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ARTICLE .43 The Culture of 's Space Program: A Peking Opera in Space

Stacey Solomone The University of Hawaii USA

Introduction from which to view China's space pro- gram. The first layer, litany, describes the The problems and issues to be addressed. In China has taken a great leap into this paper, a litany of questions and issues space with the successful launches of are presented such as why China wants to V and VI, recent developments go into space and why there is an and applications in space technologies, increase in fears from the and expansion of the domestic and inter- (US) of a rising China. The second layer, national . As China's space social causes, begins to delve into superfi- program evolves into a civilian endeavor, a cial analysis of the issue. At this level, unique Chinese space culture is emerging. social, economic, political, and historical This paper will apply the futures theory of factors surrounding China's space pro- Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) to the cul- gram are addressed. The third layer is that ture of China's space program. of discourse. Here, deeper social, linguis- tic, and cultural structures are analyzed to Causal Layered Analysis better understand the meaning behind the When Sohail Inayatullah created CLA space program. The last layer, that of as a new tool in futures studies, he creat- myths and metaphors, looks even deeper ed a way to conduct deep analysis of the into China's collective archetypes and past and present in order to lay a founda- visual images. tion for alternative futures. CLA looks at the way one frames an issue and how that may affect solutions at hand. This futures Litany and the Chinese Space method distinguishes between different Program ways of seeing the world. It is in this China has a unique culture in their regard that China's space culture can be space program. Just as the National truly understood. Aeronautics and Space Administration CLA uses four methods, or layers, (NASA) has its own distinct culture, so too Journal of Futures Studies, August 2006, 11(1): 43 - 58 Journal of Futures Studies

does the China National Space causes influencing China's space Administration (CNSA). Yet, it would program. Multiple variables of cul- be erroneous to presume Chinese ture are considered in order to try space culture is remotely similar to and understand why the Chinese that of the United States.1 are doing what they do in space. There is a litany of serious con- When looking at the culture of cerns by the United States about China's space program, a pattern China's space program. Fears of a appears which defines different rising China (even though, in this stages of cultural influences in author's opinion, China arguably has China's recent history. China moved already risen), concerns of Chinese from a newborn state focused on nationalism turning into militarism or national identity and pride, to one even fascism, worries of China focused on political correctness as becoming a regional hegemon, and defined by the Communist Party, "Chinaism" threatening the regional then to a nation fixated on economic peace and stability in East all endeavors, and most recently, again are familiar litanies. focused on national identity and cul- Questions often asked by tural heritage. Americans are why does China By seeing the stages of China's want to go into space? Why is China space culture emerge over time, it is yet to increase transparency for its then possible to address how much space program? What experiments influence culture has on the space are being conducted on the and how much influence VI module currently orbiting Earth? the space program has on Chinese What are China's plans for lunar culture. exploration? etc. Is their lack of forthcoming a sign that there are Chinese Cultural Influences military goals to the civilian space With the founding of the missions? Since China does not People's Republic of China (PRC) clarify the above questions, the on 1 October 1949, Chinese nation- United States is left to presume the al identity, and with it national pride, worst-case scenario. In the space was awakened. In Tiananmen Square, arena, this would mean presuming declared that the China is exploring anti- Chinese people had stood up, thus weapons (ASATs) such as ground- paving the way for pride in Chinese based lasers to target foreign space national identity to emerge. As illus- assets and/or parasite . trated in the below poster, this was a flourishing time for China's space Social Causes and the Chinese program.2 This famous poster, created dur- Space Program ing a thriving , encom- Deeper analysis can then evolve passes the culture of the early when we move from litany to the 1950s. The child, representing a second layer of CLA involving a vision of China's future, is wearing a 44 more effective analysis of the social red star on his hat to symbolize the The Culture of China's Space Program

Red Army which was the foundation the Long March, it is with great pride for establishing the People's Republic. that the space program named their The clear helmet indicates China's first after the event. The Long desire to pursue space activities. March rocket embodies the culture And, the monkey to the left is based of politics of this time. on a Chinese legend about the Unfortunately, the Chinese sense Monkey King. It is interesting to of national identity and pride note that the Monkey King stands evolved into a sense of fanaticism next to the child because only a few as Maoism reached its peak. The years later such ancient symbols of period from 1965-1975, known as China would be banned from society the Great Proletariat Cultural Re- during the . volution (Wenhua Da Geming As China progressed at lighten- ), was a very dark period in ing speed, so too did the political the PRC's short history. The space currents rapidly shift. The period of program chugged on despite the 1960-1965 was marked by extreme chaotic political times when intellec- political power held by Mao Zedong. tuals, scientists, and engineers were The fledgling space program flour- persecuted, the country's education- ished, with guidance from the al system was shut down, and any- Soviets, and great strides were thing foreign was considered evil. made in developing the Long March Interestingly enough, most of the (Chang Zheng ) rocket. space program personnel avoided The rocket is named after a very persecution, at least for a while. In famous event in China's politico-mili- 1969, work on the first heavy lift tary history. In 1934, the Red Army, rocket began and culminated in the consisting of Mao Zedong, Zhou first launch in 1972. The heavy lift Enlai, , Zhu De, Peng rocket was named the Storm (Feng Dehuai, and 86,000 followers, was Bao ) most likely by the Gang of being pursued by over 300,000 Four who not only controlled the Guomingdang military forces. Forced space program at that time, but also to flee on 16 October 1934, the controlled the political system of army left Jiangxi Province and China.3 The name signifies a politi- endured terrible hardships including cal storm which was representative multiple battles with the Guomingdang, of the culture during this period in freezing weather during the moun- China's history. tain crossings, and exhaustion. Just Another great feat in China's over one year later, on 20 October space program occurred on 24 April 1935, the Red Army arrived in 1970 when the first satellite was Shaanxi Province. Only 4,000 men launched into orbit. The satellite survived. However, the Red Army platform was named the East is Red had accomplished the great feat of (Dong Fang Hong ). The covering 6,000 miles to arrive to name has its roots with a very popu- safety. Because the Chinese people lar song of the Cultural Revolution. hold such solemnity and remem- The lyrics demonstrate how central brance for the people who endured Mao Zedong and the Communist 45 Journal of Futures Studies

Party were to common people's were selected to be trained. Although daily lives during this time. the manned space program, called "The East is red, the sun has -1, had Mao Zedong's risen, China has made a Mao approval, the project faced several Zedong. He creates fortune for problems. The main problem was the people, Hu er hai yue, he's that the Red Guard persecuted and the savior of them all! Chairman killed several scientists and engi- Mao loves the people, He is our neers in the program. The second guiding leader, For developing a problem was that the project ran out New China, Hu er hai yue, lead- of funds. Therefore, due to the ing towards progress! The Comm- tumultuous times of the Cultural unist Party is like the sun, It Revolution and the lack of money, in brightens up everything it shines. December 1980, the manned space Where there is the Communist program officially was cancelled.6 Party, Hu er hai yue, people are Fortunately, the Cultural Re- liberated!" 4 volution ended and China took on a This song exemplifies how the more pragmatic approach to politics. culture of politics permeated every- Under the new leadership of Deng thing during the Cultural Revolution. Xiaoping, the Four Modernizations was launched which stressed mod- ShuGuang-1( -1) Manned Space ernizing agriculture, industry, sci- Program ence and technology, and the mili- The culture of politics in the tary. Commerce began to take off, space program is best illustrated by and crash, and take off again. China's first manned space pro- Businesses were newly created and gram. As early as 1966, plans were China opened up to the world. In discussed to establish a manned the 1980s, was space program. A trial flight was greatly influenced by a new econo- scheduled for the same year with a my-based society. People in the monkey onboard.5 space community began to see With Mao's approval, the first space as an opportunity for exploit- were selected and a ing resources and gaining economic training facility was built. The man advantages. in charge of selecting the astro- In 1988, China and Brazil agreed nauts, Guo Rumao, reviewed Soviet to form the China-Brazil Earth and American methodologies and Resources Satellite project (CBERS). chose to select fighter pilots for the CBERS is a good example of the pool. He also added political cor- cultural acceptance of China toward rectness as a qualifying require- foreign business ventures. The ment. Here is a good example of CBERS project is called "Resources" how the Chinese incorporated in Chinese ( ). The lack Soviet and American selection of creativity in the name exemplifies requirements yet added the cultural China's cultural personality during characteristic of political correct- this timeframe. During the 1980s, 46 ness. From 1,000 candidates, 19 China was absorbed with making The Culture of China's Space Program

money, creating businesses, and The naming of the capsule and overall growth of the national econo- rocket for China's manned space my. Economic influences made a program indicates a cultural sensi- great impression on Chinese cul- tivity to China's ancient history which ture. was banned during the Cultural China rode an economic wave Revolution. Also, it indicates a throughout the 1980s. And, it was reemergence of Chinese national not until the 1990s that Chinese cul- pride which was once so prevalent ture began to once again shift as in the early 1950s shortly after the reflected in the space program. For founding of the People's Republic. example, in April 1992, China's sec- However, this reemergence of ond manned space program was national pride seems to have taken launched. In March 1995, China and on a different form than what was Russia signed an agreement for prevailing in the early 1950s, i.e. technological assistance which from nationalistic pride to histo-cul- included the training of Chinese tural pride. taikonauts. The first launch was Another example of this reemer- scheduled for 1 October 1999 on gence of cultural identity linked with the anniversary of the founding of China's ancient history can be seen the People's Republic. On that day, with the naming of the Beidou ( ) President named the Navigation Satellite named after the spacecraft Shenzhou-1 ( -1), Big Dipper. The three satellite con- although the launch was postponed stellation works off of the US Global until 19 November. Positioning System. The Chinese Shenzhou has two meanings. astronomical constellations system The first is "Divine Boat" or "Spiritual varies widely from that of the west- Boat." The second meaning comes ern world. Here, the Chinese chose from an ancient name for China, to use a name of a constellation and has the same phonetic sound, which loosely translates as "North although the Chinese character for Container."9 Thus, national heritage "zhou" is different. is preserved and the term Big The Long March rocket that car- Dipper is only used in English. ried the Shenzhou capsule into Another example is the naming space was renamed Shenjian ( of a mock-up satellite which was ), or "Miracle Arrow."7 Jiang used in place of the Dong Fang Zemin handwrote the characters Hong-3 on a Long March-3A. The which were transposed onto the mock-up satellite is called "Kua Fu side of the rocket body.8 The Chases the Sun" (Kua Fu Zhui Ri Shenjian name has origins from ). In ancient times, a man "huojian" ( ), the name of an named Kua Fu chased the Sun ancient rocket from China, which across the world until he finally died was made of a long arrow with a of exhaustion. Where he lay, his small container of gunpowder atta- body became a mountain, his blood ched to the back of the arrow and lit became a river, and his hair became for launch. a forest. Oftentimes, Kua Fu is used 47 Journal of Futures Studies

as a reference to somebody who everywhere such as on walls, money, cannot obtain his goal. Currently, the and buttons. His poetry was read mock-up satellite is orbiting the every night and became a mandato- Earth with no purpose.10 ry part of the educational curriculum. A final example, and perhaps Anything Mao came to do or say the most telling, is the Chinese was taken as mandated from heav- name for their lunar program. The en. The deification of Mao continued Chang'e ( ) Program was throughout the Cultural Revolution revealed in March 2003. The name and did not end until his death in Chang'e comes from an ancient leg- 1976. Once the Cultural Revolution end which tells the tale of a beautiful ended and the Chinese people woman. This woman, Chang'e, was began to see the insanity of the married to Houyi who had stolen an time, the deification of Mao faded immortality elixir. Chang'e secretly away. So culturally deep is this fear drank the potion and began to float of another deification of a national up toward the sky. She eventually hero that 's image was floated up to the and has not carried on the news, magazines, resided there ever since forever posters, or newspapers after the separated from her husband. This first four months.11, 12 legend is a central story in Chinese Another example of culture influ- culture. Every year, the Chinese cel- encing the Chinese space program ebrate the Moon Festival which is a is China's endeavors in remote time when families reunite and the sensing for Earth observation. The story of Chang'e is remembered. Chinese government is very con- cerned with preventing natural dis- Culture as a Tool of Space or Space asters. In China's history, when a as a Tool of Culture? natural disaster occurs, such as The case of Yang Liwei ( ) floods or drought, and millions of is a good example of space as a people die, the population has tool of culture. Immediately after the viewed such a natural act as a sign Shenzhou V landed on 15 October from the heavens that the emperor's 2003, Yang Liwei became an instant reign has come to an end and that Chinese hero and symbol of China's the people have a duty to revolt and future in space. In the three to four overthrow the government. The his- months following the successful tory is viewed as cyclical so that flight, Yang Liwei was seen every- when one dynasty ends, another where and all the time on the televi- one rises to power until the next sion and on the cover of magazines sign indicates the end to that and newspapers. However, only a dynasty. This belief is so ingrained short time later, it became very diffi- in Chinese culture that when Mao cult to find a picture of Yang Liwei. Zedong died in September 1976, Why did he suddenly vanish from people noted that the Tangshan the spotlight? earthquake two months earlier, During the Cultural Revolution, which resulted in almost 250,000 48 Mao Zedong's picture was posted deaths, had been a sign of a change The Culture of China's Space Program

in regime. Therefore, in addition to people of the great economic advan- the government's strong desire to tages of having a space program. prevent natural catastrophes from "Social and economic benefits" is an occurring, the Chinese govern- often used phrase within China's ment's strong support of Earth space white paper. Direct economic observation using benefits are not as far-reaching to also may have cultural significance. the public as is the hype. Therefore, On the flip side of the coin, the the space program has very suc- space program has very effectively cessfully used national identity and used Chinese culture as a tool to pride as a cultural tool to gain popu- educate people about space, to give lar support. the people a "space identity," and to Therefore, an amalgamation of help legitimize the government's China's culture influencing its space space endeavors. program and vise-versa appears to China's space program uses be taking shape. From the Shenzhou educational methods similar to being placed in a museum to Yang those used by NASA. Such out- Liwei's on display, Chinese reach programs include visits to ele- people are identifying with the space mentary schools, the parading of program on a cultural level and, at Chinese taikonauts Yang Liwei, Fei the same time, Chinese culture is Junlong, and , and helping shape the growing space positive-spin media attention. Chinese program. culture has allowed the people to identify with the space program Discourse and the Chinese which otherwise is far removed from their daily lives. Through the ex- Space Program ploitation of China's national identity Sohail Inayatullah's third layer, and pride as a space-faring nation, discourse, aids in understanding the Chinese can now put them- China's space program by discover- selves in the same special category ing the cultural structure that sup- as the United States and Russia. ports it. By looking at how deep cul- Even though China has had space tural structures exist within the capabilities for decades, the people space program, one can explore did not feel equal to America or how these structures cause, influ- Russia. The launching of Yang Liwei ence, and even constitute the space into orbit proved to be a main event program. Here, we will look at a which paved the way for Chinese unique blend of Chinese and Western people to think of themselves as a cultures within the Chinese space true space-faring nation. The divide program. between the rich and the poor is cul- turally minimized because all Chinese From Dichotomies to Dialectics people can share in the success of While oftentimes the United the manned space flights. States points out ostensible contra- The government also has suc- dictions and inconsistencies within cessfully convinced the Chinese the Chinese space program, to the 49 Journal of Futures Studies

Chinese these are normal cultural monious order in the world. There is aspects that the United States fails flux and equilibrium at the same to understand. For example, it is time. And, because there is equilibri- hard for Americans to understand um amongst things which are in how Yang Liwei could fly the United constant flux, an interrelationship of Nations flag while orbiting the Earth events and things in the world is and, immediately upon landing, revealed. exclaim what a proud day it was for This concept of interrelationship the People's Liberation Army. Also, ties in with Confucianism. Through while the manned space missions the writings of Confucius' student, are purported to be shrouded in Mencius, we can see the teachings secrecy, the Chinese space program of Confucius who himself did not used both flights for advertising write down any of his lessons. opportunities, such as marketing the Confucianism complements Yi Jing Dislin cup, airing commercial televi- principles and expands upon the sion advertisements, and displaying place of men in the world. All people the 2010 World Expo flag are interrelated, thus all exist within onboard.13 an order, or hierarchy, of relation- As another example, on 12 ships. So long as the hierarchy is October 2005 in the abided, there exists harmony. General Assembly, the Chinese sup- However, since people exist in a ported an initiative to ensure space state of constant flux, that hierarchy is used solely for peaceful purposes. is fluid. And, on 3 November 2005, China To illustrate, an ancient story and Russia called upon the interna- about a man who sought to sell his tional community to draw up rele- sword and shield stated that the vant international legal instruments sword could penetrate anything and to prevent the weaponization of that the shield could prevent any- outer space. However, the United thing from penetrating it. The story States maintains suspicions of ends with the question: "What would China conducting research and happen if the spear were used to development in the field of ASATs. pierce the shield?" This dialectic Despite these seeming dichoto- story exemplifies how the Chinese mies, there exists a balance within can culturally come to terms with China's actions in the space arena. what to Americans seems a contra- The roots of this balance come from diction. the Yi Jing (Book of Changes) and The Manned Space Program Confucianism. When it comes to China's manned The Yi Jing explains the dynam- space program, China seems to ic balance of opposites. The mythi- have a split personality. In some cal character, Fu Xi, is credited with statements, Chinese officials claim writing the eight trigrams which con- that the Shenzhou V and VI are glo- stitute the heart of the Yi Jing. The rious successes for the Chinese book explains how all things are in people and that they should hold 50 constant flux and how there is a har- high the banner of national pride. In The Culture of China's Space Program

other statements, Chinese officials how the Qing Dynasty was inept at downplay the successes and respond standing up to foreign states, the to the flights with great humility by intelligentsia assumed that there claiming that China's space program must be a lack of virtue within its is 20 years behind that of the United own leadership. Thus, cultivating the States. It is confusing to Americans mind was the solution and learning why the official mouthpieces for the from the strengths of the foreigners manned space program would was rejected. The Self-Strengthening exude both pride and humility about Movement failed. the successes of the space pro- Nevertheless, the debate over gram. To the Chinese, there is no whether to incorporate foreign tech- dichotomy. It is culturally explained nology continued throughout the by looking at the Yi Jing and decades. Some of the intelligentsia, Confucian principles of dialectics, led by Feng Guifeng, wanted to flux, and hierarchy. adopt foreign technologies while retaining Chinese Confucian values. Indigenous or Foreign-Built Space Other members of the intelligentsia, Program? such as Yan Fu, proposed accepting The ancient Chinese were the foreign technology along with their inventors of gun powder, paper, the systems of management and gover- compass, astronomy, calendars, nance, i.e. adopting both explicit clocks, forensic medicine, etc. The technologies along with tacit tech- Chinese technological innovators nologies, since the two could not be also devised ways to disseminate separated. inventions they discovered by writ- In order "to accomplish modern- ing the world's first handbooks and ization of a Chinese type," on 30 encyclopedias. Then, in modern June 1984, Deng Xiaoping stated Chinese history, the innovation that China should "welcome foreign seemed to stop. investment and advanced tech- During the fall of the Qing niques." China once again seemed Dynasty and occupation by foreign to support a dichotomous policy states, the intelligentsia of the time toward science and technology, i.e. launched a reform, known as the borrowing technology from foreign Self-Strengthening Movement, by states while preserving Chinese which China would adopt Western characteristics. China continued to technologies in order to deal with adopt foreign technologies while try- foreign states on equal footing. ing to avoid adopting foreign prac- However, the reform did not consid- tices, management techniques, and er adopting foreign practices along any other foreign influences. with the technological advances. It is due to this struggle to find a Part of the reform movement did call suitable balance to adopting foreign for corrupt Chinese officials to technology that the Chinese space inwardly seek restoration of innate program can justify folding so much goodwill (Ren ), which was based Russian technology into the manned on Confucian teachings. In seeing space program, altering or reverse- 51 Journal of Futures Studies

engineering it, and then claiming it became the Moon, his right eye as indigenous technology. The became the Sun, and PanGu's hair Chinese people subsequently are became the stars. On Earth, PanGu's able to indulge in national pride for breath became the wind and clouds, accomplishments in space. his voice became thunder, his arms and legs became the four poles of Myth and the Chinese Space the Earth, and the lice and scabies on PanGu's body became men. Program The PanGu myth exemplifies Myths and metaphors, Sohail patience which is continuously Inayatullah's fourth layer of analysis, stressed in Chinese culture as a consist of deep stories, collective concept the Chinese people must archetypes, and emotional experi- cultivate. PanGu took a long time to ences of the world. Myths allow for create the universe. The Chinese reality to be negotiated and truth to space program has taken a long become less important. Because dif- time to get to its current advanced ferences in language, history, and stage. And, the space program will culture abound between China and continue to develop at a deliberately the United States, it is important to cautious pace. be sensitive to China's space culture in order to understand how the The Myth of the Monkey King ( space program may act as a vehicle ) by which Chinese people view Monkey sought to discover the themselves. Then, the United States secret of immortality.14 He would not will be better equipped to work with study or cultivate his mind as he China by understanding how its was very anxious to become immor- space culture has affected China's tal. So, Monkey cleverly arranged to concept of their place in relation to be invited to a banquet in the Hea- the rest of the world. Although ini- venly Kingdom. As soon as he dis- tially there seems to be little room covered that immortality came from for myth to take place within the sci- peaches laid out at the banquet, the entific realms of the space program, incorrigible Monkey stole them and myth has seeped in. began eating them as fast as he could before the others could stop The Story of PanGu ( ) him. Buddha was called to help In the beginning, everything was restrain Monkey. Buddha challenged in a state of chaos. Then, PanGu Monkey to jump to the end of the was born. As PanGu stretched, light heavens. Monkey did so and wrote rose to the sky (Yang ) and dark- "Monkey was here" on a pillar. Upon ness sank to the Earth (Yin ). jumping back, Monkey discovered Every day, the sky rose ten feet that the pillar had been a finger on higher, the Earth grew ten feet thick- Buddha's hand. Monkey could not er, and PanGu grew ten feet taller. even jump out of Buddha's palm. He This took place over 8,000 years. was imprisoned for a long time. 52 When PanGu died, his left eye In contrast to the myth of PanGu, The Culture of China's Space Program

the story of the Monkey King is one The Myth of Chang'e of pride and impatience. Monkey Just as Monkey stole the peach- was taught a painful lesson by es of immortality from the banquet Buddha in humility and patience. table, Chang'e stole an elixir of However, Monkey remains the most immortality from her sleeping hus- popular mythical character in China. band, who himself had stolen the His bad behavior is chalked up to elixir. While both the Monkey King mischievousness. and Chang'e are perhaps the two Monkey as an archetype in most revered characters in Chinese Chinese mythology represents a mythology, both committed robbery. mischievous, unruly character, yet In the case of Chang'e, she paid Monkey is highly revered by the dearly for her crime. The elixir made Chinese people. Reflecting the cul- her immortal yet she was forever ture of myth into the space program, separated from her husband and taikonaut Yang Liwei, like the doomed to live up in the Moon. Monkey King, has been described Today, the greatest obstacle to as possessing a "cool mind" and normal Sino-US space relations is "exhibiting acts of bravery." Yang's fallout from the 1999 Cox Report. mother stated that her son's suc- After US companies Hughes and cess largely was due to his self-con- Loral inappropriately supplied China fidence. Just like Monkey, Yang's Great Wall Industries Corporation self-assuredness helped him over- with missile technology to improve come many obstacles. Yang's moth- their rocket launches, an investiga- er attributed her son as being very tion was launched. Accusations of creative, resourceful, and curious. espionage were formally presented When Yang was a boy, he snuck in the Cox Report and sanctions away to the railway station to settle were implemented. his curiosity over the length of a While the topic of stealing is train. very sensitive to bilateral relations, it Just as Yang sometimes is is an important one to discuss described as a mischief-maker in his because it remains the number one youth, his son too has been described issue China and the United States as a "clever and sometimes naughty" need to work through before normal boy. And, Shenzhou VI taikonaut Fei space relations can commence. By Junlong has been described as understanding mythical representa- extroverted, prideful, daring, and tions of stealing in Chinese history, cheerful. Fei strived to join the perhaps US negotiators will be bet- training program out of a ter equipped to relate to how the "young guy's curiosity." Elements of Chinese side views the questionable the Monkey King archetype, which missile technology acquisition by may be considered negative charac- China. Then Americans can work teristics in America, are lauded in with their Chinese counterparts to China's taikonauts. prevent future misunderstandings, understand the other side's perspec- tives, and then move forward in the 53 Journal of Futures Studies

space arena. It is in this regard that Notes China's myths create a distinction in China's space culture. 1. In this paper, culture is defined in the broadest sense to include politi- cal, economic, social, historical, eth- Conclusion nic, and military cultures of China. By applying Causal Layered 2. Picture obtained from Stephan Analysis to China's space culture, Landsberger, "Chinese Space we can begin to see the multi-lay- Program." http://www.iisg.nl/~ ered complexities of the Chinese landsberger/csp.html. space program and how culture is 3. Encyclopedia Astronautica, s.v. "FB- incorporated into it. From here, bet- 1," http://www.astronautix.com/ ter understanding, communication, lvs/fb1.htm. analysis, and decision-making con- 4. Song lyrics quoted from Famous cerning China's space plans and Chinese.com, "The East is Red," motivations can be made. http://www.famouschinese.com/ The Chinese space program is virtual/The_East_Is_Red. rapidly advancing. The Chinese pro- 5. It is interesting to note that the fessionals of the space program are Chinese planned to launch a mon- reaching toward the Moon and key. In the 1950s, the Soviets had eventually toward . With them, used dogs. In the early 1960s, the they bring Chinese culture which will French had launched the first rats permeate all aspects of space activi- into space. And, during the same ties as it is impossible to separate time, the Americans were launching technology from culture. Therefore, monkeys into space. Could this be it is critical that the United States an example of American cultural recognize and identify Chinese influence in the Chinese space pro- space culture in order to be able to gram? Or, is it an acknowledge- partner with the Chinese in space in ment of China's own ancient culture the near future. via the story of the Monkey King? 6. Encyclopedia Astronautica, s.v. Correspondence "Shuguang-1," http://www.astronau- tix.com/craft/shuuang1.htm. Stacey Solomone 7. Picture obtained from Progressive Currently a PhD candidate at the Exchange, "China to Launch Second University of Hawaii. Manned Space Mission in 2005: Study alternative futures for peace- Report," http://www.progressiveex- ful, cooperative Sino-US space rela- change.com/content/view/612 tions. 8. Vice Director for the Systems Address: Department of Political Design Institute of the China Science, University of Hawaii at Academy of Tech- Manoa, 2424 Maile Way, Saunders nology, interview by author, July Hall Room 640, Honolulu, HI 96822, 2005. USA. 9. Microsatellite Engineer for the Dong Email: [email protected] Fang Hong Satellite Company, Ltd., 54 interview by author, July 2005. The Culture of China's Space Program

10. Vice Director for the Systems Taipei, Taiwan: Tamkang Univer- Design Institute of the China sity Press. Academy of Launch Vehicle Tech- Liu, Shu-hsien. 1998. Understanding nology, interview by author, July Confucian Philosophy: Classical 2005. and Sung-Ming. Westport, CT: 11. Engineer for the Institute of Space Greenwood Press.. Medico-Engineering, interview by People's Republic of China. The author, July 2005. Chinese State Council Infor- 12. Picture obtained from Xinhua Net, mation Office. 2000. White Paper "Arrivée à du Heros Spatial on China's Space Activities. No- Yang Liwei." http://www.french. vember. xinhuanet.com/htm/10161412531. Solomone, Stacey. 2006. "China's htm Space Program: The Great Leap 13. For more on the Shanghai 2010 Upward." Journal of Contemporary World Expo, please visit the official China. Vol. 15(47): 311-327. website at http://www.expo2010 United Nations General Assembly. china.com. 2005. Prevention of an Arms 14. Picture obtained from The Society Race in Outer Space. 6th Session, for Laingian Studies, "Sun Wukong," 1st Committee. Agenda Item 96. http://laingsociety.org/graphic- October 12. A/C.1/60/L.27. sarchive/sunwuking.jpg. Wei, William. 2002. "Political Power Grows Out of the Barrel of a References Gun: Mao and the Red Army." In A Military . ed. Becker, Jasper. 1996. "Remembered Graff, David and Higham, Robin with a Shudder." (ed.). Cambridge, MA: Westview Morning Post. July 7. Accessed Press. Pp. 239-240. at http://special.scmp.com/chi- Wildman, Paul and Inayatullah, Sohail. naat 50/Article/Fulltext_asp_ "Ways of Knowing, Culture, ArticleID-19990928191042300. Communication, and the Pedag- html. ogies of the Future." Futures. Vol. Inayatullah, Sohail. 1998. "Causal 28(8): 723-740. October. Layered Analysis: Poststruc- Wilhelm, Richard and Baynes, Cary turalism as Method." Futures. (trans.). 1977. The I Ching: or Vol. 30(8): 815-829. Book of Changes. Princeton, NJ: _____. 2002. "Pedagogy, Culture, and Princeton University Press. Futures Studies." In Advancing Xiaoping, Deng. 1979. "The Necessity Futures: Futures Studies in of Upholding the Four Cardinal Higher Education. James Dator Principles in the Drive for the (ed.). Westport, CT: Praeger. Pp. Four Modernizations." In Major 109-122. Documents of the People's ____. 2004. The Causal Layered Republic of China. 1991. Beijing, Analysis (CLA) Reader: Theory PRC: Foreign Languages Press. and Case Studies of an Integrative P. 41. and Transformative Methodology. ____. 1984. "Build Socialism with 55 Journal of Futures Studies

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