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View China's Space Pro- Gram ARTICLE .43 The Culture of China's Space Program: A Peking Opera in Space Stacey Solomone The University of Hawaii USA Introduction from which to view China's space pro- gram. The first layer, litany, describes the The Chinese Space Program problems and issues to be addressed. In China has taken a great leap into this paper, a litany of questions and issues space with the successful launches of are presented such as why China wants to Shenzhou V and VI, recent developments go into space and why there is an and applications in space technologies, increase in fears from the United States and expansion of the domestic and inter- (US) of a rising China. The second layer, national space industry. As China's space social causes, begins to delve into superfi- program evolves into a civilian endeavor, a cial analysis of the issue. At this level, unique Chinese space culture is emerging. social, economic, political, and historical This paper will apply the futures theory of factors surrounding China's space pro- Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) to the cul- gram are addressed. The third layer is that ture of China's space program. of discourse. Here, deeper social, linguis- tic, and cultural structures are analyzed to Causal Layered Analysis better understand the meaning behind the When Sohail Inayatullah created CLA space program. The last layer, that of as a new tool in futures studies, he creat- myths and metaphors, looks even deeper ed a way to conduct deep analysis of the into China's collective archetypes and past and present in order to lay a founda- visual images. tion for alternative futures. CLA looks at the way one frames an issue and how that may affect solutions at hand. This futures Litany and the Chinese Space method distinguishes between different Program ways of seeing the world. It is in this China has a unique culture in their regard that China's space culture can be space program. Just as the National truly understood. Aeronautics and Space Administration CLA uses four methods, or layers, (NASA) has its own distinct culture, so too Journal of Futures Studies, August 2006, 11(1): 43 - 58 Journal of Futures Studies does the China National Space causes influencing China's space Administration (CNSA). Yet, it would program. Multiple variables of cul- be erroneous to presume Chinese ture are considered in order to try space culture is remotely similar to and understand why the Chinese that of the United States.1 are doing what they do in space. There is a litany of serious con- When looking at the culture of cerns by the United States about China's space program, a pattern China's space program. Fears of a appears which defines different rising China (even though, in this stages of cultural influences in author's opinion, China arguably has China's recent history. China moved already risen), concerns of Chinese from a newborn state focused on nationalism turning into militarism or national identity and pride, to one even fascism, worries of China focused on political correctness as becoming a regional hegemon, and defined by the Communist Party, "Chinaism" threatening the regional then to a nation fixated on economic peace and stability in East Asia all endeavors, and most recently, again are familiar litanies. focused on national identity and cul- Questions often asked by tural heritage. Americans are why does China By seeing the stages of China's want to go into space? Why is China space culture emerge over time, it is yet to increase transparency for its then possible to address how much space program? What experiments influence culture has on the space are being conducted on the Shenzhou program and how much influence VI module currently orbiting Earth? the space program has on Chinese What are China's plans for lunar culture. exploration? etc. Is their lack of forthcoming a sign that there are Chinese Cultural Influences military goals to the civilian space With the founding of the missions? Since China does not People's Republic of China (PRC) clarify the above questions, the on 1 October 1949, Chinese nation- United States is left to presume the al identity, and with it national pride, worst-case scenario. In the space was awakened. In Tiananmen Square, arena, this would mean presuming Mao Zedong declared that the China is exploring anti-satellite Chinese people had stood up, thus weapons (ASATs) such as ground- paving the way for pride in Chinese based lasers to target foreign space national identity to emerge. As illus- assets and/or parasite satellites. trated in the below poster, this was a flourishing time for China's space Social Causes and the Chinese program.2 This famous poster, created dur- Space Program ing a thriving time in China, encom- Deeper analysis can then evolve passes the culture of the early when we move from litany to the 1950s. The child, representing a second layer of CLA involving a vision of China's future, is wearing a 44 more effective analysis of the social red star on his hat to symbolize the The Culture of China's Space Program Red Army which was the foundation the Long March, it is with great pride for establishing the People's Republic. that the space program named their The clear helmet indicates China's first rocket after the event. The Long desire to pursue space activities. March rocket embodies the culture And, the monkey to the left is based of politics of this time. on a Chinese legend about the Unfortunately, the Chinese sense Monkey King. It is interesting to of national identity and pride note that the Monkey King stands evolved into a sense of fanaticism next to the child because only a few as Maoism reached its peak. The years later such ancient symbols of period from 1965-1975, known as China would be banned from society the Great Proletariat Cultural Re- during the Cultural Revolution. volution (Wenhua Da Geming As China progressed at lighten- ), was a very dark period in ing speed, so too did the political the PRC's short history. The space currents rapidly shift. The period of program chugged on despite the 1960-1965 was marked by extreme chaotic political times when intellec- political power held by Mao Zedong. tuals, scientists, and engineers were The fledgling space program flour- persecuted, the country's education- ished, with guidance from the al system was shut down, and any- Soviets, and great strides were thing foreign was considered evil. made in developing the Long March Interestingly enough, most of the (Chang Zheng ) rocket. space program personnel avoided The rocket is named after a very persecution, at least for a while. In famous event in China's politico-mili- 1969, work on the first heavy lift tary history. In 1934, the Red Army, rocket began and culminated in the consisting of Mao Zedong, Zhou first launch in 1972. The heavy lift Enlai, Deng Xiaoping, Zhu De, Peng rocket was named the Storm (Feng Dehuai, and 86,000 followers, was Bao ) most likely by the Gang of being pursued by over 300,000 Four who not only controlled the Guomingdang military forces. Forced space program at that time, but also to flee on 16 October 1934, the controlled the political system of army left Jiangxi Province and China.3 The name signifies a politi- endured terrible hardships including cal storm which was representative multiple battles with the Guomingdang, of the culture during this period in freezing weather during the moun- China's history. tain crossings, and exhaustion. Just Another great feat in China's over one year later, on 20 October space program occurred on 24 April 1935, the Red Army arrived in 1970 when the first satellite was Shaanxi Province. Only 4,000 men launched into orbit. The satellite survived. However, the Red Army platform was named the East is Red had accomplished the great feat of (Dong Fang Hong ). The covering 6,000 miles to arrive to name has its roots with a very popu- safety. Because the Chinese people lar song of the Cultural Revolution. hold such solemnity and remem- The lyrics demonstrate how central brance for the people who endured Mao Zedong and the Communist 45 Journal of Futures Studies Party were to common people's were selected to be trained. Although daily lives during this time. the manned space program, called "The East is red, the sun has ShuGuang-1, had Mao Zedong's risen, China has made a Mao approval, the project faced several Zedong. He creates fortune for problems. The main problem was the people, Hu er hai yue, he's that the Red Guard persecuted and the savior of them all! Chairman killed several scientists and engi- Mao loves the people, He is our neers in the program. The second guiding leader, For developing a problem was that the project ran out New China, Hu er hai yue, lead- of funds. Therefore, due to the ing towards progress! The Comm- tumultuous times of the Cultural unist Party is like the sun, It Revolution and the lack of money, in brightens up everything it shines. December 1980, the manned space Where there is the Communist program officially was cancelled.6 Party, Hu er hai yue, people are Fortunately, the Cultural Re- liberated!" 4 volution ended and China took on a This song exemplifies how the more pragmatic approach to politics. culture of politics permeated every- Under the new leadership of Deng thing during the Cultural Revolution. Xiaoping, the Four Modernizations was launched which stressed mod- ShuGuang-1( -1) Manned Space ernizing agriculture, industry, sci- Program ence and technology, and the mili- The culture of politics in the tary.
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