 323 hypogeum, 51–53, 56, 135–37, 290 city laments and, 156 decline of, 159, 356 Iaggid-Lim (Mari), 178 First Dynasty, 124 Iamʾadium (tribe). See Yamʾadium (tribe) kingship in, 71 Ibalpiel (Eshnunna), 309 Mari and, 155 Ibbi-Sin (Ur III), 122–26, 185 royal legitimation in, 154–59, 194 Ibbit-Lim (Ebla), 174–75 seals and, 156–58 Ibni-Adad (Hazor), 257 social order in, 158–59 Ibsha (Amorite), 221 Sumerian King List, 117 Ida-maras (tribe), 265, 334–35 Ur and, 155 _ ideal types, 116, 136–37, 281, 284, 290, 292–93, 302, Israel, 1–3 322 identity and Amorites. See social identity and Jabbul, 27, 75, 77, 80 Amorites Jacobsen, Thorkild, 188–89 ideological power as basis for social power, 17, 346 Jaffa, 224 Ifshar, Tell (Tel Hefer), 223–24, 234–36 Jazira. See also specific site Igrish-Hepa (Ebla), 174–75 agropastoralism at, 38, 177 Iknatu, Tell, 34, 65 Amorites in, 18 Ila-kabkabu (Assur), 178 anchor communities in, 25 Ili-idinnam, 266 aridification in, 63, 65–66, 73 ilkum as military service, 162. See also sablum burial customs in, 52–53, 57, 323 imagined communities, 39 early Amorite settlement in, 26 immigration. See also migration migration in, 73, 80–81, 351 generally, 74, 353–54 population of settlements in, 27 Akkar Plain, 79 refugees in, 82

420 INDEX

Jebel Abd al-Aziz Mountains, 26, 45 Isin, 71, 154–55 Jebel Bishri (Mount Bashar), 21–22, 59–61, 325. See lion symbolism, 195 also Basar Old Babylonian, 276, 363–64 Jebel Qa’aqir, 253 palaces and, 282–89 Jemmeh, Tell, 329 sacriﬁce and, 318 Jerablus Tahtani, 51–52 seals, 156–58 Jericho, 33, 142, 268, 326, 340 shepherd symbolism, 116–18, 194 Jerusalem, 5, 89–92, 176, 268, 298 stelae and, 280–81 Jezreel Valley, 315 Sumerian model of, 186–88 Jonker, Gerdien, 207–47, 251, 272 Ur III model of, 150, 180 Jordan Valley, 65, 141–42, 213–15, 233, 236, 246 warfare and, 293–302 Judah, 4, 268 kinship. See also burial customs, genealogies, tribes Amorite koine and, 260 Kabir, 48. See also Banat, Tell mobility, travel and refugees, 83 Kabri, Tel, 236, 239–40, 286–89, 324, 326 role of, 318–19 Kahun, 167–68, 219–20 social identity of Amorites and, 98 Kamares Ware, 197, 225 kisallum, 305–6 Kamose, 341–42 Kish, 60, 100, 271 Kanesh (Kültepe) Kisig, 125 generally, 342 kispum (ritual prayer), 272 Avaris compared, 205–6, 208 Kitan, Tel, 311, 314–15, 359 burial customs in, 248–49, 323 Kogan, Leonid, 95–96 intermarriage in, 251–52, 362–63 koine, Amorite laws in, 321 generally, 260–61, 365–67 population estimate, 200–1 cultural manifestation of, 366 seals in, 158 direct-axis temples and, 366 temples in, 315–16 emergence of, 16, 43, 97 trade in, 196, 198–205, 359–60, 362 Euphrates Valley, 43 warrior burials in, 250–51 festivals and, 260 ka¯rum (trading collective), fortiﬁcations and, 259 198–202, 330–31 Jazira, 43 Kassites, 300–1, 334–35, 357, 367 kingship and, 259 Kazane Höyük, 26 kinship and, 260 Kenyon, Kathleen, 90. See also Amorite hypothesis Greek koine compared, 273–74 Khabur, 26–27, 52, 63, 65, 67, 267, 331 language and, 259 Khafajah, 100 monuments and, 259, 275–76, 364–65 Khayan (Hyksos), 341 murals and, 366 Khebed (Retenu), 222 palaces and, 259 Khety, 148, 163 Renaissance compared, 16–17, 366 Khirbet al-Umbashi, 29, 79 rites and, 260 Khirbet Iktanu, 241 scribal tradition and, 260 Khirbet Iskander, 34, 50, 65, 241 spread of, 274–75 Khnumhotep I, 163 stelae and, 366 Khnumhotep II, 220–22 temples and, 259–60 kingship. See also political power; royal legitimation; tribal communities and, 366–67 royal patronage warfare and, 259 Akkadian Empire, 105 Kranzhügeln, 26–27, 231 Akkadian model, 150, 187–88 Ku’ar, 106 Amorite koine and, 259 Kudur-mabuk (Larsa), 160, 192 burial customs and, 289–93 Kültepe. See Kanesh (Kültepe) competitive emulation, 193–94 kummum, 305–6 cult patronage and, 302 kunga, 24, 28 deeds of king, 279–81 Kura (deity), 40, 311–12 divination and, 317–18 Kushtaratum, 266 emblems of, 277 Epic of Gilgamesh and, 277–79 labor iconography of, 194–95 forced labor, 334 ideal king, 276–79 refugees as, 92

INDEX 421

skilled, 169–70, 333–34 Akkadian in, 189 slaves (See slaves and slavery) shared traditions in third millennium, 43 surplus, 128–29 Levantine Akkadian, 189 Lachish, 326 Levantine Painted Ware, 222–23 Lagash. See also specific ruler Leviah, 33 generally, 70, 85–86, 160 lex talionis, 319 Akkadian rule, attempt to reestablish, 126 Lim Dynasty. See specific Mari ruler Amorites in, 21, 130 linguistic sources, xiv, 11 building projects in, 92, 102–4, 106, 129 lion symbolism, 195 early references to Amorites in, 41 Lipit-Ishtar (Isin), 158–59, 195, 247, 319 military expansion of, 103 literature, role of. See scribes, scribal tradition, and social justice in, 105 schools; specific literary work social order in, 111–12 longue durée perspective on Amorites, 2–3, 10, 13, statuary in, 105 242, 345–46 warfare and, 102–3 Lugalbanda II, 101 Laish, 176. See also Dan, Tel Lugalzagesi (Akkad), 57–58 Lajjun, al-, 50 lumma. See Tidnum (tribe) Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur, 123, Lumsden, Stephen, 203 156 Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur, 156, 184–85 mace, symbolism of, 276–77 landlessness, 91–94 Magan, 197–98 land tenure, 109, 335–37, 365 Mamre the Amorite, 5 Laneri, Nicola, 99, 248, 290 Manana¯, 176, 255, 271 Larsa. See also specific ruler Manana (Manana¯), 254–55 generally, 86–87, 155 mandu (military rank), 162 Amorite rule in, 161, 174 Manishtushu (Akkad), 50, 107, 181, 280–81 Amorites in, 12 Mann, Michael, 17, 346 burial customs in, 248–49 Marad-Kazallu, 160 fictive genealogies and, 271 Mardikh, Tell. See Ebla fortifications, 192–93 Marhasi, 109 independence from Isin, 177, 356 Mari (Tell Harriri). See also specific ruler mercenarism in, 162 generally, 21, 125 political power of, 151–53, 159–60 agropastoralism at, 38–40, 56, 177–79, 227–28 royal legitimation in, 194 Akkadian military intervention in, 57–61 Ur and, 125, 160 Amorite names in, 262–63 Larsen, Mogens Trolle, 252 Amorite rule in, 160–61, 174, 176, 257–59 Late Bronze Age, xiii–xiv Amorites in, 1, 12, 14, 21, 178–79, 347, 357 Laʾum (Mari), 282 as anchor community, 25 Laʾum (Samanum and Ubrabium), 293 burial customs in, 54, 135–37, 323 laws cultural importance of, 133 generally, 247, 319–22, 363–64 direct-axis temples in, 138, 305, 310–11, 354–55 Laws of Eshnunna, 319–21 divination in, 317 Laws of Hammurapi, 1, 112–13, 159, 247, 319–20 donkeys in, 328–29 Laws of Lipit-Ishtar, 158–59, 247, 319 festivals in, 246–47 Laws of Ur-Nammu, 111–15, 158–59 fictive genealogies and, 271 property and, 321–22 forced labor in, 334 legacy of Amorites. See also Amorite hypothesis; foreigners in, 133 Assur; Ugarit fortifications of, 45, 231–32 generally, 1–7, 368–69 Great Royal Palace of Zimri-Lim, 134, 285–88, 310 Abraham and, 6 Hammurapi, conquest by, 134, 178, 269 Assyria, 5 as “hollow city,” 178–79 Bible, 12 (See also Hebrew Bible) hypogea in, 135–37 Marriage of Martu, 254–56 internal conflict in, 33 Neo-Assyrian Period, 5 kispum in, 272 as pastoralists and herders (See pastoralism) Little Eastern Palace, 135 Legend of Keret, 175 mercenarism in, 162, 300 Leilan, Tell. See Shubat Enlil (Tell Leilan) migration in, 74, 133 Levant. See also Canaan (Southern Levant) military activity of, 347, 357

422 INDEX

Mari (Tell Harriri) (cont.) Megiddo murals in, 285–88 burial customs in, 324 palaces in, 191–92, 282, 284 temples in, 49–50, 245, 311, 315 political power of, 153–54 urbanism in, 233, 236 prestige weapons in, 328 Meluheans, 110 rebuilding of, 134 menhir. See stelae scribal tradition in, 183–84 mercenaries and mercenarism. See also military Shakkanakku Period, 124, 133–37, 153–54, ranks, service, and titles 191–92, 310, 357 generally, 14 skilled labor in, 334 Akkadian Empire, 300–1 standing stones or stelae, 50, 318 Asiatics in Egypt, 146–47 Temple of Ninhursag, 134 Babylon, 289–90, 300 Temple of Ninni-zaza, 50 cultural exchange and, 334–35 Temple of Shamash, 134–35, 302–3 Egypt, 15, 162–63, 217–19 Temple of the Lions, 134, 195 Elamites and, 300–1, 360 temples in, 48, 134–35, 138 ḫ a¯biru and ḫ abba¯tum, 301 trade in, 331 Hammurapi and, 300 tribal organization in, 97, 266 Larsa, 162 Ur and, 109, 123–25 Mari, 162, 300 urbanism in, 352 Middle Bronze Age, 300–1, 360–61 warrior burials in, 327–28 Nubian medjay, 146–47 Mari Eponym Chronicle, 272 Old Babylonian, 301, 334–35 Mari Letters, xiv, 22, 39, 162, 174–75, 252, 265, political power, contribution to, 159, 161–63 269–70, 297–99, 318 Shubat Enlil, 301 maritime trade. See trade Ur III, 127, 353 marriage Yamḫ ad and, 162 intermarriage, 251–56, 362–63 merchants. See also trade social identity of Amorites and, 98–99 generally, 198 Ur III, 99 cultural exchange and, 202–5, 332, 363 Marriage of Martu, 254–56 dam-gar, 114 Marsih, 267 Egypt, 220–21 _ mar-tu. See also amurru(m); military ranks, service, foreigners among, 200–1 and titles ka¯rum (trading collective), 198–202, 330–31 aga-ús mar-tu, 162 mobility and travel and, 245, 290 Akkadian military action against, 59–60 Old Assyrian trade colonies, 151 daggers, 21, 261 political power, role in, 198 as description of things, 261 sources regarding, 201–2 deity, 205, 254–56, 364 state agents, 200 early name for Amorites, 20–21, 40–42 merhûm, 266 as elite military guards, 131 Meshra al-Abaid, 65 eren mar-tu, 162 Meskene, Tell. See Emar as ethnic term, 348–49 Me-Turran, 160, 174, 176 gal mar-tu, 162 Michalowski, Piotr, 106, 117–18, 121, 125, 183, origins of term, 22, 348–49 271–72 as theos eponymos, 254 Middle Kingdom. See Egypt ugula mar-tu, 131, 162, 300 migration Ur III reference to Amorites, 94–95 generally, xvi Mashkan-abi, 266 acute, 83 Mashkan-Ammiditana, 266 Akkadian military intervention, and impact of, Mashkan-barmi, 266 72, 88 Mashkan-Shamash, 266 Anatolia, 73–74, 351 Mashkan-Shapir, 266 anticipatory, 83 Mashkuta, Tell el-, 205, 338, 361 archaeological evidence of, 92–93, 100, 351–52 Maskhuta, 213 aridiﬁcation as cause, 65, 72–73, 87–88, 351–52 massebah, 137 Early Bronze Age, 37 Matkh Lake, 28, 76–77, 80 Egypt and, 37, 144–45 Matthiae, Paolo, 76, 311 Elamites and, 72, 352 Meghalayan, 14, 61–62, 351. See also aridiﬁcation environmental change as cause, 20, 65–66

INDEX 423

Euphrates Valley, 74–75, 80–81 monuments. See also specific monument type extent of, 14 Akkadian Empire and, 191 Gutians and, 72, 101, 352 Amorite koine and, 259, 275–76, 364–65 Halab, 80 oikoumene and, 244–46 immigration (See immigration) royal patronage and, 244–46 Jazira, 73, 80–81, 351 Ur III, 106–8, 116, 191 mobility and travel versus, 90 as works projects, 91–92, 106 Nile Delta, 37, 144 Mount Bashar. See Jebel Bishri Northern Levant, 75–80, 351 Mount Dibar, 26 political circumstances as cause, 65–66 Mozan, Tel, 42 population “creep,” 80 Mozan, Tell. See Urkesh (Tell Mozan) refugees (See refugees) Mukish, 132 resettlement following, 88–91 Munbaqa, Tell (Yakaltum), 54, 231–32, 307 scale of displacement, 81 (See also demography Munbatah, Tell, 28, 77 and demographic data) murals, 284–89, 366 Subareans and, 72, 352 Muriq-Tidnim (wall), 119–21, 129 Sumer and, 70 Murshili I (Hittite), 344 tribal organization and, 97 Mutiabal (tribe), 265 voluntary versus involuntary, 83 military power. See also warfare naduašè, 107–8. See also stelae economic power and, 356, 367–68 Nagar. See Nawar (Tell Brak) social power and, 17, 346 Nahariya, 304 military ranks, service, and titles names of Amorites. See also specific name generally, 162 Akkadian names compared, 262–63 aga-ús mar-tu, 162 demographic data from, 357–58 amurru¯tum ala¯kum, 162 divine names, 264 eren mar-tu, 162 Hammurapi as Amorite name, 216 gal mar-tu, 162 ideological implications of, 263 ilkum, 162 Mari, 262–63 mandu, 162 marriage and, 98–99 rabi(a¯n) amurrim, 162 prevalence of, 264–65 sag-gal mar-tu-meš, 162 social identity of Amorites and, 94–97, 354 ugula mar-tu, 131, 162, 300 Sumerian names compared, 263 mines and mining, 222. See also “copper corridor”; Ur III, 262–64 copper trade Nami, 224, 237–38 Minoans, 197 Nanna (deity), 116, 264 Mirgissa, 165–66 Naplanum (Larsa), 125, 127, 151–53, 355 mirror toponymy, 267 Naram-Sin (Akkad) mišarum, 320, 343. See also Edict of Ammisaduqa generally, 41, 187 Mitanni, 367–68 aridification and, 63–65 Mit Rahina, 168 early references to Amorites, 59, 61 Mittelsaalhaus, 207–8 Ebla and, 58 mobility and travel Mari and, 133 generally, 7, 330, 365 military expansion under, 228 factors affecting, 143–44 resistance to, 60, 181–82, 272 kinship and, 83 royal legitimation and, 180–82 land tenure and, 335 stelae of, 50, 107, 191 merchants and, 245, 290 narû, 107–8, 137, 247, 279–81, 298, 319, 333. See also migration versus, 90 stelae nomads and, 351 Nawar (Tell Brak) royal patronage and, 245 generally, 26 trade and, 222–23 agropastoralism at, 38, 40, 42 warfare and, 16, 300, 365 Akkadian military intervention in, 58 Moeller, Nadine, 212 as anchor community, 25 Mohammed Diyab, Tell, 26, 248–49, 323 aridification in, 63–64 monkeys, Amorites and Asiatics compared to, 125 burial customs in, 54 Montuhotep I, 147–48 Hurrians and, 42, 55 Montuhotep II, 148–49 as Nagar, 26, 86, 347–49

424 INDEX

Nebi Rubin, 238 palaces Negev, 34–37 Alalakh, 282, 284 Nehesy, 212, 338 Amorite koine and, 259 Neo-Assyrian Empire, 5, 278, 368 Avaris, 282 Nerebtum, 307–9 courtyards in, 282–84 New Kingdom. See Egypt Ebla (See Ebla) Nile Valley, 61 Eshnunna, 192, 282 Ninab, 255 Hyksos, 340 Nineveh, 5 kingship and, 282–89 Ningirsu (deity), 104 Mari (See Mari) Ningizzida (deity), 309 murals in, 284–89 Nippur, 41, 106, 155–56, 248–49 Northern Levant, 282 nomads oikoumene and, 207–47 limited role of, 350–51 Qatna, 282 misidentification of Amorites with, 90, royal legitimation and, 191–92, 207–47 93 style of, 284 mobility and travel and, 351 Tuttul, 136, 282 sedentarization of, 90–91 Ugarit, 284 Northwest Semitic (NWS) languages, Ur, 282 95–96 Uruk, 192, 282 Nubia palû, 271 archaeological sources from, 165–66 papa¯ḫ um (“holy of holies”), 305–6, 310 Egypt and, 148, 167 Papyrus Brooklyn, 168–69 trade and, 196–98 pastoralism. See also agropastoralism; sheep; zone of Nubians uncertainty generally, 147–48, 339–40 Amorites and, 10 medjay, 146–47 critique of, explanatory framework of, 350–51 Numha (tribe), 265 decline of, 350–51 Numushda (deity), 254 Mari, 177 Nur-Adad (Larsa), 193–94 pastoral nomads, misidentification of Amorites Nur-ahum (Eshnunna), 153–54 with, 90, 93 Nûr-Mer (Mari), 134 revival of, 176–80, 357 sedentarization of pastoral nomads, 90–91 oikoumene of Amorites patrimonialism, abu as symbolic, 268–70 generally, 243, 356, 363 peer-polity interaction, 150–51, 362, 365 burial customs and, 247–51 Pella, 236, 245–46, 311, 314, 359 elite emulation and, 247–51 Peltenburg, Edgar J., 52, 290 festivals and, 246–47 Pepi I, 33 intermarriage and, 251–56 perceptual geography, 39 law and, 247 Persian Gulf. See also Dilmun monuments and, 244–46 Amorites in, 16 palaces and, 207–47 trade with, 197–98, 226, 331 scribal tradition and, 251 Phoenicians, 95–96, 146, 254 temples and, 244–46 placenames (toponyms) Old Assyrian trade colonies, 151. See also Assur; in Akkadian Empire, 182 Assyria; Kanesh (Kültepe); ka¯rum (trading Amorite, 266–68 (See also specific place) collective) in Execration Texts (See Execration Texts) Old Babylonian. See also specific ruler or topic functional, 267 Period, 3 mirror toponymy, 267 use of term, 262 political charter Old Kingdom. See Egypt genealogies as, 155, 185, 247 onager (Equus hemionus). See also equid; kunga Sumerian King List (See Sumerian King List) generally, 24, 27–28, 54, 347 political power. See also kingship; royal legitimation burials, 329 of Amorites, 151–53, 268–70 exploitation and processing, 27 city laments and, 156 onomastics. See names of Amorites civil service, effect of, 153 Orontes Valley, 80, 352 laws and, 247, 319–22, 363–64 Osborne, James, 275 mercenarism, role of, 159, 161–63

INDEX 425

merchants, role of, 198 defining, 82 negotiation of identity and, 154 Elamites as, 351 Old Babylonian, 257–59 in Euphrates Valley, 82 royal legitimation and, 154–59 food insecurity, 89 seals and, 156–58 Gutians as, 351 social identity of Amorites and, 268–70 Hurrians as, 82 social order and, 158–59 Jazira, 82 social power and, 17, 346 Jerusalem and, 89–92 trade and, 195–98 joblessness and subsistence, 89 tribes, role of, 159, 161 kinship and, 83 Poran, Tel, 237–38 landlessness and, 91–94 Postgate, J.N., 266 loss of common and community property, 89 prestige weapons, 327–28 migration and, 88–91 (See also migration) prisoners of war, 37, 60, 88, 126, 128, 130, 299, 349 Northern Levant, 82 Prophecies of Neferti, 145, 170–71 “pull” and “push” factors, 83, 143 puhrum, 266 social identity of Amorites and, 84–85 Puzrish-Dagan, 130–31 social integration of, 88–91 Puzur-Sin (Assur), 342 social networks and, 83–84, 89, 93 Subareans as, 82, 351 Qahlamu, 267 universal risks, 89 Qara Quzaq, 48, 54, 307 vintages of, 83, 88, 127 Qarqur, 50 warfare and, 299–300 Qatina Lake, 79–80 waves of, 83, 100 Qatna Rehov, 176, 214–15 generally, 29, 80, 230–31 Renaissance agropastoralism at, 179 Amorite koine compared, 16–17, 366 Amorite rule in, 1, 12, 176, 257–59, 270 generally, 11 Amutpiel, 257 churches in, 303 aridification in, 77–79 urbanism in, 227 burial customs in, 290–91, 332 Rephaim Valley, 268 direct-axis temples in, 317 resettlement following aridification as “hollow city,” 178–79 generally, 85–86 migration in, 77–79 forced migration, following, 88–91 murals in, 285–87 in Mesopotamia, 85–86 palaces in, 282 risk and, 91–92 trade in, 331, 360 urbanization, 86–88 urbanism in, 352 Reshef/Resheph (deity), 225, 311 Qattara (Tell al-Rimah), 178–79, 264, 282, 307, 310 resistance to Amorites Qedem, 172–73 generally, 337–38 Assyria, 342–43 Rababi (tribe), 265 Babylon, by segregation, 343 Rabbum (tribe), 161, 265, 293 Hyksos, rejection and expulsion of, 341–42, 367 rabi(a¯n) amurrim (chief of Amorites), 162 polemics against, 172–73 Rapa’u¯ma (shades), 268 sack of Babylon as, 343, 367 Rawda, Tell al- Retaba, Tell el-, 338 aridification in, 75–76 Retenu, 168, 172–73, 217, 222 early Amorite settlement in, 28, 44, 347 Rimah, Tell al-. See Qattara (Tell al-Rimah) migration in, 75–76 Rim-Sin I (Larsa), 195, 276, 289, 309 standing stones in, 50 ring, symbolism of, 209, 277, 285–86 temples in, 45, 49 Ristvet, Lauren, 243, 272 Redford, Donald, 145–46 royal legitimation refugees generally, 362 generally, 11, 14, 84, 88–89 Akkadian Empire, 194 archaeological evidence, 92–93, 100 Akkadian tradition, 180–82 aridification, impact of, 72–73, 83, 351–52 competitive emulation, 193–94 building projects and, 92 crown, symbolism of, 194–95, 276–77 choice to flee, 83 fortifications and, 192–93 climate and environment as cause, 82 geneaologies and (See genealogies)

426 INDEX

royal legitimation (cont.) Sasa, 253 iconography and, 194–95 Sasson, Jack, 334 Isin, 154–59, 194 scepter, symbolism of, 194, 276–77 kingship and (See kingship) Schwartz, Glenn, 243 kispum, 272 scribes, scribal tradition, and schools Larsa, 194 generally, 122, 183–86, 188–91, 251, 260, 363–64 mace, symbolism of, 276–77 Akkadian Empire, 184 Naram-Sin and, 180–82 Akkadian legends, 181, 183–84 palaces and, 191–92 Alalakh, 189–90 political power and, 154–59 Amorite koine and, 260 ring, symbolism of, 209, 277, 285–86 Anatolia, 184 Sargon and, 180–82 Ashkelon, 190 scepter, symbolism of, 194, 276–77 Avaris, 189–90 seals, 156–58 Babylonian, 183–84, 289–90 Shamshi-Adad I and, 181 dub-sar mar-tu/tupšar amurrim (scribe of _ staff, symbolism of, 194, 276 Amorites), 162 stelae and, 107–8 (See also stelae) Ebla, 190 symbols of (See specific symbol) Epic of Gilgamesh and, 181, 184, 186–88 temples and, 192 Eshnunna, 184 throne, symbolism of, 277 Halab, 190 Ur III, 180–82, 194–95 Hazor, 189–90 royal patronage. See also kingship Late Bronze Age, 190–91 generally, 15, 244 Mari, 183–84 burial customs and, 247 Northern Levant, 184, 190–91 festivals, 246–47 oikoumene of Amorites and, 251 Gudea and, 244 Old Babylonian, 181, 183–85, 190–91 laws and, 247 Sumerian, 184–86 Levant, 244–46 Ugarit, 188–89 mobility and travel and, 245 Ur III, 183 monuments and, 244–46 seals, 156–58, 327, 332 Old Babylonian, 15, 246 Sebekhotep III, 168–69 palaces and, 207–47 Second Intermediate Period. See Egypt temples and, 244–46 second urban revolution, 24 Ur III, 244 segregation Amorites in Babylon, 343 sablum, 334 Kanesh, 249 sacrifice. See altars; donkey (Equus asinus) Sekenenre Tao II, 341–42 sadu (highlanders), 60 Selenkahiye, 27, 100 sag-gal mar-tu-meš (field marshal of Amorites), 162 Senworset I, 171 Sahure, 32–33 Senworset II, 220 Sakka, Tell, 286–87 Senworset III, 145, 164–66 šallatum, 299 Serabit el-Khadem, 220, 222 Sammeltafeln, 192 Seth (deity), 338, 341–42 Samsuiluna (Babylon), 297 Sha’ar Hagolan, 65 ša¯pir amurrim. See ugula mar-tu (overseer of Shaduppum (Tell Harmal), 195, 228, 307, 309 Amorites) Sh’airat, Tell, 28–29, 44, 49 Saqqara, 33, 37, 167 Shakkanakku Period (Mari), 124, 133–37, 153–54, Şaraga Höyük, 73–74 191–92, 310, 357 Sargon (Akkad) Shakusiah, Tell al-, 28 generally, 15, 63, 187, 273, 277, 349 Shalem (deity), 268 Amorites, defeat of, 342–43 Shalim-Assur, 252 Ebla and, 58–59 Shamash (deity), 169, 294, 310–11, 364 as model of kingship, 364 Shamash-nur-matim, 266 royal legitimation and, 180–82 Shamshi-Adad I (Assur) Sargon, the Conquering Hero, 180, 182 generally, 263, 269, 286, 333 Sargon King of Battle, 342–43 accession of, 257 warfare and, 299 Amorite identity of, 3 Šar-kali-šarri (Akkad), 60–61 Assyrian King List and, 271

INDEX 427

deposing of, 342 Shu-Sin, 41, 119–22, 138, 309 direct-axis temples and, 309–10 Shutu, 267. See also Suteans/Sutum (tribe) expansion under, 227–28 Shuweimiyeh, 228 funerary ritual of, 272 Sihon (Amorite), 5 “land grab” by, 177–78 sikkanu, 107–8, 137, 318. See also stelae pilgrimage of, 191 Sikri, 109 royal legitimation and, 181 silver, “Amorite,” 261 Shubat Enlil, founding of, 180, 227 Simʾalite (tribe), 160–61, 266. See also Bensimalites stelae of, 264–65 Simanum, 109 warfare and, 293, 300 Simurrum, 182 Yahdun-Lim and, 177–78 Sinai Sharkalisharri (Akkad) Asiatics in, 148–49, 172, 220 generally, 61, 101 copper trade in, 34–35 Amorites, defeat of, 60–61 fortifications in, 164 Sharrum-bani (Ur III), 119–21 mines in, 222 Sharuhen. See ‘Ajjul, Tell el- trade in, 331 Shechem, 176, 311, 315 Sin (deity), 307, 310 sheep. See also wool Sin-iqisham, 266 generally, 23, 27, 29 Sin-ishimeni, 266 “Amorite,” 261 Sin-kashid (Uruk), 160, 192, 290, 300, 303 defensive walls and, 45 Sippar, 162, 248–49, 271, 294, 331, 357 Ebla, 58–59 Sippar-Amnanum, 266, 335, 357 sacrifice of, 208, 269 Sippar-Yahrurum, 266, 357 trade in, 332 slaves and slavery, 88, 113, 126, 130, 159, 168–69, 229, Ur III, 131 259, 299, 301. See also labor; prisoners of war Shekhna. See Shubat Enlil (Tell Leilan) Snerfu, 33 Shemesh (deity), 268 social entanglement, 86, 125, 151 Shemshara, 177 social identity and Amorites shepherd, symbolism of, 116–18, 194, 353. See also generally, 2–3, 12, 16, 40–41, 94, 261–62 agropastoralism; pastoralism agropastoralism and, 10 shipbuilding, 224 burial customs and, 99–100 Shubat Enlil (Tell Leilan) clans and, 42, 56 generally, 26, 162 communities and, 9–10, 14 agropastoralism at, 177–78, 180 ethnicity contrasted, 7–8, 11–12 aridification in, 64–65 fictive genealogies and, 4, 270–73 burial customs in, 100 geography and, 41 direct-axis temples in, 307, 309–10 historical studies and, 2 fortifications in, 231–32 immigration and, 127–28 foundation of, 177–78, 227 kinship and, 98 as “hollow city,” 178–79 language and, 2, 94, 96–97, 262, 265, 354 mercenarism in, 301 marriage and, 98–99 Sumerian King List and, 272 names and, 94–97, 354 trade in, 331 negotiation of, 154 urbanism in, 232 placenames and, 266–68 Shu-Dagan (Mari), 134 political hegemony and, 268–70 Shulgi (Ur III) refugee-centered framework, 84–85 Amorite language and, 96 tribes and, 9–10, 12, 41–43, 56, 265–66 building projects under, 116–18, 129 social integration burial customs and, 119 generally, 70–71, 263–64, 354 defensive walls and, 116–18 Babylon, 343 dynastic propaganda of, 116–17 festivals, role of, 40 Gudea compared, 105, 116 Gutian period, 101 lion symbolism and, 195 intermarriage and, 169 military expansion and, 115 Kanesh, 249, 251 monuments and, 116 refugees, 91–92 shepherd symbolism, 116–18 Ur III, 109, 129 taxation and, 118–19 social order, 320, 363–64 Shurrapak, 21 social organization of Amorite communities, 266

428 INDEX

social power, 17, 346 Sumerian King List, 117, 153, 155, 180, 185, 194, Sour, Tell as-, 28 271–72, 317 Southern Levant. See Canaan (Southern Levant) Sumerian Sargon Legend, 180 specific events in Amorite history, 13 Sumuabum (Babylon), 160, 227, 244 staff, symbolism of, 194, 276 Sumu-el (Larsa), 160 Stager, Lawrence, 236 Sumu-epuh (Yamhad), 293 standing stones. See stelae Sumula-el (Babylon), 162, 228 Stein, Gil, 47–48, 199 supra-tribal social identity, 9–10, 41–42, 98, 265 Steinkeller, Piotr, 103–4, 125 Susa, 41, 191, 248–49, 320 stelae. See also specific stele Suteans/Sutum (tribe) Akkadian Empire, 137 as caravan guides and protection, 207, 216, 301, Amorite koine and, 366 360 betyls, 318 at Mari, 265 communal memory and, 260, 318 as mercenaries, 334–35 Dadusha, 281 origins of name, 22 Ebla, 318 Shutu as possible identification in Execration Egypt, 220 Texts, 267 generally, 107–8, 137 Sweyhat, Tell es-, 54 Gudea and, 137 Hammurapi, 107, 191, 194–95, 298 Table of Nations, 4–5 kingship and, 280–81 Tadmor, 61 Manishtushu, 107 Tale of Sinuhe, 145, 149, 168, 172–73, 217 Mari, 318 tamka¯ru¯. See merchants massebah, 137 Tawi, 51–52 naduašè, 107–8 tax farming, 114 Naram-Sin, 50, 107, 191 Tel Aviv, 326 narû, 107–8, 137, 247, 279–81, 298, 319, 333 Tel or Tell. See specific site by name Northern Levant, 50, 318 temples. See also direct-axis temples; ziqqurats Old Babylonian, 318 Mesopotamia, 45–50, 246 sikkanu, 107–8, 137, 318 oikoumene and, 244–46 Stele of the Vultures, 137 royal legitimation and, 192 Stele of Ur-Nammu, 107 royal patronage and, 244–46 Ur III, 107–8, 137 Sumerian, 46 Zimri-Lim, 318 Terqa, 228 Streck, Michael, 95–96, 256, 263 textiles Subareans “Amorite,” 261 generally, 22–23, 55, 105, 110, 182, 347 trade, 25 Amorites and, 18, 42, 357 textual sources, 7, 71. See also specific topic burial customs, 51, 53, 55 Thalmann, J.-P., 79 early identification of, 61 Thebes, 217–19, 341–42 geographic identity of, 41 throne, symbolism of, 277 Gutians compared, 101 Tiamat (deity), 188 identity of, 41 Tidnum (tribe). See also Didanum; Muriq-Tidnim language of, 95 (wall) migration and, 72, 352 generally, 41, 97, 160, 182 as refugees, 82, 351 at Basar, 104 Subartu. See Subareans eponymous founder, 271 Sumer Hammurapi and, 271 Amorites and, 18 lumma, 41, 97 Gutians in, 352 location of, 161 language in, 95–96 military incursions against Ur, 119–22 migration and, 70 Ur III, role in fall of, 185, 355 model of Amorite kingship based on, 186–88 Tigris Valley, 15, 18 names in, 95, 98–99 Til Barsip. See Ahmar, Tell references to Amorites, 20–21, 40–41 Tilbeş ar, 73 temples in, 46 Titriş Höyük, 73 urbanism in, 352 tombs. See burial customs use of mar-tu in, 348–49 toponyms. See placenames

INDEX 429

trade Tuttul (Tell B’ia) generally, xv, 16, 30, 151, 330–32, 358–59 generally, 228 Anatolia, 16, 196–205, 331 Amorites in, 21, 347 Ashkelon, 197, 223–26, 331–32 burial customs in, 54 Assur, 195, 198–205, 331, 359–60 direct-axis temples in, 307 Avaris, 206, 212–13 equid burials in, 54 Babylon, 197–98, 331 expansion of, 74 Byblos, 197, 205, 224, 238–39, 331–32, 359–60 Palace A, 136 Canaan, 232–33, 240–41, 243, 358–59 palaces in, 136, 282 caravans, 196–97, 215–16, 220–22, 331 tribal organization in, 97 cultural exchange and, 202–5, 332 Ur, 132 Dilmun, 197–98, 226, 331 Tweini, Tell, 324 Ebla, 196, 360 Tyre, 267 Egypt, 196–98, 222, 224, 238–39, 331–32, 358–60 Greece and Aegean, 197–98, 331 Ugarit. See also specific ruler Hazor, 331, 360 Amorite rule in, 175–76, 257–59, 270 Kanesh, 196, 198–205, 359–60, 362 burial customs in, 324 ka¯rum (trading collectives), 198–202, 330–31 Hurrians and, 368 Mari, 331 language of, 95–96, 146 maritime trade, 197–98, 222–26, 234–36, 238–41, legacy of Amorites in, 368 331–32 palaces in, 284 merchants (See merchants) trade in, 205 Mesopotamia, 196–98, 226 ugula mar-tu (overseer of Amorites), Middle Bronze Age, 362, 365 131, 162, 300 mobility and travel and, 222–23 Ullaza, 175–76 Northern Levant, 196–97, 331, 358–59 Umma, 41, 130, 141, 355–56 Nubia, 196–98 Umm el-Marra (Tuba) oikoumeme of customs, 151 generally, 27 overland trade, 35–37, 196–97, 215–16, 220–22, altar, 318 331, 360–61 Amorites in, 20 Persian Gulf, 197–98, 226, 331 aridification in, 75 political power and, 195–98 burial customs in, 52, 54, 56 Qatna, 331, 360 equid burials in, 329 Shubat Enlil, 331 migration in, 75 textile trade, 25 (See also wool) settlement at, 27–28 Ugarit, 205 Umm Hammad, 65, 142 Ur, 195, 197–98, 331 Unas, 33 wool trade (See wool) Upper Mesopotamia (Kingdom), 178. See also Yamḫ ad, 197–98, 360 Shamshi-Adad I (Assur) Transjordan, 35, 65, 141, 241 Uprapum/Ubrabum (tribe), 161, 265, 298 travel. See mobility and travel Ur (city) trés long mur (very long wall), 28, 40, 44 Abraham in, 6 tribal identity and organization. See also specific tribe Amorite rule in, 161 Amorite koine and, 366–67 Amorites in, 14–15 generally, 41–43, 56, 97–98, 159, 265–66 burial customs in, 248–49, 323, 326 Byblos, 97 direct-axis temples in, 138, 307, 309, 354–55 Ebla, 97 Isin and, 155 identity of Amorites and, 41–43, 56 palaces in, 282 Mari, 266 trade in, 331 migration and, 97 Ur III (Dynasty). See also specific ruler Old Babylonian, 266 generally, 14–15, 18 political power, role in, 159, 161 Amorite names in, 262–64 social identity of Amorites and, 9, 12, 265–66 Amorites in, 71, 109–11, 126, 353 Tuttul, 97 archaeological evidence from, 100 tribute, 115, 118, 121, 206 archers in, 131 Tuba. See Umm el-Marra (Tuba) building projects in, 92, 104, 106, 116–18, 129 tumuli, 325–26 burial customs in, 119 Tuqan, Tell, 28, 77 city laments and, 156

430 INDEX

Ur III (Dynasty) (cont.) Canaan (Early Bronze Age), 30–37 civil service in, 127–28, 153 Canaan (Middle Bronze Age), 226–27, 230–43, crafts in, 130 355–56, 359–60 defensive walls in, 116–21, 129 Ebla, 230–32, 352 dynastic propaganda in, 116–17 Euphrates Valley, 352 early references to Amorites, 41 foreigners, role of, 352 Eblaites in, 109–10 Hazor, 232 Egypt compared, 145 Mari, 352 Elamites, role of in fall of, 126, 185 Megiddo, 233, 236 Elamites in, 109, 131, 185 Northern Levant, 230–32 elite military guards in, 131 Old Babylonian, 227–32 fall of, 122–26, 184–85, 355 Qatna, 352 foreigners in, 109–11 Shubat Enlil, 232 Gutians, role in fall of, 126, 185 Urkesh, 86 Hurrians in, 109 Urkesh (Tell Mozan) immigration policy in, 127–28 agropastoralism at, 38, 42 land tenure in, 109 Amorites in, 347 Larsa and, 125, 160 as anchor community, 25 Mari and, 109, 123–25 aridification in, 65 marriage in, 99 burial customs in, 52, 248–49, 323 mercenarism in, 127 fortifications at, 45 military expansion and, 115 Hurrians and, 55 military service in, 109, 130–32 settlement at, 26 model for rulers, 105 urbanism in, 86 monuments in, 106–8, 116, 191 Ur III and, 132 Muriq-Tidnim (wall), 119–21, 129 Ur-Nammu (Ur III) as patrimonial state, 109 generally, 115–17, 124–25 population of, 128–29 building projects under, 129 rise of, 106 Laws of Ur-Nammu, 111–15, 158–59 royal legitimation in, 194–95 monuments and, 107 royal patronage in, 244 rise of, 106 rulers of, 106 social order and, 113 scribal tradition in, 183 Ur-Nanshe (Lagash), 21 seals and, 156–58 Urshu shepherd symbolism in, 194 generally, 125 social integration of Amorites, 128 people from in Ur, 132 social order in, 111–15, 158–59 Uruk social structure of Amorites in, 83 generally, 155 stelae in, 107–8, 137 Amorite rule in, 161, 174 surplus labor in, 128–29 building projects in, 187 taxation in, 118–19 burial customs in, 290 tax farming in, 114 Chalcolithic expansion, 63 temples in, 138 direct-axis temples in, 47, 314 Tidnum, military incursions by, 119–22, 355 fictive genealogies and, 271 trade in, 195, 197–98 founding of dynasty at, 160 tribal organization of Amorites in, 97 Gilgamesh and, 45, 278–302 urbanization and, 86–88 lament for, 156 Urkesh and, 132 palaces in, 192, 282 Wall of the Land, 117, 129 settlement in, 63 wool trade in, 23 temples in, 303 urbanism Usiyeh, 228 Akkadian to Ur III, 86–88, 352 Utu (deity), 194 Alalakh, 232 aridification, impact of, 351–52 Veldhuis, Nick, 185–86, 278 Ashkelon, 239–40, 358 viticulture, 30, 227, 242 Babylon, 227 Byblos, 230–32 wabartum, 201–2 Canaan, EB IV collapse of, 141–42 Wadi Feinan, 34–35

INDEX 431

Wadi el-Hol, 217–18 Yabasa (tribe), 265 Wadi Tumilat, 213 Yaggid-Lim (Mari), 160–61 wakil ammurîm. See ugula mar-tu (overseer of Yahappalum (tribe), 265 Amorites) Yahdun-Lim (Mari) walls Amorite identity of, 160–61 Muriq-Tidnim, 119–21, 129 deeds of, 279–80 trés long mur (very long wall), 28, 40, 44 Shamshi-Adad and, 177–78 Wall of the Land (bád mada), 117, 129 temples and, 302–3 Walls of the Ruler, 118, 147–49, 168, 171 urbanism and, 227–28 Warad-Sin (Larsa), 160, 192 warfare and, 293–94, 297 warfare. See also Akkadian Empire; Egypt; Yahmutum/Yamu¯tum (tribe), 97. See also mercenarism; Ur III (Dynasty); walls Emutbalum Akkadian model for Old Babylonian, 174, 365 Yaḫ rurum (tribe), 161, 265, 271 alliances and, 293–94 Yakaltum. See Munbaqa, Tell (Yakaltum) Amorite koine and, 259 Yamʾadium (tribe), 41, 97, 132 Amorites in second millennium, 15, 150–51, 174, Yamḫ ad. See also Halab (Aleppo) 357 generally, 1, 80, 97, 228 Canaan (EBA), 33 agropastoralism at, 179 captives, 299–300 Amorite rule in, 176, 270 conscription and, 294 direct-axis temples in, 312–14 cultural exchange and, xv–xvi, 16, 334–35, 365 Ebla and, 174–75 demographic pressures of, 301–2 land tenure in, 335–36 deportation (See deportation) mercenarism and, 162 Early Dynastic, 57–59 military activity of, 357 economic power and military power, 356, 367–68 sack of, 343 kingship and, 293–302 skilled labor in, 334 logistics of, 298–99 trade in, 197–98, 360 mercenarism and (See mercenaries and Yaminite (tribe), 161, 265. See also Benjaminites mercenarism) Yamm (deity), 188 military power as basis for social power, 17, 346 Yamutbalum (tribe), 97, 265, 267, 357. See also mobility and travel and, 16, 300, 365 Emutbalum (tribe) Northern Levant, 174–76 Yaqarum (Ugarit), 175 Old Babylonian style, 294–98 Yariḫ (deity) refugees from (See refugees) Jericho as sanctuary to, 268 siege warfare, 294 theophoric element in Amorite names, 263–64 warrior burials Yariḫ um (tribe), 161, 265 generally, 131–32 Yarim-Lim (Yamḫ ad), 257 Avaris, 207–8, 210, 213–16 Yarkon River, 236 Byblos, 225 Yarmuth, 33 Canaan, 142–43, 327–28 Yasmaḫ -Addu (Mari), 178, 299, 336 Kanesh, 250–51 Yavneh-Yam, 236, 238–40 Mari, 327–28 Yehudiyeh Ware, Tell el-, 222–23 as mercenaries, 361 Yosef, Tel, 65 Northern Levant, 142–43, 210–11, 327–28 Ways of Horus, 147–49 Zabalsi, 109 weapons. See speciﬁc weapon Zabaya (Larsa), 153, 268 Weeks, Noel, 300 Zagros Mountains, 14–15, 18, 62, 101 Weiss, Harvey, 14, 62, 72–74, 81 Zeraqon, Khirbet ez-, 49 Wenger, Etienne, 38 Zeror, 237–38 Weni, 33, 37 Zeytinli Bahçe Höyük, 73–74 Western Peripheral Akkadian, 189 Zimri-Lim (Mari) Wisdom of Merikare, 145, 147, 171–72 generally, 161, 333 women, 202, 212, 221, 251–52, 362–63 Amorite identity of, 257 wool deeds of, 278–79 “Amorite,” 261 funerary rituals of, 272 trade, 23, 58–59, 347 Great Royal Palace, 134, 191–92, 285–88, 310 Woolley, Charles Leonard, 119, 314 land tenure and, 335–36 Wossink, Arne, 265–66 palaces and, 282–84

432 INDEX

Zimri-Lim (Mari) (cont.) agropastoralism in, 24, 174 stelae and, 318 anchor communities (See anchor communities) trade and, 332 crises in, 57 ziqqurats, 46, 106, 129, 303 location of settlements in, 26, 29–30 zone of uncertainty population of, 25–26 generally, 14–15 settlement, extensiﬁcation of, 24–30 abandonment of settlements in, 20 spatial relationship between settlements in, 25