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AUTHOR Khubchandani, L. M. TITLE Ideology and Language Development. PUB DATE 1997-00-00 NOTE 23p.; Reprinted with permission in "The International Journal of the Sociology of Language", vol. 13, 1997, pages 33-51. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Discussion Forum of the Indian Institute of Advanced Study (Simla, , April 1974). PUB TYPE Journal Articles (080)-- Reports Descriptive (141) -- Speeches/Meeting Papers (150) JOURNAL Grammer, Language and Society; p282-303 1997 EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Colonialism; Diachronic ; Educational History; *Educational Policy; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; Higher Education; Indigenous Populations; Language Maintenance; Language Minorities; *Language of Instruction; *Language Role; Multilingualism; Public Policy; Uncommonly Taught IDENTIFIERS Asia (South); *India

ABSTRACT An examination of the language-related educational policies of , and particularly of India, finds that language policies among colonial administrators and the native elite for over a century has left a deep imprint on contemporary language ideologies of different nations. The discussion begins with a look at the Indian dual education system before the consolidation of British rule on the subcontinent at the beginning of the nineteenth century, with instruction given in and Arabic-Persian. The rival British educational system later eclipsed the traditional systems, and as it evolved, it effectively ignored all mediums of instruction except English. The struggle for Indian independence brought with it substantial conflict over the British education system, and the issue of language of instruction became politicized. Patterns of native language use and language policy in India and other South Asian areas are described, and the problems facing many multilingual developing nations as a result of current language usage and strategies are discussed briefly. Contains 47 references. (MSE)

******************************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ******************************************************************************** EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESOffice of Educational INFORMATION ResearchU.S. andDEPARTMENT Improvement OF EDUCATION CENTER (ERIC) PERMISSIONDISSEMINATE TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL AND HAS BEEN GRANTED BY Language Ideology and Language Development 283 tl This0 Minor document changes has havebeen been reproduced improveoriginatingreceivedmade to as reproductionfrom it. the person quality. or organization Theshakinglanguage great the debate traditionaleducation about onlanguagefluid the modes part policies of of British language among rulers colonialloyalty played inadministrators Southa vital Asia. role in officialdocumentPoints OERI ofdo viewposition not necessarilyor opinions or policy. representstated in this KhubehI\DalrfionTO THE opcian EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) continentcontemporaryand the 'native' (Das Guptalanguage elite 1970; for ideologiesover Khubchandani a century of different 1971,has left 1973c). nations a deep onimprint the sub- on 1 ministrativeLanguage in and educational systems prevailing in a society. Before the 11: Education System Before the British formal communication gets conditioned by the ad- DevelopmentLanguage Ideology and Language ofBrahmins;theconsolidation the nineteenthpathshala Muslims. and (school)century,of maktab British there(primaryand rule were on school)the two (residentialIndian competing and subcontinentmadrasah school) systems (college) system ofat theeducation: turnsystemof the of L.M. Khubchandani elitesArabic-Persiancentury,(the language made the themselveslanguage of for sacred the of Muslims. conversant education Under waswith Sanskrit MuslimbothAs in systems medieval forrule, the certainof Europe,education. Hindu and where the language of education was literature), in India, until the nineteenth The roots of intense language : An Appraisal of Indian controversies in South Asia Education Policy canSignificant1 be described characteristics as follows: of the traditional educational set-up in India Education was regarded as an extension of 'primary' thelanguagesVariousin ruler's the 'schizophrenic' 'native'policies were mobilized pressure of arbitrarily handling during groups championing the cause of different theof nineteenth education century bydistributing the largely British favours or prejudicescan be found duerulers. to therelationshipwhichcaste,socialization classes creed, an individual that between andimbibed provided tradition, pupil operates.through the providingand priesthood, theteacher. It emphasizedimmediate a superstructureIt the was rulers, environmentsrestricted the andpersonal to the tothe membersmerchants. society of'disciple' family, inof interests.somerecognitionthrough order language Various tointo one the concessionsinstant, or 'chaotic' another but often diversity, or constrahus (awarding or withdrawing vacillating, decisions with regard or at times toor servewriting imperial system), to bring to andrepresentingrecognizedTwo merchants patterns, in, the thetoshaped 'practical' cope education withby vocational education the system: day-to-day (a)providedrelevance, ORDINARY needs to ofwerethe society administrators TRADITIONprominently (such as, IndianAcknowledgments: Institute of Advanced Reprinted, Study, with permission, Simla AnSociology earlier ofversion Language, of this 13.1977. paper Pp. 33-51. was presented at the Discussion Forum of the from The International Journal of the dominantadministrators)thefor 'elegant'use ;in lower education by courts, readingand provided (b) for ADVANCEDof maintaining scriptures to the elite andTRADITION accounts) (priests, historical rulingthrough representingtexts, class, throughlocally and thanks to Professor B.B. Mishra and Dr Joan Rubin 2 in April 1974. The author for their comments. expresses his Sanskrit or Arab'c-Persian. BESTCOPYAVAILABLE 3 cateringsegmental2284 to identitiesthe needs in of the the societj, 'ordinary' through and 'advanced' language hierarchytraditions. byA L.M. KhubchandaniThe education system was oriented towards preserving concerning5-12).programmes Macaulay, of the in hisBritish famous throughout Minute their of 1835,stay on took the asubcontinent. hard line the triple Language Ideology and Language Development question, which echoed in the education 285 ofdialectspromotedbuilt-in languages, to sub-regionala chain and of`highbrow' mutually dialects, stylesinintelligible to a super-regional different speech diglossic varietiesfromnetwork situations.' of dialects local hierarchical structuring of linguistic skills in the society WesternHe recommended tongue (English) a policy and of then imparting only to Westernathe minority.It bodyis impossible knowledge of the people. for through us Wewith amustour limited at present means do to our attempt best to to form educate a masses.Persian-speakingalanguageThe characteristic educational Toaccording some strength set-upelites extent, to considerations acted providedof Hindustani a pluralisticas LIAISON a measure ofin contextsociety.'the between north, of and fluiditySanskrit Tamil thepurpose, rulers inin and thethe whichand Arabicusesouth, the ofis classEnglishwe governa whowe in may maytastes, class beleave interpretersin of opinions, itpersons between in Indian morals inus andblood and in the intellect.and millions colour, To whom thatbut to refine the vernacular dialects of the locality3states,Bengali and andin thecatered professional east toalso the served needsgroup, ofthis for `ordinary' thepurpose same tradition. for language some of were the princely in use. Many regional systems of writing, varying according to populationvehiclesfromcountry, the Westernto for (Sharp enrich conveying 1920:nomenclature, those 116).4 dialectsknowledge and with toto terms render of them science by degrees borrowed fit the great mass of the scholarships,NASTALIKBesides,withvariants a varietythe ofcharacters thoughregional of writing limited varieties of thesystems, writingto Perso-Arabicthe of privilegedDevanagari prevalent distinguished few,, among and had according therethe to merchants. beNASKHI were acquainted to many locality, and The Governmentscienceof Macaulay, among ought made the to natives be it explicitthe of promotion India; that and 'the ofthat greatEuropeanGovernor- all the object funds literature of appropriated the Bentinck Britishand (1835), concurring with the sentiments charactersnagariwassocial in writing group,vogue in system, andinthe more south;domain Sanskrit than in of oneBhoti use.was writing scriptwrittenSanskrit system. inin ;Grantha,of the Apart in'advanced' SharadaMalayalam, from the traditionscript TeluguDeva- in educationpublicbyfor1844 spellingthe offices purposealone'further out 'to (Sharpdivorced preferential thoseof education 1920: whothe objectives 130-31).5were treatment would educated ofThebe ineducation best Hardingerecruitment in Englishemployed from Proclamation schools'thefor on serviceenvironment English (India of in andKashmir; other inregional Bengali, variations Maithili of variations of Nagariscript in writing different in areas.the east; suchasstratification, 1953:their purposes!' liaison 8). With the language, Hinduthe accruing and abandoning Muslim privileg'es elites the usewereof economic of lured Sanskrit to statusaccept or Persian and English social for Thethe rival traditional British pathshalaeducational and system maktab known education as schOols systems soon in most eclipsed parts of HI: Language in Colonial Education therecommendedresponsibility use of the vernacularin Wood's Despatchmedium 'to (Richey teach 1922:theIn far 1854367-92). larger the class It British suggested who rulers are modified their policy by accepting the for the education of the whole population, as pendingovertraditionalBritish one-and-a-half India, on educational the though political manycenturies expediencyinstitutions. princely changed states ofThe the throughcolonial times.continued differenteducation their patronage phases policy de-for to givenductionimplementationignorant to Englishof vernacularof, or secondary imperfectlywhen education assigning schools acquainted resources,wasin cities extremely with,and the towns English'. priority slow, to the continued asBut neglectin the actual intro- toof be education British administrators could not resolve the three basic issues of : the content,4 the spread, and the medium (Dakin 1968: policythe rural of secularvernacular and schools. vernacular Though education, the rulers individual often administratorsproclaimed their at 5 supportthe286 district to promoting level were English often enthusiasticeducation under in lending missionary direct patronage.' or indirect L.M. Khubchandani contentthe rural of English handicrafts. education. Tagore also rejected both the manner and the Language Ideology and Language Development 287 ofadoptedstep versitiesoriental to fulfill English inlearning the 1857, asrequirements the primaryas exclusivewell asand of of universitymediumsecondary the modern of pursuits. educationinstruction,With Indian the These languagesbecameestablishment and universities the merely study was of a Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras Uni- countryrolesignificant of was language almostimpact in confronted educationon the concept for with plural of a deliberateeducation societiesAs ofitselfpolicy is the evident subcontinent:and of selectivealso from on the this review, the BritishContrary policies to the 'modern'made a values attributed to Humanism, the Commissionforitteesattotally the Indian tolower neglected. evolve languages, level in a singleAin shiftthe for scriptvernacular inuse the'rulers' inand formal establishing required policy communication. the to a runsetting single their upstandard administrationThe of theEducation varietycomm- 1902 recommended mother tongue as the proper life,wastechnologicallyhigher took largely educationover responsiblethe superior dominant to 'caste'for position injecting or class. hitherto 'modern' The Englishenjoyed thought language, by into 'classical' Oriental .which train an elite class to mediate between the for all classes up to theright higherIn I.actualfrom English secondary the terms, primary medium, the level. British stage. in urban recognized centres three for the types education of education of the elite, RenaissancewhereasDICHOTOMYSanskrit and accelerating and Persian. ofEnlightenment the privileged modernization inlanguage Europe processes (English) hadThe resurrected Britishduring versus thesystem vernaculars, modernperiods of education of in India thus perpetuated the Thus,3.and2. VernacularTwo-tier English by the medium,medium turnmedium, of forthe vernacular in advancedtwentieth rural areas medium education century, for primary for in'although primary towns. education. theeducation, official radically2andEuropean'modern' Greek changed languages(Khubchandani conviction the from concept of 1973the the dominance ofb).supremacy education of of forclassical mother the Indian languagesLatin tongue elite. brought The The Western Enlightenment imbibed through English contact resourcestheselectivepolicy greater was higherto success',that improving ofeducation the under Despatchthe theinquality English plea of of of 1854, education thatdevoting hadit was Duringachieved the(Dakin Macaulay's inadequate the 1968: comparatively long 8).policy financial struggle of for Indian independence, the selective championsetc.).followedformaldemands Dayanand communication byoffrom theTagore Saraswatithe struggle language (1906) (i.., infor and the elitesvernacularization Gandhilatter for partthe (1916) use of theof were in Indiannineteenth education. among vernaculars the century These leading for administration, academic achievement, thebyIndianeducation the need WesternNational for structure universal literature Congress. was elementary orvehemently Gokhale the eighteenth education,'and criticized other century intellectuals, and by Enlightenment, thealso leaders pul influenced forward of saw the 3periodliaisontrends, andbetween to awas certain also the elitesperpetuated extent, and shook the by masses the the English dichotomous which rulers. existed structure in the medieval of the Diversification of language use prevailing in the traditional whichsystemReportpleas for was [to](1929) the practicallyprecede use wanted of anymother the 'awide drasticantithesis tongue application re-organization in of administration. Macaulay's of compulsion'.In 1938 ofpolicy Mahatmathe But elementary concerning the HartogGandhi proposed a scheme for Basic Education haviourbafflementaeducational 'handicap'. of thetoset-up Many relatively Indian of British South society, fluid Asiaadministrators segmentation and was often regarded expressed responded patterns by the theircolonialin with language annoyance a senserulers be- ofas throughoutbringthe conflictquestimis it into ruralbetween closer of content,areas touch quality without withspread, and the increasing quantity and child's medium. inenvironment the education, cost It attempted by integratingbyand proposing to to extend resolve it to it engagedmonisticgenizationconcerninglanguage'.9 solutionsthemselves the 'the Axiomaticallyrulers want -concerning laidin of standardizing great precision correlating languagesemphasis of a the singleandontheir peopleclear-cut scripts. own writing valuesin Many categorization identifying system, ofadministrators social a single their homo-and 288 L.M. Khubchandani Language Ideology and Language Development 289 4standardname of , bringing orderand a into single a 'chaotic' style for situation.") every domain of use, in the whichitworks is a means automaticallyhe belongs. of identification Educationally, for expression among he and the learns understanding.members of the Sociologically, community to cultivatingBilingual'loan proneness' contacts various styles with from ofEnglish the expression classical have in been asIndian well greatly languages as spoken instrumental to cater for in Indian languages have traditionally been characterized by . languages. potentendorsedthan andthrough this comprehensive : an unfamiliar 'Learning medium linguistic through for medium'.the expressionmotherThe Indian tongue of theSecondary is student'sthe Education Commission (GOI 1953) also more quickly through it most printingwrittenspeechlanguagesthe needs stylescommunitiespress ofis modernevidentalso(Khubchandani played which insociety. the a aresignificant 'highbrow' 1968,Themarkedly Anglicization I969c). role spoken different in Thedeveloping styles fromintroductiontendency amongthe Indian 'highbrow' in urbanof manyprose the experiencescharacterforentire education, personality'. of lifeIndian Indian do In notsociety the expertsnecessarily thrust at large, fordid canvassing shownot where fully semblance a comprehend child's mother withearliest the the firsthandformal tongue medium plural knowledgeencyclopedias,through thc from publication differentand ofEuropean reference of languages. creative works, , literature and , works of individualsforare'school anot particular version'consistently to identify idealof his identifiedof motherwith speech a prestigious tongue.with or manya particular In societiessociopolitical major language language where beliefs speechlabel, esteem habits group which may lead The politicization of the language issue in India during the struggle for IV: Mother Tongue Medium identificationalcentneed of thenot country'snecessarily considerations total be one'spopulation, of native Communication speech.representsThe vast overridea typical HindiUrduPunjabi thecase linguistic where (HUP) region, comprising 46 per Thewithbackgroundindependence demand the cultural for the vernacularization dominated ideological and national the.issues mediumresurgence, by concerning the 'native' controversy, andthe elite contenteventually was pushing associatedof education. withinto the tongueChhatisgarhiinthethecharacteristics, regionPahari, thrust claimants for rivaltheir andof , Hindiclaims overallthe ,in of Rajasthani,the speechsolidarity ,region, matrices.and incorporateone Maithili, Punjabi prominent Among Bhojpuri,language category the loyalties is of many vernaculars of Awadhi, mother in ofeffective' imbalanceseducationgrowthoriginal educationlackof democracy (Tagorein the traditional 1906; of promoting responsiveness, Gandhi societies equality 1916). which imitative Allgeneratedof opportunitythe maladiesgoals, from poverty throughthe of alien 'in- thinking, prevalence of parrot learningand other speech,asaltogetherthose they monolinguals regard in differentthe themselvesstrict (mostlyfrom formal Hindi, asrural) sense, part claim who, of will the 'Hindi' though begreat classified speaking'Hindi tradition'. Their as their mother tongue, as a distinct vernaculars systemtheoriesmany were developing of romantically education nations ofattributed hasthe beenearly to the twentieththe uncritical alienOne (i.e., century, ofacceptance English)the most mostly medium. ofintricate Westernderived characteristics in the medium debate of politicallanguageunderstood and standardization differentpsychological by structuralists, from generalizations(Khubchandani academicians, 1972;about and 1974a). theother custodians Many the so-called Hindi (i.e., supremacyKhariboli) of socio- ofas genizedregardlessfrom pervasive the societies, it asexperiences axiomatic than and inalso thatpresentof attackling thea time times.best thewhen medium Manyissues the modernthrust forof relativelyteaching of educationtechnology amore child experts homo-was is his simplisticexpressiongreatmother extent, tongue terms, in obscured made by juxtaposing during the picture. the independence mother The issues tongue concerning against the facility of the mother tongue have been highlighted movement have, to a in foreign rather itInhistoricalmother [motherthis vein, tongue. arguments tongue] a UNESCO Several is have the report psychological, system been (1953: advanced of 11)meaningful educational,recommended: in support signs sociopolitical,of that'Psychologically,this incontention. his mind and language.anti-Hindimediumlanguage lobbiesThe hampers (English). supporters regard the In growththis evenof motherregard, Hindi, of creativity tongue it along is taken idec!Igy withand for English,talents." granted have In that this conflict notas a cared foreign to a foreign define290 the bounds of mother tongue: nor has adequate attention been L.M. Khuhchandani where speech behaviour is guided by various implicit Language Ideology and Language Development pressures based 291 theamongvailingpaid hinterland to educationistsinaccounting multilingual varieties for concerning theandplural diversethe societies. 'elegant' the patterns problems urban-basedOne of notices oflanguage the standardseveralwide hierarchy gap, inhibitions languages between pre- schoolilliterateIndianon close-group, education identities. communities regional, A large and gap supra-regional,the betweensocialization the outgroiip, speechvalues promotedpatterns urban, of andthrough typical pan- is evident from the summaries of two cases drillingeducationbeingUrdu,nunciation. imposed inPunjabi, curriculathe Thus'correct' as Marathi, schoolthe one formsacquisition often Tamil mother of notices becomesstandard tongue.'2of literacy ar. moreoveremphasisregional Inin like languages speechlearning 'on andlike acareful 'second' pro-Hindi, several elementary (Khubchandani I 973d; I974b) (see Table I). V: Language Identity In Plural Society of'highbrow'whichlanguage. recognition the rural standards ofpopulation the problemprojected face results duein mother to inthe the unintelligibilitytongueSo was:age far textbooks.there and does stagnationof nottheThis instantseem lack in to be much realization of the difficulties throughspeechindeterminacyIn 'nativelinguistic can which speech' be and distinguished whena arechildeducational often applied gets used socialized.' as injargon, 'the indistinguishably,different first the speech termscontexts. 'motheracquired which The tongue'term leadsin infancy, native to and It claims some bearing on some ofsmalltodayliteracy language elites serve programmes. over onlyleaders all to domains extendMost standardization inthe the 'tradition-inspired' entire speech devices community. in Indianvalue systemlanguages The pleas of for developing puristic 'academic', 'official' grouptheallegiancefiable.'intuitive' ingroup/outgroup (or, The into.a competence,extreme termparticular 'mother dichotomy,cases, tradition, and even tongue' potentially ana speechand individual) is it mainlyis itvariety societallycan regard be 'categorizedwhich individually identifiable'.as members their 'own' by identi- of one'sIn is a expressionliteraryLatinizedstandardslanguage styles English, of and languagealongof contradict Indian and the languagesput inSanskritized themselves the lines a or heavytheof Perso-Arabized the concerns strainnineteenth onfor thethe 'highbrow' century usersfacility of of of students through mother tongue education. The theiristicsindividualaccepted ownrevealing and asis markedtheir other's stratificational mother byspeech various tongue. in demands categorical diverse Though of and the terms heterogeneousthe context, actualas discrete people speech character- language perceive of an catholicitybehaviour,becausesurroundings,makes native aboutof the unablethespeakers new elite-acceptable values to cope and even norms dictionwith simpleproclaimed of one's communication own for speech their speechoften needs especially in _the domains of 'alien'public and 'handicapped' communicationin their own (Khubchandanicategorization)ofA or'heterogeneous' language B, is1974a). asone performanceif ofit werethe characteristic uniform and 'homogenized'and featureshomogeneous.In various of speech perception regions This behaviour paradox in (i.e., South Asia different socialization processes (administration,Jialect.which haveOne seesvirtual education, an inevitablenative mass control media,measure over etc.). of more fluidityIn multilingual than in certainone language and regions multidialectal orin societies there are speech groups dictionsassociatingsub-regional,identify them with a variety of interactionsclose ingroup -> wider ingroup -> intergroup -> mobilitythe characteristicssupra-regional of varieties, a speech lingua stratumlocal franca, on the cline : highbrow speech. subcontinent.India In such situations one's total repertoire is influenced byand and among smaller groups throughout the prestige)mass communication -> urban contract -> formal (model for . diversityidentifiedmoreenvironments,with than different of onewith speech normative fixed avalues (styles,child 'stereotypes'. acquiresin system,registers, social languageinteraction.and dialects, A language speech from languages, In group labelseveryday heterogeneous associates areetc.), lifenot around situationsrigidly plural the it 10 socializationgeared to facilitate values in the a communityscope of communication extending fromIn such one'swith diversified nativethe prevailing speech speech areas, education programmes need to be 11 292 LM. Khubchandani TABLE I Table contd Language Ideology and Language Development 293 SpeechTypical verbalvarieties repertoire (A) SPEECH BEHAVIOUR AND LANGUAGE EDUCATION RURAL IMArkl:014% Communication CVMMVNIT'Y LanguagesLanguage values taught promoted through education AZOV') NAC-PVA School values languageaSadri(Sadan)- hybrid Bihari tribal intergroup upbringingnon-prestigiousits use signifies a Nagpuri Marathi closesituations ingroup varietiesminimallydenied prestige, assubstandard and used RegionalMagahi,(Maithili,Bihari etc.), languagesBengali intergroupnon-tribal notprestigious,regarded promoted as non--and their use Supra-dialectalStandardMarathi Marathi communicationwider ingroupingroup mass nomy'promoted through 'auto- values in all HindustaniRegionalor Oriya urban contact upbringing-non-prestigiousits use signifies a MarathivarietiesNeighbouring of through mobility familiarity optional M thh prestigiousregardedsituationsnot promoted as andnon- their use orstandardHindi/Urdu;Standard Oriya Bengali communicationmasi Hindi educationmedium for further HindustaniNagpuriStandard intergroup mass intergroup Hindi learntupbringingnon-prestigiousits use as signifies an 'excercise'for phrasesUsageRegional (a fewEnglish acquaintancemodernisticoptional English toschoolforlearnt immediate eventual ascareer an use use) 'excercise'(not after related the RegionalHindi/Urdu English optional communication English eventualtoschool immediate career use) (not related use after the Sanskrit larshipligious'andsicallearnt as an literaryoptional scho- clas- language for re- Sanskrit orusageArabicphrases) (a few (a few optionalacquaintancemodernisticritualistic Sanskrit,Arabic/Persian learnt as optionalandlanguages literary classical scholarship for religious cationvarietiesprestige,Grassroots and 'folk' the usemultilingualism of regional and is denied hybrid discouraged in formal communi- phrases) acquaintance inferiorpidginsUse of regionalsocialization.creoles, andetc.) hybridis regarded varieties as a (patios, sign of Local Santa li (B) RURAL SANT-ALI COMMUNITY IN close ingroup denied prestige, and used totallyto not'associate nativeunfamiliar speakersnative' language. speech, of Hindi second or Urdu language, in theMany strict and speakers linguisticsubsequently of sense the tonorth-central but HUP region of India, who are SantaSupra-dialectal li wider ingroup Santa li (standard: minimallymedium as for substandard primary virtuallybyclaim and Hindi large, an or'associate Urdunative-like as theirnative' command mother speech tongue overto them. in Hindi the They census or Urdu,are returns, also and called have. it is Otherguages tribal (Munda. lan- optionalfamiliarity language-elite)set by regardededucationprestigious, as non- and their usc particularspeakersthose'adherent' in (Kelkar tradition.Uttar speakers, , 1968). Most distinguishing ForMadhya of suchthe speakers Pradesh,people them Hindi inand from the Bihar, or region, 'native' Urdu are representsparticularly quiteand 'foreign' unaware a Ho, etc.) 12 through mobility BEST COPY AVAILABLE not promoted Table Contd. themof their switching bilingual of or linguistic multilingual codes behaviour from native (Khubchandani speech to Hindi/Urdu 1972). For is 13 294 L.M. Khuhchandani a differ in their stages of development. Language Ideology and Language Development It points out that education 295 cationaredialectized'similarmonolingual accepted (plus, to the languages at by switchingbest, situation. their of speakers unassuming: of styles as dialect-like ).'(such as, informal/formal) in 'FunctionallyKloss (1967) as calls well such as psychologically vernaculars they tools of oral communi- 'near higherlevelssocietythrough education of and theachievements, areminority and relatively employment languages and less thus cultivated, forwhich will minority create hold is communitiesaunequallikely subordinate to produceopportunities (Goel position uneven and for in differenttheseregionpatterns people divided onvernacularsPunjabi, the represents between cline of urbanizationIndia a pattern Lahnda,and Pakistan. of in the Pahari,the 'divided Oneentire The several notices speech joint languagesfamily', behaviour where be- of a superimposed homogeneity HindiUrdu--Punjabiin communication accepteducation,shownSaini 1972). greaterthe andnarrow vigilancehave interpretation practically in safeguarding succeeded of mother their tongue,in gettingButrights during by for the which mother authoritiesthe thepast tongue home three to decades, the linguistic minorities have betweenoppositeunderlonging a to Hindi.andsinglecamps, Rajasthani , namely Punjabi and Hindi butisBihari also once and moregroupsenjoy Urduagain ideological (in are some hierarchicalsplit than regions linguistic). positionsthe -split in diametrically motherofstateacceptedlanguage education governments tongue as of mother eachmedia education now child,tongue in theirshow 'the at(1951 multilingual a thelanguage sense Censusprimary of tolerancepockets. spokenof schoOl India. from 1954:1).toThestage the thesafeguards heterogeneity for Mostcradle', linguistic of the of is thevarieties,much speakers on asaccount on of the those of considerations the varieties. barriers The of of intelligibilityidentity 'highbrow'In and the registersvaluebetween systems of oftwo history, Hindi speech among language boundaries get stabilized not so and educationpaceSomeminorities of concessions throughimplementation were spelled tribal were language out evenhas in beenthemade media Three rather for the whereverLanguage slow. continuance No possible. Formula doubt, of secondary theButin 1956.'' initialthe labelregardeding,Urduindividual. whereas are sharplyas so 'Itat significant.isthe marked a 'lowbrow'categorically by Identification the level, polarization determined distinction through in institutionalbetweenthe a particularpatterns the attribute, oftwo language isborrow- isvery not not much a matter of social awareness on the part of an onmentationovercomereluctance their own. and butin accepting manyseveral states objectionsthe waitnarrow for are thedefinition extinctionstill of mother of minority tongue languages is now raised for its full imple- claimeducationspeechnecessarily and thematrix' such realhaving (Khubchandani function as exactthe Centralof parallel a languake 1976). Advisory with structuralInmight multilingual Board beDuring atcharacteristics of Education societies the initial the in(1948),post-colonial one's period, different expert bodies on variance." ideal The simplistic projection of mother tongue education as aVl: means Assumptions of of Language Development motherCommissionUniversitywritten tongue, tradition Education (1956) i.e., as gave regarding'dialects' Commission greater of all the Weight minority dominant (1949), to languages the and language broad Official interpretationriot in havingtheLanguage region, any of by exclusivepromotionhasestablishing ledgiven to discarding vehicleofway equalityfull to fledged forthe the fullof demands opportunityprinciple orexpression, autonomous ofof language languagefor in individualdifferent status hierarchy autonomy, for fields self-advancement a language inof education. knowledge as an It i.e., 'the education,literature."pointedonwhich the thereground out a Inwas thestudy ofa criticalimplicitillogicality conducted appraisaldenial of at ofliteracy the equal of National the rights role Counciltoof linguisticmother for Educationtongueminorities in practicability." Many protagonists of major languages in languages that have no tradition,uniformity,grantedand in all elaborationwalks precision, of life' of elegance, (Khubchandani language purity through of1973c; form,coinage 1974h).allegiance of technical It is to taken literary terms for that the 'highbrow' values of speech communication socioculturalResearch and traditions Training of (NCERT)states and highlightsconsequently wide notes disp'arities that languages 14 in the BESTCOPYAVAILABLEare essential1975h). paths for developing a language (Khubchandani 1975a; 15 296 L.M. Khubchandani Language Ideology and Language Development 297 ledeconomies,underdeveloped to employ societies the same and dichotomy even cultures, for languages that manySo toopervasive language (Neustupny inexperts our 1974). time are is the distinction between developed and (euphemistically called developing) stages of privilegesdifferentspeech1 communities normative in different systems has domains given and way anda pervasive toregions. a tense competition Various and, rigid developmental insistencefor language on The harmonious mutual accommodation of heterogeneous homogenizationingsuchMany dialects as language-elites, creation and processesof unwritten new guided standard as languages byinevitable languages,post-Renaissance in of the assimilationminoritiesregard contemporary European of neighbour- modern- trends such behavioursactionsnationsinspired' aimedinto intoserious at divergent,,transforming problems pseudo-autonomous, the in convergent,relation to national 'situation-bound' puristic integration. speech The languagesand associated societiesare leading 'tradition- these favourtheyization'absolute' either ofstages the language seekone of Asiabelieved to andor abandon toAfrica be the as the 'privileged'well. 'handicapped In their variety. thrust speech for 'modernity', altogether in get, their speech recognized as a developed withdialectslanguage'elitistic' the inclear-cut fluxeducation hierarchy at the demarcatidn folk systemgets level, compartmentalized, does andof language notlinks take the accountuse.development and Thus the of adiglossiethe continuum of complexity language comple- of of extinct:7mayvarietieswhich have As non-elite the may age-old, be stylesstand dialects, harmonious vernaculars, the hierarchic dangerIn minoritythis patterningof becomingdichotomous languages of different totally process, or many less favourably placed speech based2tasksmentation does on 'elegant' notof different receive urban enthusiastic languages standards supportsignifying hold very from differentlittle the substancelanguages communicative experts.as far as Theoretically, the arguments for mother' tongue supremacy development',issuesitspeech giveslanguage of varietiesbirth language identityto indisharmony (or a privileges way,languages) in India). depicts among in Theeducation,in the one's dichotomousdifferent futile verbal staterace speech repertoire boundaryof approachcatching groups gets disputes up in disturbed,(such with'language over as,the remainscommunicationstandardthe facility unintelligible variety af expression gapsby a tolanguage-elite( the is hinterlandconcerned. 1972). onSuch communities, aThe community an sudden 'instant as impositioncreates standard'seen in serious Table longof a developmentJoneses,Minutes','refining as 1835),isin evidentresponse and from alsoto the a the moredemand British than for rulers'century-old a Vernacular programme University inof the vernacular dialects' (expounded targets of vernacularin the 'Macaulay's concedededucationsupremacy1, and carreer. thatits of tyranny the the motherUnder mother hampers various tongue tongue mass political medium cannotliteracy pressures, stretchedprogrammes.beMany the onlylanguage itover language the entire of experts have now started questioning is now being the order'affordeducation1867." the(Document Thematerialson the,plea British 7,for rulersthatNaik conveying 'the 1963:rejected vernaculars instruction29-32). the vernacular Asof of the such, the country comparatively inmedium this do unendingnot for as highhigher yet education.pluralreassessedurban societieselite The standards in scope the(Khubchandani light of in motherof recent I974a). tongue insights education gained fromand ofthe imposing studies of 'school' language, therefore, needs to he chaseputers,movedacquiring of theorhigher thespace mirage, credibility with satellities by additional the of time and'developed' thesohonours, on. vernaculars The languages, such issue asstruggle of usability 'languagethe latter their with willdevelop-way havecom- to dialects,communicativeindividual3 and even tasks languages. through The a varietypolicy requiring of speech every styles, literate person Demands of active bilingualismto in a plural society expose an 'doing' language activity by accomplishing diverse registers, shapedpresentment' merits inaspirations the close 'language scrutiny of language-élites autonomy' to consider mold, inthe newly-independent tochances meet the of successneeds nations, of of their the inhistoricallyto stiflingmaster thetwo, or flexiblegeographically three or and four creative distinct unrelated rolenormative `traditions'isof contact systemsnurtured languages likely to result in in a asmanyheterogeneous follows: developing pluralistic nations ascommunities. a result of presentThe main laneuage problems strategies confronting are BESTCOPYcommunity'national', and orAVAILABLE 'classical' these contact library languages languages may for survive reference merely purposes. as 'world', 17 298 An individual or a speech communityL.M. Khubchandani responds to the verbal needs according to the 'broad' definition, i.e., regional languages, Hindi. and Language Ideology and Language Development 299 Skillfulparlancevergence,of heterogeneous mastery as , analogy, over situations several interference, maintenance, sharply spontaneously pidginization,'insulated' and creativity, by standard the code-switching, processesknown languages in linguistic of con- etc.is a even to the piomotion of English. programmesexpectedremarkable to achieve.feat have which provided, The only moves rather,a few for motivated disincentiveslanguage autonomyprofessionals to the activein education can biling- be HindustaniNo's-Es Region, seeFor Gumperz a detailed and account Nairn (1960), of the patternsKhubchandani of hierarchy (1974a). in language loyalties in the Broad inhibittheualism pace theprevailing of introductionswitch in over many from of regions literacy developed in ih South an media economical Asia.Requirements to emerging manner.'9 of media, `elegance' Thealso in education, apart from slowing down besides.Teloogooout2 The of Collector533 23(Telugu). schools schools of Be in23 wereIlarythe Maharatta district, districtexclusively (Marathi),235(presently schools for ,21 in Persian,employedKarnataka teaching 4 Tamil.Camatacastate) one'somein 1823 English(), of reported the medium: Hindoo 226that experimentationthecommon facility has hasto be been educated encouraged to use the to language, test the validityquite unrelated of these to in communication of the academic. So far, very little educationSanskritsciences, inlanguage' suchSindh as before (Sharp , its1920:65). conquest Burtonastronomy, (1851: by logicthe 134-57) British and law, ingives 1843. still an imperfectly According elaborate taught toaccount him, in athe of the multilingual pattern of assumptionsmostnewly-independent European for a complexcountries countries plural either appearssociety in the suchpast to be orTheas outside inIndia. magnitudethe present. the experience of In variousmost of linguistic and education problems in northernGurmukhistudyingHindu India.child charactersreligious startedAn Arnil texts learningto boy inread Sindhi(belonging the with and Grantha the also to Devanagari the acquired sacred 'courtly' rudimentstext script Hindu of thefrom class) of Sikhs Sanskrit.a Brahminthen and moved He Hindus teacher also to learnt anin for sourcescorethe Western and of demarcation tension. homogenized Textbook of boundaries nation-states, standards of a of identificationmother different tongue languages, of arethe nostandard drawnlonger writingsometo popularAkhund duffle in Persian), Persian(a (secretariat) Muslim simple poetry. or Hindu bycalculation, A a few relationpedagogue studied etc. to be (p. Arabicunder initiated149). thealso. maktabin Thethe mysteriesAmil system) boy andis of then Arzi was taken(petition introduced to aconflict languagenuingfrom betweenrespective processes area. the By literary stabilized ofand urbanization. large,traditions, standard a speech were One and community'sstabilized doesactual not speech along find image variationsanywith of apparentthe lang- conti- in ofmeanspungent Our ownof rhetoric: their language mother 'We it havetongue. is hardlyArguing to educate We necessary must the a intrinsic teachpeople to recapitulate.them superioritywho some cannot foreign ofIt at stands thepresent language.English pre-eminent be educatedlanguage. The claims even by Macaulay claimed with a ambiguitiesintricacieshaveuage, acquiredits identity of inlanguage defining somepostures congruitybehaviow the through concept withininlanguage, the of Indian amother language and context actualtongue territory. revealuse itself. of apparentlanguage ButMother the protestporariesamong to the theof More Resolutionlanguages and Aseham, callsof the it ourPrincep,West....'a rash tongue act' What who is and to represented the 'a peopleGreekdeclaration ofand theIndia' Latinof Orientalists' the(Sharp were mischievous 1920: to theview 110-11). contem- inand administration, registering his actualtonguelanguage usage, identity territories and and these its (Khubchandani image are againdo not not 1976).necessarily rigidly identified claim congruity with specific with BaconianDocumentinjurious tendency'. no.34, quoted PrincepwhichRoy in in Sharp displaced hisfavoured petition (1920: thethe (1823)139). retention system to the of classicalPrimethe traditional Minister education William Pitt, system. citing thc merits of the schools, 'the best ambivalenteducation,of universal the aseducation present far as policiespaying but directing oflip the service state their governments toresources theHence, 'narrow' towardsimilar also definition seem toselective the to British beof ambivalence in accepting the principle (1920:suchsystemcalculated had 98-101). of been educationto perpetuate the policy would ignorance', of bethe the British best points Legislature.' calculated out that: 'IntoDocument keepthe same this no. countrymanner 26. quoted inSangscrit darkness, in Sharp Isicl if thcirmother resources, tongue but to directingthe development their attention of mother and energies, tongues alongqualifying with 18 BESTCOPY AVAILABLE clergythat'effeminate Nagas of the should Church ways be and of instructed England. religiousJohnstone, in Quotedcharacteristics English the in languagePolitical Barpujari of theAgent and (1973: Assamese the of 24-30).ChristianNagaland (language)', (1873-74). underand desiredopposed thc the adoption of the 19 Moderates300 in the CongressPleading Movement, for a self-governing argued: 'the India quality along of educationWestern lines, assumes Gokhale. the leaderL.M. of Khubchandani the color(1971:" or 1-5) sex, points for not out hiring the cases someone. whereDiscussing No 'language amount the is of usedlanguage language as an problems trainingexcuse, will likeof the changerace Blacks or skit:.this and Spanish-Americans. Spolksy Language Ideology and Language Development 301 varioussignificanceHusain doubts (1952: only and 65). after misinterpretations Oneilliteracy finds isthe liquidated'. inlanguage the minds question Quoted of people in everyofSaiyidain, different decennial regions,Naik, census and as Abidwell from 1881 to give rise to whileandschoolfor the the he mustdiscrimination economy.is learning be taught Atenough existsthe standardsame Englishin the time, hearerslanguage to hehandle has and if athehe notright isrest into to thehaveof be the speakers taughtaccess curriculum'. in to his the own general language culture .... A child going to quarrellingbeforeremarks:as termsto baffle they 'Ilnas theargued,about usedthe alien United theby or rulers. theratherrespective Provincesl census The because Census merits authorities, simply they Commissioner of wouldbecause certain not stylesthey take Gait, refusedthe as in troublevehicles his to Report define to ofunderstand instruction,(1913: their terms 320). the the controversialists, who were really ofarts,(1867) the sciences, vernacular; urged the and Government andother examination branches of India ofThe inliterature tothe British create vernacular may Indian a 'Vernacularbe taught Associationbe annually through University' heldof the the instrumentalityin in North-Westernthose which very 'the Provinces in a 'memorial' Sindhidifferent'.succeeded in the in midstutterly of falsifying diverseThe a usage. set of government importantThough the statistics in philologists 1852 relatingset up like a to committee Stack something and for Trumpp entirely recognizing a single script for no.memorialists(Documentsubjects 7, ibid. in 29-32).no.which were 6. Naikthe 'fundamentally student 1963: 21-28). is now sound', The examined rulers. felt the thoughin proposal English conceding wasin the 'too Calcutta that radical' the viewsUniversity* (Document of the overthePerso-Arabictheagreed rulers, uponformal because a script. modifiedrecognition of But political version still of todayone considerations, of or Devanagari the another Sindhi script. ultimatelymigrantsto suit This the decidedin controversy,needs India of continuein the favour goingSindhi toof on abelanguage, modified for divided over local'originallyNagaland languages written(1971) are not instating available'EnglishThe stateand (Sharma thenof affairs translated1971). can he in visualized local languages' from a report as 'authors of the inDirectorate the of Education in that textbooks (even for primary education) are being a centurymedium"monistic The Officialamong assertions as 'a the wearisome Sindhi (Khubchandani dite, burdening provides I 969a). useful of the insights Memory, into athe sacrifice consequences of the facultyof such of Language Commission (1956:89) regarded education through a foreign REFERENCES. thatthe"independent The literarydialects Central language were thinking, unacceptable of and the a region blunting as mediaas of the intellect'. ofmedium instruction of education (India 1960: and 39-40). made it quite clear Advisory Board of Education in its 1948 Annual Meeting had accepted Burton,Burpujari, Richard S.K. 1973.F. 1851. 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