STRATEGIESSTRATEGIES FORFOR JUSTIFYINJUSTIFYINGG VIOLENCEVIOLENCE IINN SOCIETALSOCIETAL SELF­SELF- DEFENSEDEFENSE ININ INDIANINDIAN LAYLAY :JAINISM: A TEXTUALTEXTUAL ANDAND ETHNOGRAPHICETHNOGRAPHIC STUDYSTUDY

TOMASZTOMASZ POKINKOPOKINKO

FacultyFaculty ofof ReligiousReligious StudiesStudies,, McGillMcGill University,University, MontrealMontreal December,December, 20072007

A thesisthesis submittedsubmitted toto McMcGil Gilll UniversityUniversity inin partialpartial fulfillmentfulfillment ofof thethe requirementsrequirements ofof thethe degredegreee ofof MasterMaster ofof ArtsArts..

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WhileWhile thesethese formsforms maymay bebe includedincluded BienBien queque cesces formulairesformulaires inin thethe documentdocument pagepage count,count, aientaient inclusinclus dansdans lala pagination,pagination, theirtheir removalremoval doesdoes notnot representrepresent ilil n'yn'y auraaura aucunaucun contenucontenu manquant.manquant. anyany lossloss ofof contentcontent fromfrom thethe thesis.thesis. ••• CanadaCanada ABSTRACTABSTRACT

ThisThis thesisthesis examinesexamines JainaJaina strategiesstrategies forfor justifyinjustifyingg violenceviolence (himsa) inin societalsocietal self­self- defensedefense inin contradistinctioncontradistinction toto thethe 'sreligion's overwhelmingoverwhelming emphasisemphasis onon nonviolencenonviolence (ahimsa). TheThe thesis'thesis' mainmain focusfocus isis anan ethnographiethnographiec studystudy ofof thethe viewsviews onon societalsocietal self­self- defensedefense ofof somsornee contemporarycontemporary laylay JainasJainas inin DelhiDelhi andand ,Jaipur, .India. 1I comparecompare thesethese viewsviews withwith thethe textual-historicaltextual-historical JainaJaina positiopositionn onon ksatriya- (the(the duty ofof kings)kings) andand "Just"Just War,"War," asas advancedadvanced throughthrough ancientancient andand medievalmedieval JainaJaina texts.texts. RecentRecent ethnographiesethnographies omitomit thethe issueissue ofof JainaJaina attitudesattitudes toto self-defenseself-defense almostalmost entirely.entirely. However,However, sincesince India'sIndia's nuclearnuclear teststests inin 1998,1998, IndiaIndia hashas becombecomee a majormajor AsianAsian politicalpolitical,, socialsocial anandd economiceconomic powerpower.. IndianIndian JainasJainas havehave changedchanged alongalong witwithh otherother IndiansIndians inin thethe wayway thatthat theythey seesee themselvesthemselves inin relatiorelationn toto thethe worlworldd andand toto otherother Indians.Indians. MyMy findingsfindings suggestsuggest thatthat majomajorr changeschanges mighmightt havhavee occurredoccurred sincesince thethe latestlatest ethnographieethnographic studiesstudies ofof JJainis ainismm inin thethe nineties.nineties. RÉSUMÉRESUME

CetteCette thèsethese examineexamine lesles stratégiesstrategies jai'nejaïness justifianjustifiantt la violenceviolence (himsa) soussous formeforme d'auto­d'auto- défensedefense collectivecollective enen contrastecontraste avecavec l'importancel'importance primordialprimordialee accordéeaccordee paparr cettecette religionreligion aà la non-violencenon-violence (ahimsa). LaLa thèsethese s'intéresses'interesse surtoutsurtout àa uneune étudeetude ethnographiqueethnographique dede lala perceptioperceptionn dede l'auto-défensel'auto-defense collectivecollective dede quelques jai'njaïnss contemporainscontemporains non-ordonésnon-ordones aà DelhiDelhi etet àa Jaipur,Jaipur, enen Inde.Inde. JeJe comparecompare leursleurs perceptionperceptionss avecavec lele poinpointt ddee vuevue textuel­textuel- historiquehistorique jai'njaïnee sursur llee ksatriya-dharma (le(le devoidevoirr desdes rois)rois) etet lele conceptconcept dede "guerre"guerre justejuste"" teltel queque proposproposée dansdans desdes textstexts anciensanciens eett médiévauxmedievaux jai'njaïn.. LesLes étudesetudes ethnographiquesethnographiques récentesrecentes nnee considèrentconsiderent àa pepeuu preprèss papass lesles attitudesattitudes jai'nejaïness paparr rapportrapport aà l'auto-défense.l'auto-defense. Cependant,Cependant, depuisdepuis leless essaisessais nucleairenucléairess enen 1998,1998, l'Indel'lnde estest devenudevenu uunn paypayss importantimportant aauu niveaniveauu politiquepolitique,, social,social, etet économiqueeconomique enen Asie.Asie. LesLes indiensindiens jai'nsjaïns,, avecavec lele restereste dede l'Inde,l'lnde, ontont changéchange leurleur perceptioperceptionn d'eux-mêmesd'eux-memes paparr rapportrapport auau mondemonde etet auau restereste dede lala populatiopopulationn indienne.indienne. MesMes résultatsresultats suggèrentsuggerent qu'ilqu'il pourraipourraitt y avoiavoirr eueu desdes changementschangements importantsimportants depuisdepuis lesles étudesetudes ethnographiquesethnographiques dudu jai'nismjaïnismee desdes annéesannees quatre-vinqquatre-vinq dix.dix. NotNotee onon PresentationPresentation ofof SanskritSanskrit anandd PrakritPrakrit WordsWords

ForFor easeease ofof reading,reading, 1I havehave electedelected toto omitomit thethe diacriticdiacritic marksmarks onon SanskritSanskrit anandd PrakritPrakrit words.words. 1I alsoalso avoiavoidd anglicizedanglicized wordswords (for(for instance,instance, shvetambara).shvetambara). Instead,Instead, 1I itaIicizeitalicize thethe wordword inin itsits directdirect transliteration,transliteration, minusminus diacriticsdiacritics (cakravartin). AIso,Also, 1I addadd ththee EnglishEnglish suffixsuffix -s-s toto transliteratedtransliterated wordswords toto designatedesignate pluralpIuraIss (cakravartins). FinaIly,Finally, 1I dodo notnot italicizeitalicize but do capitalizcapitalizee propeproperr names (,(Bahubali, Acarya)Acarya) asas weIlwell aass thethe followingfollowing commoncommon SanskritSanskrit wordswords,, whicwhichh 1I ususee frequentlyfrequently throughoutthroughout thisthis thesisthesis::

JainJainaa SadhviSadhvi SanskritSanskrit PrakritPrakrit AgamAgamaa DigambaraDigambara SvetambaraSvetambara TerapanthiTerapanthi SthanakvasiSthanakvasi

1I Ieaveleave thethe commoncommon wordword """karma" unitalicizedunitalicized andand uncapitalized.uncapitalized. AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

1I wishwish toto thankthank aIlall thosethose whowho helpedhelped meme inin mymy fieldfield researchresearch inin DelhiDelhi andand JaipurJaipur duringduring thethe SummerSummer ooff 2007.2007. TheseThese inc1udeinclude interviewees,interviewees, fellofelloww academicsacademics andand well-wisherswell-wishers.. 1I alsoalso wishwish toto thankthank thethe InternationalInternational SummerSummer SchoolSchool forfor JainaJaina StudiesStudies (lSSJS),(ISSJS), whichwhich mademade mymy triptrip toto IndiaIndia possiblepossible.. FinaIly,Finally, manymany thanksthanks gogo outout toto ProfessorProfessor KatherineKatherine K.K. Young,Young, whwhoo supervisedsupervised thisthis thesisthesis.. TABLETABLE OFOF CONTENTSCONTENTS

IntroductionIntroduction 1

ChapterChapter 1:1: TheThe HistoricalHistorical DevelopmenDeveloprnentt ofof JainaJaina Ksatriya-Dharma Discourse Discourse 1313

ChapterChapter 2:2: DiscussionsDiscussions ofof JainaJaina ValuesValues andand ConductConduct ArnongAmong ConternporaryContemporary 3333 JainasJainas inin DelhiDelhi andand JaipurJaipur

ChapterChapter 3:3: SorneSome ConternporaryContemporary ViewsViews onon Self-DefenseSelf-Defense 6677

ConclusionConclusion 110110 IntroductionIntroduction

JainisJainismm isis anan ancientancient IndianIndian religionreligion whowhos see originorigin isis assignedassigned toto betweebetweenn thethe eightheighth andand sixthsixth centuriescenturies B.C.E.B.C.E. ThThee religionreligion numbersnumbers approximatelyapproximately fourfour millionmillion followersfollowers inin IndiaIndia today,today, withwith a sizeablesizeable Diaspora.!Diaspora.1 ThThee prevailingprevailing characteristiccharacteristic ofof JainisJainismm isis itsits commitmentcommitment toto nonviolencenonviolence (ahimsa), a principlprinciplee thatthat hashas ostensiblyostensibly defineddefined thethe religionreligion fromfrom earliestearliest times.times. AccordinAccordingg toto VilasVilas Sangave,Sangave,

thethe entireentire activitiesactivities ofof thethe JainJainss areare mouldedmoulded bbyy thethe considerationsconsiderations ofof ahimsa. ThusThus ahimsa formsforms thethe veryvery basibasiss ofof theirtheir life,life, andand eveneven toto thethe presenpresentt dayday,, strenuousstrenuous effortsefforts areare madmadee bbyy thethe JainsJains toto avoidavoid himsa [violence],[violence], asas farfar asas possiblepossible,, inin everyevery walkwalk oflifeof life andand inin everyevery activityactivity...... InIn fact,fact, itit cancan bbee statedstated thatthat thethe JainJain communitycommunity isis thethe onlyonly communitycommunity inin thethe worlworldd whichwhich meticulouslymeticulously observesobserves thethe principlprinciplee ofof ahimsa toto thethe maximummaximum extentextent possiblepossible.. (Sangave(Sangave 2001,82)2001, 82)

ThiThiss emphasisemphasis onon ahimsa isis reflectedreflected inin thethe commoncommon phrasphrasee "ahimsa paramoparamo dharmah" (nonviolenc(non violencee isis thethe supremesupreme dharma). AAss PadmanabhPadmanabh JainiJaini writes,writes, forfor Jainas,Jainas, ahimsa "is"is notnot simplysimply thethe firstfirst amongamong virtuesvirtues butbut the virtue"virtue" (Jain(Jainii 1979,1979, 167).167). However,However, ifif wewe talktalk toto JainasJainas today,today, wewe findfind theythey regularlregularlyy acceptaccept violenceviolence inin certaincertain situations.situations. HowHow dodo wewe explainexplain this?this? ThiThiss thethesi siss aimsaims toto examineexamine JainJainaa strategiesstrategies forfor justifyinjustifyingg himsa (violence(violence)) inin contradistinctioncontradistinction toto thethe religion'religion'ss overwhelmingoverwhelming emphasisemphasis onon ahimsa (nonviolence)(nonviolence).. InIn orderorder toto render thisthis inquiryinquiry manageable,manageable, 1I limitlimit mymy focusfocus toto thethe issuissuee ooff

! TheThe largestlargest JainaJaina populationpopulationss inin IndiaIndia araree foundfound inin thethe westernwestern provinceprovincess ofof Maharastra,Maharastra, Rajasthan,Rajasthan, andand Gujarat.Gujarat. SizeableSizeable JainaJaina populationpopulationss areare alsalsoo foundfound iinn ,Karnataka, MadhyaMadhya PradeshPradesh andand UttarUttar Pradesh.Pradesh. ThereThere iiss a smallsmall populatiopopulationn ofof JainasJainas inin partpartss ofof TamilTamil NadNaduu asas wellweIl.. ThThee JainaJaina Diaspora,Diaspora, numberingnumbering overover oneone­- hundredhundred thousand,thousand, spansspans NortNorthh America,America, Europe,Europe, anandd partpartss ofof AfricaAfrica andand Asia,Asia, includininc1udingg AustraliaAustralia andand NeNeww ZealandZealand (Jain(Jain 1993b).1993b). RecentRecent estimatesestimates ofof thethe JainaJaina DiasporaDiaspora populatiopopulationn areare betweebetweenn 100,000100,000 andand 120,000120,000 totaltotal (world)(world) populationpopulation,, witwithh abouaboutt halfthathalf that numbernumber inin NortNorthh America.America. ThereThere araree approximatelyapproximately fiftyfifty JainJainaa templestemples iinn NortNorthh AmericaAmerica today,today, a fewfew ofof whichwhich areare so-calledso-called "Hindu-Jaina"Hindu-Jaina temples"-temples"- forfor exampleexample thethe Hindu-JainaHindu-Jaina templetemple iinn PittsburghPittsburgh (Jain,(Jain, S.C.S.C. ISSJSISSJS lecture,lecture, JuneJune 1 2007)2007).. 2 self-defenseself-defense inin society,society, a topictopic thatthat botbothh impactsimpacts thethe spheresphere ofof contemporarycontemporary JainismJainism andand hashas strongstrong historicalhistorical tiesties toto thethe religion'religion'ss traditiontradition asas a religionreligion ofof earlyearly medievalmedieval kings.22

NotNotee oonn thethe DefinitionDefinition ofof Self-DefenseSelf-Defense

TheThe prevailinprevailingg definitionsdefinitions ofof self-defenseself-defense areare primarilprimarilyy framedframed inin termsterms ofof overtovert attackattack byby persopers onn oror communitycommunity.. ForFor example,example, thethe Oxford English Dictionary definesdefines thethe nounounn "defense""defense" (exc1uding(excluding peripheraperipherall meaningsmeanings suchsuch aass "defense""defense" inin ththee legallegal sensesense)) aass "the"the actionaction ofof defendingdefending fromfrom oror resistinresistingg attack,"attack," andand asas "military"military measuresmeasures oror resourceresourcess forfor protectinprotectingg a country"country" (Compact Oxford English Dictionary). Similarly,Similarly, thethe commoncommon lawlaw definitiondefinition ofof "self-defense,""self-defense," asas statedstated bbyy thethe UnitedUnited KingdomKingdom JudicialJudicial CommitteeCommittee ofof thethe PrivyPrivy Council,Council, involvesinvolves

thethe rightright ofof a persopersonn toto protecprotectt himselfhimself fromfrom attackattack andand toto actact inin thethe defensedefense ofof othersothers andand ifif necessarynecessary toto inflictinflict violencviolencee onon anotheranother inin soso doing.doing. IfIf nnoo moremore forceforce isis usedused thanthan isis reasonablereasonable toto repelrepel thethe attackattack suchsuch forceforce isis notnot unlawfulunlawful andand nono crimecrime isis committed. Furthermore,Furthermore, a manman aboutabout toto bebe attackedattacked doesdoes notnot havehave toto waitwait forfor hishis assailantassailant toto strikestrike thethe firstfirst blowblow oror firefire thethe firstfirst shot:shot: circumstancescircumstances maymay justifjustifyy a prepre­­ emptiveemptive strike.strike. (Beckford{Bedford v. R., 1987) lnIn keepingkeeping withwith thisthis emphasisemphasis onon attackattack inin thethe above definitionsdefinitions ofof self-defense,self-defense, 1I limitlimit mymy analysisanalysis onlyonly toto thosthosee ethicalethical issuesissues dealingdealing withwith overtovert andand obviousobvious defensedefense againstagainst attackattack susuc chh asas nuc1earnuclear weapons,weapons, soldiers,soldiers, andand capitalcapital punishmentpunishment (see(see lilis stt ofof issuesissues,, below)below).. Exc1udedExcluded fromfrom mmyy discussiondiscussion areare issuesissues thatthat faHfall undeunderr thethe definitiondefinition ofof "self­"self- defense"defense" inin a generalgeneral sensesense - forfor example,example, issuesissues suchsuch asas animalanimal testingtesting (in(in "self-defense""self-defense" againstagainst disease) oror euthanasiaeuthanasia (in(in "defense""defense" ofof humanhuman dignity).dignity).

2 ForFor anan in-depthin-depth discussiondiscussion ofof JainisJainismm asas a religionreligion ofof medievalmedieval kings,kings, seesee ChapterChapter One.One. 3

MethodMethod

MyMy methodmethod considersconsiders botbothh texttext (that(that is,is, thethe perspectivperspectivee ofof JainaJaina texts)texts3) andand contextcontext (the(the viewsviews ofof livingliving JainasJainas inin IndiaIndia dealingdealing withwith contemporarycontemporary ethiealethical issues).issues). TheThe mainmain focusfocus ofthisof this thesisthesis isis anan ethnographieethnographic studystudy ofof somsornee contemporarycontemporary laylay JainasJainas inin NortNorthh India,India, basebasedd onon interviewsinterviews 1I conductedconducted inin DelhiDelhi andand JaipurJaipur overover thethe summesummerr monthsmonths ofof JuneJune andand JulyJuly 20072007 duringduring mymy timetime atat thethe InternationalInternational SummerSummer SchoolSchool forfor JainaJaina StudiesStudies (ISSJS).(lSSJS).44 1I comparecompare thesethese contemporarycontemporary laylay JJain ainaa viewsviews ofof self-defenseself-defense againstagainst anan in-depthin-depth looklook atat thethe medievalmedieval JainaJaina positiopositionn onon ksatriya-dharma (the(the duty ofof kings)kings) andand "Just"Just War.,,5War."5

TheThe emphasisemphasis throughoutthroughout thisthis thethesi siss isis onon qualitative,qualitative, notnot quantitative,quantitative, research.research. MyMy intervieweesinterviewees numberednumbered sevenseven (three(three men,men, fourfour women),women), withwith agesages ranginrangingg fromfrom earlyearly twentiestwenties toto latelate sixties.sixties. 1I alsoalso managedmanaged toto securesecure a full-Iengthfull-length intervieintervieww withwith a groupgroup ooff fivefive JainaJaina SadhvisSadhvis (nuns)(nuns) ofof thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi sectsect (a(a keykey JainaJaina sect,sect, andand ththee onlyonly sectsect thatthat engagesengages inin nonnonviolen violentt protesprotestt marches,marches, calledcalled "ahimsa drives").drives"). TheThe viewsviews ofof thethe SadhvisSadhvis offeroffer anan interestinginteresting counterpointcounterpoint toto thethe positionpositionss ofof thethe laylay JainasJainas 1I interviewed,interviewed, a factfact thathatt 66 1I highlighthighlight throughoutthroughout mymy analysis.analysis. TheThe interviewsinterviews (whieh(which werewere inin English ) followedfollowed a semi-structuredsemi-structured format,format, withwith setset questionsquestions centeringcentering onon externalexternal issuesissues ofof self-defense.self-defense. TheseThese issuesissues areare::

Self-defense on the internationallevelinternational level Ahimsa andand WorldWorld Peace,Peace, NucleaNuc1earr Weapons,Weapons, NonviolenNonviolentt protesprote stt movements,movements, MandatoryMandatory Conscription,Conscription, SoldiersSoldiers

Self-defense on the national level CapitalCapital punishmentpunishment,, PolicePolice

3 3 TheThe keykey textstexts discusseddiscussed areare thethe Tatthvartha- ofof UmasvatiUmasvati (second(second centurycentury C.E.),C.E.), thethe Adipurana ooff JinasenaJinasena (ninth(ninth centurycentury C.E.)C.E.),, andand thethe Yasastilaka-campu ofSomadevasuriof Somadevasuri (tenth(tenth centurycentury C.E.).C.E.). SeeSee ChapterChapter One.One. 4 For a description of ISSJS, see note 10 below. My thesis research was conducted outside the purview of theFo School.r a descriptio n of ISSJS, see note 10 below. My thesis research was conducted outside the purview of 5th Seee School a discussion. of this, below. 6 SeeSee belowa discussio for an discussionof this, below of English. proficiency as a marker of "urban elite" Jainism. See below for a discussion of English proficiency as a marker of "urban elite" Jainism. 4

InIn analyzinganalyzing thisthis data,data, 1I papayy specialspecial attentionattention toto patternpatternss thatthat emergeemerge andand pointpointss ooff similaritysimilarity andand difference.difference. MyMy analysisanalysis examinesexamines conflictsconflicts ofof valuesvalues,, differencesdifferences andand similaritiessimilarities betweebetweenn lay/monastielay/monastic andand male/femalemale/female viewpoints,viewpoints, andand finally,finally, andand mostmost importantly,importantly, thethe appropriatioappropriationn and/orand/or reconfigurationreconfiguration ofof thethe JJain ainaa textuatextuall tradition.tradition. A limitationlimitation ofof thisthis thesisthesis iiss ititss smallsmall samplesample size.size. BecauseBecause thethe interviewinterviewss hadhad toto bbee conductedconducted duringduring mymy briebrieff visivisitt toto IndiaIndia whilewhile attendinattendingg thethe InternationalInternational SummerSummer SchoolSchool forfor JainaJaina StudiesStudies (ISSJS),(ISSJS), 1I dididd notnot havehave thethe opportunityopportunity toto locatelocate andand interviewinterview mormoree peoplepeople.. NonethelessNonetheless,, mymy findingsfindings suggestsuggest thatthat majormajor changeschanges mightmight havehave occurredoccurred sincsincee thethe ethnographieethnographic studiesstudies ofof thethe previoupreviouss decadedecade.. ThoughThough thetheyy musmustt bbee consideredconsidered tentative,tentative, theythey poinpointt toto thethe urgenturgent needneed forfor a full-scfull-scal alee study.study.

Literature ReviewReview

ThereThere hashas yetyet toto bbee anan in-depthin-depth studystudy ofof thethe relationrelation betweebetweenn contemporarycontemporary JainaJaina notionsnotions ofof legitimizinglegitimizing violenceviolence inin self-defenseself-defense givengiven thethe religion'religion'ss emphasisemphasis onon ahimsa, andand medievalmedieval precursorprecursorss toto thisthis positionposition.. TheThe topietopic hashas onlyonly beenbeen discusseddiscussed iinn a generalgeneral wayway inin susuc chh overviewsoverviews ofof JainismJainism aass PaulPaul Dundas'Dundas' The Jains anandd PadmanabhPadmanabh Jaini'sJaini's The Jaina Path of Purification. Additionally,Additionally, JainiJaini hashas writtenwritten a briebrieff articlarticlee outliningoutlining thethe historicalhistorical anandd textuatextuall rudimentsrudiments forfor whatwhat hehe callscalls a JainJainaa "Just"Just War"War" positiopositionn (see(see JainiJaini 2004).2004). JainiJaini pointpointss toto thethe factfact thathatt medievalmedieval JainismJainism advancedadvanced a "Just"Just War"War" theorytheory thathatt allowedallowed forfor thethe minimumminimum ofof "violence"violence inin defensedefense ofof one'sone's propertpropertyy honour,honour, family,family, communitycommunity oror nation"nation" andand involvedinvolved thethe JainaJaina laymanlayman inin "not"not onlyonly thethe dutiesduties toto himselfhimself bubutt toto societysociety asas a whole.whole."" However,However, thethe exactexact parameterparameterss ofof thisthis allowableallowable violencviolencee inin self-defenseself-defense areare largelylargely undefinedundefined.. ThisThis lacklack ofof definitiondefinition constituteconstitutess whatwhat JainiJaini callscalls a majormajor "grey"grey areaarea [of[of actions]actions] thatthat couldcould notnot be...explicitlbe ... explicitlyy characterizedcharacterized asas eithereither expresslyexpressly evilevil oror provisionallprovisionallyy acceptable"acceptable" (Jaini(Jaini 2004,52).2004,52). Jaini'sJaini's conclusionconclusion isis thatthat "for"for a religionreligion thatthat expectedexpected soso muchmuch fromfrom itsits followersfollowers inin termsterms ofof keepingkeeping thethe vowvowss ofof ahimsa, suchsuch perfunctorperfunctoryy adviceadvice onon thethe legitimacylegitimacy ofof JainaJaina participatioparticipationn inin warfarewarfare mustmust bbee consideredconsidered a seriousserious oversight"oversight" (Jaini(Jaini 2004,2004, 53).53). Elsewhere,Elsewhere, hehe writes:writes: "as"as forfor thethe JainaJaina layman'slayman's personapersonall responsibilityresponsibility inin timtimee ofof war,war, itit hashas nevernever beebeenn confrontedconfronted directly"directly" (Jaini(Jaini 19791979,, 313).313). 5

RecentRecent ethnographiesethnographies omitomit thethe issueissue ofof JainaJaina attitudesattitudes toto self-defenseself-defense almostalmost entirely.entirely. JamesJames Laidlaw'sLaidlaw's bookbook Riches and Renunciation, forfor example,example, isis aboutabout thethe wayway thethe asceticascetic imperativimperativee impactsimpacts thethe liveslives ofof laylay JainasJainas iinn theitheirr day-to-dayday-to-day lives.lives. EvenEven thoughthough LaidlawLaidlaw mentionsmentions thatthat JainasJainas havehave traditionallytraditionally celebratedcelebrated thethe militarymilitary expeditionsexpeditions ofof theirtheir kingskings andand generalsgenerals "as"as ifif toto havehave thingsthings allall possiblpossiblee ways"ways" (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1995,90),1995,90), hehe failsfails toto saysay whetherwhether thisthis impactsimpacts contemporarycontemporary JainaJaina attitudesattitudes toto issuesissues suchsuch asas nuclearnuclear weapons,weapons, terrorism,terrorism, andand soso forth.forth. A cursorycursory looklook throughthrough thethe indexindex ofof thethe LaidlawLaidlaw boobookk findsfinds nono entriesentries forfor "Just"Just War,War,"" "self-defense,""self-defense," "ksatriya-dharma" (duty Y ooff kings),kings), "virodhi-himsa" (permissible(permissible violenceviolence inin self-defense),self-defense), oror "cakravartin" (wheel­(wheel- turningturning emperor).emperor). Similarly,Similarly, therethere areare nono entriesentries forfor "nuclear"nuclear weapons,"weapons," "capital"capital punishment,punishment,"" oror anyany ofof thethe otherother ethicalethical issuesissues associatedassociated withwith mymy study.study.

EvenEven whenwhen thethe ethnographiesethnographies dodo touchtouch onon thethe subjectsubject ofof laylay JainaJaina attitudesattitudes toto self­self- defense,defense, theythey usuallusuallyy stressstress thethe apoliticalapolitical naturenature ofof modermodemn Jainas.Jainas. Thus,Thus, LaurenceLaurence BabbBabb (1996)(1996) notesnotes that,that, inin modemmodern JainaJaina communities,communities, nonviolencenonviolence isis generallygenerally notnot consideredconsidered a governinggoverning principleprinciple inin issuesissues ofof politics,polities, whichwhich oftenoften translatestranslates intointo JainaJaina suspicionsuspicion ofof governmentgovernment andand internationalinternational affairsaffairs.. CortCort (1998)(1998) similarlysimilarly emphasizesemphasizes thethe generalgeneral politicapoliticall apathyapathy ofof contemporarycontemporary JainasJainas but claimsclaims thatthat thisthis isis nonott anan inherentinherent trait.trait. Rather,Rather, hehe proposeproposess thatthat JainaJaina politicapoliticall apathyapathy andand thethe consequentconsequent gravitatiogravitationn ofof JainasJainas toward mercantilmercantilee jobjobss areare anan outcomeoutcome ofof thethe JainJainaa community'scommunity's diminisheddiminished politicalpolitical 7 influenceinfluence followingfollowing thethe MuslimMuslim invasionsinvasions ofof thethe thirteenththirteenth century.7century. ByBy contrast,contrast, LaidlawLaidlaw (1985)(1985) andand DundasDundas (2002)(2002) discussdiscuss howhow JainaJaina laity dodo notnot regardregard thethe doctrinedoctrine ooff nonnonviolenc violencee aass mandatormandatoryy oror eveneven necessarilynecessarily applicableapplicable inin mattersmatters ofof governmentgovernment policypolicy andand internationalinternational politicspolitics,, preferrinpreferringg (if(if challenged)challenged) toto stressstress puritpurityy ofof intention.intention.

MyMy ownown researchresearch supportssupports sornesome ofof thesethese findings,findings, especiallyespecially thethe strategystrategy ooff stressingstressing intentionintention overover actionaction andand effecteffect (from(from oneone perspectivperspectivee inin thethe textualtextual tradition,tradition, thisthis isis inin manymany ways un-Jaina)un-Jaina);; however,however, mymy ethnographicethnographic findingsfindings alsoalso differdiffer fromfrom Cort'sCort's - mymy intervieweesinterviewees werweree notnot politicallpoliticallyy apathetic.apathetic. TheseThese JainasJainas increasinglyincreasingly wantwant toto bebe involvedinvolved inin issuesissues ofof a biggebiggerr scope,scope, andand 1I thinkthink thisthis reflectsreflects anan importantimportant changechange iinn thethe IndianIndian JainaJaina communitycommunity overover thethe lastlast tenten yearsyears..

7 7 ForFor a discussiondiscussion ooff this,this, seesee ChapterChapter Three.Three. 6

ToTo a degree,degree, thethe viewsviews ofof thethe JainasJainas 1I talkedtalked toto forfor mymy researchresearch correspondcorrespond toto whatwhat MarcusMarcus Banks,Banks, iinn anan articlearticle onon DiasporaDiaspora JainasJainas livingliving inin Leicester,Leicester, V.K.,U.K., callscalls "neo"neo­- orthodox"orthodox" JainismJainism (Banks(Banks 1991).1991). BanksBanks refersrefers toto thethe propensitpropensityy forfor DiasporaDiaspora JainasJainas toto alignalign theirtheir religionreligion withwith WesternWestern scientifiescientific andand rationalrational valuesvalues inin thethe pursuipursuitt ofof a distinctdistinct laylay agendaagenda ofof self-sufficiencyself-sufficiency thatthat stressestressess thethe powepowerr ofof intention.intention. HeHe associatesassociates thisthis withwith thethe Diaspora'sDiaspora's inabilityinability toto meaningfullymeaningfully connectconnect witwithh thethe monasticmonastic communitycommunity (who(whos see vowvowss inin almostalmost allall casescases prevenpreventt themthem fromfrom leavingleaving IndianIndian soil).soil). However,However, suchsuch ideas asas thethe emphasisemphasis onon intentionintention andand laylay self-sufficiencyself-sufficiency areare presenpresentt inin JainaJaina medievamedievall texttextss andand havhavee beebeenn supportedsupported bbyy variouvariouss laylay andand monastimonasticc initiativesinitiatives sincsincee atat leastleast ththee sixteenthsixteenth century.8century.8 OneOne ofof thethe questionsquestions 1I askask inin mymy ConclusionConclusion isis whethewhetherr thethe "neo-orthodox""neo-orthodox" positiopositionn isis confinedconfined onlyonly toto thethe modemmodern JainaJaina Diaspora.Diaspora.

lnIn additionaddition toto thethe absenceabsence ofof a full-fledgedfull-fledged studystudy onon thethe topietopic ofof justifyingjustifying violenceviolence inin contemporarycontemporary Jainism,Jainism, therethere hashas beebeenn littlelittle newnew ethnographieethnographic datadata atat alalll onon IndianIndian JJainis ainismm sincesince thethe latelate nineties.nineties. AllAll ofof thethe datadata informinginforming thethe majormajor ethnographiesethnographies (Bab(Babbb 1996;1996; LaidlawLaidlaw 1995;1995; CortCort 1998)1998) isis fromfrom beforebefore India'sIndia's nucleanuclearr teststests ofof 19981998 andand thethe terroristterrorist attacksattacks onon NeNeww YorkYork onon Il11 SeptemberSeptember 2001.2001. SinceSince thatthat time,time, thethe worlworldd hashas notnot onlyonly changedchanged itsits viewsviews onon thethe intersectionintersection ofof religionreligion andand politicspolitics,, bubutt IndiaIndia itselfitself hashas comecome intointo itsits ownown asas a majomajorr AsianAsian politieal,political, socialsocial andand economiceconomic power.power. IndianIndian JainasJainas havehave changedchanged alongalong withwith thethe restrest ofof IndiansIndians inin thethe wawayy theythey seesee themselvesthemselves inin relationrelation toto 9 thethe worlworldd andand toto otherother Indians.9 lnIn lineline withwith this,this, thethe IndianIndian JainaJaina community,community, onceonce divideddivided bbyy sectariansectarian differences,differences, isis makingmaking seriousserious attemptsattempts toto distancedistance itselfitself fromfrom itsits sectariansectarian paspastt anandd toto form,form, alongalong witwithh thethe widerwider JJain ainaa Diaspora,Diaspora, a unifieunifiedd worldwideworldwide JainaJaina community.community. MostMost ofof thesethese effortsefforts areare beinbeingg initiatedinitiated bbyy laylay Jainas.Jainas. IndianIndian Jainas,Jainas, forfor example,example, areare notnot onlyonly presently demandingdemanding autoautonomou no mouss religiousreligious statusstatus but havehave alsoalso collaboratedcollaborated withwith NortNorthh AmerieanAmerican laylay JainasJainas toto launchlaunch newnew worldwidworldwidee initiativesinitiatives suchsuch aass 10 thethe InternationalInternational SummerSummer SchoolSchool forfor JaiJainn StudiesStudies (lSSJS)lO(ISSJS) andand itsits sistersister prograpro gramm forfor

8 NoteNote,, forfor instance,instance, thethe traditiontradition ofof laylay JainaJaina mysticsmystics likelike BanarsidasBanarsidas andand SrimadSrimad Rajachandra,Rajachandra, andand thethe SvetambaraSvetambara monasticmonastic reformreform movementsmovements oftheof the eighteentheighteenth century.century. 9 SeeSee ChapterChapter ThreeThree forfor a descriptiondescription ofof thethe "jubilation""jubilation" feltfelt bbyy manymany IndiansIndians atat finallyfinally "coming"coming ofof age"age" asas a nuc1earnuclear powerpower.. TheThe consequentconsequent riserise ooff IndiaIndia asas a majomajorr economiceconomic playeplayerr onon thethe worldworld stagestage hashas onlyonly reinforcedreinforced thisthis newnew sensesense ofof self-assurednesself-assurednesss andand possibility.possibility. 10 TheThe InternationalInternational SummerSummer SchoolSchool foforr JainJain StudiesStudies (lSSJS)(ISSJS) isis anan internationalinternational summersummer schoolschool runrun bbyy IndianIndian andand DiasporaDiaspora Jainas,Jainas, withwith principlprinciplee fundingfunding comingcoming fromfrom weaIthywealthy JainaJaina donorsdonors andand thethe organizationorganization knownknown asas JAINAJAINA (Federation(Federation ofof JainJain AssociationsAssociations lnIn NortNorthh America),America), establishedestablished inin 1981.1981. TheThe schoolschool hashas 7

DiasporaDiaspora JainasJainas calledcalled "The"The GlorGloryy ofof Jainism.Jainism."" MostMost significantly,significantly, thethes see JainaJaina communitiescommunities areare increasingincreasing effortsefforts toto redefineredefine JainismJainism asas a global religionreligion inin touchtouch withwith secularsecular asas weIlwell asas religiousreligious issuesissues - a religionreligion ofof nonnonviolence violence ,, awarenessawareness,, socialsocial serviceservice,, andand environmentalism.environmentalism. A fewfew newnew worksworks areare beginningbeginning toto exploreexplore thisthis "updated,""updated," twenty-firsttwenty-first centurycentury Jainism.Jainism. DundasDundas makesmakes sornesome introductoryintroductory remarksremarks toto thisthis effecteffect inin hishis boobookk The Jains.Jains. Additionally,Additionally, a recentrecent volumevolume editededited bbyy ChristopherChristopher Chapple,Chappie, Jainism and Ecology, isis makingmaking inroadsinroads inin thisthis direction;direction; however,however, toto mymy knowledgeknowledge therethere hashas not yetyet beebeenn a majormajor studystudy ofof presenpresentt JainaJaina strategiesstrategies forfor justifyinjustifyingg violenceviolence inin thisthis new,new, moremore economicallyeconomically powerfupowerfull andand wider-reachinwider-reachingg IndianIndian Jainism.Jainism.

ThereThere isis muchmuch moremore informationinformation onon thethe textual/historicaltextual/historical sideside relatingrelating toto medievalmedieval JainaJaina attitudesattitudes toto ksatriya-dharma (the(the duty ofof kings).kings). TheThe challengechallenge presentepresentedd therethere isis oneone ofof synthesis.synthesis. ThereThere areare manymany scatterescatteredd detailsdetails ofof thethe JainaJaina "Just"Just War"War" positiopositionn iinn Jaini'sJaini's The Jaina Path of Purification (in(in particulaparticularr chapterschapters sixsix " andand : TheThe PathPath ofof thethe Layman"Layman" andand ninenine "Jaina"Jaina SocietySociety ThroughThrough thethe Ages:Ages: GrowthGrowth andand Survival"),Survival"), andand PaulPaul Dundas'Dundas' The Jains (ke(keyy chapterschapters araree sevenseven "The"The LayLay Person,"Person," eighteight "Jain"Jain Relativism,"Relativism," ninenine "Recent"Recent Developments,"Developments," andand chapterchapter five,five, whichwhich discussesdiscusses JainaJaina kingshipkingship inin KarnatakaKarnataka andand howhow JainismJainism redefinesredefines thethe notionnotion ofof valour).valour). InIn additioadditionn toto these,these, Dundas'Dundas' essayessay "The"The DigambaraDigambara JainJain Warrior"Warrior" identifiesidentifies martialmartial conquestconquest asas thethe centralcentral metaphormetaphor ooff Jainism,Jainism, anandd thusthus highlightshighlights a majormajor wayway ofof justifyinjustifyingg necessitous violence.violence. AIso,Also, JohnJohn Cort'sCort's essayessay "Who"Who iiss a King?King? JainJain NarrativeNarrativess ofof KingshipKingship iinn MedievalMedieval WesternWestern IndiaIndia"" exploresexplores a distinctdistinct JainaJaina theorytheory ofkingshipof kingship overover andand aboveabove thethe standardstandard BrahmanicalBrahmanical one,one, thusthus highlightinhighlightingg thethe uniquuniquee politicapoliticall cultureculture ofof medievalmedieval JainaJaina communities.communities. ManyMany pointpointss areare foundfound inin footnotes;footnotes; therefore,therefore, therethere isis muchmuch rooroomm forfor elaboration.elaboration. ChapterChapter OneOne ofof thisthis thesisthesis synthesizes thisthis materialmaterial intointo a cocogen gentt historiehistorica all overviewoverview ofof thethe developmentdevelopment ofof JainaJaina ksatriya-dharma discourse.discourse.

onlyonly beebeenn inin existenceexistence sincesince 2005,2005, bubutt hashas alreadyalready attractedattracted 5522 scholarscholarss fromfrom Canada,Canada, thethe UnitedUnited States,States, Europe,Europe, CambodiaCambodia andand Thailand.Thailand. A numbenumberr ofof majormajor NortNorthh AmericanAmerican JainaJaina scholarsscholars suchsuch asas PadmanabhPadmanabh Jaini,Jaini, AnneAnne Vallely,Vallely, Christopher ChappleChappie andand JohnJohn Cort,Cort, asas weIlwell eminenteminent IndianIndian academicsacademics suchsuch asas K.CK.C.. SoganiSogani andand D.N.D.N. Bhargava,Bhargava, areare affiliatedaffiliated witwithh ISSJS.ISSJS. ISSJSISSJS isis alsoalso associatedassociated witwithh a numbenumberr ofof universitiesuniversities inin IndiaIndia anandd abroad,abroad, includingincluding thethe UniversitUniversityy ofof OttawOttawaa anandd HarvardHarvard University, wherewhere itit hashas recentlyrecently becombecomee affiliatedaffiliated witwithh thethe PluralismPluralism ProjectProject undeunderr ProfessorProfessor DianaDiana Eck.Eck. 8

lnIn additionaddition toto thethe historicalhistorical texts,texts, 1I tootoo drawdraw oonn philosophicalphilosophical material,material, particularlyparticularly W.J.W.J. Johnson'sJohnson's bookbook HarmlessHannZess SouZs,Souls, whichwhich trackstracks thethe changeschanges iinn thethe JainaJaina doctrinedoctrine ofof karmakarma andand ideasideas ofof parigraha (attachment)(attachment) andand arambha (violence)(violence) iinn thethe earliestearliest JainaJaina texts.texts. ThereThere areare alsoalso a numbernumber ooff detaileddetailed philosophicaphilosophicall analysesanalyses bbyy PiotrPiotr BalcerowiczBalcerowicz andand others,others, nonott toto mentionmention Y.J.Y.J. Padmarajiah'sPadmarajiah's well-knownwell-known work,work, A Comparative Study of the Jaina Theories of RealityReaZity and Knowledge.KnowZedge. OnOn JainaJaina ethicalethical doctrine,doctrine, especiallyespecially thethe conceptconcept ofof ethicsethics aass distinctdistinct fromfrom metaphysics,metaphysics, 1I drawdraw onon thethe workwork ofof K.c.K.C. SoganiSogani (Mysticism{Mysticism and Other Essays). Lastly,Lastly, G.c.G.C. Pande'sPande's boobookk Jaina PoliticalPoZiticaZ Thought, whichwhich examinesexamines thethe interfaceinterface ofof politicspolitics,, ethicsethics andand spirituality,spirituality, was recommenderecommendedd toto meme bbyy variousvarious peoplpeoplee whowho leamedlearned ofof mmyy thesisthesis whilwhilee 1I waswas inin IndiaIndia,, anandd hashas proveprovenn a valuablevaluable resource.resource. PandePande discussesdiscusses thethe doctrinedoctrine ofof nonnonviolenc violencee fromfrom thethe philosophicaphilosophicall poinpointt ofof view,view, aass arisinarisingg fromfrom JainaJaina doctrinesdoctrines ofof thethe soulsoul andand karma.karma. A similarsimilar boobookk inin thisthis regardregard isis TaraTara Sethia'sSethia's editededited volumevolume titledtitled Ahimsa, Anekanta, and Jainism, which,which, amongamong otherother things,things, containscontains Jaini'sJaini's articlearticle onon JainajustJaina just warwar anandd aann articlearticle bbyy AnneAnne VallelyVallely onon andand pluralismpluralism,, whichwhich 1I drawdraw uponupon aass weIl.well.

InitialInitial ProfileProfile ofof rnymy IntervieweesInterviewees andand SorneSome RernarksRemarks onon thethe QuestionQuestion ofof "Urban"Urban Elite"Elite" JainisrnJainism

TheThe laylay JainaJaina menmen andand womenwomen toto whomwhom 1I spokespoke forfor mymy researchresearch werewere typicallytypically well­well- educated,educated, financiallyfinancially weIl-off,well-off, andand involvedinvolved inin dynamicdynamic andand outward-reachingoutward-reaching professionprofessionss sucsuchh asas informationinformation technologytechnology andand academia.academia. TwoTwo werewere educators,educators, oneone aann informationinformation technologytechnology (IT)(IT) professionalprofessional,, oneone anan undergraduateundergraduate studentstudent inin engineering,engineering, oneone a policpolicee officer,officer, andand oneone anan IndianIndian JainJainaa professionaprofessionallivingl living inin Geneva.Geneva. OnlyOnly oneone waswas a housewife."J1 OfOf thethe laylay JainasJainas 1I interviewed,interviewed, aIlall exceptexcept thethe youngyoung engineeringengineering studentstudent andand thethe policpolicee officerofficer permittepermittedd meme toto useuse theirtheir names,names, andand 1I dodo soso throughoutthroughout mymy thesisthesis.. 1I referrefer toto mymy intervieweesinterviewees byby theirtheir firstfirst names.names.

AlthoughAlthough thethe purposepurpose ofof thisthis thesisthesis isis toto discussdiscuss strategiesstrategies forfor justifyinjustifyingg violenceviolence inin IndianIndian layZay Jainism,Jainism, asas mentionedmentioned forfor a poinpointt ofof contrastcontrast 1I alsoalso interviewedinterviewed a groupgroup ooff

Il ForFor a detaileddetailed profilprofilee ofof mymy interviewees,interviewees, seesee ChapterChapter TwoTwo.. 9 fivefive TerapanthiTerapanthi Sadhvis.Sadhvis. AsAs itit turnedturned out,out, 1I waswas veryvery fortunatefortunate toto securesecure thisthis interviewinterview whenwhen 1I did,did, asas thethe followingfollowing morningmorning thethe SadhvisSadhvis werweree scheduledscheduled toto returnreturn bacbackk toto thethe monastermonasteryy ofof AcaryaAcarya Mahaprajna,Mahaprajna, thethe spiritualspiritual headhead ofof thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi order,order, inin Ladnun,Ladnun, Rajasthan.Rajasthan. MyMy discussiondiscussion witwithh thethe SadhvisSadhvis proveprovedd veryvery helpfulhelpful forfor mymy research,research, aass itit not onlyonly highlightedhighlighted thethe monasticmonastic positiopositionn onon variouvariouss ethicalethical issues,issues, anandd thuthuss affordeaffordedd aann easyeasy opportunityopportunity ttoo discussdiscuss thethe finerfiner pointpointss ofof generalgeneral JJain ainaa monasticmonastic theory,theory, but alsoalso showcasedshowcased thethe uniquenesuniquenesss ofof TerapanthiTerapanthi views.views. Finally,Finally, becausbecausee thethe SadhvisSadhvis spokespoke nono English,English, 1I hadhad toto relyrely onon a groupgroup ofof TerapanthiTerapanthi laylay translators,translators, whowho oftenoften interjectedinterjected withwith theirtheir ownown opinionsopinions onon variousvarious matters.matters. Therefore,Therefore, mymy researchresearch alsoalso benefitebenefitedd fromfrom bothboth theirtheir perspectiveperspectivess andand thosethose ofof thethe Sadhvis.Sadhvis. TheThe socialsocial positionpositionss andand levellevelss ofof educationeducation ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees areare representativerepresentative ofof thethe typicaltypical JainaJaina situationsituation inin JaipurJaipur anandd .Delhi. BothBoth citiescities areare economicallyeconomically strongstrong urbaurbann areasareas thatthat areare capitalscapitals iinn theirtheir ownown rightright.. Delhi,Delhi, thethe capitalcapital citycity ofof IndiaIndia andand India'sIndia's busiesbusiestt internationalinternational gateway,gateway, sharesshares centrecentre stagestage withwith Jaipur,Jaipur, capitalcapital ofof thethe statstatee ooff RajasthanRajasthan andand nono lessless anan equallyequally importantimportant "capital""capital" fromfrom thethe perspectivperspectivee ofof tourismtourism andand trade.trade. TraditionaIly,Traditionally, JaipurJaipur waswas oneone ofof Rajasthan'sRajasthan's strongesstrongestt economies,economies, althoughalthough recentIyrecently itit hashas developeddeveloped a sharplysharply risingrising probleproblemm ofof unemploymentunemployment andand overcrowdingovercrowding duedue toto itsits rapidrapid expansion.expansion. Delhi,Delhi, withwith itsits multifariousmultifarious mixturemixture ofof oldold andand new,new, itsits manymany communities,communities, bustlinbustIingg streets,streets, glassglass shoppingshopping maIlsmalls andand governmentalgovernmental grandeur, isis a quintessentialquintessential metropolismetropolis ofof newnew India,India, a citycity builbuiltt andand rebuiltrebuilt overover successivesuccessive rulingruling dynastiesdynasties anandd thethe seatseat oflndia'sof India's legislativelegislative assemblyassembly sincsincee 1947.1947. Jaipur,Jaipur, despitedespite beingbeing muchmuch smallersmaller inin size,size, leavesleaves anan equallyequally bibigg impression,impression, inspiringinspiring withwith itsits ancientancient temples,temples, castIescastles andand forts,forts, anandd withwith streetstreetss andand buildingbuildingss paintepaintedd brightbright pinkpink,, seeminglyseemingly inin anan efforteffort toto rivalrival thethe visualvisual richnessrichness ofof itsits textilestextiles andand emeraldsemeralds (Jaipur(Jaipur isis thethe capitalcapital citycity ooff tradetrade forfor both)both).. BothBoth citiescities boasboastt largelarge andand affluentaffluent middlemiddle classesclasses thatthat areare atat easeease withwith foreigners.foreigners. ManyMany signssigns onon thethe streetstreet (especially(especially inin thethe shoppingshopping districts)districts) areare inin English,English, andand inin generalgeneral anan English-speakerEnglish-speaker hashas littlelittle troubletrouble communicatingcommunicating withwith peoplpeoplee onon thethe street.street.

PerhapsPerhaps influencedinfluenced byby metropolitainmetropolitain businessbusiness opportunities,opportunities, JainasJainas continuecontinue toto livelive inin largelarge numbersnumbers inin bothboth JaipurJaipur anandd Delhi.Delhi. AsAs isis weIlwell known,known, theirtheir emphasisemphasis onon professionprofessionss theythey considerconsider nonnonviolen violentt means thatthat manymany laylay JainasJainas gravitategravitate toto professionalprofessional jobsjobs,, mostIymostly asas businesbusinesss peoplepeople.. TheyThey havehave developeddeveloped a reputationreputation forfor trustworthinesstrustworthiness inin 1010 thisthis regard,regard, whichwhich theythey areare prouproudd ofof andand eagereager toto talktalk about.about. 12 TheTheyy areare knownknown toto givegive bacbackk toto theirtheir communitiecommunitiess asas weIl.well. TheThe JainaJaina communitiescommunities iinn botbothh DelhiDelhi andand JaipurJaipur regularlyregularly financefinance thethe constructioconstructionn ofof hospitalshospitals andand schools.1133 AIlAll mymy intervieweeintervieweess exhibitedexhibited mediumediumm toto highhigh levelslevels ofof proficiencproficiencyy inin EnglishEnglish (1(I sometimessometimes hadhad toto explainexplain certaincertain concepts,concepts, but overalloverall thetheyy understoodunderstood mymy questionsquestions anandd respondedresponded withwith ease).ease). SuchSuch a levellevel ofof EnglishEnglish proficiencproficiencyy inin IndianIndian communitiescommunities typicallytypically reflectsreflects anan "urban"urban elite"elite" researchresearch sample.sample. ThisThis designationdesignation hohold Idss forfor thethe JainasJainas 1I spokespoke with,with, too.too. However,However, a qualificationqualification mustmust bbee made.made. OnOn thethe whowhole le,, withwith a literacyliteracy raterate ofof overover ninetninetyy percenpercentt forfor botbothh menmen andand womenwomen (the(the highesthighest inin India)14India)14 andand withwith approximatelyapproximately sixtsixty-fouy-four r percenpercentt ofof JainasJainas livingliving inin urbaurbann centrescentres (also(also thethe highesthighest inin India),India), thethe classificationclassification ofof sornesome JainasJainas overover othersothers asas "urban"urban elite"elite" based onon theirtheir levellevel ofof educationeducation andand abilityability toto speakspeak EnglishEnglish seemsseems somewhatsomewhat superfluous.superfluous. ThuThuss SangaveSangave writeswrites thatthat "the"the preferencpreferencee ofof thethe JainsJains toto livelive iinn urbanurban areasareas isis theirtheir characteristiccharacteristic feature"feature" (2001,47).15(2001, 47).15 Elsewhere,Elsewhere, hehe callscalls thethe JainaJaina populatiopopulationn inin IndiaIndia "literate"literate andand intelligent,"intelligent,"

12 OneOne ofof thethe moremore impressiveimpressive exampleexampless (often(often mentionedmentioned bbyy thethe JainasJainas 1I spokespoke to)to) ofof JainaJaina industriousness,industriousness, goodgood businesbusinesss sense,sense, andand strongstrong reputationreputation forfor trustworthinesstrustworthiness isis thethe recentrecent riserise ofof a groupgroup ofof JainasJainas (mostly(mostly Gujaratis)Gujaratis) whwhoo replacedreplaced thethe JewsJews asas controllerscontrollers ofof thethe internationalinternational diamonddiamond tradetrade inin Antwerp.Antwerp. TheThe prominencprominencee ofof JainasJainas inin thisthis areaarea waswas alsalsoo reflectedreflected iinn thethe choicechoice oflocationof location forfor thethe 20052005 DiamondDiamond WorldWorld jewelrjewelryy show:show: ,Surat, thethe largestlargest citycity ofof southernsouthern Gujarat,Gujarat, homehome toto thethe largestlargest populatiopopulationn ofof JainasJainas inin India.India. 13 13 AccordingAccording toto S.C.S.C. Jain,Jain, JainasJainas "have"have setset upup moremore thanthan 40004000 schoolsschools andand collegescolleges inin India,India, severalseveral thousandthousand hospitalshospitals andand dispensaries,dispensaries, researchresearch institutes,institutes, orphanagesorphanages anandd homeshomes forfor [the][the] elderlyelderly andand destitute"destitute" (Jain(Jain 2007).2007). TheseThese schoolsschools areare primarilprimarilyy non-Jainon-Jainn schoolsschools,, wherwheree religioreligionn isis nonott taught.taught. 1414 The Government of India census of 2005 lists over ninety-five percent of Jainas as literate (having attendedThe Governmen at least hight of school). India censu Literacys of 200 rates5 listands oveprosperityr ninety-fiv tende topercen go handt of inJaina hand;s as consequently, literate (havin eveng thoughattende dJainas at leas compriset high school) less than. Literac 0.5%y ofrate India'ss and prosperittotal populationy tend t o(4.8 go millionhand in outhand of; overconsequently 100 million,, eve nwith overthoug 0.1h Jaina millions compris in the eUS les ands tha Canada),n 0.5% o fthey India' contributes total populatio an estimatedn (4.8 5% millio of nIndia's out o fGDP over (Jain100 million2007). ,One with shouldover 0. 1note, millio however,n in the thatUS anJainasd Canada) often ,self-identify they contribut ase Hindus, an estimate whichd 5 compromises% of India's GD theP accuracy (Jain 2007) ofthese. One andshoul otherd note Census, however statistics., that JainaThis sis ofte slowlyn self-identif changing,y ahowever,s Hindus ,as whic moreh compromise and more Jainass the nowaccurac identifyy of thes e themselvesand other Censu as Jaina,s statistics not Hindu. Thi sor is Hindu-Jaina. slowly changing This, ishowever reflected, as in mor statisticse and mor thate showJaina sa nosharpw identif rise iny Jaina populationthemselves numbersas Jaina, -nofart Hind in excessu or Hindu-Jaina ofnumbers. expectedThis is reflecte from drising in statistic fertilitys tharatest sho (Vallely.w a shar ISSJSp rise lecture,in Jaina Junepopulatio 1 2007).n number HistoricaIly,s - far in the exces self-identifications of numbers expecte of Jainasd fro asm Hindu rising goesfertilit aty least rate sas (Vallely far back. ISSJ as theS lectureaddress, Jungivene 1to 2007) the 1893. Historically World Parliament, the self-identificatio of Religionsn inof ChicagoJainas a sby Hind Vircandu goe sGandhi, at least aa syoung far bac Jainak as lawyer,the addres s givewhon had to thtravelede 1893 toWorl representd Parliamen Jainismt of on Religion behalfs of in his Chicag teacher,o by Acarya Vircan dAtmaramji. Gandhi, a Mf.youn Gandhig Jaina (nolawyer relation, towh Mohandaso had travele Gandhi)d to represen referredt Jainis to aIlm his o nfellow behal fIndians of his teacher- Jainas, Acaryamonga Atmaramjithem - as Hindus.. Mr. Gandh As Kingi (no andrelatio n tSinghvio Mohanda explain,s Gandhi "he )used referre [thed termto al l Hindu]his fello inw its Indian generics - Jainaand geographicals among them sense - as asHindus a person. As whoKin gfollows and a certainSinghv itype explain of culture, "he use andd [thoriginatese term Hindu a certain] in itidea.s generi He cincluded and geographica himself inl sensthis egeneric as a perso sensen wh ... ; oat follow the sames a timecertai hen typ insistede of cultur his owne an religiond originate is Jainism"s a certai n(King idea .and He includeSinghvi,d 1993,himsel 38;f in tense this generichangedc sense... from original).; at the sam e Fortime how he insiste Gandhi'sd hi saddress own religio to then Worldis Jainism Parliament" (King anofd Singhvi, also1993 marks, 38; tens the ebeginning changed froofm the original) Jaina . Diaspora,For how Gandhi' see Chapters addres Two.s to the World Parliament of Religions also marks the beginning of the Jaina Diaspora, see Chapter Two. 15 He writes that "the Jains are essentially urban dwellers. This is the only religious community in India He writes that "the Jains are essentially urban dwellers. This is the only religious community in India whose total numbers in urban areas exceeds their number in rural areas. Out of 3,206,038 total populations whose total numbers in urban areas exceeds their number in rural areas. Out of 3,206,038 total populations of Jains in India as per [the] 1981 Census, 2,050,931 Jains reside in urban areas and 1,155,107 Jains reside of Jains in India as per [the] 1981 Census, 2,050,931 Jains reside in urban areas and 1,155,107 Jains reside in rural areas. It means that the percentage of urban and rural population among the Jains is 63.9 and 36.1 in rural areas. It means that the percentage of urban and rural population among the Jains is 63.9 and 36.1 respectively. These figures for ail [other] religions in India are 23.7 and 76.3 respectively" (Sangave 2001, respectively. These figures for all [other] religions in India are 23.7 and 76.3 respectively" (Sangave 2001, 1111

"sufficiently"sufficiently advanced,"advanced," andand "comparatively"comparatively affluent"affluent" (Sangave(Sangave 2001,2001, 58).1658). IInn

45-6).45-6). HeHe addsadds thatthat "Jains"Jains areare notnot onlyonly moremore urbanizeurbanizedd bubutt theirtheir preferencpreferencee toto livelive inin urbaurbann areasareas iiss continuouslycontinuously increasinincreasingg thisthis centurycentury...... thethe percentagpercentagee ofof thethe urbanurban JainJain populatiopopulationn hashas doubleddoubled duringduring thethe lastlast 8080 yearyearss [from[from 19011901 toto 1981]"1981]" (46).(46). OtherOther trendstrends SangaveSangave notesnotes iiss thatthat "the"the JainJainss areare mormoree urbaurbann inin thethe areasareas wherwheree theythey areare fewfew inin numbernumber andand moremore ruralrural inin thethe areasareas wherewhere theythey areare comparativelycomparatively largelarge iinn number"number" (46).(46). HeHe continuescontinues thatthat "this"this isis duedue toto thethe factfact thatthat inin ananyy religionreligion withwith a pronouncepronouncedd majoritymajority ooff oneone religion,religion, itit willwill bbee foundfound thatthat personspersons notnot ofof thatthat religionsreligions areare mainlymainly toto bbee seenseen inin thethe townstowns...... ThisThis typetype ofof phenomenophenomenonn iiss commoncommon aIlall overover thethe world.world. Everywhere,Everywhere, thethe countrycountry isis homogenoushomogenous andand nativenative,, thethe towntown heterogeneousheterogeneous andand cosmopolitain.cosmopolitain. AlIAll minoritiesminorities thusthus findfind theirtheir wawayy ttoo andand flourishflourish inin townstowns andand thatthat isis whwhyy thethe JaiJainn communitycommunity isis essentiallyessentially urbaurbann inin character"character" (Sangave(Sangave 2001,2001,47) 47).. 16 InIn regardregardss toto growinggrowing JainaJaina literacyliteracy inin particular,particular, SangaveSangave writeswrites thatthat a popularpopular movement toto publishpublish JainJainaa periodicalsperiodicals arosearose amongamong DigambarasDigambaras inin thethe earlyearly twentiethtwentieth centurycentury "in"in responseresponse toto thethe spreadspread ooff literacyliteracy andand thethe useuse ofprinting-presses"of printing-presses" (Sangave(Sangave 2001,2001, 62)62).. A keykey figurefigure ofof thethe movement waswas BabuBabu SurajSuraj BhanajiBhanaji (1868-1945),(1868-1945), a JainJainaa pleadepleaderr ofof Saharanpur U.P.u.P.,, whwhoo publishepublishedd a monthlymonthly calledcalled Jainhitopadeshaka andand thethe Jain Gazette. HeHe alsoalso begabegann thethe widespreawidespreadd printinprintingg ofof JainaJaina scripturesscriptures inin thethe vernacular.vernacular. "Up"Up tilltill then,then, [the[the scriptures]scriptures] existedexisted onlyonly inin manuscriptmanuscript formform andand werewere notnot toto bebe touchedtouched byby laymen"laymen" (62).(62). AnotherAnother majormajor publisherpublisher waswas BabuBabu JyotirasadajJyotirasadajii JainJain (1882-1937)(1882-1937) ofof DevabandDevaband U.P.,U.P., whwhoo publishepublishedd thethe Jain Pracharaka inin UrduUrdu andand Jain Pradipa inin Hindi.Hindi. SethSeth HirachandHirachand NemchanNemchandd DoshiDoshi (1856-1938)(1856-1938) ofof Solapur,Solapur, BombayBombay State,State, alsoalso publishepublishedd thethe Jain Bodhak inin MarathiMarathi (62).(62). AdditionaIly,Additionally, publishinpublishingg institutionsinstitutions suchsuch asas JainJain SiddhantaSiddhanta PrakashiniPrakashini SamsthaSamstha publishepublishedd scripturalscriptural seriesseries suchsuch asas Jain Agama Grantha Mala (such(such institutionsinstitutions werewere precursorsprecursors,, oneone cancan say,say, toto groupsgroups suchsuch asas thethe JainJainaa VidyaVidya SamsthanSamsthan andand FederationFederation ofof JainJain AssociationsAssociations InIn NortNorthh AmericaAmerica (JAINA),(JAINA), whicwhichh todaytoday publishepublishess severalseveral magazinesmagazines suchsuch asas thethe Jain Digest, thethe Jain Study Circular, Toronto-baseToronto-basedd Jinamanjiri, andand soso forth.).forth.). SangaveSangave linkslinks thethe widwidee disseminationdissemination ofof scripturalscriptural knowledgeknowledge inin thethe earlyearly twentiethtwentieth centurycentury toto increasedincreased socio-religioussocio-religious reforms,reforms, especiallyespecially amongamong thethe :Digambaras: "The"The availabilityavailability ofof suchsuch textstexts helpedhelped JainsJains iinn manymany partpartss ofof IndiaIndia toto understandunderstand thethe tenetstenets ofof theirtheir ownown religionreligion andand undertakeundertake a varietyvariety ofof reformsreforms withwith greatergreater confidence"confidence" (Sangave(Sangave 2001,2001, 62).62). InIn responsresponsee toto this,this, traditionaltraditional DigambaraDigambara panditspandits,, mostlymostly inin MadhyaMadhya PradeshPradesh andand UttaUttarr Pradesh, spearheadedspearheaded anan anti-printinganti-printing movement knownknown asas thethe Shastra-mudranaShastra-mudrana VirodhVirodhii AndolanAndolanaa (Anti-Scripture-Printing(Anti-Scripture-Printing Movement).Movement). "Orthodox"Orthodox JainJainss consideredconsidered itit a sinsin ttoo touctouchh a sacredsacred printeprintedd bookbook,, anandd imposedimposed a babann onon keepinkeepingg suchsuch bookbookss iinn temples.temples. Murder threats werewere mademade againstagainst thosethose involvedinvolved inin printingprinting,, and printing-shops were blown up" (Sangave(Sangave 2001,2001, 62.ltalics62. Italics areare mine,mine, toto highlighthighlight thethe severityseverity ofof thisthis issueissue inin thethe mindsminds ofof Jainas,Jainas, soso muchmuch soso thatthat theythey resortedresorted toto violence).violence). IInn fact,fact, thethe reasonreason thethe movementmovement fizzledfizzled out,out, accordingaccording toto Sangave,Sangave, isis nonott onon accountaccount ofof a sobersober reorientationreorientation aroundaround thethe traditionaltraditional JainaJaina nonviolentnonviolent stancestance bubutt simplysimply onon accountaccount ofof "conditions"conditions inin whicwhichh Hindus andand othersothers werewere alsoalso printinprintingg theirtheir scriptures,scriptures, [next[next toto which]which] suchsuch a reactionaryreactionary movement couldcould notnot standstand againstagainst ththee tide"tide" (Sangave(Sangave 2001,62).2001, 62). TheThe riserise ofof JainaJaina associations,associations, newspapers,newspapers, andand publishinpublishingg venturesventures hashas notnot beebeenn withoutwithout itsits illill effectseffects asas weIl,well, writeswrites Sangave.Sangave. EvenEven thoughthough "these"these associationsassociations andand publicationpublicationss havehave createdcreated a heightenedheightened awarenessawareness ofof thethe distinctivedistinctive naturenature ofof thethe JaiJainn community,community, theythey havehave notnot createdcreated a sensesense ofof onenessoneness amongamong aIlall JainsJains irrespectiveirrespective ofof thethe differencedifferencess ofof sect,sect, caste,caste, region,region, language,language, occupation,occupation, andand soso forth.forth. OnOn thethe contrary,contrary, thetheyy havehave fosteredfostered sectariansectarian andand separatistseparatist tendenciestendencies"" (Sangave(Sangave 2001,2001, 66).66). ThisThis isis a seriousserious concernconcern ofof thethe JainaJaina community,community, especiallyespecially thethe JainaJaina DiasporaDiaspora community,community, asas manymany JainasJainas toldtold meme inin ththee summersummer ofof 2007.2007. InstitutionsInstitutions suchsuch asas Federation ofof JJai ainn AssociationsAssociations InIn NortNorthh AmericaAmerica (JAINA)(JAINA),, thethe ISSJS,ISSJS, andand thethe "Glory"Glory ofof JainismJainism"" projecprojectt (see(see above)above) areare attemptsattempts atat achievinachievingg thithiss long-soughtlong-sought afterafter unity amongamong Jainas.Jainas. ForFor example,example, SulekhSulekh Jain,Jain, presidenpresidentt ofof JAINA,JAINA, writeswrites thathatt "The"The FederatioFederationn ofof JAINAJAINA isis a uniqueunique institutioninstitution andand doesdoes notnot havehave manymany parallelparalleiss inin thethe JainJain world.world. JAINAJAINA isis notnot anan organizationorganization ooff individuals,individuals, bubutt ratherrather aann associationassociation ofof associations.associations. DuringDuring itsits twelvetwelve yearsyears ofof existence,existence, itit hashas strivedstrived ttoo uniteunite aIlall JainsJains aass JainJainss (in(in spitespite ofof ourour diversitdiversityy ofof religiousreligious beliefsbeliefs,, traditions,traditions, customs,customs, languageslanguages andand regionalregional origins)"origins)" (Jain(Jain 1993a).1993a). JAINA'sJAINA's long-termlong-term goal,goal, havinhavingg largellargelyy succeededsucceeded inin unitinguniting NorthNorth AmericanAmerican JainasJainas underunder a singlesingle organizationorganization (a(a tasktask itit isis hopinghoping toto repeatrepeat withwith thethe worldwide JainaJaina populationpopulation througthroughh suchsuch initiativesinitiatives asas ISSJS),ISSJS), isis toto increaseincrease thethe profileprofile ofof JainisJainismm internationaIly.internationally. JaiJainn thusthus continuescontinues thathatt "Jains"Jains areare a fairlyfairly accomplishedaccomplished community.community. WeWe havehave a richrich heritage,heritage, ourour peoplpeoplee areare educatededucated andand affluent,affluent, believbelievee inin andand practicpracticee Anekantavad (multiplicity(multiplicity ofof truth)truth) andand ourour monksmonks andand scholarsscholars araree veryvery learnedlearned andand practicpracticee whatwhat thetheyy preachpreach.. SuchSuch a weIlwell disciplineddisciplined andand organizedorganized communitycommunity cancan bbee greatgreat sourcesource ofof strengthstrength anandd a catalystcatalyst forfor change."change." AtAt anotheranother pointpoint,, JainJain writeswrites thatthat "Jainism"Jainism nownow iiss 1212 corroborationcorroboration withwith this,this, VallelyVallely hashas statedstated toto meme thatthat urbanizedurbanized JainasJainas inin DelhiDelhi andand JaipurJaipur dodo not representrepresent a moremore rarifierarifiedd selectionselection ofof Jainas,Jainas, sincesince JainasJainas inin generalgeneral are anan urbanurban eliteelite toto begibeginn with.1177 Laidlaw,Laidlaw, whowhos see researchresearch inin thethe mid-ninetiesmid-nineties alsoalso centrescentres onon JaipurJaipur Jainas,Jainas, similarlysimilarly distinguishesdistinguishes laylay JainasJainas "for"for thethe colourcolour andand opulenceopulence ofof theirtheir collectivecollective life,life, forfor theirtheir wealthwealth,, forfor theirtheir frankfrank andand cheerfulcheerful pridpridee iinn thathatt wealthwealth,, [and][and] forfor thethe manifolmanifoldd ways itit isis linkedlinked withwith asceticism"asceticism" (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1995,4).1995,4). ByBy andand large,large, onlyonly thethe JainJainaa monasticmonastic communitycommunity remainsremains anan exceptionexception toto thisthis characterization.characterization. JainaJaina monksmonks andand nunsnuns generallygenerally dodo notnot speakspeak English.English. ThisThis waswas truetrue ooff thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi SadhvisSadhvis 1I interviewed,interviewed, whowho spokespoke onlyonly Hindi.Hindi. OnlyOnly herehere andand therethere (and(and thenthen veryvery rarely)rarely) diddid thethe headhead SadhvSadhvii punctuatpunctuatee herher speechspeech withwith thethe simplestsimplest ofof EnglishEnglish words.words. 1I was aidedaided aatt allall otherother timestimes bbyy a numbernumber ofof translatorstranslators fromfrom withinwithin thethe laylay communitycommunity ooff devotees.devotees.

FormatFormat ofof ThesisThesis

1I structurestructure mymy thesisthesis around threethree chapters.chapters. ChapterChapter OneOne oudinesoutlines thethe developmentdevelopment ofof variousvarious strategiesstrategies forfor justifyinjustifyingg violenceviolence iinn self-defenseself-defense inin keykey ancientancient andand medievalmedieval JainaJaina texts.texts. ThisThis text-historicaltext-historical analysisanalysis provideprovidess anan essentialessential groundinggrounding toto thethe subjectsubject ooff currentcurrent JainaJaina viewsviews onon self-defense.self-defense. MyMy primarprimaryy purpospurposee iinn thethe otherother twotwo chapterschapters isis toto comparecompare thesethese textual/historicaltextual/historical findingsfindings onon thethe subjectsubject ofof violenceviolence withwith contemporarycontemporary JainaJaina views.views. Thus,Thus, ChaptersChapters TwoTwo andand ThreeThree analyzeanalyze thethe intervieintervieww datadata collectedcollected fromfrom mymy researchresearch iinn JaipurJaipur andand DelhiDelhi inin thethe summersummer ofof 2007.2007. ChapterChapter TwoTwo deals withwith generalgeneral questionsquestions onon JainaJaina values & conduct,conduct, whilewhile ChapterChapter ThreeThree appliesapplies thesethese findingsfindings toto thethe ethicalethical issuesissues undeunderr discussion.discussion. 1I drawdraw parallelparallelss withwith andand highlighthighlight differencesdifferences fromfrom thethe findingsfindings ofof thethe textualtextual chapterchapter (Chapter(Chapter One)One) throughout.throughout.

a worldwide/globalworldwide/global religion,religion, itsits practices,practices, philosophiesphilosophies andand beliefsbeliefs cancan bebe andand shouldshould bebe partpart ofof thatthat locallocal andand globagloball solutionssolutions [sic][sic] thatthat wewe dailydaily seesee inin thethe destructiodestructionn ofof environmentenvironment,, violenceviolence,, killingskillings anandd exploitatioexploitationn aroundaround us"us" (Jai(Jainn 1993a).1993a). 17 17 AnneAnne Vallely,Vallely, emaiemaill correspondance,correspondance, 2020 OctoberOctober 20072007.. ChapterChapter 1

TheThe HistoricalHistorical DevelopmentDevelopment ofof JainaJaina Ksatriya-Dharma 1 DiscourseDiscourse

ThisThis chapterchapter asks:asks: whatwhat isis thethe positiopositionn ofof thethe JainaJaina textualtextual traditiontradition onon thethe issueissue ofof JainaJaina kingskings goinggoing toto war?2war?2 WhatWhat werewere thethe textextua tu all injunctionsinjunctions bbyy whichwhich kingskings actedacted,, givegivenn thethe extremeextreme emphasisemphasis onon totaltotal nonviolencenonviolence (ahimsa) inin thethe tradition?tradition? DidDid JainaJaina kingskings ususee JainaJaina monksmonks aass advisers? HowHow diddid thethe laylay traditiontradition developdevelop inin thisthis regard,regard, andand whatwhat doesdoes thisthis sasayy aboutabout JainaJaina identity?identity? lnIn outliningoutlining mymy positionposition,, 1I mapmap thethe discoursediscourse onon violenceviolence (himsa) andand nonviolencenonviolence (ahimsa) inin keykey JainaJaina textstexts fromfrom thethe ancientancient toto thethe latelate medievalmedieval period.period. TheseThese areare thethe Tatthvartha-sutra ofof UmasvatiUmasvati (second(second centurycentury C.E.),C.E.), thethe Adipurana ofof JinasenaJinasena (ninth(ninth centurcenturyy C.E.),C.E.), anandd thethe Yasastilaka-campu ofof SomadevasuriSomadevasuri (tenth(tenth centurcenturyy C.E.),C.E.), respectively.respectively. ThroughoutThroughout thethe discussion,discussion, 1I shoshoww thatthat justificationjustificationss ofof warwar dodo notnot existexist inin a vacuum,vacuum, but ratherrather thatthat theythey reflectreflect importantimportant sociasociall andand philosophicaphilosophicall realities.realities. 1I tracetrace thethe trajectoriestrajectories ofof c10selyclosely relatedrelated conceptsconcepts sucsu chh asas anuvrata (minor(minor vow),vow), pratima (stage(stage ofof progress)progress),, andand vrata (c1ass).(class). InIn particularparticular,, 1I focusfocus onon thethe emergenceemergence ofof thethe laity asas a crucialcrucial factorfactor inin thethe developmentdevelopment ofof JainaJaina warriowarriorr (ksatriya-dharma) discourse.discourse. PreciselyPrecisely whywhy a laity develops afterafter a nearnear totaltotal absencabsencee inin thethe earliestearliest textstexts isis stillstill unc1ear,unclear, althoughalthough mostmost scholarsscholars agreeagree thatthat itit hashas toto dodo withwith thethe needneed forfor JainismJainism toto countercounter

1 Ksatriya-dharma translatestranslates asas thethe "dharma ofof warriorswarriors (ksatriya)." KatherineKatherine YoungYoung writeswrites thatthat dharmadharma (from(from thethe SanskritSanskrit rooroott dhr, meaninmeaningg "to"to holdhold firm"firm" oror "sustain")"sustain") "has"has a rangrangee ofof traditiontraditiona all meanings,meanings, inc1udingincluding ethicsethics (custom,(custom, goodgood works,works, prescribeprescribedd conduct,conduct, dutduty y,, virtue),virtue), cosmiccosmic orderorder (human(human actionaction sustainingsustaining thethe universe),universe), religion,religion, justicejustice,, andand law"law" (Youn(Youngg 2004,2004, 281).281). InIn ththee compoundcompound ksatriya-dharma thethe termterm dharma isis mostmost oftenoften understoodunderstood asas dutyY - therefore,therefore, "dutyY ofof warriors"warriors" oror "duty Y ofof kings."kings." ManyMany ofof thethe pointpointss discusseddiscussed inin thisthis chapterchapter havehave beebeenn associatedassociated withwith a JainaJaina "Just"Just War"War" positiopositionn (see(see JainiJaini 2004).2004). 2 2 WeWe knowknow thatthat JainismJainism waswas notnot unrelateunrelatedd toto empireempire fromfrom evidenceevidence inin thethe formform ofreligiousof religious monuments erectederected bbyy JainJainaa kingskings andand generals,generals, anandd inscriptionsinscriptions andand memorialmemorial stonesstones (nisidhi) celebratingcelebrating JainaJaina militarymilitary campaigns.campaigns. OverOver thethe coursecourse ofof itsits lonlongg historyhistory onon thethe IndianIndian subcontinent,subcontinent, JainismJainism wawass mosmostt politicallpoliticallyy activeactive duringduring ththee medievamedievall perioperiodd (500(500 C.EC.E.. - 13001300 C.E.)C.E.),, whewhenn ththee majoritymajority ofof SouthSouth IndianIndian kingdomskingdoms werewere JainaJaina (Dunda(Dundass 20022002,, 118-20;118-20; CortCort 1998.1998. SeeSee alsoalso notenote onon dating,dating, below)below).. Indeed,Indeed, despitedespite thethe smsmal aIll sizesize ofof thethe JainaJaina community'scommunity's presenpresentt populationpopulation,, Jainism'sJainism's influenceinfluence onon India'sIndia's cultural,cultural, politicalpolitical,, anandd economiceconomic spheresspheres throughoutthroughout ancient,ancient, medieval,medieval, anandd modernmodern periodperiodss hashas beebeenn substantial.substantial. ForFor a discussiondiscussion ofof this,this, seesee SoganiSogani 2003.2003. 1414 brahmanicabrahmanicall influence.influence. InIn thatthat case,case, however,however, seriousserious questionsquestions arisearise aboutabout whetherwhether thethe conceptconcept ofof thethe Jaina four-foldfour-fold communitycommunity (){sangha) ofof monks,monks, nunsnuns,, malmalee laity andand femalefemale laity isis itselfitself notnot simplysimply a medievalmedieval invention.invention. 1I dodo nonott attempattemptt toto answeranswer thesethese difficultdifficult questions;questions; mymy mainmain focusfocus isis simplysimply toto highlighthighlight howhow thethe risrisee ofof thethe laity coincidescoincides withwith a neneww andand importanimportantt developmentdevelopment inin JainaJaina religionreligion:: thethe emergenceemergence ofof a textuallytextually verifiableverifiable (albeit(albeit subtle)subtle) discoursediscourse onon ksatriya-dharma.ksatriya-dharma.

"Ancient""Ancient" andand EarlyEarly MedievalMedieval PeriodPeriod (600(600 B.C.E.B.C.E. -1000-1000 C.E.)3C.E.)3

Inflexibility in the earliest canonical texts

TheThe earliestearliest stratastrata ofof thethe SvetambaraSvetambara canoncanon (the(the DigambarasDigambaras ofof coursecourse denydeny a canon)canon)44 includesincludes thethe Ayaranga, Suyagadanga (the(the firstfirst twotwo ofof thethe eleveneleven Angas), Dasaveyaliya,Dasaveyaliya, andand Uttarajjhayana Suttas.5 MostMost scholarsscholars agreeagree thatthat aIlall fourfour containcontain doctrinesdoctrines thatthat gogo bacbackk toto ;Mahavira; however,however, thethe firstfirst twotwo areare consideredconsidered oldestoldest onon groundsgrounds ofof languagelanguage andand metremetre (Johnson(Johnson 1995,4).1995, 4). LaterLater canonicalcanonical textstexts includeinclude thethe fifthfifth Anga ofof thethe SvetambaraSvetambara canon,canon, thethe Viyahapannati (Bhagavai), essentiallyessentially a proclamatioproclamationn ooff explanationsexplanations givengiven bbyy MahaviraMahavira toto disciples.disciples. MuchMuch laterlater stillstill isis thethe Tattvartha-sutra ooff Umasvati,Umasvati, thethe earliestearliest extantextant JainaJaina workwork inin (c(c 150-350150-350 C.E.)C.E.),, representingrepresenting "the"the firstfirst realreal synthesissynthesis ofof JainaJaina doctrine"doctrine" (Johnson(Johnson 1995,46).1995, 46). ItIt iiss thethe onlyonly texttext thatthat bothboth SvetambaraSvetambara andand DigambaraDigambara JainasJainas considerconsider authoritative.authoritative. TheseThese earliestearliest texts,texts, asas hashas beebeenn pointepointedd outout bbyy aIlall writerswriters onon Jainism,Jainism, werewere writtenwritten exclusivelyexclusively forfor monksmonks bbyy monks.monks. TheyThey areare thusthus stronglystrongly orientedoriented towardtoward thethe extremeextreme asceticascetic demandsdemands ofof earliestearliest recordedrecorded Jainism.Jainism. ItIt cornescomes asas nono surprise,surprise, then,then, thatthat

3 3 R.R. Williams,Williams, inin Jaina (in(in Khadabadi),Khadabadi), dividesdivides historyhistory intointo threethree mainmain periodsperiods:: (i)(i) earlyearly perioperiodd (6oo(600 B.C.E.B.C.E. - 400400 C.E.);C.E.); (ii)(ii) medievalmedieval perioperiodd (circa(circa 500500 C.E.C.E. -- 13001300 C.E.);C.E.); (iii)(iii) modernmodern periodperiod (1400(1400 C.E.C.E . onward).onward). InIn thisthis chapter,chapter, 1I examineexamine thethe firstfirst twotwo periodsperiods,, althoughalthough 1I setset theirtheir dividingdividing lineline atat thethe lOth10th century,century, whicwhichh marksmarks thethe originorigin oftheof the conceptconcept ofof virodhi-himsa (see(see below)below).. 4 P.S. Jaini suggests the Svetambaras began writing down their canon sorne time prior to the second council ofP.S . Jaini suggestin the fourths the Svetambaracentury C.E.,s begawith nthe writin finalg redactiondown thei notr cano maden som untile timthee end prio ofr t othe th fifthe secon or d council beginningof Mathur aofthe in the sixth fourt centuryh centur C.E.y C.E. (Jaini, wit h1974,51-2, the final redactio in Johnsonn no t1995,5). made unti Thel th fifthe end century, of the fift withh o rthe beginninfamous Jainag of thcouncile sixth atcentur Valabhi,y C.E also. (Jain marksi 1974 the, 51-2 termination, in Johnso pointn 1995 of the, 5) "ancient. The fift herau century (Jaini, wit1979,h th 276n3).e Thefamou Digambarass Jaina counci denyl a thet Valabhi authenticity, also mark of thes thSvetambarae terminatio canonn poin andt of recognizethe "ancien onlyt era the" (Jain smalli 1979 surviving, 276n3) . Thportione of the ancients deny ,the authenticit to whichy o theyf the addSvetambar a large anumber canon anofd scholastic recognize expositions only the smal (anuyoga).l survivin g portion of the ancient Purvas, to which they add a large number of scholastic expositions (anuyoga). 5 1I useuse bothboth SanskritSanskrit andand PrakritPrakrit titlestitles interchangeably.interchangeably. ThusThus atat timestimes Ayaranga isis writtenwritten Acaranga.Acaranga. 1515 thethe majoritymajority ofof thesethese earlyearly textstexts simplysimply equateequate anyany formform ofof attachmentattachment (parigraha),(parigraha), whetherwhether toto animateanimate oror inanimateinanimate things,things, withwith violenceviolence (arambha), andand dodo not distinguishdistinguish betweenbetween violenceviolence donedone toto multi-sensedmulti-sensed (trasa) beingsbeings andand one-sensedone-sensed (sthavara) beings.beings. VirtuallyVirtually aIlall actionaction isis bindingbinding andand thereforetherefore toto bebe avoideavoidedd (Johnso(Johnsonn 1995,5-6,26).1995, 5-6, 26). AlsoAIso,, thethe textstexts holdhold nono ideaidea ofof a gradationgradation oror progressioprogressionn througthroughh a seriesseries ofof birthbirthss towardstowards moksa. Rather,Rather, any rebirthrebirth iiss undesirablundesirablee (Johnson(Johnson 1995,23).1995, 23). TheThe Ayaranga Sutta uncompromisingluncompromisinglyy outlinesoutlines onlyonly twotwo possibilitiepossibilitiess afterafter death:death: rebirthrebirth intointo a worldworld ooff "hellish"hellish beingbeingss andand animals"animals" oror moksa (Johnson(Johnson 1995,23).1995, 23). Consequently,Consequently, thethe earliestearliest ooff thesthesee textstexts,, especiallespeciallyy ththee Ayaranga anandd ththee Suyagadanga, holdhold "an"an uncompromisinglyuncompromisingly negativenegative viewview ofof thethe householderhouseholder because hehe isis a householder"householder" (Johnson(Johnson 1995,1995, 23).23). AsAs JohnsoJohnsonn states,states, hehe "only"only putputss inin anan appearanceappearance inin thesethese textstexts toto acactt asas a kindkind ofof lighthouse,lighthouse, warningwarning thethe ascetiasceticc awayaway fromfrom...socia ... sociall contact"contact" (Johnson(Johnson 1995,1995, 73).73). Interestingly,Interestingly, howeverhowever,, thethe ververyy factfact thathatt ththee texttextss mentiomentionn ththee laity pointpointss toto a real-lifreal-lifee interactioninteraction betweebetweenn monkmonkss andand laity atat ththee timetime.. EarlyEarly Angas (for(for exampleexample thethe Suyagadanga)Suyagadanga) stronglystrongly prohibiprohibitt monksmonks fromfrom visitingvisiting laylay househousess andand preachinpreachingg thethe DhammaDhamma withwith thethe intentionintention ofof gettinggetting almsalms.. ThisThis meansmeans botbothh thathatt monksmonks werweree doingdoing so,so, andand thatthat "there"there was sornesome expectationexpectation onon thethe parpartt ofof householdershouseholders thatthat almsalms shouldshould bbee repaidrepaid withwith teaching"teaching" (Johnso(Johnsonn 1995,28).1995, 28). However,However, thisthis doesdoes notnot alludeallude toto anan intrinsicintrinsic JainaJaina ideaidea ofof almsalms­­ givinggiving asas a laylay meritoriousmeritorious actact but merelymerely toto thethe standardstandard pan-Indiapan-Indiann oneone (Johnson(Johnson 19951995,, 27-8,30).27-8, 30). InIn thisthis framework,framework, wewe seesee thethe extremityextremity ofof anan asceticascetic idealideal thatthat isis rigidrigid inin itsits ultimatultimatee prohibition ofof actionaction andand totaltotal exclusionexclusion ofof non-monks.non-monks. NeedlesNeedlesss toto say,say, thethe earliestearliest JainaJaina prohibitionprohibitionss ofof himsa, asas inin thethe Suyagadanga, forfor example,example, relaterelate exclusivelyexclusively toto violenceviolence throughthrough externalexternal actionaction (Johnso(Johnsonn 1995,6).1995, 6). Therefore,Therefore, asas JohnsonJohnson writes,writes, "the"the possibilitpossibilityy ofof sornesome kindkind ofof meritoriousmeritorious activityactivity scarcelyscarcely arises;arises; itit isis onlyonly bbyy restraintrestraint fromfrom actionaction thatthat oneone cancan hopehope toto improveimprove one'sone's condition"condition" (Johnson(Johnson 1995,26).1995, 26). InIn otherother words,words, "talk"talk ofof a 'pious''pious' oror 'meritorious''meritorious' act remainedremained largelylargely a contradictioncontradiction inin terms"terms" (Johnson(Johnson 1995,31).1995, 31). ItIt cornescomes asas nnoo surprise,surprise, then,then, thatthat thethe mostmost ancientancient textstexts prohibiprohibitt contactcontact withwith kings,kings, whwhoo areare embroiledembroiled inin thethe worldworld ooff action.action. TextsTexts legislatinglegislating asceticascetic behavourbehavour,, susuc chh asas thethe Mulacara ofVattakeraof Vattakera (circa(circa secondsecond centurycentury C.E.),C.E.), "are"are adadaman amantt thatthat itit isis improperimproper forfor monksmonks toto taketake almsalms fromfrom a king"king" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 118).118). InIn fact,fact, injunctionsinjunctions 1616 advancedadvanced asas latelate asas 700700 C.E.C.E. inin 'sHaribhadra's commentarycommentary onon thethe AvasyakaniryuktiA vasyakaniryukti ooff BhadrabahuBhadrabahu prohibiprohibitt "monks"monks whowho comecome afterafter thethe lastlast fordmakerfordmaker toto taketake almsalms fromfrom kingskings...als ... alsoo truetrue ofof thethe monkmonkss whowho camecame afterafter thethe firstfirst fordmaker"fordmaker" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 292292 n.16).6n.16).6 TheseThese injunctioninjunctionss areare contradicted,contradicted, however,however, bbyy inscriptional evidenceevidence thatthat pointspoints toto thethe interactiointeractionn ofof JainaJaina monksmonks withwith kingskings iinn thethe KarnatakaKarnataka regioregionn ofof SouthSouth IndiaIndia atat thithiss time.7 NoNott onlyonly diddid thesethese monkmonkss forgeforge closeclose relationshipsrelationships witwithh kings;kings; thetheyy alsoalso routinelyroutinely brokbrokee theitheirr vowsvows ofof ahimsa toto foundfound JainaJaina dynastiesdynasties (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 118).118). ExamplesExamples includincludee thethe DigambaraDigambara Sirnhanandi,Simhanandi, whwhoo establishedestablished thethe GangaGanga dynastydynasty (third(third centurycentury 8 c.E.)C.E.) anandd wrotwrotee a codecode ooff rulesrules ofof kingshikingshipp8 iinn whichwhich nono prohibitioprohibitionn iiss madmadee againstagainst war.war. TheyThey alsalsoo includeinclude thethe storystory ofof thethe DigambaraDigambara Sudatta,Sudatta, whowho foundedfounded thethe KarnatakaKarnataka dynastydynasty bbyy outrightoutright advocatingadvocating thethe killingkilling ofof a dangerousdangerous tiger,tiger, shoutingshouting "poy"poy [smite[smite him]him] Sala!"Sala!" ThisThis inspiredinspired thethe locallocal chieftanchieftan SalaSala toto foundfound thethe JainaJaina kingdomkingdom ofof PoyasalaPoyasala (later(later Hoysala).Hoysala). Finally,Finally, wewe havehave thethe exampleexample ofof thethe SvetambaraSvetambara AcaryaAcarya KalakaKalaka (first(first centurycentury B.c.E.),B.C.E.), whowho incitedincited a warwar withwith neighbouringneighbouring kingdomskingdoms toto punispunishh thethe king'sking's indecentindecent affairaffair witwithh Kalaka'sKalaka's sister,sister, a JainaJaina nunnun (Jaini(Jaini 1979,279-83).1979, 279-83). YetYet onon thethe subjectsubject ofof thesethese andand otherother events,events, thethe earlyearly textstexts remainremain completelycompletely silent.silent.

6 HaribhadraHaribhadra alsoalso mentions,mentions, however,however, "the"the primordiaprimordiall acactt ofof almsgivingalmsgiving inin thisthis worldworld eraera [that)[that] waswas KingKing Sreyamsa'sSreyamsa's gifgiftt ofof sugarcanesugarcane juicjuicee toto Rsabha"Rsabha" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 292nI6).292nl6). 1I havehave nonott beebeenn ableable toto tracetrace thethe originsorigins ofof thethe RsabhaRsabha myth,myth, bubutt neverthelessnevertheless itit nicelynicely highlightshighlights thethe ambiguityambiguity surroundingsurrounding thethe subjectsubject ooff kingskings andand kingshipkingship inin earlyearly Jainism.Jainism. Incidentally,Incidentally, HaribhadraHaribhadra isis mostmost famousfamous forfor advocatingadvocating anekantavada,anekantavada, thethe JainaJaina doctrinedoctrine ofof non-absolutismnon-absolutism (for(for moremore onon anekantavada, seesee below)below).. 7 7 Admittedly,Admittedly, JainiJaini andand DundasDundas araree a litdelittle uncleaunclearr onon thethe evidenceevidence herheree bubutt remainremain convincedconvinced thatthat itit pointspoints toto realreal events occurringoccurring atat thethe time.time. DundasDundas statesstates thatthat sornesome ofof itit isis "late""late" inscriptionalinscriptional evidenceevidence butbut maintainsmaintains thethe overalloverall validityvalidity ofof thethe storiesstories becausebecause:: "there"there isis nono epigraphicepigraphic mentionmention inin KarnatakaKarnataka ofof JainsJains ofof a mercantilemercantile oror bourgeoibourgeoiss backgrounbackgroundd untiuntill thethe tenthtenth centurycentury and,and, althoughalthough itit wouldwould bbee imprudentimprudent toto denydeny ththee existenceexistence ofof suchsuch laylay followers,followers, thethe picturpicturee ofof JainismJainism uupp toto thisthis poinpointt isis veryvery mumuc chh ofof a religionreligion sponsoredsponsored bbyy kingskings andand warriowarriorr aristocrats"aristocrats" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 118).118). ThThee mostmost prominenprominentt exexampl amplee ofof thisthis araree thethe inscriptionsinscriptions atat SravanaSravana BelagolaBelagola inin Karnataka,Karnataka, homehome toto thethe giangiantt Gommatesvara/BahubaliGommatesvara/Bahubali statue,statue, thethe largestlargest religioureligiouss monumentmonument inin IndiaIndia andand thethe officialofficial symbolsymbol ofof thethe statestate ofof Karnataka:Karnataka: "The"The attractionattraction ooff SravanaSravana BelagolaBelagola forfor warriorswarriors susuc chh asas CamundarayaCamundaraya [who[who inin 989811 C.E.C.E. setset uupp thethe greagreatt statuestatue ofof Bahubali)Bahubali] cacann bbee seenseen fromfrom thethe settingsetting upup therethere inin thethe tenthtenth centurycentury ofof herohero stones,stones, a sortsort stillstill toto bbee seenseen todaytoday onon thethe outskirtsoutskirts ofof manymany IndianIndian villages,villages, commemoratingcommemorating thosethose whowho hadhad dieddied a violentviolent deathdeath inin battlbattIee andand whichwhich werewere placeplacedd nearnear thethe memorialsmemorials toto thosethose bravbravee asceticsascetics whowho hadhad fastedfasted toto deathdeath onon thethe LittleLittle HillHill [Candragiri).[Candragiri]. TheThe erectionerection atat thisthis timetime ofof memorialsmemorials toto kingskings demonstratesdemonstrates SravanaSravana Belagola'sBelagola's connectionconnection withwith locallocal royalroyal courts,courts, andand itit emergedemerged asas thethe subsequentsubsequent foundingfounding ooff a monestarymonestary (matha), whoswhosee successivesuccessive clericalclerical headsheads () claimedclaimed descentdescent fromfrom Camundaraya'Camundaraya'ss guruguru,, NemicandraNemicandra,, andand thethe attendantattendant promotiopromotionn ofof thethe cultcult ofof thethe locallocal tutelarytutelary goddesgoddesss KusmandiniKusmandini who,who, accordingaccording toto legend,legend, hadhad appearedappeared inin thethe guiseguise ooff anan oldold womanwoman toto completecomplete witwithh thethe contentscontents ofof a tinytiny popott thethe firstfirst rituallustrationritual lustration ofof thethe imageimage ofof BahubaliBahubali whicwhichh CamundarayaCamundaraya hahadd beebeenn unableunable toto carrycarry outout fully"fully" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 225)225).. 8g 1 could not find this work I could not find this work 1717

New frontiersfrontiers - anuvrata and pratima

ItIt isis notnot untiluntil wewe reachreach thethe latelate canonicalcanonical perioperiodd (second(second toto thirdthird centuriescenturies C.E.)C.E.) thatthat wewe begibeginn toto seesee reflectedreflected inin thethe textstexts sornesome flexibility inin monastimonasticc ideals,ideals, coincidingcoinciding witwithh thethe firstfirst signssigns ooff laylay integrationintegration intointo thethe monkmonk community.community. WeWe encounterencounter twotwo contemporarycontemporary keykey texts:texts: Umasvati'sUmasvati's Tattvartha-sutra (henceforth,(henceforth, TvS)TvS) (circa(circa 150-350150-350 C.E.),C.E.), whichwhich asas mentionedmentioned aboveabove isis thethe onlyonly texttext recognizedrecognized bbyy botbothh thethe SvetambarasSvetambaras andand Digarnbaras,Digambaras, andand thethe Upasakadasah (Ten(Ten ChaptersChapters onon LayLay Attenders\Attenders9), thethe seventhseventh Anga ofof thethe SvetambaraSvetambara canoncanon (considere(consideredd loslostt bbyy thethe Digarnbaras).Digambaras). TheThe TvSTvS iiss a texttext ofof primaryprimary importancimportancee becausbecausee ofof itsits remarkableremarkable synthesynthesi siss ofof diversediverse andand competingcompeting remarksremarks fromfrom 10 variouvariouss earlierearlier scriptures. JO TheThe mainmain contributioncontribution ofof thethe TvSTvS toto thethe discoursediscourse onon ksatriya-dharma isis thethe developmentdevelopment ofof a distinctiondistinction betweebetweenn moremore andand lessless harrnfulharmful activitiesactivities basebasedd onon a newnew ideaidea ofof meritoriousmeritorious action.action. This,This, inin tum,turn, isis based onon a newlynewly formedformed distinctiondistinction betweenbetween passionatepassionate,, bindingbinding activityactivity andand non-passionate,non-passionate, non-bindingnon-binding activityactivity (Johnson(Johnson (1995,(1995,44 44-- 5).5). A compromisecompromise iiss accordinglyaccordingly mademade iinn thethe prohibitionprohibition againstagainst violenceviolence toto allowallow forfor arambhaja (or(or arambhi) himsa, necessitousnecessitous himsa thatthat inadvertentlinadvertentlyy occursoccurs iinn thethe activeactive lifelife ofof a householder."1l ThisThis conceptconcept isis laterlater appliedapplied toto sixsix individuallayindividual lay "occupations""occupations" (including(including thatthat ofof ruler)ruler) iinn thethe ninthninth centurycentury Adipurana (see(see below)below).. Arambhi himsa iiss thethe firstfirst andand mostmost importantimportant ofof thethe newlynewly conceivedconceived anuvratas (minor(minor vowsvows forfor laitlaity)y), , whichwhich

9 AlIlranslatedAll translated titlestitles inin thisthis chapterchapter comecome fromfrom DundasDundas (2002)(2002).. 10 ThiThiss synthesizingsynthesizing qualityquality alsoalso produceproducedd thethe JainJ ainaa systemsystem ofof philosophicaphilosophicall relativismrelativism knownknown asas anekantavada. DundasDundas tracestraces thethe "germs""germs" ooff anekantavada toto anan eveneven earlierearlier text,text, thethe Viyahapannatti (Bhagavaz)(Bhagavai) (Expositio(Expositionn ofof Explanations)Explanations) ofof thethe SvetambaraSvetambara scriptures,scriptures, wherewhere itit factorsfactors inin Mahavira'sMahavira's conversionconversion ofof a brahmabrahmann (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 230).230). OnOn thethe DigambaraDigambara side,side, thethe ideaidea isis tracedtraced toto 'sKundakunda's employmentemployment ofof a two-Ievels-of-truthtwo-levels-of-truth modelmodel thatthat includedincluded thethe termterm naya (standpoint),(standpoint), thethe centralcentral conceptconcept iinn a "fully"fully developeddeveloped JainJain relativism."relativism." TheThe catalystcatalyst forfor thisthis relativismrelativism waswas itsits synthesissynthesis inin thethe Tattvartha-sutra.Tattvartha-sutra. However,However, thethe firstfirst toto formulateformulate a standardstandard systemsystem ofof sevenseven nayas seemsseems toto havehave beebeenn thethe SvetambaraSvetambara MallavadinMallavadin (fifth(fifth oror sixthsixth centurycentury C.E.).C.E.). ChappleChappie tracestraces itit fromfrom thethe Sutrakta inin ththee secondsecond sectionsection ofof ththee SvetambaraSvetambara canoncanon throughthrough thethe Sanmatisutra ofof SiddhasenaSiddhasena DivakaraDivakara (fifth(fifth centurycentury C.E.),C.E.), andand finallyfinally toto thethe Syadvadamanjari ofof MallisenaMallisena (thirteenth(thirteenth centurycentury C.E.).C.E.). ThisThis lastlast "offers"offers a comprehensivecomprehensive critiquecritique ofof non­non- JainaJaina philosophicaphilosophicall schoolsschools andand religiousreligious practicespractices"" (Chapple(Chappie 1993,1993, 86).86). SorneSome ofof thethe JainasJainas 1I spokespoke toto tracetracedd thethe firstfirst instanceinstance ofof anekantavada inin comprehensivecomprehensive formform toto Samantabhadra'sSamantabhadra's Aptamimamsa (second(second ttoo fourthfourth centurycentury C.E.)C.E.) (Katarnikar.(Katarnikar. ISSJSISSJS lecture,lecture, JulyJuly 192007).19 2007). ModernModern JainJainaa scholarsscholars suchsuch asas K.CK.C.. SoganiSogani datedate SamantabhadraSamantabhadra toto thethe secondsecond centurycentury C.E.;C.E.; DundasDundas datesdates hihimm a littlelittle later,later, toto thethe fourthfourth centurycentury C.E.C.E. (see(see DundasDundas 2002)2(02).. Il Although,Although, aass JohnsoJohnsonn pointpointss out,out, thethe anuvrata ofof ahimsa appliesapplies onlyonly toto trasa (multi-sensed)(multi-sensed) beingsbeings iinn thethe TvTvSS (Johnson(Johnson 1995,73).1995,73). JainiJaini tracetracess thethe ideasideas ofof samkalpaja-himsa andand arambhaja-himsa toto thethe Tattvartha-sutra andand thethe Sarvarthasiddhi ooff PujyapadaPujyapada (eighth(eighth centurycentury C.E.),C.E.), a DigambarDigambaraa commentarycommentary onon thethe Tattvartha-sutra (Jaini(Jaini 1979,1979,170n31) 170n31).. 1818 comprisecomprise thethe secondsecond ofof eleveneleven stagesstages ofof spiritualspiritual progresprogresss prescribeprescribedd forfor laity (called(called pratimas) thatthat echoecho thethe fourteenfourteen (stages(stages ofof quality)12quality)12 ofof thethe JainaJaina monk.monk. TheThe originorigin ofofth thee pratimas isis inin thethe Upasakadasah. 13 TheThe pratimaspratimas differdiffer slightlyslightly betweenbetween DigambarasDigambaras andand Svetambaras;Svetambaras; however,however, botbothh SvetambarasSvetambaras andand DigambarasDigambaras agreeagree onon thethe identityidentity andand naturenature ofof ththee anuvratas (Jaini(Jaini 1979,1979, 170n30).170n30). lnIn thisthis way,way, thethe latelate parpartt ofof thethe SvetambaraSvetambara canoncanon andand thethe TvSTvS establish,establish, forfor thethe 14 firstfirst time14 inin thethe JainaJaina scripturalscriptural tradition,tradition, a two-foldtwo-fold modelmodel ofof conduct:conduct: onon thethe oneone hand,hand, fullfull renunciationrenunciation (sarva-virati) forfor thethe monks;monks; onon thethe other,other, partiapartiall renunciatiorenunciationn (desa-(desa­ virati) forfor "the"the pioupiouss householder. ... .o onn thethe samesame soteriologicalsoteriological continuumcontinuum aass thethe monk"monk" (Johnson(Johnson 1995,1995, 73).1573).15 TheThe oneone involvesinvolves fullfull vowsvows (mahavrata); thethe otherother minorminor vowsvows (anuvrata) thatthat admiadmitt ofof exceptions.exceptions. ThisThis acknowledgmentacknowledgment inin thethe textualtextual traditiontradition ofof a compromisecompromise forfor thethe laity inin thethe fullfull (monastic)(monastic) vowvow ofof Ahimsa reflectsreflects a newnew attitudattitudee ooff inclusioninclusion that,that, aass 1I show,show, isis integralintegral ttoo thethe developmentdevelopment ofof a balancinbalancingg discoursediscourse betweenbetween ahimsa anandd kingship.kingship.

12 12 ForFor a discussiondiscussion ofof thethe gunasthanas, andand howhow theythey havehave beebeenn integratedintegrated intointo laylay practicepractice,, seesee followingfollowing chapters.chapters. 1313 Dundas, following Williams, states that the pratimas were formalized in the Upasakadasah and in the SamavayangasutramDundas, following Williams(he does ,not state provides that ththee pratimasdate). The wer Upasakadasahe formalized iisn fullthe Upasakadasahof personalities an whod in end the up Samavayangasutramliving the lives ofhouseholder-monks (he does not provid whoe thhavee date) not. receivedThe Upasakadasah ascetic initiation is full (Dundasof personalitie 2002,s 187-189).who end uAsp Williamsliving the writes:lives o f"the householder-monk Upasakadasah ssupplied who hav thee no frameworkt received ofasceti thec , initiatio eachn (Dunda with itss 2002 five ,typical 187-189) . As Williamaticaras sor writes infractions,: "the Upasakadasah and the pratimas. supplie Thoughd the theframewor notionk that of ththesee vratas, aticaras each were with intended its five typica only asl examplesaticaras o ris infractionsfamiliar to, theand olderthe pratimas. Svetambara Thoug acaryas,h the notio theyn soon that became,these aticaras in practice, were intendethe basisd onlof ay as completeexamples moralis familia code"r to (Williams the older Svetambarxvi-xvii, ina Khadabadiacaryas, the 2006).y soo n became, in practice, the basis of a complete moral code" (Williams xvi-xvii, in Khadabadi 2006). 1414 There are precedents, however. As Johnson outlines, the idea of mental himsa (violence through thought) is Therfounde firstare precedents in the Dasaveyaliya, however. (seeAs Johnso Johnsonn outlines 1995, 10), th eand ide ina opartsf menta of thel himsa Suyagadanga, (violence througalthoughh thought in ) theseis foun andd firs othert in earlythe Dasaveyaliya texts such ideas (see remain Johnso n"isolated" 1995, 10 and) an d"ambiguous" in parts of th (Johnsone Suyagadanga, 1995,30-1). althoug Similarly,h in thesonlye intermittentlyand other earl iny textSuyagadangas such idea s2 remai(1 taken this"isolated to mean" an itsd "ambiguous latter portion)" (Johnso and then Uttarajjhayana1995, 30-1). Similarly "are , thereonly intermittentlenough referencesy in Suyagadanga to the self-restrained 2 (I take thihouseholders to mean it whos latte achievesr portion rebirth) and thine heaven Uttarajjhayana or as a human "are to givethere theenoug impressionh reference thats tthiso th possibilitye self-restraine is becomingd householde doctrinallyr who achieveestablished"s rebirt (Johnsonh in heave 1995,30).n or as a Thehuma n to Digambaragive the impressio mysticn Kundakunda that this possibilit (secondy i scentury becomin C.E.)g doctrinall is also consideredy established an" important(Johnson innovator.1995, 30). The DigambarKhadabadia (2006)mystic writesKundakund that thea (secon outlinesd centur of they codeC.E. )of is conductalso considere for thed lait an y:importan "came downt innovator in the. KhadabadUpasakadhyayanai (2006) write[mentioneds that th ine outlinethe Satkhandagama]s of the code o fand conduc the extantt for th Urasaga-dasaoe laity: "came dow of then i nArdhamagadhi the CanonUpasakadhyayana of the Svetambaras, [mentione andd ifurther,n the Satkhandagama] given sorne place an din th thee extan earlyt worksUrasaga-dasao like the Caritra-prabhrta of the Ardhamagadhi of CanoKundakundan of the andSvetambaras the Tattvarthasutra, and further ofUmasvamin.", given some plac e in the early works like the Caritra-prabhrta of Kundakund15 Accordinga toan dJaini, the Tattvarthasutrapartial renunciation of Umasvamin. (desa-virati)" was advocated by the monks because they knew full weIlAccordin their dependencyg to Jaini, partiaon thel renunciatiolait y (Jainin 1979, (desa-virati) 160). This wa ins advocateitself wasd dueby th toe monkvariouss becaus factors,e themostlyy kne thew full resultwell thei of rpressure dependenc by ythe on brahmanical the laity (Jain traditioni 1979, on160) Jainism. This i(seen itsel nextf wa section).s due to various factors, mostly the result of pressure by the brahmanical tradition on Jainism (see next section). 1919

Changing notions of merit, changing notions of caste

BriefBrief mentionmention mustmust bbee mademade herehere ofof castecaste iinn relationrelation toto thethe aboveabove socialsocial andand philosophicaphilosophicall changes.changes. ItIt seemseemss clearclear fromfrom thethe textualtextual evidenceevidence thatthat thethe JainaJaina castecaste systemsystem,, whichwhich isis based oonn meritmerit ratherrather thanthan birth,birth,1616 isis anan earlyearly medievalmedieval invention,invention, developeddeveloped inin responseresponse toto thethe reformulatioreformulationn ooff actionaction andand thethe ascendancyascendancy ofof thethe ideaidea ooff meritmerit inin thethe textstexts jusjustt discussed.discussed. NeedlesNeedlesss toto say,say, thisthis contradictscontradicts thethe traditionaltraditional JainaJaina view,view, whichwhich maintainsmaintains thatthat thethe reorientationreorientation ofof thethe BrahmanicaBrahmanicall castecaste systemsystem aroundaround thethe ideideaa ofof meritmerit originatedoriginated withwith MahavirMahaviraa himselfhimself.. ForFor example,example, JainaJaina thinkersthinkers suchsuch asas PremPrem SumanSuman JainJain writewrite::

thethe eightheighth andand nintninthh sermonssermons [of[of Mahavira]Mahavira] containecontainedd inin thethe UttaradhayanasutraUttaradhayanasutra"17 ethicizeethicize thethe notionnotion ofof castecaste ssoo thatthat virtue,virtue, notnot birthbirth,, isis thethe hallmarhallmarkk ofof a person'sperson's standing.standing. ItIt isis said,said, "One"One becomebecomess a Sramana bbyy equanimity,equanimity, a Brahmana bbyy chastity,chastity, a Muni byby knowledge,knowledge, andand a Tapasa byby penance.penance. ByBy one'sone's actionaction oneone becomesbecomes a Brahmana, oror a Ksatriya, oror a Vaisya, oror a Sudra. (Jain(Jain 1989,1989, 78)78)

However,However, thethe notionnotion ofof merit,merit, asas wewe havhavee seen,seen, isis entirelyentirely absentabsent fromfrom thethe Ayaranga andand Suyagadanga, thethe firstfirst twotwo Angas ofof thethe canon.canon. TheThe onlyonly hintshints atat a widerwider,, lalayy societysociety areare thethe variousvarious prohibitionprohibitionss againstagainst monksmonks receivingreceiving alms.alms. TheThe laity certainlycertainly doesdoes notnot factorfactor intointo thethe existentexistent dynamicsdynamics ofof salvationsalvation atat aIlall onon accountaccount ofof itsits entanglemententanglement inin thethe worldworld ofof activity,activity, thethe antithesisantithesis toto thethe worldworld ooff moksa. MeritMerit isis thereforetherefore simplysimply notnot a conceptconcept availableavailable toto thethe laitlaityy . IfIf notionsnotions ofof meritmerit werewere nonott popularizepopularizedd untiluntil hundredshundreds ofof yearsyears afterafter Mahavira,Mahavira, whatwhat areare wewe toto make,make, then,then, ofof allall thethe proclamationproclamationss attributedattributed ttoo MahaviraMahavira onon thethe subjectsubject ofof castecaste based onon merit?merit? BecauseBecause ofof this,this, JohnsonJohnson tracestraces thethe originorigin notnot onlyonly ofof thethe ideaidea ofof castecaste but ofof thethe veryvery ideaidea of communityl8community™ to t othe th esecond second century century C.E. C.E .Tattvartha-sutra Tattvartha-sutra (Johnson (Johnson 1995,89). 1995, 89) . HeHe alsoalso statesstates thatthat thethe TvSTvS containcontainss thethe firstfirst acknowledgmentacknowledgment ofof non-Jainanon-Jaina outsidersoutsiders asas wellwell (Johnson(Johnson 1995,1995, 89).89). InIn thisthis way,way, oneone isis forcedforced toto concluconclud dee thatthat thethe inventioninvention ofof thethe

16 ItIt hashas overover timetime takentaken onon certaincertain majormajor characteristicscharacteristics ofof thethe HinduHindu castecaste system,system, however,however, mostmost notablnotablyy participationparticipation byby birthbirth.. 17 SeeSee thethe shortshort lilis stt ofof earlyearly canonicalcanonical texttextss atat ththee outsetoutset ofof ththee firstfirst section.section. 18 A communitycommunity asas opposedopposed toto a collectioncollection ofof individualindividual monksmonks.. 2020

JainaJaina sangha isis a medievalmedieval one,one, originatingoriginating inin thethe TvSTvS andand thethe Upasakadasah. ButBut isis thisthis true?true? Jaini,Jaini, forfor one,one, maintainsmaintains thatthat Jainism,Jainism, unlikeunlike ,Buddhism, emphasizedemphasized "from"from earliestearliest timestimes thethe completecomplete integrationintegration ofof laylay followersfollowers intintoo thethe religiousreligious life"life" (Jaini(Jaini 1979,286).1979, 286). Does thethe medievalmedieval perioperiodd itselitselff qualifyqualify asas "earliest"earliest times?,,19times?"19 ByBy contrast,contrast, thethe DigambarasDigambaras dodo awayaway withwith thethe contradictioncontradiction bbyy denyingdenying thethe authenticityauthenticity ofof thethe SvetambaraSvetambara canoncanon altogetheraltogether.. ForFor theirtheir partpart,, Svetambaras,Svetambaras, too,too, ignoreignore thethe discrepanciesdiscrepancies withinwithin theirtheir ownown canoncanon andand upholupholdd thethe traditionaltraditional viewview thatthat thethe Jaina sangha isis aass timelesstimeless a factfact ofof lifelife asas thethe beginninglesbeginninglesss universuni versee itself.itself. DepictionsDepictions suchsuch asas thethe samavasaranas (paintings(paintings ofof thethe universaunivers all assembly),assembly), hhee implies,implies, represenrepresentt accurateaccurate portraitportraitss ofof thethe JainaJaina community.20community.20 OneOne thingthing isis certain:certain: inin thethe textualtextual traditiontradition thatthat takes intointo considerationconsideration thethe SvetambaraSvetambara canon,canon, therethere existsexists a slowlyslowly emergentemergent discourse,discourse, firstfirst ofof community,community, thenthen ooff castecaste itself,itself, inin thethe medievalmedieval periodperiod.. WhatWhat becomesbecomes clearclear isis thatthat JainismJainism - via itsits laity - isis spreadingspreading out, botbothh withinwithin itsits ownown rankrankss andand toward outsiders.outsiders. ThereThere isis a growinggrowing sensesense ofof importancimportancee toto thethe widerwider communitycommunity,, ofof a sangha mademade uupp ofbothof both monksmonks andand laitylaity.. AsAs thisthis sangha expands,expands, itit beginbeginss toto addressaddress thethe issuissuee ofof ksatriya-dharma, a keykey poinpointt ooff 2211 interactioninteraction betweebetweenn monasticmonastic andand laylay life. AAss thethe followingfollowing sectionssections show,show, thisthis newnew

19 TheThe contextcontext isis a discussiondiscussion ofof thethe sravakacaras (codes(codes ofof laylay conduct)conduct) inin thethe earlyearly medievalmedieval period.period. 20 20 CompareCompare R.R. Williams,Williams, whowho writeswrites thatthat thethe laitylaity: : "was"was admittedadmitted bbyy thethe JinaJina onlyonly inin deferencdeferencee toto humanhuman frailty,frailty, andand waswas regardedregarded inin theorytheory asas a stagestage ofof preparatiopreparationn forfor thethe asceticascetic life.life. InIn thethe earlyearly perioperiodd ooff Jainism,Jainism, thethe sravakacara, waswas thereforthereforee ofof minimumminimum importance,importance, andand asas itit hashas growngrown progressivelprogressivelyy iinn significance,significance, variousvarious expedientsexpedients havhavee hahadd toto bbee adoptedadopted toto makemake uupp forfor thethe silencesilence ofof thethe canonicalcanonical textstexts.. TheThe corpuscorpus ofof thethe laylay doctrinedoctrine isis,, inin fact,fact, a creationcreation ofof thethe medievalmedieval periodperiod"" (Williams,(Williams, xvi,xvi, inin KhadabadiKhadabadi 2006).2006). OnOn subjectsubject ofof thethe DigambarasDigambaras inin particularparticular,, hehe writes:writes: "Perhaps"Perhaps becausbecausee theythey disclaidisclaimm thethe continuitycontinuity ofof tradition,tradition, thethe DigambarasDigambaras seemseem toto havehave feltfelt moremore keenlykeenly thanthan thethe SvetambarasSvetambaras thethe neeneedd toto concretizeconcretize andand systematizesystematize ththee laylay doctrine,doctrine, and,and, inin attemptingattempting a moremore logicallogical presentatiopresentationn ofof thethe creed,creed, theythey havehave effacedeffaced moremore thanthan oneone discrepancydiscrepancy...... excep exceptt inin thethe practicpracticee ofof asceticascetic nudity.nudity. TheThe DigambarasDigambaras appearappear inin ththee positiopositionn ofof innovators,innovators, andand itit isis preciselpreciselyy becausbecausee theythey havehave largelylargely jettisonejettisonedd thethe dead-dead-woowoodd ofof anan earlierearlier ageage thatthat theirtheir testimonytestimony isis ofof greatergreater valuevalue forfor thethe conditionsconditions ofof thethe mediaevalmediaeval period"period" (Williams,(Williams, xvi-xvii,xvi-xvii, inin KhadabadiKhadabadi 2006)2006).. 2121 Compare G.C. Pande, who writes: "We may divide the history of the Jain canon into two main phases­ canonicalCompar eand G.C post-canonical.. Pande, who writesDuring: "W thee firstmay phase divid eJaina the histor traditiony of wasthe Jaiinterestedn canon primarilyinto two maiin then phase s - formulationcanonical an ofd post-canonical a religious and. Durinethicalg world-viewthe first phas whiche Jain asought traditio ton provide was intereste an alternatived primaril toy thein thtraditionale Vedicformulatio view.n oThef a religiouVedic views and of ethica societyl world-vie and statew waswhic theocentric,h sought to cosmologieprovide an alalternativ and hierarchical.e to the traditiona The Jainl viewVedi creplaced view. Th thee Vedi rolec of vie godsw o fby societ an autonomousy and state waands theocentricuniversal morallaw, cosmologica ... [it]l anappealedd hierarchical to conceptually. The Jain andview psychologically replaced the rol formulatede of gods b ymoral an autonomou values. It...shoulds and universa have ltended moral tolaw.. create. [it ]a appealesocietyd and to conceptuallastate basedy onand wholly psychologicall spiritualy and formulate moral dprinciples moral values without. It...shoul regardd to hav thee forcetende dof t ovested creat esocial a societ interestsy and astructured state base d aroundon wholl egoismy spiritua andl anpassionsd mora ...l principleIn practice,s withou however,t regar sud ch to a th societye force could of veste notd besocia achievedl interest withouts structure the d attainmentaround egois ofm a anhighd passions.. degree of. Imoraln practice perfection, however by ,a sucmuh ch a largersociet ynumber could nooft personsbe achieve thand withoucould possiblyt the haveattainmen beent available.of a high degreThe resulte of mora was lan perfectio increasingn by compromise a much large withr numbe the olderr of person socials traditionthan coul andd possibl the y havgraduallye been emergingavailable .new The formsresult ofpoliticalwas an increasin organizationg compromis and thought.e with th Ase olde a resultr socia thel traditiopost-canonicaln and th eJaina traditiongradually formulated emerging neitsw political forms o viewsf politica in ltreatises organizatio whichn an wered thought similar. A tos athe resul Brahmanicalt the post-canonica works onl Jainniti.a It traditiois true thatn formulate the greatd Hemacandraits political view tracess i nthe treatise originss whic of Jainah wer politicale simila rtheory to the callingBrahmanica it Arhanniti,l works fromon niti. the I t is true that the great Hemacandra traces the origins of Jaina political theory calling it Arhanniti, from the 2121 outwardoutward orientation,orientation, asas weIlwell asas thethe emphasisemphasis onon merit,merit, notnot birthbirth,, thatthat isis soso centrallycentrally reinforcedreinforced inin thethe neneww castecaste system,system, isis a majomajorr factorfactor inin thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thisthis discourse.discourse.

Reinforcing the virtue of community

AsAs JainiJaini writes,writes, throughoutthroughout thethe medievalmedieval periodperiod,, JainasJainas handledhandled thethe tasktask ofof integratingintegrating withwith thethe non-Jainanon-Jaina majoritymajority aroundaround themthem "with"with considerableconsiderable skillskill anandd wisdom,wisdom, compromisingcompromising oftenoften withwith hereticalheretical practicepracticess but alwaysalways strivingstriving (and(and usuallusuallyy managing)managing) toto retairetainn thethe spiritspirit ooff theirtheir ownown tradition"tradition" (Jaini(Jaini 1979,287).1979, 287). JainiJaini talkstalks ofof thethe "cautious"cautious integratiointegrationn withwith thethe sUIToundingsurrounding HinduHindu populace,populace,"" throughthrough acceptinacceptingg locallocal custom,custom, institutininstitutingg kriyas (practices(practices pertaininpertainingg toto changingchanging phasephasess ofof secularsecular life),life), andand "reinterpreting"reinterpreting thethe doctrinedoctrine ofof thethe castecaste systemsystem soso thatthat JJain ainaa societysociety couldcould bbee organizedorganized alongalong thethe lineslines similarsimilar toto thosethose ooff ititss neighboursneighbours"" (Jaini(Jaini 1979,287).221979, 287).22 TheThe JainaJaina DigambaraDigambara AcaryaAcarya JinasenaJinasena iiss creditedcredited withwith expandinexpandingg thethe tradition'stradition's concemsconcerns fromfrom merelmerelyy thosethose ofof a spirituaspirituall nature,nature, suchsuch aass vratas (vows)(vows) andand pratimas (lay(lay stagesstages ofof spiritualspiritual progress)progress),, toto thosethose widelwidelyy reflectingreflecting thethe dominantdominant HinduHindu socialsocial realitiesrealities ofof thethe timetime (Jaini(Jaini 1979,1979, 291-2).291-2). InIn hishis famousfamous Adipurana (Lorebook(Lorebook ofof thethe Beginning),Beginning), thethe mainmain DigambaraDigambara sourcesource forfor thethe Universal History, JinasenaJinasena integrateintegratess JainaJaina spiritualspiritual teachingteaching withwith mattersmatters susuc chh asas (caste)(caste) andand samskarams (rite(ritess ofof passage).passage).2323 CrucialCrucial toto ourour discussion,discussion, hehe alsoalso dealsdeals withwith thethe practicapracticall prescriptionsprescriptions forfor thethe conductconduct ofof JainaJaina

TeachingsTeachings ofof MahaviraMahavira whowho isis himselfhimself saidsaid toto havehave [sic][sic] bacbackk toto thethe timestimes ofof RsabhaRsabha andand Bharata.Bharata. NeverthelessNevertheless,, thethe canonicalcanonical recordsrecords ofof suchsuch dialoguesdialogues andand earlierearlier historyhistory havehave notnot survivedsurvived forfor [sic][sic] thethe earlieearlierr periodperiod,, fromfrom whichwhich wewe havehave a recordrecord ofof thethe socio-ethicalsocio-ethical viewsviews ofof thethe JainasJainas whichwhich werewere inin conflictconflict witwithh thethe traditionaltraditional VedicVedic viewsviews andand tendedtended inin theirtheir politicapoli tic all attitudattitudee toto favourfavour anan enlightenedenlightened aristocracyaristocracy freedfreed fromfrom itsits accustomedaccustomed violence.violence. InIn thisthis AgamicAgamie phasephase JainaJaina politicalpolitical thoughtthought isis anan alternativealternative toto BrahmanicalBrahmanical rajdharma jusjustt aass inin thethe post-canonicapost-canonicall phasphasee iitt presentpresentss a variantvariant ofof thethe traditiontradition ofoiniti niti sastras" (Pande(Pande 1984,1984,12-13) 12-13).. 22 22 ForFor moremore onon castcastee inin JainisJainismm inin generalgeneral,, see JainJainii (1979,(1979, 67,74,290-1).67,74, 290-1). ThereThere existsexists a famousfamous narrativenarrative inin thethe Adipurana inin whichwhich thethe firstfirst TirthankaraTirthankara RsabhaRsabha createscreates alaIll thethe castescastes savesave thethe brahmanbrahman,, whowho isis createdcreated bbyy hishis sonson (and(and inferior)inferior) BharataBharata (see(see JainiJaini 1979,288).1979, 288). BothBoth createcreate ththee castescastes whewhenn theythey areare meremere worldlyworldly kingskings anandd havehave notnot yetyet achievedachieved moksa. TheThe Adipurana isis apologeticapologetic abouaboutt thethe existenceexistence ofof caste,caste, whichwhich itit seessees aass belonginbelongingg toto thethe inferioinferiorr worlworldd ofof thethe laity - a carry-overcarry-over ofof thethe ide a fromfrom earlierearlier textstexts.. AccordingAccording toto Dundas,Dundas, itit tells uuss that,that, "from"from thethe cosmologicalcosmological poinpointt ofof view,view, thethe existenceexistence ofof JainJain brahmansbrahmans anandd otherother castescastes cancan bbee ascribedascribed toto thethe babadd world-agworld-agee iinn whichwhich wwee live,live, throughthrough whosewhose malignmalign influenceinfluence a pristinpristinee andand undifferentiateundifferentiatedd humanhuman castecaste (manusyajati) iiss transformedtransformed intointo a four-castefour-caste systemsystem basebasedd oonn socialsocial functionfunction (38.45-6)"(38.45-6)" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 173).173). 2323 Interestingly, he adopts the Hindu bias against sudras, although he acknowJedges that they can attain the quazi-mendicantInterestingly, h statuse adopt ofs thailakae Hind (Jainiu bia 1979,294-5).s against sudras, although he acknowledges that they can attain the quazi-mendicant status of ailaka (Jaini 1979, 294-5). 2222

24 kingskings - thethe firstfirst susuc chh endeavorendeavor iinn thethe JainaJaina literature.literature. HereHere wewe getget thethe mostmost cogentcogent positiopositionn ofof alaIll ofof thethe sravakacaras (texts(texts oonn laylay conduct)conduct) thusthus farfar onon thethe subjectsubject ooff JainismJainism anandd war,war, kinglykingly dutiedutiess andand polity.polity. ThatThat beinbeingg said,said, ththee Adipurana nevernever actuallyactually statesstates a setset ofof rulesrules forfor ksatriya­ksatriya- dharma, nornor doesdoes itit formulateformulate anyany codifiedcodified self-defenseself-defense discourse.discourse. MedievalMedieval JainaJaina kingskings (like(like textualtextual scholarsscholars today)today) areare leftleft toto readread betweenbetween thethe lineslines - toto pondeponderr thethe possiblepossible meaninmeaningg ofof a ricrichh narrativnarrativee ofof storiesstories andand references.references. OneOne ofof thethe mostmost importantimportant andand revealingrevealing narrativenarrativess advancedadvanced inin thisthis regardregard reflectsreflects thethe populapopularr pan-Indiapan-In di ann idealideal ofof thethe cakravartin, thethe world-conqueringworld-conquering king.king. ThisThis isis presentepresentedd inin thethe narrativenarrative ofof Rsabha,Rsabha, thethe firstfirst TirthankaraTirthankara ofof thisthis worldworld age,age, andand Bharata,Bharata, hishis son,son, thethe firstfirst universaunivers all emperoremperor ofof thisthis worldworld age.age. TheThe Adipurana, a DigarnbaraDigambara text,text, expandsexpands upouponn chapterschapters twotwo andand threethree ofof thethe SvetambaraSvetambara Jamvuddivapannatti, whichwhich contrastscontrasts twotwo differentdifferent typetypess ooff kingship,kingship, exemplifiedexemplified bbyy thethe contrastcontrast betweebetweenn RsabhaRsabha andand Bharata.Bharata. RsabhaRsabha isis "the"the 'emperor'emperor ofof thethe excellentexcellent dharmadharma'' (dhammavaracakkavatti), whilewhile BharatBharataa isis thethe 'emperor'emperor ofof thethe fourfour directionsdirections ofof India'India' (cauramtacakkavatti)" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991,178) 178).. NotablyNotably,, thethe SvetarnbarasSvetambaras makemake nnoo mentionmention ofof Bahubali,Bahubali, Bharata'sBharata's half-brother,half-brother, whowhos see dramaticdramatic renunciationrenunciation ooff earthlyearthly kingshipkingship setssets anan importantimportant precedenprecedentt forfor DigambaraDigambara JainaJaina kingskings (see(see below)below).. ChapterChapter forty-twoforty-two featurefeaturess BharataBharata instructinginstructing "an"an assemblyassembly ofof warriorswarriors inin thethe dutiesduties ofof kingskings anandd thethe warriorwarrior class,class, alalll ofof whomwhom areare saidsaid toto bbee relatedrelated toto thethe spiritualspiritual warriors,warriors, thethe DigarnbaraDigambara monks,monks, throughthrough havinghaving theirtheir birtbirthh inin thethe ThreeThree JewelsJewels ofof rightright faith,faith, knowledgeknowledge andand conduct"conduct" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 119-20).119-20). BharataBharata "firrnly"firmly enjoinsenjoins allall kingskings toto protecprotectt nonott onlyonly themselvesthemselves andand theirtheir subjectssubjects but alsoalso thethe JainJain communitycommunity andand doctrine"doctrine" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 120).25120).25 Specifically,Specifically, ksatriyas areare enjoinedenjoined toto protecprotectt thethe kula (literally(literally "family,""family," meaningmeaning thosethose whowho areare suitablesuitable forfor monasticmonastic ordinationordination (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 182n49)),182n49)), doctrine,doctrine, self,self, subjectssubjects anandd equalityequality (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 182).182). TheThe Adipurana 42.200-42.200-33 advocatesadvocates "evenhandedness"evenhandedness towardstowards one'sone's subjects.subjects. TheThe evilevil [ones],[ones], thatthat isis,,

24 TheThe Adipurana isis consideredconsidered thethe prototypicaprototypicall treatisetreatise onon howhow a JainaJaina monkmonk shouldshould adviseadvise thethe king.king. AsAs DundasDundas (1991,(1991, 177)177) outlinesoutlines thethe topic,topic, itit isis supposedsupposed toto havhavee beebeenn recitedrecited bbyy RsabhaRsabha himselftohimself to hishis sonson Bharata,Bharata, mouldedmoulded intointo a literaryliterary workwork bbyy Rsabha'sRsabha's chiefchief disciple,disciple, andand consequentlyconsequently recitedrecited bbyy aIlall thethe downdown thethe lineline toto GautamaGautama,, Mahavira'sMahavira's chiefchief disciple,disciple, whowho recitedrecited itit atat thethe behesbehestt ofof Srenika,Srenika, thethe kingking ofof Magadha.Magadha. JinasenaJinasena thus followsfollows a well-establishedwell-established traditiontradition inin recitingreciting itit toto hishis ownown patronpatron,, thethe southsouth IndianIndian monmonarc archh AmoghavarsaAmoghavarsa Rastrakuta.Rastrakuta. ThisThis provenancprovenancee "ensures"ensures thatthat itit isis nono ordinaryordinary literaryliterary work:work: itit isis thethe tirstfirst andand onlyonly Parana,Purana, toto bbee distinguisheddistinguished fromfrom thethe falsefalse HinduHindu textstexts whichwhich teachteach violence.violence. AnythingAnything whichwhich existexistss outsidoutsidee itit isis a sham"sham" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991,177) 177).. 25 25 Specifically,Specifically, theythey areare toto keepkeep thethe doctrinedoctrine freefree fromfrom brahmanicabrahmanicall influence.influence. 2323 thosethose whowho perforperformm actsacts ofof violence,violence, shouldshould bbee punishedpunished,, andand thethe good,good, whowho gaingain theirtheir livelihoodlivelihood inin thethe propeproperr manner,manner, thatthat is,is, thethe JainsJains,, shouldshould bebe protected"protected" (Dundas(Dundas 19911991,, 184).184). InIn Adipurana 42.238,42.238, thethe kinkingg iiss comparedcompared toto a cowherdcowherd (in(in hishis rolerole asas protectoprotectorr ofof subjects).subjects). MostMost importantly,importantly, thethe Adipurana 42.195-642.195-6 containscontains a qualifiedqualified denouncementdenouncement ofof war,war, statingstating thatthat "although"although iitt iiss inevitableinevitable thatthat a kingking willwill fightfight hishis neighboursneighbours iinn orderorder toto expandexpand hishis kingkingdom dom,, ifif hehe isis attackedattacked bbyy a moremore powerfupowerfull neighbour,neighbour, thenthen thethe enemyenemy shouldshould bbee conciliatedconciliated becausbecausee warwar iiss babadd forfor thethe peoplepeople"" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 184).184). ExactlyExactly whwhyy wawarr isis babadd forfor ththee peoplpeoplee (is(is iitt chieflychiefly onon accountaccount ofof ititss devastatingdevastating effecteffect onon societysociety oror thethe soul?)soul?) iiss not stated.stated. NeverthelessNevertheless,, clearlyclearly thethe anuvrata ofof ahimsa weighsweighs heavilyheavily onon thethe king'sking's everyevery action.action. ItIt isis negotiatednegotiated herehere bbyy thethe veryvery callcall toto protecprotectt andand advanceadvance ththee JJain ainaa community, whichwhich isis seen,seen, implicitly,implicitly, asas a goodgood thatthat justifiejustifiess warwar inin thethe appropriateappropriate circumstances.circumstances. InIn thisthis way,way, thethe Adipurana continuescontinues thethe traditiontradition ofof earlyearly (probably(probably verbal)verbal) storiesstories ensconceensconcedd inin inscriptioninscriptionss thatthat celebratecelebrate thethe violenceviolence ofof JainaJaina monksmonks whowho foundedfounded dynastiesdynasties inin thethe ancientancient perioperiodd (see(see above).above). TheirTheir actionsactions wouldwould havehave beenbeen self­self- 2266 justifiejustifiedd bbyy ththee factfact thathatt theythey werweree acts ofof supremsupremee community-building.

Connecting the martial to the spiritual

InIn thethe Adipurana, thethe issueissue ofof warwar (taboo(taboo inin thethe earlyearly texts)texts) isis notnot onlyonly discusseddiscussed openlyopenly but subsumedsubsumed withinwithin a broader spiritualspiritual framework.framework. InIn negotiatingnegotiating thethe balancebalance betweenbetween thethe dutiesduties ofof a kingking andand thethe idealideal ofof ahimsa, thethe Adipurana buildbuildss onon thethe two-Ieveltwo-level modelmodel ofof JainJainaa societysociety andand presentpresentss martialmartial dutyY asas anan imperfectimperfect reflectionreflection ofof spiritualspiritual duty.27duty.27 ItIt

26 OnOn thisthis note,note, Jaini,Jaini, whowho writewritess thatthat "a"a Jaina'sJaina's identificatioidentificationn withwith hihiss communitycommunity couldcould oftenoften bbee carriedcarried toto extraordinaryextraordinary lengths"lengths" (Jain(Jainii 1979,286),1979,286), speculatesspeculates thatthat JainasJainas outlastedoutlasted ththee BuddhistsBuddhists inin India,India, whwhoo eventuallyeventually disappeareddisappeared underunder thethe combinedcombined influenceinfluence ofof MuslimMuslim invasionsinvasions andand HinduHindu devotionalism,devotionalism, becausbecausee JainaJaina teachers,teachers, althoughalthough sharingsharing withwith BuddhistBuddhist acaryas anan emphasisemphasis onon philosophicaphilosophicall issues,issues, alsoalso "showed"showed equalequal oror perhapperhapss eveneven greatergreater concemconcern withwith thethe creationcreation ofof worksworks intendedintended forfor thethe ordinaryordinary layperson.layperson. VirtuallyVirtually nothingnothing ofof a similarsimilar naturenature oorr scopescope [as[as thethe JainJainaa sravakacara texts]texts] waswas produceproducedd byby BuddhistBuddhist authors"authors" (Jain(Jainii 1979,285).1979, 285). ComparedCompared toto forty y oror ssoo sravakacara textstexts listelistedd bbyy R.Williams,R.Williams, TheravadTheravadaa BuddhistsBuddhists camecame upup withwith onlyonly one,one, thethe Upasakajanalamkara ofof AnandaAnanda (twelfth(twelfth centurycentury C.E.),C.E.), andand thethe MahayanaMahayana canoncanon concontain tainss onlyonly a smalsmalll portionportion onon laylay mattermatterss inin Santideva'sSantideva's Siksasamuccaya (ninth(ninth centurycentury C.E.)C.E.) (Jaini(Jaini 1979,1979, 285n20).285n20). 27 27 AAss CortCort putputss it,it, thethe JainJainaa "poli"politica tic all theorists"theorists" differeddiffered fromfrom theirtheir HinduHindu contemporariescontemporaries inin a wayway similar toto thethe Buddhists,Buddhists, bbyy distinguishingdistinguishing betweebetweenn laukika andand lokottara (this(this worldworld andand thethe other),other), thus establishingestablishing a parallelisparallelismm bubutt alsoalso a "moral"moral superioritysuperiority ofof thethe other-worldlyother-worldly spiritualspiritual conquerorconqueror (Jina) toto thethe this-worldlythis-worldly politicapoliticall conquerorconqueror (cakravartin)" (Cort(Cort 1998,98).1998,98). ForFor moremore onon thethe distinctiondistinction betweenbetween laukika andand lokottara inin thethe definitiondefinition ofof JainaJaina values andand conductconduct amongamong mymy interviewees,interviewees, seseee ChapterChapter Two.Two. 2424 doesdoes soso bbyy drawingdrawing onon thethe richrich metaphoricalmetaphorical warriorwarrior imageryimagery inin thethe tradition.tradition. AsAs DundasDundas writes,writes, "martial"martial conquestconquest isis thethe centralcentral imageimage andand metaphormetaphor ofof Jainism,Jainism, givingivingg thethe religionreligion itsits veryvery name"name" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 173).28173).28 HeHe claimsclaims thatthat thisthis reflectsreflects thethe pan-Indicpan-Indie warriorwarrior cultureculture (a(a linklink toto "ancient"ancient Indo-EuropeanIndo-European warriorwarrior brotherhoodsbrotherhoods"" (174))(174)) thatthat JainismJainism participateparticipatedd inin fromfrom earliestearliest times,times, inin whicwhichh "the"the figurefigure ofof thethe religiousreligious warriorwarrior conqueringconquering karmakarma andand deathdeath isis a laterlater adaptationadaptation andand transformationtransformation ofof thethe oldold VedicVedic mythmyth ofof thethe heroicheroic figure,figure, Indra,Indra, overcorningovercoming hishis foe,foe, Vrtra"Vrtra" (Dunda(Dundass 1991,1991, 174).174).2929 Similarly,Similarly,

iitt iiss noteworthynoteworthy thatthat botbothh MahaviraMahavira andand thethe BuddhaBuddha werewere membersmembers ofof thethe warriorwarrior caste.caste. TheThe careecareerr ofof MahaviraMahavira inin particularparticular,, andand countlesscountless JaiJainn asceticsascetics afterafter him,him, bearbearss witneswitnesss toto a formform ofof spiritualspiritual heroismheroism andand strugglestruggle whichwhich struckstruck anan empathicempathic chord withiwithinn aann ancientancient IndianIndian culturalcultural worldworld wherewhere thethe martialmartial valuesvalues ofof thethe warriorwarrior werweree widelywidely esteemed.esteemed. (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 17)17)3030

AccordingAccording toto Dundas,Dundas, thethe warriowarriorr traitstraits atat thethe heartheart ofof JainisJainismm naturallnaturallyy mademade iitt a fitfit witwithh medievalmedieval kings.3311 DundasDundas describesdescribes howhow termsterms suchsuch asas gana (troop)(troop) andand sangha (assembly),(assembly), usedused bbyy JainisJainismm andand BuddhismBuddhism toto describedescribe groupsgroups ofof ascetics,ascetics, werweree useusedd iinn earlyearly VediVedicc textstexts "to"to referrefer toto warriowarriorr brotherhoodsbrotherhoods,, thethe younyoungg men'smen's bandbandss whicwhichh werweree a

28 ThThee designationdesignation "Jaina""Jaina" derivesderives fromfrom thethe SanskritSanskrit rootroot liJi - "to"to conquer."conquer." linaJina thus translatestranslates asas "conqueror,""conqueror," andand lainaJaina asas "one"one whowho followsfollows thethe conquerorsconquerors (linas)"(Jinas)" (See(See DundasDundas 2007,2007, 43)43).. 29 Dundas writes: "1 would like to suggest that Jainism can profitably be regarded as exemplifying 29 Dundas writes: "I would like to suggest that Jainism can profitably be regarded as exemplifying throughoutthroughout itsits historhistoryy whawhatt hahass beebeenn styledstyled asas ththee 'path'path ooff heroism'heroism' (viryamarga), a reconfigurationreconfiguration ooff warriorwarrior codescodes ofof braverbraveryy andand physicaphysicall controlcontrol inin thethe asceticascetic searchsearch forfor spiritualspiritual powepowerr andand mastery,mastery, qualitiesqualities whicwhichh havhavee ledled toto JainJain monksmonks beinbeingg mumuc chh respecterespectedd sincesince medievalmedieval timetimess bbyy groupsgroups suchsuch asas ththee RajputsRajputs whwhoo identifyidentify theirtheir ownown backgrounbackgroundd inin martialmartial terms"terms" (Dundas(Dundas 2007,43).2007,43). 3030 Note the language of the laukantika (world-ending) gods to the young Mahavira, encouraging him to renounceNote th ethe languag kingdome o fand the fulfilllaukantika his role (world-ending of :) god "Victory,s to the youn victoryg Mahavira to thee, ,gladdener encouragin ofg thehim world! to renouncVictory,e victory the kingdo to thee,m an fortunated fulfill hione!s rol Lucke of Tirthankara to thee, bull: "Victoryof the best, victor ksatriyas!y to thee A wake,, gladdene reverendr of thlorde world of the! world!Victory Establish, victory ttheo thee dharma-, fortunate one (teaching! Luck tofo thee the ,holy bull path)of th efor bes thet ksatriyasl sake of every Awake living, reveren beingd inlor thed o f the entireworld !universe; Establish it th wille dharma-tirtha bring supreme (teachin benefitg toof aIl!"the hol (fromy path the) foKalpa-sutra,r the sake o translatedf every livin in gJaini bein 1979,g in th 11-12)e entire universe; it will bring supreme benefit to all!" (from the Kalpa-sutra, translated in Jaini 1979, 11-12) JI31 See also Dundas (2002, 119) for another reason for Jainism's popularity with kings: its "ability to confer a brandSee als ofo prestigiousDundas (2002 northern, 119) culturefor anothe uponr reaso southernn for warriorsJainism's while popularit at they witsameh kings time: enablingits "abilit themy to confeto r distancea brand othemselvesf prestigiou froms norther peasant,n cultur Hindue upo society"n souther (Dundasn warrior 2002,s whil 119).e at thThee sam Jainae tim kinge enablin wieldsg a the"moral"m to kingship,distance themselve as opposeds fro tom the peasant "heroic", Hind kingshipu society of "the (Dunda early sTamils 2002,119) and the. Th Hindue Jain a"ritual" king wield kingships a "moral (the " modelkingship of, Burtonas oppose Stein,d to inth eDundas "heroic 1991," kingshi 175).p oAIso,f the earlDundasy Tamil notess an thed theconomice Hindu "ritualincentive" kingshi such pa king(the most likelymodel feh,of Burto thanksn Stein to the, in"sizeable Dundas Jain1991,175) communities. Also, possessingDundas note considerables the economi economicc incentiv power"e such (Dundasa king mos t likel1991,y felt176)., thank He questions,s to the "sizeabl however,e Jai then communitie true "Jainness"s possessin of theseg considerablopportunistice economi kings. Therefore,c power" (DundaJaina s kingship1991,176) was. H alsoe questions indicative,, however to an ,extent, the tru ofe "Jainness a "fluid religiosity,"" of these opportunisti as evidencedc kings by the. Therefore famous Jain, Jain kinga Camunda,kingship wa whos als alsoo indicative dedicated, t otemples an extent to ,Visnu of a "flui andd Sivareligiosity, (Dundas" a 2002,s evidence 120).d by the famous Jain king Camunda, who also dedicated temples to Visnu and Siva (Dundas 2002, 120). 2525 featurefeature ofof AryanAryan nomadinomadicc life"life" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 17).17). ThisThis pointpointss toto thethe primacprimacyy ooff thethe sangha andand thethe venerationveneration ofof thethe sangha.sangha. TheThe Adipurana, inin effect,effect, performperformss a doubledouble maneuver:maneuver: itit subsumessubsumes thethe spiritualspiritual underunder thethe martial,martial, andand thenthen thethe martialmartial bacbackk underunder thethe spiritual,spiritual, highlightinghighlighting howhow thethe twotwo areare inextricablyinextricably linked.linked. OnOn thethe oneone hand,hand, "Jainism"Jainism isis describeddescribed asas a weaponweapon ofof warwar (1.4)(1.4),, thethe variousvarious asceticascetic practicepracticess areare comparedcompared toto anan armyarmy thatthat conquersconquers thethe enemy,enemy, karmakarma (4.15(4.1533 etc.),etc.), andand thethe monkmonk isis instructedinstructed toto abandonabandon hishis bodbodyy likelike thatthat ofof anan enemyenemy onon thethe battlefielbattlefieldd (11.98)"(11.98)" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 173-4).173-4). Similarly,Similarly, thethe Adipurana 42.2842.28 statesstates thatthat ordinaryordinary peoplpeoplee becombecomee warriorswarriors bbyy takingtaking monasticmonastic ordination;ordination; thusthus thethe "warrior"warrior cancan meanmean not onlyonly thethe individualindividual whowho participateparticipatess inin thethe worlworldd ofof warfarewarfare andand kingship,kingship, but alsoalso thethe ordinaryordinary monk"monk" (Dunda(Dundass 1991,1991, 182).182). OnOn thethe otherother hand,hand, warriorwarriorss araree "related"related (sajatiya) toto monks"monks" bbyy virtuevirtue ofbeingof being "descended"descended fromfrom thethe veryvery firstfirst ksatriya, Rsabha,Rsabha, whowho isis thethe personificatiopersonificationn ofof thethe ThreeThree Jewels,Jewels, thethe essenceessence ofof thethe JainJain religion"religion" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 183).183). TheThe stressstress onon thethe ThreeThree JewelsJewels isis noteworthy,noteworthy, forfor bbyy replacingreplacing naturalnatural birthbirth fromfrom one'sone's mothermother withwith a newnew birtbirthh fromfrom thethe ThreeThree Jewels,Jewels, oneone transcendstranscends thethe boundariesboundaries ofof meremere worldlyworldly birtbirthh andand isis rebomreborn asas a spiritualspiritual warrior.warrior. AsAs DundasDundas putsputs it,it, thethe idealideal thatthat isis ultimatelultimatelyy emulatedemulated isis thatthat ofof thethe asceticascetic asas a nonnonviolen violentt warriorwarrior onon thethe "battlefield"battlefield ooff meditation"meditation" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 179,179, citingciting APAP 20.247-8).20.247-8). ThisThis isis furtherfurther reinforcedreinforced bbyy characterizationscharacterizations inin thethe Adipurana ofof worldlyworldly kingshipkingship asas "ambiguous"ambiguous...somethin ... somethingg botbothh valuvaluable able andand dangerousdangerous andand openopen toto corruptioncorruption bbyy fIawedflawed men" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 178).178). AsAs such,such, itit needsneeds thethe strongstrong presencpresencee ofof JainaJaina monkmonk advisorsadvisors toto keekeepp itit just.juSt.3322 Elsewhere,Elsewhere, Dundas caUscalls itit "a"a subtlesubtle modelmodel ofof kingship"kingship" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 120).120). ThisThis isis exemplifiedexemplified inin thethe DigambaraDigambara storystory ofof Bharata,Bharata, thethe firstfirst JainaJaina cakravartin,33cakravartin,33 andand hishis half-brother,half-brother, Bahubali.Bahubali. BahubaliBahubali resistsresists surrenderingsurrendering hishis kingdomkingdom toto Bharata,Bharata, whowho wisheswishes toto laylay daimclaim toto it.it. TheThe twotwo fightfight a duel,duel, whichwhich BahubaliBahubali wins,wins, onlyonly toto realizerealize atat thethe lastlast momentmoment thethe transiencetransience ofof kingshipkingship andand worldworldyy affairs.affairs. HeHe

32 ThereThere areare manymany examplesexamples inin thethe Adipurana toto reinforcreinforcee thisthis pointpoint,, forfor example:example: thethe monk-ministermonk-minister Svayambuddha,Svayambuddha, whwhoo instructsinstructs Mahabala,Mahabala, oneone ooff Rsabha'sRsabha's incarnations;incarnations; ththee divinedivine advisersadvisers whwhoo preventprevent thethe KingKing ofof MagadhaMagadha fromfrom attackingattacking Bharata;Bharata; andand thethe variouvariouss ministersministers whwhoo prevenpreventt a bloodbloodyy battlbattlee betweenbetween BharataBharata andand BahubaliBahubali (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 181n47).181n47). 33 33 TheThe JainaJainass inc1udeinclude twelvetwelve cakravartins inin theirtheir worlworldd historyhistory ofof sixty-three greatgreat menmen,, a factfact JohJohnn CortCort linklinkss ttoo Dundas'Dundas' commentscomments onon thethe centralitycentrality ofof thethe warriowarriorr imageimage inin JainisJainismm (see(see CortCort 1998,98).1998, 98). TheThe tertermm cakravartin isis firstfirst useusedd betweebetweenn thethe fifthfifth andand fourthfourth centuriecenturiess B.C.E.B.C.E. bbyy thethe authorsauthors ofof thethe Maitri Upanisad, althoughalthough thethe ideaidea ofof aa wide-rulingwide-ruling kingking isis tracedtraced backback toto thethe HighHigh VedicVedic eraera (1200-800(1200-800 B.C.E.)B.C.E.) (http://www.bookrags.comlresearch/cakravartin-eorl-03/).(http://www.bookrags.com/research/cakravartin-eorl-03/). 2626 consequentlyconsequently abdicatesabdicates thethe thronethrone andand standstandss inin thethe forefores stt forfor a yearyear inin meditation,meditation, afterafter whichwhich time,time, asas Dundas writeswrites,, hehe gainsgains "the"the truetrue JainJain victory,victory, conquering thethe realreal enemies,enemies, thethe passions,passions, andand thusthus becoming,becoming, accordingaccording toto thethe Digambaras,Digambaras, thethe firstfirst humanhuman ofof thisthis worldworld ageage toto achieveachieve liberationliberation"" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002,120) 120).. TheThe storystory thusthus compromisescompromises thethe pan-Indianpan-Indian warriorwarrior idealideal ofof thethe cakravartin, whichwhich normallnormallyy legitimateslegitimates digvijaya,digvijaya, "total"total conquest,"conquest," inin thethe rolerole ofof jigisu, jigisu, "conquerin"conqueringg kinkingg whwhoo imposeimposess ordeorderr anandd preventpreventss anarchy"anarchy" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 179)179).. NoNott onlyonly that,that, BharataBharata himself,himself, asas thethe prototypicaprototypicall JainaJaina cakravartin, performperformss hishis warriorwarrior dutiesduties throughthrough a monk-likemonk-like demeanordemeanor withinwithin thethe establishedestablished systemsystem ofof anuvratas andand pratimas thatthat wewe havehave beebeenn discussing.discussing. HeHe fasts, meditates,meditates, andand doesdoes puja beforebefore embarkingembarking onon hishis pradaksina, thethe ritualritual circ1ingcircling ofof hishis kingdom.3344 AlongAlong thethe way,way, hehe punishepunishess wrongdoerswrongdoers "without"without violence,violence, but ratherrather throughthrough innateinnate capabilitcapabilityy (sakti; 28.30),28.30), thethe primprimee qualitiesqualities ofof thethe cakravartin beinbeingg calmnesscalmness andand energyenergy (29.36)(29.36)"" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 179).179). TheThe barbariansbarbarians,, too,too, whowho knowknow nothingnothing ofof dharma andand karma,karma, areare broughbroughtt underunder ththee king'sking's swaysway (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 179).35179).35 TheThe whowhol lee procesprocesss iiss seeseenn aass resultingresulting fromfrom thethe accumulationaccumulation ofof greatgreat merit,merit, asas isis thethe veryvery existenceexistence ofof JJain ainaa doctrinedoctrine itselfitself (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991,179) 179).. However,However, thethe meritmerit ofof ththee worldlyworldly cakravartin isis unequaunequall toto thethe meritmerit ofof thethe spirituaspirituall kingshipkingship exemplifiedexemplified bbyy Rsabha,Rsabha, whowho showsshows "true"true worldworld conquest"conquest" bbyy settingsetting outout onon hishis mendicantmendicant wanderingswanderings (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 179).179). Rsabha'sRsabha's isis consideredconsidered thethe real battlebattle,, andand hishis TirthankarahoodTirthankarahood thethe "true"true victoryvictory onon thethe battlefielbattlefieldd ooff meditation"meditation" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991, 179,179, citingciting APAP 20.247-8).20.247-8). UnderUnder hishis guidance,guidance, hishis sonssons eventuallyeventually renouncerenounce worldyworldy kingship.kingship. Adipurana 34.13234.132 statesstates that,that, "embraced"embraced bbyy thethe royalroyal prosperitprosperityy ofof austeritiesausterities (tapolaksmi), intentintent onon thethe achievementachievement ofof omniscience,omniscience, [they][they] forgotforgot thethe royalroyal prosperitprosperityy ofkingsof kings (rajalaksmi)" (quoted(quoted inin DundasDundas 1991,1991, 180)180).. IfIf thethe HinduHindu cakravartin represents,represents, asas KatherineKatherine YoungYoung states,states, thethe tradition'stradition's acknowledgmentacknowledgment ofof offensiveoffensive warwar (Young(Young 2004,2004, 283),283), thethe meaningmeaning andand significancsignificancee ooff

34 34 InIn thethe thirteentthirteenthh centurycentury Trisastisalakapurusacaritra ofof Hemacandra,Hemacandra, whichwhich concontain tainss a retellingretelling ofof thethe story,story, Bharata,Bharata, beforbeforee thethe conquestconquest ooff eacheach kingdom,kingdom, performperformss thethe pausadha vrata, "a"a laylay asceticascetic practicepractice inin whichwhich hehe becambecamee a temporarytemporary mendicant. .. .it.it isis thethe spiritualspiritual powerpower derivedderived fromfrom thisthis renunciationrenunciation thatthat allowsallows himhim toto conquerconquer thethe world"world" (Cort(Cort 1998,1998, 99)99).. 3535 In the Trisastisalakapurusacaritra, the actual description of his conquest is noteworthy for its sense of calmIn thorderlinesse Trisastisalakapurusacaritra, and serenity. The cakravartin the actua l"smoothed description the of unevenhis conques ground,t is noteworththat was likey fo ar ploughedits sense o f calfield;"m orderlines the armys has and "an serenity unimpeded. The cakravartin course everywhere" "smoothe (Trisastisalakapurusacaritrad the uneven ground, that wa s1:216). like a plougheIn the samed way,field; "Bharata the arm hasy ha onlys "a nto unimpede concentrated cours on thee everywhere guardian deity" (Trisastisalakapurusacaritra of the enemy kingdom during 1:216). his pausadha In the sam e vrataway, Bharatritual, aand ha sthe onl rivaly to concentratsurrenders,e "realizingon the guardia that nit deitwasy impossible of the enem toy defeatkingdo am cakravartin" during his pausadha (Cort 1998, 99).vrata ritual, and the rival surrenders, "realizing that it was impossible to defeat a cakravartin" (Cort 1998, 99). 2727 thethe JainaJaina cakravartin isis muchmuch lessless clear.clear. InIn thethe end,end, hhee isis ever-mindfulever-mindful ofof hishis responsibilitresponsibilityy toto observeobserve ahimsa, andand knowsknows thatthat hhee cancan "ultimately"ultimately onlyonly gaingain masterymastery ooff thethe worldworld bbyy winningwinning throughthrough toto thethe genuingenuinee kingshipkingship ofof austerities andand becomingbecoming a monk"monk" (Dunda(Dundass 2002,2002, 120).120). TheThe storystory ofof BahubaliBahubali reinforcesreinforces andand reorientreorientss thethe cakravartin aroundaround thethe monkhood'smonkhood's nonviolennonviolentt ideal,ideal, alwaysalways thethe centralcentral featurfeaturee ofof JainaJaina life.life. But,But, atat thethe samesame time,time, asas thethe adviceadvice givengiven bbyy BharataBharata toto hihiss menmen andand 'sJinasena's variousvarious injunctioninjunctionss show,show, therethere iiss anan equalequal placplacee forfor thethe strongstrong individualitindividualityy ofof thethe merit­merit- gaininggaining warrior,warrior, freedfreed fromfrom priopriorr stigmstigmaa througthroughh hihiss refugerefuge inin thethe anuvratas andand justifiedjustified inin hihiss rolrolee asas protectoprotectorr ofof ththee JJain ainaa kula. InIn thisthis way,way, thethe Adipurana's presentatiopresentationn ofof thethe JainaJaina cakravartin becomebecomess anan effectiveeffective balancinbalancingg discoursediscourse betweebetweenn thethe necessarynecessary warriorwarrior dutiesduties ofof thethe kingking andand thethe ever-presentever-present vowvow ofof ahimsa ofof thethe Jaina.Jaina.

LateLate MedievalMedieval PeriodPeriod (tenth(tenth toto thirteenththirteenth centuriescenturies C.E.)C.E.)

Virodhi-himsa

AlAIll thethe formulationsformulations ofof JainaJaina ksatriya-dharma discoursediscourse discusseddiscussed ssoo far,far, despitedespite successfullysuccessfully advancingadvancing whatwhat CorCortt callscalls "a"a specificspecific moralmoral ideologideologyy ooff kingship"kingship" (Cort(Cort 1998,86),1998, 86), havehave neverthelesneverthelesss remainedremained largelylargely implicitimplicit,, advancedadvanced throughthrough narrativenarrative anandd soso on.on. TheyThey dodo not overtlyovertly proclaiproclaimm howhow oror whwhe enn a kingking shouldshould engageengage inin war.war. InIn allall thethe medievalmedieval sravakacaras (texts(texts onon laylay conduct),conduct), thethe emphasisemphasis firmlyfirmly remainsremains onon ahimsa iinn personapersonall conduct,conduct, andand onlyonly abstractlyabstractly appliesapplies toto thethe messymessy businesbusinesss ofof war.war. AAss CortCort writes,writes, "the"the idealideal JainJain kingking...wa ... wass anan ideallayman"ideal layman" (Cort(Cort 1998,1998, 102).102). WeWe havehave alreadyalready seenseen how,how, asas such,such, hishis endend goalgoal isis renunciation,renunciation, asas advocatedadvocated bbyy thethe JainaJaina cakravartin storiesstories suchsuch asas thosethose ofof Rsabha'sRsabha's sonssons renouncing kingship.36kingship.36 TheThe monksmonks continuecontinue toto bebe esteemedesteemed aass exemplarexemplarss ooff moralmoral authority,authority, whicwhichh inspireinspiress ththee championingchampioning ofof a uniqueunique JainJainaa idealideal (counter(counter toto thethe HinduHindu one)one) ofof thethe dedicateddedicated asceticascetic warriorwarrior strivingstriving forfor moksa - anan idealideal behindbehind whichwhich thethe JainaJaina lait y (presumably(presumably inin actualactual fact)fact) readilyreadily rallied.rallied.

36 OfOf thethe twelvetwelve cakravartins inin thethe UniversalUniversal History,History, tenten ofof themthem renouncerenounce theirtheir kingshipkingship andand becomebecome mendicantsmendicants (Cort(Cort 1998,1998,102) 102).. 2828

However,However, overover thethe coursecourse ofof thisthis time,time, asas JainaJaina kingdomskingdoms grewgrew andand violenceviolence increased,increased, itit isis likelylikely thatthat JainaJaina kingskings andand theirtheir advisorsadvisors grewgrew discontentdiscontent withwith thethe oldold model ofof thethe monk-likemonk-like cakravartin, whowhos see temporal/spiritualtemporal/spiritual balancbalancee subduedsubdued enemiesenemies withwith almostalmost nono violence.violence. A newnew concept,concept, therefore,therefore, foundfound itsits wayway intointo thethe texts,texts, whichwhich marksmarks thethe lastlast majormajor developmentdevelopment iinn thethe discoursediscourse onon ksatriya-dharma. ItIt isis thethe clearestclearest andand mostmost bolboldd articulationarticulation yetyet ofof thethe JainaJaina positiopositionn onon violenceviolence iinn war,war, andand itit appearsappears toto 37 stillstill bbee widelywidely useusedd todaytoday bbyy JainasJainas toto negotiatnegotiatee thethe trickytricky discoursediscourse ofof ahimsa andand war.37 Virodhi-himsa isis a conceptconcept conceivedconceived bbyy monks;monks; however,however, itit reflectsreflects mostmost cogentlycogently a laylay realityreality (military(military war)war) inin a JainaJaina worldworld increasinglyincreasingly shapeshapedd bbyy thethe presencpresencee ofof thethe laity andand JJainaIna. a k'kingdoms.mg d oms. 3 388 ContemporaryContemporary JJain ainaa authorsauthors susuc chh asas SangaveSangave (200(2001,143-148 1, 143-148)) tracetrace virodhi-himsa toto thethe Purusarthasiddhi-upaya ofof ArnritchandraAmritchandra (twelft(twelfthh centurycentury C.E.),C.E.), whichwhich expandsexpands uponupon thethe distinctiondistinction betweenbetween samkalpi-himsa andand arambhi-himsa inin thethe Tattvartha-sutra (see(see above),above), andand furtherfurther dividesdivides arambhi-himsa intointo threethree categories:categories: Udyami-himsa,Udyami-himsa, occurringoccurring iinn thethe normalnormal conductconduct ofof one'sone's occupation,occupation, whetherwhether thatthat ofof a soldier,soldier, agriculturalist,agriculturalist, trader,trader, oror industrialist;39industrialist;39 Graharambhi-himsa, unavoidablyunavoidably committedcommitted iinn thethe performancperformancee ofof domesticdomestic taskstasks suchsuch asas thethe preparatiopreparationn ofof food;food; andand Virodhi-himsa,Virodhi-himsa, "unavoidably"unavoidably committedcommitted inin thethe defensedefense ofof persopersonn andand propertpropertyy againstagainst assailantsassailants andand enemies"enemies" (Sangave(Sangave 2001,2001, 148).148). TheseThese areare distinguished,distinguished, asas beforebefore,, fromfrom Samkalpi-himsa,Samkalpi-himsa, intentionintentiona all andand knowingknowing himsa. Thus,Thus, JainiJaini writeswrites thatthat JainasJainas "have"have consideredconsidered eveneven

37 ForFor instance,instance, K.C.K.C. JainJain writes:writes: "Ahimsa doesdoes notnot meanmean thatthat JainismJainism doesdoes notnot sanctionsanction fightingfighting onon thethe battle-fielbattle-fieldd forfor thethe righrightt cause.cause. InIn ththee historhistoryy ofIndia,of India, therethere areare instancesinstances wherwheree numerounumerouss JainaJaina warriorswarriors diddid nonott laglag behinbehindd thethe followersfollowers ofof otherother faithsfaiths inin battlbattlee fieldsfields forfor thethe causecause ofof mother-land,mother-land, selfself respectrespect andand familyfamily honourhonour.. ThisThis doesdoes nonott constituteconstitute violationviolation ofof ahimsa prescribeprescribedd inin Jainism.Jainism. ItIt prohibiteprohibitedd warswars andand battlebattless onlyonly forfor thethe wrongfulwrongful cause"cause" (Jain(Jain 1985,81-2).1985, 81-2). 38 38 TheThe influenceinfluence andand sizesize ofof thethe laity isis reflectereflectedd inin thethe sheersheer numbenumberr ofof sravakacaras. DundasDundas writeswrites that,that, "by"by thethe thirteenththirteenth century,century, anan extensiveextensive literatureliterature hadhad emerged,emerged, SvetambaraSvetambara andand Digambara,Digambara, whichwhich meticulouslymeticulously delineateddelineated thethe dutiesduties andand obligationsobligations ofof thethe JainJain laymanlayman...... situatin situatingg himhim iinn a worldworld basebasedd asas muchmuch upouponn monasticmonastic abstractionabstraction aass practicalpractical reality."reality." However,However, stillstill "ail"all thethe authorsauthors werewere,, withwith oneone exception,exception, monks"monks" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 189).189). TheThe oneone laylay writerwriter isis thethe DigambarDigambaraa AsadharAsadharaa (thirteenth(thirteenth centurycentury C.E.)C.E.) (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 298n7).298n7). 3939 The internai divisions to do with occupation are first introduced by the Adipurana, whose enumeration of theTh sixe internamodesl ofdivision allowables to dlivelihoodo with occupatio for lait yn givesare firs primacyt introduce of placed by thtoe asi Adipurana, (governance, whos kingship)e enumeratio (Jainin of th1979,e six 172n33). modes o fIncidentally, allowable livelihoo the Jainad foPuranasr laity give followeds primac they traditionalof place to hierarchical asi (governance, ordering kingship of the) sastras(Jaini (disciplines)1979,172n33) as. wasIncidentally common, ththroughoute Jaina Puranas ancient followe India. dForemost the traditiona in thel hierarchicatraditional lhierarchy ordering ofof sastrasthe sastras was (disciplines1) ) a s(aniviksiki), was commo whichn throughou illuminedt ancien 2) spiritualt India. Foremosand moralt inwisdom the traditiona (trayi),l whichhierarch reciprocallyy of sastras was supplemented1) philosophy reason(aniviksiki), with transcendentwhich illumine truths.d 2) spirituaTrayi wasl an followedd moral wisdo by 3)m the (trayi), practical whic scienceh reciprocall of livelihoody (varta),supplemente and finallyd reaso 4)n wittheh art transcenden of governancet truths (niti),. Trayi which was madefollowe thed otherby 3) threethe practica possiblel scienc by removinge of livelihoo d obstacles(varta), an andd finall allocatingy 4) th eresources art of governanc (for moree (niti),on this whic in contrasth made toth ethe othe horizontalr three possibl modele bofy modernremovin scientificg disciplines,obstacles an seed allocatin Pande g1984, resource 5). s (for more on this in contrast to the horizontal model of modern scientific disciplines, see Pande 1984, 5). 2929 killing,killing, whenwhen dondonee inin self-defenseself-defense oror durinduringg a purelpurelyy defensivedefensive war,war, toto involveinvolve notnot samklapaja-himsa but a lessless seriousserious varietyvariety calledcalled virodhi-himsa (in(injurjury y generatedgenerated byby standingstanding iinn opposition)"opposition)" (Jaini(Jaini 1979,1979, 171).171). AAss wewe havhavee seen,seen, thethe acceptanceacceptance ofof degreesdegrees ofof violenceviolence basebasedd onon intentiointentionn resultsresults fromfrom thethe graduallooseninggradual loosening ofof strictstrict monasticmonastic restrictionsrestrictions onon worldlyworldly actionaction throughoutthroughout thethe medievalmedieval periodperiod.. ByBy thisthis poinpointt (post(post tenthtenth century),century), thethe presencpresencee ofof thethe laity iiss soso pronouncepronouncedd that,that, inin thethe texts,texts, anan overtovert wayway ooff dealingdealing withwith thethe issueissue ofof self-defenseself-defense iiss introduced.introduced. However,However, thethe conceptconcept ofof virodhi-himsa iiss problematiproblematicc aass weIl.well. ItsIts authenticityauthenticity iinn sornesome casescases isis contested bbyy academics,academics, asas itit seemsseems toto havehave beenbeen a peripheraperipherall conceptconcept (at(at best)best) iinn actualactual medievamedievall society.1tsociety. It iiss a "noncanonical""noncanonical" concepconceptt (Jaini(Jaini 1979,1979, 171n32)171n32) attestedattested toto iinn nono ancientancient worksworks (as(as wewe havehave seen)seen) anandd appearingappearing iinn virtuallyvirtually nnoo texttext beforebefore thethe thirteenththirteenth century.century. OneOne earlyearly referencereference toto virodhi-himsa iiss iinn thethe Sagaradharmamrta­Sagaradharmamrta- tika, a commentarycommentary onon thethe Sagaradharmamrta ofof Asadhara;Asadhara; however,however, thisthis isis a latelate texttext sincesince Asadhara'sAsadhara's originaloriginal isis alreadyalready datedatedd aroundaround thethe thirteenththirteenth centurycentury C.E.C.E. ModernModern JainJainaa authorauthorss advocatinadvocatingg a self-defenseself-defense discoursediscourse tracetrace thethe originsorigins ofof virodhi-himsa toto thethe Yasastilaka-campu ofof SomadevasuriSomadevasuri (tenth(tenth centurycentury C.E.),C.E.), whichwhich containscontains a singlesingle passagpassagee (11.97)(11.97) thatthat isis quotedquoted bbyy alalll subsequensubsequentt authorsauthors asas thethe basibasiss forfor virodhi-himsa.virodhi-himsa. However,However, JainiJaini writeswrites thatthat thisthis passagpassagee iiss "by"by nnoo meansmeans explicil."explicit." ItIt onlyonly "seems"seems toto implyimply thatthat killingkilling iinn a defensivdefensivee warwar isis a kindkind ofof virodhi-himsavirodhi-himsa...... besbest t avoidedavoided ifif possiblpossiblee (ie:(ie: byby enteringentering thethe mendicantmendicant pathpath)) but 'acceptable''acceptable' forfor laypeople"laypeople" (Jaini(Jaini 1979,1979, 313n62).313n62). Furthermore,Furthermore, Somadevasuri's otherother famousfamous work,work, thethe Nitivakyamrta (tenth(tenth centurycentury C.E.),C.E.), 40 whichwhich JainiJaini callscalls "the"the onlyonly boobookk onon polity bbyy a JainaJaina author"author" (Jaini(Jaini 1979,1979, 171n32),40171n32), makemakess nono mentionmention ofof il.it. InIn fact,fact, itit makemakess nnoo mentionmention ofof defensivedefensive warwar atat all,all, exceptexcept toto saysay thatthat kingskings shouldshould regardregard warwar asas a "last"last resort"resort" (Jaini(Jaini 1979,1979, 171).171). Finally,Finally, thethe ideaidea ooff virodhi-himsa isis alsoalso stronglystrongly contradictedcontradicted bbyy thethe JainaJaina epics suchsuch asas thethe ,Ramayana, whichwhich "makes"makes iitt clearclear thathatt evenkillingeven killing inin self-defenseself-defense musmustt lealeadd oneone toto rebirthrebirth inin hell,"hell," aass exemplifieexemplifiedd bbyy Laksmana,Laksmana, whowho murdermurderss RavanaRavana anandd earnearnss heUhell despitdespitee thatthat murdemurderr beingbeing consideredconsidered "just""just" (Jain(Jainii 1979,1979, 314n62).314n62). TheseThese areare sornesome ofof thethe waysways thatthat thethe oft-quotedoft-quoted notionnotion ofof virodhi-himsa, despitedespite itsits initialinitial appealappeal,, isis nonethelessnonetheless shroudedshrouded inin ambiguity.ambiguity.

40 SeeminglySeemingly notnot veryvery revealing,revealing, however.however. DundasDundas downplaysdownplays itsits importance,importance, suggestingsuggesting thathatt itit conformsconforms mostlymostly ttoo pan-Indipan-Indice rulesrules andand "barely"barely showsshows anyany JainJain traittraitss atat aIl"all" (Dundas(Dundas 1991,1991,176) 176).. 3030

Influence of anekantavada?anekantavada?

ItIt isis beyonbeyondd thethe scscop opee ooff thisthis discussiondiscussion toto considerconsider inin anyany depthdepth thethe influenceinfluence ofof thethe doctrinedoctrine ooff anekantavada (non-absolutism)(non-absolutism) onon himsa discourse,discourse, but itit isis anan interestinginteresting angleangle toto concludeconclude onon.. ThatThat thethe conceptsconcepts areare relatedrelated isis obviousobvious fromfrom manymany contemporarycontemporary JainaJaina statementsstatements linkinglinking virodhi-himsa withwith anekantavada, althoughalthough givengiven ourour discussion,discussion, thethe usualusual problemproblemss withwith virodhi-himsa (a(ass toto itsits authenticityauthenticity asas anan establishedestablished parpartt ofof thethe medievalmedieval discourse)discourse) apply.41apply.41 TheThe oneone well-knownwell-known criticismcriticism ofof anekantavada thatthat cancan bbee mentionementionedd hahass toto dodo withwith ititss naturnaturee ofof "flexible"flexible fundamentalism"fundamentalism" (Chapple(Chappie 1993,93).421993, 93).42 WhileWhile itit isis extremelyextremely effectiveeffective throughoutthroughout thethe traditiontradition inin establishing a relationrelation ooff tolerancetolerance anandd opennessopenness withwith competingcompeting traditions,traditions, iitt iiss rarelyrarely (if(if ever)ever) usedused toto critiquecritique positionpositionss within JainismJainism itself.itself. AsAs ChappleChappie says,says, thethe JainaJaina beliebelieff structurestructure hashas "remained"remained unalteredunaltered forfor nearlynearly threethree thousandthousand yearsyears...i ... inn a sense,sense, JainaJaina fundamentalsfundamentals areare unshakeableunshakeable"" (Chapple(Chappie 1993,91).1993,91). ThereforeTherefore iitt iiss unlikelunlikelyy thatthat anekantavada waswas responsiblresponsiblee forfor compromisescompromises inin injunctionsinjunctions onon ahimsa.ahimsa.4343

41 CompareCompare Sangave:Sangave: "Human"Human beingbeingss havehave limitedlimited knowledgeknowledge andand inadequateinadequate expression.expression. ThatThat isis whywhy differentdifferent doctrinesdoctrines areare inadequate;inadequate; atat thethe mostmost theythey areare one-sidedone-sided viewsviews ofof thethe TruthTruth whichwhich cannocannott bbee dulyduly enc10sedenclosed inin wordswords andand conceptsconcepts.. JainismJainism hahass alwaysalways helheldd thatthat itit isis wrong,wrong, ifif notnot dangerous,dangerous, toto presumpresumee thatthat one'sone's ownown creedcreed alalon onee representrepresentss thethe truth.truth. TolerationToleration isis,, therefore,therefore, thethe characteristiccharacteristic ofof JainJain ideology.ideology. EvenEven thethe JainJain monarchsmonarchs andand generalsgenerals havehave a c1eanclean anandd commendablecommendable recordrecord ofof theirtheir creditcredit inin thisthis regard. TheThe politicapoliticall historyhistory ofof IndiaIndia knowsknows nono casescases ofof persecutiopersecutionn bbyy JainJain Kings,Kings, eveneven whenwhen JainJain monksmonks andand laymenlaymen havehave sufferedsuffered atat thethe handshands ofof otherother religionistsreligionists ofof fanaticalfanatical tempertemper ...... itit cannotcannot bbee denieddenied thatthat thethe JainasJainas fosteredfostered thethe principlprinciplee ofof tolerationtoleration moremore sincerelysincerely anandd aatt thethe samesame timetime moremore successfullysuccessfully thanthan anyany otherother communitycommunity inin India"India" (Sangave(Sangave 1990,10-11).1990, 10-11). Similarly,Similarly, K.C.K.C. JaiJainn writeswrites thatthat thethe doctrinedoctrine ofof naya, resultingresulting fromfrom anekantavada, "produced"produced aann atmosphereatmosphere ofof mutualmutual harmonyharmony andand mademade thethe JainasJainas broad-mindedbroad-minded.. ThroughouThroughoutt thethe historyhistory wheneverwhenever thethe JainaJaina rulersrulers werewere inin power,power, therethere isis notnot a singlesingle instanceinstance ofof tyrannytyranny onon thethe followersfollowers ofof otherother religions.religions. BecauseBecause ofof thethe broad-mindednesbroad-mindednesss ofof Jainas,Jainas, therethere areare severalseveral instancesinstances whenwhen rulersrulers becambecamee patronspatrons ooff JainismJainism bbyy givinggiving liberalliberal grantsgrants toto themthem eveneven thoughthough theythey diddid notnot adopadoptt itit (Jain(Jain 1985,1985, 82).82). InIn relationrelation toto this,this, G.c.G.C. PandePande alsoalso writes:writes: "The"The spreadspread ofof pacifispacifismm cancan becombecomee effectiveeffective onlyonly ifif humahumann naturenature isis sufficientlysufficiently educatededucated morallymorally andand spirituallyspiritually notnot toto seekseek thethe seulementsettlement ofof disputesdisputes eveneven atat thethe expense ooff others.others. InIn otherother words,words, unlessunless thethe JainaJaina idealideal ofof equality betweebetweenn oneselfoneself andand anotheranother isis distributivelydistributively realizedrealized inin a society,society, thethe idealideal ofof non-violencenon-violence cannotcannot bbee effectivelyeffectively adoptedadopted collectively.collectively. ReversingReversing Plato'sPlato's dictumdictum wewe mightmight statestate thatthat thethe individuaindividu all isis thethe statestate inin miniatureminiature andand thethe wayway toto establishestablish justicjusticee inin societysociety isis toto establishestablish itit inin ththee heartheart ofof eacheach andand everyevery one.one. 'Darmasya tattvam nihitam guhayam.'"guhayam. '" (Pande(Pande 19771977,, 28-9).28-9). 42 42 ChappleChappie actuallyactually useusess thisthis termterm toto describedescribe syadvada, thethe doctrinedoctrine ofof manifoldmanifold viewpoints,viewpoints, a principleprinciple c10selyclosely relatedrelated toto anekantavada.anekantavada. 4343 Nevertheless, Anne Vallely suggests that Jaina anekantavada may actually be a form of genuine pluralismNevertheless - a way, Ann oute ofVallel the y"epistemological suggests that Jain quagmirea anekantavada [of] moral ma relativismy actually orbe exc1usivity"a form of genuin (Vallelye 2004, pluralis100). Thism - isa becauseway out "itof grantsthe "epistemologica that epistemologicall quagmir neutralitye [of] mora is anl relativis impossibilitym or exclusivity for ordinary" (Vallel humans,y 2004 but , the100) doctrine. This is does becaus note require"it grant il.s thaAnekantat epistemologica does not lpredicate neutralit yits i spluralism an impossibilit on epistemologicaly for ordinary neutrality.humans, bu t Instead,the doctrin it assertse does thatnot requirthe holdinge it. Anekanta of ev en doean uncompromisings not predicate it sposition pluralis mon otruthn epistemologica (as Mahaviral neutralitydid with . Instead, it asserts that the holding of even an uncompromising position on truth (as Mahavira did with 3131

ConclusionConclusion

MedievaMedievall JainasJainas clearlyclearly consideredconsidered iitt farfar moremore importanimportantt toto applyapply thethe ideaideall ofof nonviolencenonviolence toto thethe practicapracticall needsneeds ofof lifelife (diet,(diet, conduct,conduct, andand ssoo forth)forth) ratherrather thanthan toto large­large- scalsc alee abstractionsabstractions susuc chh asas internationalinternational relationsrelations andand statestate warfare.warfare. ThiThiss emphasisemphasis onon thethe personapersonall andand thethe individuindividua all throughthrough internaIinternal mindfulnessmindfulness reflectsreflects thethe monasticmonastic ideidea all atat thethe heartheart ofof Jainism.Jainism. NeverthelessNevertheless,, overover history,history, asas JainismJainism expandedexpanded inin thethe earlyearly andand medievalmedieval periodsperiods,, thethe laity (and(and laylay matters)matters) assumedassumed anan increasinglincreasinglyy prominenprominentt placplacee inin thethe society,society, asas reflectedreflected inin (and(and facilitatedfacilitated byby)) thethe textualtextual traditiontradition ofof thethe monks.monks. TextsTexts susuc chh asas thethe Tatthvartha-sutra ofof Umasvati,Umasvati, thethe Adipurana ofof Jinasena,Jinasena, anandd thethe Yasastilaka-campu ofof SomadevasuriSomadevasuri contributedcontributed toto thethe developmentdevelopment ofof a uniqueluniquelyy JainaJaina discoursediscourse onon himsa vis a vis JJain ainaa kings,kings, whichwhich justifiejustifiedd violenceviolence inin warwar,, albeitalbeit indirectly,indirectly, 1)1) bbyy appealinappealingg toto communitycommunity anandd thethe virtuvirtuee ofof community-building,community-building, 2)2) bbyy drawingdrawing onon warriorwarrior traitstraits inherentinherent inin thethe religionreligion itselfitself (both(both ofof thesethese araree foundfound inin thethe idealideal ofof thethe cakravartin), anandd 3)3) bbyy thethe populapopularr bubutt alsalsoo textuallytextually problematiproblematicc concepconceptt ofof virodhi­virodhi- himsa, developeddeveloped inin thethe latelate medievalmedieval periodperiod.. AAss discussed,discussed, virodhi-himsa remainsremains veryvery muchmuch anan imperfectimperfect contributioncontribution toto JainaJaina ksatriya-dharma discourse,discourse, becausbecausee itit isis soso under-representeunder-representedd inin thethe traditiontradition itself,itself, especiallyespecially duringduring thethe medievalmedieval periodperiod.. AAss JainiJaini writes,writes, nicelynicely summarizingsummarizing ourour discussion,discussion, mendicantsmendicants (and(and alsalsoo thethe mendicantmendicant mentalitymentality atat thethe heartheart ofof thethe religion):religion):

havehave clearlyclearly exertedexerted greatgreat effortsefforts toto avoidavoid personallpersonallyy harmingharming ananyy livingliving thing;thing; but theirtheir recordrecord onon thethe issueissue ofof condoningcondoning violent behaviobehaviorr isis lessless clearclear ...... greatgreat JainaJaina generalsgenerals werewere notnot condemnedcondemned bbyy mendicantmendicant leadersleaders forfor theirtheir violent actionsactions;; onon thethe contrary,contrary, theirtheir highhigh positionposition inin thethe statestate was seenseen asas a boonboon toto thethe entireentire religiousreligious community.community. JainaJaina literature,literature, moreover,moreover, isis bbyy nono meansmeans pacifispacifistt (in(in thethe sensesense thatthat QuakerQuakerss areare,, foforr example)example):: onlonlyy aggressivaggressivee wawarr iiss proscribedproscribed,, whilwhilee ththee subjecsubjectt ooff fightingfighting inin defensedefense ofof one'sone's countrycountry isis passepassedd overover almostalmost withoutwithout comment.comment. AsAs forfor thethe JainaJaina layman'slayman's personapersonall responsibilityresponsibility inin timetime ofof warwar,, itit hashas nevernever beebeenn confrontedconfronted directly.directly. (Jaini(Jaini 1979,313)1979, 313)

respectrespect ttoo nonviolence)nonviolence) can coexistcoexist withwith a celebrationcelebration ofof conceptual,conceptual, philosophicaphilosophicall andand moralmoral diversity"diversity" (Vallel(VaIlelyy 2004,2004, 101).101). Still,Still, Chapple'sChappie's poinpointt applies.applies. 3232

lI willwill attemptattempt justjust suchsuch a "confrontation""confrontation" ofof contemporarycontemporary JainaJaina viewsviews onon thethe issuissuee ofof violenceviolence,, especiallyespecially violencviolencee iinn self-defense,self-defense, iinn thethe followinfollowingg chapters.chapters.

i ChapterTwoChapter Two

DiscussionsDiscussions ofof JainJainaa ValuesValues anandd ConductConduct AmongAmong ContemporaryContemporary JainasJainas inin DelhiDelhi anandd JaipurJaipur

TheThe previoupreviouss chapterchapter hashas outlinedoutlined thethe developmentdevelopment withinwithin medievalmedieval JainismJainism ofof a textuallytextually verifiableverifiable discoursediscourse onon ksatriya-dharma. HowHow relevantrelevant isis thisthis ttoo modemmodern IndianIndian laylay Jainism?Jainism? DoDo medievalmedieval JainaJaina viewviewss factorfactor inin legitimatinglegitimating violenceviolence iinn self-defenseself-defense today?today? IfIf notnot,, whatwhat areare sornesome otherother strategies? lnIn particularparticular,, howhow prevalenprevalentt iiss virodhi-himsa?virodhi-himsal ThatThat virodhi-himsa continuescontinues toto remainremain a convenient,convenient, albeitalbeit imperfect,imperfect, answeanswerr toto thethe problemproblem ofof himsa iinn warwar iiss suggestedsuggested bbyy manymany articlesarticles onon JainaJaina websiteswebsites suchsuch asas www.jainworld.comwww.jainworld.com.. ButBut dodo thesethese viewsviews necessarilynecessarily reflectreflect thethe viewsviews ofof modemmodern IndianIndian laylay Jainas?Jainas? lnIn thethe nexnextt twotwo chapters,chapters, 1I analyzeanalyze thethe viewsviews ofof sevenseven JainaJaina laypersonslaypersons andand fivefive TerapanthiTerapanthi SadhvisSadhvis onon issueissuess relatedrelated toto legitimatinglegitimating violencviolencee inin self-defense.self-defense. MyMy expectationexpectation atat thethe outsetoutset iiss thatthat virodhi-himsa factorsfactors greatlygreatly inin modemmodern views,views, aass suggestedsuggested earlier bbyy passagepassagess quotedquoted fromfrom contemporarycontemporary JainaJaina authorsauthors susuc chh asas VilasVilas Sangave.Sangave. InIn doingdoing thisthis ethnographieethnographic research,research, 1I followfollow thethe traditiontradition ofof scholarsscholars suchsuch aass JamesJames Laidlaw,Laidlaw, JohnJohn Cort,Cort, LawrenceLawrence BabbBabb andand MarcusMarcus Banks,Banks, aIlall ofof whomwhom havehave publishepublishedd ethnographiesethnographies onon JainaJaina communities,communities, mostlymostly inin thethe nineties.11 However,However, asas 1I mentionmention inin mymy introduction,introduction, muchmuch ofof thethe datadata forfor thesethese ethnographiesethnographies waswas collectedcollected overover tenten yearsyears ago,ago, beforbeforee India'sIndia's nucleanuclearr teststests atat PokhranPokhran iinn 1998.1998. AsAs a result,result, thesethese ethnographiesethnographies ddoo nonott taketake intointo considerationconsideration JainaJaina viewsviews iinn twenty-firsttwenty-first centurycentury "nuclear""nuclear" India.India. How,How, iiff atat aIl,all, havehave thesethese viewsviews changed?changed? HowHow areare theythey similarsimilar and,and, mostmost importantly,importantly, dodo theythey relaterelate toto medievalmedieval JainaJaina viewsviews onon legitimatinglegitimating violenceviolence asas seenseen iinn thethe developmentdevelopment ofof ksatriya-dharma discoursediscourse (Jaina(Jaina "Just"Just War"War" theory)?theory)? IsIs therethere a conflictconflict ofof valuesvalues oorr a reinterpretationreinterpretation ofof thethe tradition?tradition? HaveHave sornesome aspectsaspects ofof thethe traditiontradition

1 SeeSee ReferencesReferences forfor dates.dates. MarcusMarcus BanksBanks hashas writtenwritten mostlymostly aboutabout DiasporaDiaspora JainasJainas inin thethe U.K.U.K. 1I discussdiscuss hishis work,work, inin particulaparticularr hishis designationdesignation ofof certaincertain JainasJainas asas "neo-orthodox""neo-orthodox" inin thethe Conclusion.Conclusion. 3434

2 (such(such aass thethe emphasisemphasis onon intention,intention, forfor exampleexample ) beebeenn elevatedelevated overover others?others? WhatWhat areare thethe mainmain patternpatternss and/orand/or discontinuities?discontinuities? CortCort callscalls modemmodern JainasJainas "rather"rather apoliticalapolitieal"" (Cort(Cort 1998,85).31998, 85).3 Laidlaw'sLaidlaw's viewview isis thatthat "the"the JainaJaina laity doesdoes notnot generallygenerally regardregard itsits attitudesattitudes towardstowards mattersmatters ofof governmentgovernment policypolicy,, internationalinternational politicpolitiess oror capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt asas beinbeingg conditionedconditioned bbyy thethe doctrinedoctrine ofof non-violencenon-violence"" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 191,191, citingciting LaidlawLaidlaw 1985).1985). InIn thisthis andand thethe followingfollowing chapter,chapter, 1I showshow sornesome differencesdifferences fromfrom thesethese views.views. AsAs mentionedmentioned earlier,earlier, inin orderorder toto render mymy analysisanalysis manageable,manageable, 1I limitlimit mymy discussiondiscussion toto self-defenseself-defense anandd relaterelatedd issuesissues sucsuchh asas worldworld peacepeace,, placinplacingg particulaparticularr emphasisemphasis onon nationalnational andand internationalinternational spheres.spheres. OfOf course,course, contemporarycontemporary socialsocial anandd politicapoliticall contextscontexts change;change; therefore,therefore, 1I alsoalso attemptattempt toto outlineoutline thesethese contextscontexts whereverwherever possiblpossiblee inin advanceadvance ofof mymy analysisanalysis ofof individualindividual issues.4 TheThe presenpresentt chapterchapter servesserves asas a foundationfoundation foforr thisthis discussiondiscussion bbyy examiningexamining moremore broadlbroadlyy thethe viewsviews ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees oonn issuesissues relatedrelated toto JainaJaina values andand conduct.conduct. ThisThis provideprovidess a contextcontext forfor thethe moremore specifispecifiec discussiodiscussionn ofof legitimatinglegitimating violenceviolence inin self­self- defense.defense. TheThe questionsquestions 1I aamm interesteinterestedd iinn areare:: whatwhat iiss thethe maimainn JainJainaa valuevalue oror values accordingaccording toto mymy interviewees?interviewees? CanCan JJain ainaa valuesvalues impactimpact thethe socialsocial spheresphere inin anyany way,way, andand ifif soso how?how? WhaWhatt isis thethe besbestt formform ofof JainaJaina conductconduct givengiven thesethese values?values? WhaWhatt doesdoes thisthis saysay aboutabout thethe wayway contemporarycontemporary IndianIndian laylay JainasJainas imagineimagine society?society? lnIn analyzinganalyzing thethe positionspositions ofof mymy interviewees,interviewees, 1I notenote similaritiesimilaritiess andand differencesdifferences fromfrom thethe medievalmedieval positionspositions outlinedoutlined inin ChapterChapter One.One. InIn thethe followinfollowingg chapterchapter (Chapter(Chapter Three),Three), 1I relatrelatee thethes see findingsfindings toto mymy discussiondiscussion ofof self-defenseself-defense andand thethe specificspecific issuesissues listedlisted inin thethe Introduction.Introduction.

2 2 DundasDundas writeswrites thatthat laylay peoplpeoplee "seldom"seldom exerciseexercise theirtheir imaginationsimaginations greatlygreatly abouaboutt thethe religiousreligious implicationsimplications ofof theirtheir normalnormal day-to-dayday-to-day activities,activities, placinplacingg thethe emphasisemphasis instead,instead, ifif challenged,challenged, onon theirtheir puritpurityy ofof intention"intention" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002,191) 191).. 3 He also notes that they need encouragement to enter political affairs, even to protect Jaina social and ethicalHe als interests.o notes tha Similarly,t they nee hed encouragemensays that lay Jainast to ente alsor politicacriticizel affairsmendicants, even whoto protec establisht Jain publica socia l and relationshipsethical interests with. Similarly politicians., he Thissays continuesthat lay Jaina "a tendency,s also criticize which mendicant has existeds wh foro establisseven hundredh publi cyears, in relationshipwhich Jainss have with viewedpoliticians most. Thi rulerss continue as aliens "anda tendency potentially, whic hostile"h has existe(Cort d1998, for seve 85).n Forhundre mored yearson this,, in see below.which Jains have viewed most rulers as alien and potentially hostile" (Cort 1998, 85). For more on this, see below. 4 4 For a list of these issues, see the Introduction. For a list of these issues, see the Introduction. 3355

ProfileProfile ofof IntervieweesInterviewees

MyMy intervieweesinterviewees numberednumbered sevenseven (thre(threee men,men, fourfour women)women) withwith agesages rangingranging fromfrom earlyearly twentiestwenties toto latelate sixties:sixties: twotwo womenwomen inin theirtheir sixties,sixties, twotwo menmen inin theirtheir fortiesforties andand fifties,fifties, twotwo womenwomen inin theirtheir thirties,thirties, andand oneone manman iinn hishis earlyearly twenties.twenties. FiveFive peoplepeople werewere marriedmarried (tw(twoo men,men, threethree women).women). InIn additionaddition toto these,these, 1I interviewedinterviewed a groupgroup ooff fivefive TerapanthiTerapanthi Sadhvis,Sadhvis, withwith agesages rangingranging fromfrom fiftyfifty toto eightyeighty yearsyears ofof ageage..

Kamini

KaminiKamini isis a thirty-twothirty-two yeayearr oldold coursecourse coordinatorcoordinator atat thethe UniversitUniversityy ofof Mumbai,Mumbai, wherewhere sheshe isis alsoalso a visitingvisiting professoprofessorr ofof Jainology.Jainology. Additionally,Additionally, KaminiKamini was oneone ofof mymy fellowfellow scholarsscholars atat thethe InternationalInternational SummerSummer SchoolSchool forfor JainaJaina StudiesStudies (ISSJS)(ISSJS) 2007. 1 spokespoke withwith KaminiKamini onon manymany occasions.occasions. ByBy nono means waswas sheshe a removedremoved oror distantdistant professorialprofessorial figure;figure; instead,instead, shshee waswas warm,warm, talkative,talkative, andand curious.curious. SheShe oftenoften askedasked thethe visitingvisiting scholarsscholars questionsquestions aboutabout CanadaCanada andand thethe UniteUnitedd States,States, andand willinglwillinglyy answeredanswered ourour ownown questionsquestions abouaboutt IndianIndian currentcurrent eventsevents suchsuch aass ththee GujjarGujjar riotriotss happeninhappeningg aatt ththee timtimee iinn Rajasthan.55 KaminiKamini grewgrew uupp iinn a villagevillage outside ofof MumbaiMumbai wherewhere HinduHindu goddessgoddess worshipworship continuescontinues toto bbee a keykey featurefeature ofof religioureligiouss life.life. HerHer JainaJaina familyfamily isis notnot anan exceptionexception inin thisthis regardregard - inin fact,fact, Kamini'sKamini's auntaunt regularlyregularly becomesbecomes "possessed""possessed" byby thethe goddessgoddess (Devi){Devi) andand servesserves asas thethe intermediaryintermediary betweenbetween Devi andand herher devotees.devotees. 1I was intriguedintrigued byby Kamini'sKamini's ruralrural roots,roots, andand herher family'sfamily's unorthodoxunorthodox brand ofof JJainism ainism.. PerhapsPerhaps thisthis isis why,why, despitedespite beinbeingg SvetambaraSvetambara Jaina,Jaina, sheshe identifiesidentifies herselfherself "just"just asas a human"human" ratherrather thanthan JainaJaina oror HinduHindu,, althougalthoughh whewhenn pressepressedd sheshe saisaidd shshee woulwouldd calcaUl herselfherself JainJainaa forfor censucensuss purposes.6 lnIn herher day-to-dayday-to-day life,life, sheshe saidsaid sheshe drawsdraws mostmost uponupon JainaJaina philosophicaphilosophicall conceptsconcepts susuc chh asas anekantavada overover andand againstagainst suchsuch elementselements aass familyfamily traditionstraditions andand teachingsteachings ooff

5 TheThe GujjarsGujjars areare oneone ofIndia'sof India's manymany nativenative groups.groups. InIn JuneJune 2007,2007, theythey werewere demandingdemanding "Scheduled"Scheduled Tribe"Tribe" (ST)(ST) statusstatus fromfrom thethe RajasthaniRajasthani government.government. TheThe protestsprotests turnedturned violentviolent andand majormajor roadsroads intointo RajasthanRajasthan fromfrom DelhiDelhi werewere shutshut downdown forfor days.days. SeeSee alsoalso ChapterChapter Three.Three. 6 1I receivedreceived thethe samesame responseresponse fromfrom Pratibha,Pratibha, thethe otherother academicacademic whomwhom 1I interviewedinterviewed (see(see below).below). InIn fact,fact, nonenone ofof thethe laylay JainaJainass 1I interviewedinterviewed exceptexcept Uma,Uma, thethe homemaker,homemaker, uncompromisinglyuncompromisingly calledcalled themselvesthemselves JainaJaina.. MostMost saidsaid JainJainaa first, thenthen HinduHindu (see(see notenote aboutabout JainasJainas identifyingidentifying asas HindusHindus inin thethe Introduction).Introduction). 3636 acaryas. However,However, sheshe isis nono idealist,idealist, especiallyespecially whenwhen itit cornescomes toto ethicalethical issues.issues. AAss wilwilll bbee shown,shown, sheshe isis definitelydefinitely moremore ofof a pragmatispragmatistt thanthan mymy otherother interviewees.interviewees.

Pratibha

Pratibha,Pratibha, sixty-seven,sixty-seven, isis a retireretiredd professoprofessorr ofof politicapoliticall history,history, formerlyformerly atat thethe UniversityUniversity ofof Rajasthan.Rajasthan. SheShe isis a life-Ionglife-long GandhianGandhian andand stillstill lectureslectures onon Gandhi inin herher sparespare time.time. SheShe hashas beenbeen involvedinvolved inin variousvarious socialsocial initiativesinitiatives (more(more onon thisthis below)below) andand remainsremains currentlycurrently activeactive witwithh "two"two oror three"three" NGO'sNGO's.. LikeLike KaminiKamini,, PratibhaPratibha considersconsiders herselfherself above distinctionsdistinctions ofof religioreligionn andand caste:caste: ''l'm"I'm notnot a veryvery rigirigidd orthodoxorthodox person,person,"" sheshe toldtold me.me. ''l'm"I'm JainaJaina inin thethe sensesense thatthat 1I followfollow thethe mainmain tenetstenets ofof Jainism.Jainism. [But][But] 1I intermixintermix withwith thethe Hindus,Hindus, andand alsoalso withwith thethe HinduHindu templestemples aIlall thethe time.time. SSoo therethere iiss nnoo barrier,barrier, butbut essentiallyessentially 1I followfollow Jainism."Jainism." PratibhaPratibha considersconsiders thethe JainaJaina NamokarNamokaraa MantraMantra (the(the principalprincipal mantramantra ofof Jainism),Jainism), vegetarianismvegetarianism,, andand "t"t~o sornesome extentextent thethe essentialessential spirispiritt andand conceptconcept ofof non-possession"non-possession" asas mainmain tetenet netss ofof Jainism.Jainism. HerHer ownown approachapproach toto problemproblemss isis throughthrough a patienpatientt applicationapplication ooff nonviolencenonviolence.. SheShe doesdoes notnot eveneven raiseraise herher voice.voice. 1I askeaskedd herher whethewhetherr sheshe considersconsiders suchsuch aann approachapproach Gandhian,Gandhian, JJaina aina,, oror botbothh - ifif suchsuch distinctionsdistinctions cancan eveneven bebe made.made. SheShe replied:replied:

It'sIt's veryvery hardhard toto analyzeanalyze myselfmyself atat thatthat level,level, bubutt 1I thinkthink l'mI'm bothboth,, andand oneone more.more. l'mI'm botbothh inin thethe sensesense thatthat Gandhi-ismGandhi-ism hashas mademade a dentdent onon mymy mindmind andand isis reflectereflectedd inin mymy attitudes.attitudes. l'mI'm veryvery suresure thatthat mymy mother,mother, whowho was a devoteddevoted Jaina,Jaina, hashas leftleft a deepdeep impacimpactt onon meme andand mymy samskarams [as[as well]weIl],, botbothh atat thethe levellevel ofof ideologyideology andand behaviourbehaviour.. AnAndd third,third, mymy father,father, whowho was anan administratoradministrator ofof anan educationaleducational institutioinstitutionn anandd subsequentlysubsequently leftleft iitt duringduring thethe BritishBritish governmentgovernment,, wawass involveinvolvedd iinn thethe freedomfreedom movementmovement andand svadeshi movement.movement. l'mI'm deeplydeeply influencedinfluenced bbyy thesethese threethree..

WhenWhen 1I askedasked herher whetherwhether thetheyy influenceinfluencedd herher inin herher coursecourse ofof studstudyy andand herher interestinterest iinn Gandhi,Gandhi, sheshe said:said: "My"My bringinbringingg upup,, yesoyes. MyMy choicechoice ofof studyingstudying Gandhi was mymy own,own, aatt thethe PhDPhD level,level, andand afterafter thatthat itit seepedseeped inin moremore anandd mormoree iinn mmyy ideas andand mmyy attitudes.attitudes. SoSo 1I thinkthink it'sit's both.both. AtAt timestimes oneone isis not veryvery consciousconscious andand isis inadvertentlyinadvertently influencedinfluenced byby [for[for exampleexample the]the] GandhianGandhian ideologyideology ofmyof my father,father, anandd thethe period."period." 3737

PratibhaPratibha waswas borbomn SvetambaraSvetambara bubutt marriemarriedd intointo a DigambaraDigambara family.family. RegardingRegarding thethe distinctiondistinction betweenbetween thethe twotwo JainaJaina sects,sects, sheshe sayssays thatthat shshee isis "not"not reallyreally rigidrigid aboutabout it,"it," althoughalthough sheshe diddid expressexpress reservationsreservations overover thethe strictnessstrictness ofof DigambaraDigambara Jainism,Jainism, notingnoting thatthat thertheree isis "too"too muchmuch emphasisemphasis onon howhow toto eateat food,food, whatwhat foodfood toto eat,eat, stanstandd andand eat,eat, eateat atat oneone time,time, don'tdon't havehave anyany dwellingsdwellings...... " AIso,Also, sheshe considersconsiders thethe rejectionrejection bbyy DigambarasDigambaras ooff stri-moksastrÎ-moksa (liberation(liberation ofof women)women) "very"very difficultdifficult forfor mmee toto accept."accept.,,77 WhenWhen sheshe firstfirst gotgot married,married, sheshe feltfelt a similarsimilar wayway aboutabout thethe nakednessnakedness ofof DigambaraDigambara monks,monks, althoughalthough sheshe pointpointss outout thatthat eventuallyeventually sheshe realizedrealized "that"that thethe hesitationhesitation lieslies inin meme,, not inin theirtheir appearance."appearance." NeverthelessNevertheless,, sheshe stillstill considersconsiders SvetambaraSvetambara monkmonkss andand nunsnuns "more"more accessible."accessible." OneOne exception,exception, shshee toldtold me,me, isis thethe DigambaraDigambara AcaryaAcarya Ksamasagar,Ksamasagar, a modemmodern 8 sainsaintt withwith whomwhom sheshe continuescontinues toto bbee "very"very impressed.impressed." "s LikeLike Kamini,Kamini, PratibhaPratibha alsoalso drawdrawss upouponn JainaJaina philosophicaphilosophicall conceptsconcepts inin herher day­day- to-dayto-day life:life: "The"The firstfirst prioritpriorityy isis c1earlyclearly thethe tenettenetss ofof Jainism,Jainism, inc1udingincluding theorytheory ooff knowledge,knowledge, anekantavada, andand syadvada." ButBut sheshe alsoalso stressesstresses thethe importanceimportance ofof familyfamily traditions,traditions, a poinpointt reflected,reflected, iitt woulwouldd seem,seem, iinn heherr initiainitiall concernconcemss overover aspectaspectss ofof herher husband'shusband's DigambaraDigambara identity.identity. Interestingly,Interestingly, despitedespite herher enthusiasmenthusiasm forfor SriSri Ksamasagar,Ksamasagar, sheshe sayssays thatthat sheshe isis generallygenerally "not"not attracted"attracted" toto thethe teachingsteachings ofof thethe acaryasacaryas, asas anan importantimportant factorfactor inin herher dailydaily understandingunderstanding ofof Jainism.Jainism.

7 7 OrthodoxOrthodox DigambaraDigambara viewsviews denydeny thethe possibilitpossibilityy ofof liberationliberation forfor women.women. ForFor moremore onon this,this, seesee JainiJaini 19911991.. 8 SriSri KsamasagarKsamasagar completedcompleted a M.TechM.Tech degreedegree fromfrom SaugarSaugar UniversityUniversity beforbeforee takingtaking monasticmonastic vowsvows aatt ageage twenty-three.twenty-three. HeHe isis knownknown forfor publishinpublishingg numerousnumerous books,books, amongamong themthem thethe lifelife storystory ofof AcaryaAcarya Vidyasagar,Vidyasagar, a well-knowwell-knownn modernmodern DigambaraDigambara saintsaint (sorne(some saysay mystic)mystic) basebasedd inin MadhyaMadhya Pradesh.Pradesh. K.CK.C.. Sogani, anan expertexpert inin JainaJaina mysticism,mysticism, considersconsiders Vidyasagar (b.1946(b.1946 inin Karnataka;Karnataka; initiatedinitiated aass a muni inin 1968)1968) oneone ofof onlyonly threethree genuinegenuine mysticalmystical acaryas inin contemporarycontemporary IndianIndian Jainism,Jainism, thethe otherother twotwo beingbeing VidyananVidyanandd (based(based inin Delhi)Delhi) andand Mahaprajna,Mahaprajna, thethe headhead ofof thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi orderorder (based(based inin Ladnun).Ladnun). AccordingAccording toto Sogani, thethe TerapanthisTerapanthis continuecontinue toto dodo thethe mostmost workwork inin modernmodern JainaJaina mysticism,mysticism, advocatingadvocating preksadhyan meditationmeditation,, a formform ofof JainaJaina yogayoga thatthat isis especiallyespecially populapopularr amongamong affluentaffluent SvetambaraSvetambara Jainas,Jainas, anandd publishinpublishingg modernmodern confessionalsconfessionals anandd otherother formsforms ofof mysticmystic writingwriting (one(one suchsuch boobookk thatthat isis widelywidely knownknown isis Mirror of the Self) (Sogani,(Sogani, ISSJSISSJS lecture,lecture, JuneJune 22,22, 2007).2007). AccordingAccording toto Sogani,Sogani, mostmost JainaJaina todaytoday areare "not"not spiritual"spiritual" (in(in thethe sensesense ofof spirituo-religious);spirituo-religious); rather,rather, theythey dodo ethics (that(that is,is, preachpreach rulesrules ooff conduct)conduct).. TheyThey areare moralmoral ratheratherr thathann spiritualspiritual.. FoForr moremore onon thithiss importanimportantt distinctiodistinctionn betweenbetween ethicsethics andand spiritualityspirituality,, seesee below.below. PratibhaPratibha sayssays shshee enjoysenjoys dialoguingdialoguing witwithh AcaryaAcarya KsamasagarKsamasagar wheneverwhenever shshee canocan. AskedAsked ifif sheshe thinksthinks hehe isis a mysticamysticall saintsaint inin thethe mannermanner ofof hishis guruguru,, sheshe professeprofessess a dislikedislike forfor ththee termterm "mystical:""mystical:" ""1I cannotcannot saysay.. 1I feelfeel thatthat inin thethe spiritualspiritual journejourneyy therethere areare severallevelsseveral levels thatthat oneone attains.attains. 1I don'tdon't calIcall iitt mysticism.mysticism. 1I calIcall itit spirituaspirituall journeyjourney,, inin whicwhichh atat timestimes throughthrough meditation,meditation, atat timestimes throughthrough knowknowledge ledge,, aatt timestimes throughthrough practicinpracticingg certaincertain religiousreligious ceremoniesceremonies...yo ... youu dodo havhavee a kindkind ofof experienceexperience whicwhichh 1I cannotcannot explainexplain ververyy weIlwell inin thethe empiricalempirical sense."sense." SheShe sayssays shshee doesdoes nonott practicpracticee ananyy formsforms ofof meditationmeditation savesave repeatingrepeating andand chantingchanting thethe NamokarNamokaraa MantraMantra a fewfew timestimes eaceachh morningmorning andand eacheach evening.evening. AskedAsked whetherwhether sheshe considersconsiders VidyasagaVidyasagarr herher guru,guru, heherr answeranswer wawass immediate:immediate: "1"I havehave nono guru. NamokarNamokaraa mantramantra isis mmyy guru."guru." 38

Shugan

ShuganShugan isis a fifty-sixfifty-six yearyear oldold Digambara,Digambara, andand thethe onlyonly otherother persopersonn 1I interviewedinterviewed besidesbesides KaminiKamini involvedinvolved inin thethe ISSJS.ISSJS. ByBy profession,profession, hehe isis anan informationinformation technologytechnology (lT)(IT) consultant,consultant, nownow retired,retired, whowho presently dividesdivides hishis timetime betweenbetween studyingstudying JainaJaina philosophyphilosophy andand servingserving asas DirectorDirector ofof thethe InternationalInternational SummerSummer SchoolSchool forfor JainaJaina StudiesStudies (ISSJS)(lSSJS),, a positiopositionn hehe hashas occupiedoccupied sincsincee thethe schooI'sschool's inceptioninception threethree yearsyears ago.ago. HeHe toldtold meme thatthat hehe seessees hishis workwork asas DirectorDirector asas a kindkind ofof socialsocial serviceservice forfor thethe benefibenefitt ofof JJaina ainass andand non-Jainasnon-Jainas alike.alike. Shugan,Shugan, too,too, mostlymostly drawsdraws onon JainaJaina philosophicaphilosophicall conceptsconcepts suchsuch aass anekantavada.anekantavada. lnIn fact,fact, hehe waswas thethe mosmostt knowledgeableknowledgeable bbyy farfar ofof allall mymy intervieweesinterviewees onon pointpointss ooff sravakacara conductconduct andand JainaJaina philosophphilosophyy (he(he alsalsoo quotedquoted storiesstories fromfrom JainaJaina mythmythss onon variousvarious occasions).occasions). However,However, hishis knowledgknowledgee isis lessless thatthat ofof anan academiacademicc andand moremore thatthat ooff a devoutdevout DigambaraDigambara practitioner.practitioner. ItIt isis based inin partpart onon familyfamily traditiontradition but mostlymostly developeddeveloped throughthrough a lifetimelifetime ofof self-effortself-effort spentspent contemplatingcontemplating JainJainaa devotionaldevotional scripturesscriptures suchsuch asas thethe SamanSoman Suttam andand thethe Bhagavati Parana.Purana. ItIt was nonott uncommonuncommon onon a fewfew occasionsoccasions forfor ShuganShugan toto taketake meme asideaside andand confideconfide inin meme certaincertain personalpersonal strugglesstruggles hehe was havinghaving withwith conceptsconcepts fromfrom withinwithin thethe tradition.tradition. HisHis responsesresponses toto mymy questionsquestions werewere similarlysimilarly candid.candid. lnIn responseresponse toto thethe questionquestion "Are"Are youyou JainaJaina oror Hindu?,"Hindu?," ShuganShugan saidsaid "1"I amam both,both, 9 bubutt JJain ainaa first.first." ,,9

Uma

Shugan'sShugan's wife,wife, Vma,Uma, iiss a sixty-fousixty-four r yearyear oldold self-describeself-describedd homemaker.homemaker. VmaUma was borbornn a SvetambaraSvetambara Sthanakvasi1lO0 Jaina,Jaina, andand marriedmarried Shugan,Shugan, a Digambara. OutOut ofof thethe Iistlist ooff aspectaspectss ofof JainisJainismm thatthat mostmost influencinfluencee her,her, shshee chosechose familyfamily traditionstraditions alonealone.. ItIt isis

9 9 Interestingly,Interestingly, ShuganShugan alsoalso considersconsiders himselfhimself "to"to a largelarge extent"extent" anan AdvaitinAdvaitin asas weIlwell asas a Jaina,Jaina, "except"except thethe conceptconcept ofof Brahman,Brahman, andand retumreturn ofof reincarnationreincarnation afterafter ." WhenWhen askedasked aboutabout this,this, hehe sayssays thathatt ththee keykey principlprinciplee fromfrom AdvaitaAdvaita thatthat hehe reliesrelies onon isis niskama-karma, thethe principleprinciple ooff disinteresteddisinterested actionaction fromfrom thethe Bhagavad Gita. "1"I considerconsider ththee Gita a parpartt ooff AdvaitaAdvaita Vedanta,"Vedanta," hehe said.said. HeHe toltoldd meme hehe hashas a copycopy ofof ththee Gita atat hishis houhouse se,, whichwhich hehe studiesstudies onon occasion.occasion. AlthoughAlthough nobodynobody elels see saidsaid thetheyy werewere AdvaitinAdvaitin asas weIlwell asas Jaina,Jaina, everyoneeveryone ofof ththee laylay JainasJainas 1I spoke ttoo withwith thethe exceptioexceptionn ofof Anita,Anita, Shugan'sShugan's daughtedaughterr livingliving inin GenevaGeneva (see(see below)below),, saidsaid thetheyy hadhad a copycopy ofof ththee Gita inin theitheirr house.house. 10 ForFor a briebrieff descriptiondescription ofof SthanakvasiSthanakvasi Jainism,Jainism, seesee below.below. 3939 interestinginteresting thatthat allall mymy (lay)(lay) intervieweesinterviewees exceptexcept KaminiKamini mentionedmentioned familyfamily traditionstraditions asas eithereither thethe firstfirst oror secondsecond mostmost importantimportant elementelement ofof JainismJainism inin theirtheir day-to-dayday-to-day lives.lives. ThisThis isis significantsignificant aass itit highlightshighlights thethe degreedegree toto whichwhich thethe JainasJainas 1I spokespoke toto valuevalue theirtheir individuindividua all (family)(family) autonomy.autonomy. However,However, outout ofof everybodyeverybody,, VmaUma was thethe onlonlyy persopersonn toto choosechoose familyfamily traditionstraditions solely."solely.1I SheShe was alsalsoo thethe onlyonly oneone toto callcall herselfherself JainaJaina alonealone (not(not JainaJaina and/orand/or Hindu).Hindu).1212 VmaUma waswas quietquiet andand nervounervouss atat thethe startstart ofof ourour interview,interview, especiallyespecially whenwhen answeringanswering questionsquestions onon nucleanuc1earr weaponsweapons andand ahimsa inin internationalinternational affairsaffairs (questions(questions sheshe c1earlyclearly wawass not usedused toto answering);answering); however,however, sheshe soonsoon warmewarmedd upup andand beganbegan recountinrecountingg herher manymany initiativesinitiatives atat promotinpromotingg ahimsa onon thethe communitycommunity levellevel (Vma(Uma andand PratibhaPratibha werewere thethe mostmost sociallysocially activeactive ofof allall mymy interviewees).interviewees). SheShe alsoalso displayeddisplayed a toughnesstoughness onon certaincertain issuesissues (for(for instance,instance, capitalcapital punishmentpunishment)) thatthat contrastedcontrasted withwith herher husband'shusband's moremore demuredemure attitude.attitude. InIn thisthis way,way, sheshe againagain distinguisheddistinguished herselfherself fromfrom mostmost ooff thethe otherother interviewees,interviewees, withwith thethe exceptionexception ofof thethe policemapolicemann AmitAmit (see(see below)below)..

Anita

Anita, ShuganShugan andand Vma'sUma's daughter,daughter, isis a thirty-sixthirty-six yearyear oldold IndianIndian JainaJaina livingliving inin Geneva,Geneva, Switzerland,Switzerland, wherewhere sheshe worksworks asas a projecprojectt manager.manager. SheShe isis a mothermother ofof two,two, marriedmarried toto a JainaJaina ofof mixedmixed JainalHinduJaina/Hindu backgroundbackground.. AsAs a DiasporaDiaspora Jaina,Jaina, sheshe dailydaily balancebalancess a spectrumspectrum ofof identitiesidentities - forfor example,example, herher home'shome's devotionaldevotional spacespace (puja) houseshouses notnot onlyonly JainJainaa murtis (figures(figures ofof reverencereverence anandd devotion)devotion) but alsoalso murtis ofof Rama,Rama, Krsna,Krsna, Siva,Siva, Ganesa,Ganesa, aass wellwell asas Buddha.Buddha. SheShe sayssays sheshe praysprays toto eacheach ofof thesethese atat differentdifferent times,times, anandd thatthat differentdifferent deitiesdeities jusjustt "pop"pop upup"" whenwhen sheshe needsneeds helphelp withwith differentdifferent taskstasks.. AnitAnitaa sayssays sheshe knowsknows ofof nono otherother JainJ ainaa familiesfamilies iinn GenevaGeneva anandd ofof nnoo JJain ainaa templestemples inin thethe wholewhole ofof Switzerland.Switzerland. OnOn mostmost Sundays,Sundays, therefore,therefore, sheshe goegoess withwith herher twotwo childrenchildren eithereither toto thethe nearbnearbyy ISKCONISKCON templetemple oror toto thethe neighbourhoodneighbourhood churchchurch toto givegive

Il Interestingly,Interestingly, nobodynobody (not(not eveneven Shugan)Shugan) mentionedmentioned JainaJaina mythsmyths asas particularlparticularlyy important,important, althoughalthough therethere isis sornesome overlapoverlap herehere asas wewe maymay includeinclude thesethese underunder thethe teachingsteachings ofof JainaJaina acaryas, whichwhich oneone youngyoung JainaJaina man,man, Ravi,Ravi, diddid chooschoosee (see(see below)below).. 12 12 WeWe willwill recallrecall thethe strongstrong emphasisemphasis onon familyfamily inin medievalmedieval JainaJaina societysociety asas weIl,well, inin particulaparticularr thethe ksatriyas inin thethe Adipurana beinbeingg enjoinedenjoined toto protecprotectt thethe kula (literally(literally "family;""family;" inin thisthis case,case, meaningmeaning thethe JainaJaina communitycommunity - thatthat is,is, thosethose whowho araree suitablesuitable forfor monasticmonastic ordination).ordination). InIn thisthis regard,regard, ArtArtii DhandDhand hashas writtenwritten anan interestinginteresting papepaperr onon thethe wayway ethicalethical decisiondecisionss amongamong HindusHindus areare oftenoften basebasedd onon notionsnotions ofof thethe familyfamily (see(see DhandDhand 2002)2002).. 4040

them,them, asas sheshe says,says, "the"the experienceexperience ofof faith."faith." AtAt home,home, sheshe maintainsmaintains a regularregular practicpracticee ofof prayer thatthat alsalsoo reflectsreflects herher multi-faithmulti-faith environment.environment. SheShe prayprayss withwith herher childrenchildren twotwo timestimes a day,day, onceonce inin thethe morningmoming,, onceonce inin thethe evening.evening. TheirTheir routinesroutines atat bothboth timestimes includinc1udee chantingchanting thethe NamokarNamokaraa MantraMantra andand thethe pan-Indiapan-Indiann ",""Om," asas wellwell asas repeatingrepeating thethe HinduHindu GayathriGayathri MantraMantra andand variousvarious ChristianChristian prayerprayerss learneleamedd iinn school.l3school.13 AsAs sheshe says,says, herher childrenchildren practicpracticee prayerprayerss fromfrom "three"three religions,religions, twicetwice a day,day, andand theythey lovlovee it."it." GivenGiven Anita'sAnita's situation,situation, iitt iiss perhapsperhaps unsurprisingunsurprising thatthat sheshe hashas a somewhatsomewhat ambiguousambiguous relationrelation toto thethe termterm "Hindu.""Hindu." WhileWhile sheshe definitelydefinitely feels Indian,Indian, andand herher familyfamily rootsroots iinn JainismJainism areare strong,strong, herher presenpresentt identitidentityy isis alsoalso shapedshaped bbyy thethe factfact thatthat sheshe iiss a DiasporaDiaspora JainJainaa surroundedsurrounded bbyy manmanyy religions.1144 ThiThiss appearsappears toto impactimpact thethe wawayy sheshe relatesrelates toto herselfherself asas anan Indian.Indian. OnOn oneone occasionoccasion whenwhen 1I spokespoke toto her,her, sheshe calledcalled herselfherself "Indian"Indian andand Jaina,Jaina, not Hindu,"Hindu," but onon anotheranother occasionoccasion sheshe saidsaid sheshe waswas "Jaina"Jaina firstfirst andand [then][then] IndianIndian andand Hindu."Hindu." SheShe citescites familyfamily traditionstraditions asas mostmost importanimportantt toto herher day-to-dayday-to-day liflifee - "my"my nuc1earnuclear familyfamily traditions."traditions." TheseThese areare especiallyespecially importanimportantt toto herher iinn tryingtrying toto maintainmaintain a connectionconnection toto a livingliving,, breathingbreathing JainismJainism forfor herher children.1155 SheShe alsoalso sayssays sheshe isis increasinglincreasinglyy drawndrawn toward JainaJaina philosophicaphilosophicall conceptsconcepts suchsuch asas anekantavada andand syadvada, thethe principleprincip less ofof non-absolutismnon-absolutism andand conditional assertion.assertion. LikeLike mostmost JainaJainass 1I spokespoke to,to, sheshe takes a pragmatipragmaticc approachapproach toto thesethese conceptsconcepts (the(the mostmost pragmatipragmaticc ofof allall mymy

13 Anita'Anita'ss children,children, likelike manymany oftheof the JainasJainas 1I spokespoke to,to, includingincluding VmaUma andand RaviRavi (se(seee below)below),, attendattend oror havehave attendedattended a ChristianChristian school.school. VmaUma iinn particulaparticularr attributedattributed amongamong otherother thingsthings herher compulsioncompulsion forfor tidinesstidiness,, especiallyespecially whenwhen itit cornescomes toto pickingpicking upup litterlitter ("("1I puputt aIlall thethe wrapperswrappers andand thesethese thingsthings inin mymy purse")purse"),, toto herher timetime inin ththee ChristianChristian school:school: "[Shugan]"[Shugan] getsgets angryangry atat me,me, [saying][saying] whywhy areare youyou collectingcollecting aIlall thethe garbagegarbage iinn thethe car?car? 1I saysay no,no, l'mI'm notnot goinggoing toto [stop][stop] - becausbecausee 1I waswas taughttaught thisthis inin mymy schoolschool whewhenn 1I wawass smallsmall,, andand thathatt thinthingg isis stillstill inin me.me."" 14 14 TheThe birtbirthh ofof thethe JainaJaina DiasporaDiaspora isis alsoalso dateddated toto VircandVircand Gandhi'sGandhi's 18931893 triptrip toto AmericAmericaa toto attendattend thethe WorldWorld ParliamentParliament ofof Religions.Religions. "1"I comecome fromfrom a religioreligionn thatthat isis olderolder thanthan BuddhismBuddhism andand Hinduism,"Hinduism," hehe announcedannounced.. ThusThus beganbegan atat firstfirst a slowslow trickle,trickle, andand moremore recentlyrecently a steadysteady flowflow ofof laylay JainasJainas venturingventuring beyonbeyondd IndiaIndia andand establishingestablishing communitiescommunities inin placeplacess asas farfar asas NortNorthh AmericAmericaa andand NeNeww Zealand.Zealand. InIn thethe lastlast yearyear ofof hishis lifelife (1901)(1901),, GandhiGandhi waswas calledcalled toto ththee EnglishEnglish Bar,Bar, a rarerare honouhonourr atat thethe timetime forfor anan Indian.Indian. HeHe waswas alsoalso activeactive inin thethe kindkind ofof politicapoliticall activismactivism veryvery populapopularr withwith manymany JainasJainas today.today. ThisThis includedincluded fightingfighting toto shutshut downdown a European-runEuropean-run slaughterhouseslaughterhouse sesett uupp "on"on a holyholy hill"hill" inin BengalBengal bbyy a wealthywealthy businessmabusinessmann (Kin(Kingg anandd SinghviSinghvi 1993,39.1993, 39. TheyThey dodo notnot specifyspecify whichwhich hill).hill). TheseThese typestypes ofof actactss areare seenseen aass socialsocial serviceservice bbyy thethe JainasJainas thatthat supportsupport them.them. ForFor moremore onon thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi oppositionopposition toto thesethese tactics,tactics, seesee belowbelow.. 15 SomethingSomething ofof herher ownown childhoodchildhood experienceexperience isis retainedretained inin thethe touchingtouching wayway thatthat sheshe prayprayss withwith herher children.children. AAss sheshe tells it,it, herher fatherfather useusedd toto sitsit inin padmasana everyevery morningmorning inin thethe frontfront room,room, wrappedwrapped inin a shawl,shawl, recitingreciting JainaJaina prayersprayers.. SheShe wouldwould taptap onon hishis shouldershoulder andand thethe shawlshawl wouldwould open,open, andand sheshe wouldwould scurryscurry ontoonto hishis laplap andand becomebecome envelopedenveloped byby thethe shawlshawl whilewhile hehe prayed.prayed. SheShe carriescarries onon thisthis samesame traditiontradition witwithh herher ownown daughterdaughter too.too. "Hopefully,""Hopefully," AnitaAnita says,says, "she"she willwill getget thisthis feelingfeeling ofpeaceof peace andand carrycarry onon thethe traditiontradition ofof prayprayers. ers. " 4141

interviewees,interviewees, nextnext toto Kamini).Kamini). SheShe stressesstresses theirtheir applicabilitapplicabilityy toto real-worldreal-world situations.situations. OOff anekantavada, shshee sayssays "1"I feelfeel 1I cancan applyapply it."it." OfOf syadvada, sheshe toldtold me:me: "1"I thinkthink it'sit's a veryvery nicenice way ofof seeingseeing hohoww wewe cancan achieveachieve spiritualspiritual purificationpurification,, iinn a veryvery worldlyworldly 16I6 sense.sense. It'sIt's notnot aboutabout reachingreaching levelevell fourteenfourteen [of[of thethe ]; it'sit's aboutabout movingmoving fromfrom oneone toto twotwo atat least.least."" However,However, sheshe alsalsoo feelsfeels therethere iiss atat timestimes tootoo muchmuch emphasisemphasis iinn JainismJainism onon thethes see philosophicaphilosophicall concepts.concepts. SheShe notesnotes thethe unavailabilitunavailabilityy ofof accessibleaccessible JainaJaina

16 Gunasthanas areare mystical"stagesmystical "stages ofof quality"quality" thatthat outlineoutline a patpathh toto liberationliberation (moksa) thatthat cancan bebe followedfollowed (theoreticalIy)(theoretically) inin oneone lifetime.lifetime. ThusThus a seekerseeker progresseprogressess fromfrom thethe first gunasthana toto thethe fourteenthfourteenth gunasthana (the(the apexapex ofof thethe spiritualspiritual path)path),, atat whichwhich poinpointt hehe oror sheshe becomebec orness a (perfected(perfected being)being),, freefree ofof allall karma.karma. TheThe statestate ofof samyak-darsana (spiritual(spiritual awakening)awakening) happenshappens inin thethe fourthfourth gunasthana (for(for a discussiondiscussion ofof samyak-darsana, seesee ChapterChapter Three).Three). DundasDundas writeswrites thatthat thethe gunasthanas "appear"appear forfor thethe firstfirst timtimee inin DigambaraDigambara texttextss aatt thethe beginninbeginningg ofof ththee commoncommon era,era, althoughalthough sornesome ofof itsits constituentconstituent elementselements areare earlier"earlier" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,150)2002, 150).. HeHe continuescontinues thatthat gunasthana doctrinedoctrine "demonstrates"demonstrates generalgeneral approvalapproval ofof ththee validityvalidity ofof thethe householder'shouseholder's rolerole andand itsits linkagelinkage toto thatthat ofof thethe ascetic";ascetic"; however,however, itit failsfails toto castcast "genuine"genuine sociologicallightsociological light onon thethe wayway JainsJains envienvisio sionn theirtheir positiopositionn inin thethe world"world" becausbecausee mostmost JainasJainas agree thatthat humanhuman beingbeingss ofof thisthis worldworld ageage cannotcannot progresprogresss paspastt thethe sixthsixth oror seventhseventh gunasthana (Dundas(Dundas 2002,152).2002,152). MyMy ownown observationsobservations contradiccontradictt thismis somewhat.somewhat. MostMost JainasJainas 1I spoke toto (inc1uding(including facuItyfaculty atat ISSJS)ISSJS) papayy liplip serviceservice toto thethe ideaidea ofof thethe sixthsixth oror seventhseventh gunasthana asas a ceiling,ceiling, bubutt inin realityreality theythey considerconsider enlightenmentenlightenment asas somethingsomething tangibletangible andand graspablegraspable inin thisthis life,life, throughthrough ascensionascension ofof allall fourteenfourteen gunasthana onon thethe patpathh ofof JainaJaina mysticism.mysticism. K.C.K.C. Sogani,Sogani, whowho writewritess onon JainaJaina ethicsethics andand mysticism,mysticism, statesstates thatthat itit isis possiblpossiblee toto dodo allall fourteenfourteen stagesstages inin oneone lifetimelifetime - enthusiasm isis thethe keykey (Sogani.(Sogani. ISSJSISSJS lecturelecture JuneJune 142007).14 2007). ThiThiss isis tiedtied toto Sogani's definitiondefinition ofof religionreligion asas spiritualityspirituality - a favouritefavourite themetheme inin hishis work.work. AccordingAccording toto Sogani,Sogani, JainismJainism isis "humanistic"humanistic inin itsits approachapproach andand spiritualisticspiritualistic inin itsits depth."depth." ItIt deniesdenies thethe identificationidentification ofof religionreligion withwith personapersonall andand socialsocial morality.morality. Rather,Rather, religionreligion isis necessarilynecessarily deeper thanthan morality.morality. ReligionReligion isis a "transcendent"transcendent mysticalmystical experienceexperience thatthat isis permanentpermanent,, trans-subjective,trans-subjective, blissful,blissful, intuitive,intuitive, supersensuous,supersensuous, infiniteinfinite,, incommunicable,incommunicable, ineffable."ineffable." ItIt startsstarts inin ththee fourthfourth gunasthana anandd culminatesculminates inin thethe fourteenthfourteenth (Sogani.(Sogani. ISSJSISSJS lecturelecture JuneJune 1414 2007).2007). Similarly,Similarly, M.R.M.R. Gelra,Gelra, inin a publicpublic lecturelecture atat ISSJS,ISSJS, spoke ofof enlightenedenlightened beingbeingss onon gunasthana thirteenthirteen (the(the highesthighest beforbeforee ultimatultimatee liberationliberation inin thethe formform ofof death)death) existingexisting todaytoday beyonbeyondd thethe borderborderss ofof Bharat Ksetra (India)(India) - forfor examplexamplee inin thethe UnitedUnited States,States, Canada,Canada, andand SouthSouth AmericaAmerica (Gelra.(Gelra. ISSJSISSJS lecture,lecture, JuneJune 182007).18 2007). InIn thisthis way,way, iitt iiss possiblepossible forfor Arhants (enlightened(enlightened beingsbeings)) andand (those(those enlightenedenlightened beingbeingss thatthat choosechoose toto perforperformm thethe socialsocial serviceservice ofof preachinpreachingg thethe eternaleternal JainaJaina doctrine)doctrine) toto "always"always bbee witwithh us."us." ManyMany IndianIndian JainasJainas reverreveree SriSri MandarMandar SwamiSwami asas oneone suchsuch modernmodern Tirthankara.Tirthankara. ItIt isis believebelievedd thatthat hehe liveslives notnot inin Bharat Ksetra, sincesince thethe quotaquota ofof twenty-twenty-foufourr TirthankarasTirthankaras hahass alreadyalready beebeenn filled,filIed, bubutt inin sornesome otherother placplacee inin Jambudvipa (the(the namename forfor thethe EarthlyEarthly realrealmm inin traditionaltraditional JainaJaina cosmology).cosmology). What'sWhat's more,more, hehe sendssends hishis bodbodyy toto differentdifferent placesplaces psychicallypsychicalIy·. Ilnn thithiss regardregard,, ononee lecturerlecturer atat ISSJISSJSS eveevenn tootookk meme asideaside andand confidedconfided iinn mmee thathatt "if"if youyou oror othersothers oneone dayday reacreachh thethe statestate ofof BhagavanBhagavan Mahavira,Mahavira, youyou cancan teachteach real Jainism."Jainism." HeHe explainedexplained hishis startlingstartling statementstatement bbyy wayway ofof a (probably(probably minority)minority) viewview amongamong sornesome affluenaffluentt JainasJainas thatthat Westerners,Westerners, especiallyespecially spiritually-mindedspiritually-minded ones,ones, onon accountaccount ofof thethe factfact thathatt theythey livelive "almost"almost likelike wewe dedescrib scribee heaven,"heaven," areare c10sercloser toto thethe goalgoal ofof moksa (liberation),(liberation), alsoalso calledcalled kevala-jnana (absolute(absolute knowledge).knowledge). ThisThis isis becausbecausee religious­religious- mindedminded WesternersWesterners realizerealize - likelike MahaviraMahavira diddid - thatthat comfortcomfort andand affluenceaffluence alonealone areare notnot enough,enough, andand thusthus startstart a "true"true search."search." ByBy comparisoncomparison mostmost Indians,Indians, hhee said,said, areare stillstill obsessedobsessed witwithh gaininggaining wealtwealthh (private(private conversationconversation witwithh ISSJSISSJS facultyfaculty membermember,, JuneJune 1313 2007)2007).. AccordinAccordingg ttoo traditionatraditionall gunasthana doctrine,doctrine, sornesome soulssouls (the(the so-calledso-called abhavyas) cannotcannot hebe liberated.liberated. TheyThey dodo nonott knowknow whowho theythey are.are. ForFor moremore onon JainaJaina gunasthanas, seesee "Jaina"Jaina Mysticism"Mysticism" iinn SoganiSogani 20022002.. 4242 literatureliterature forfor children,children, especiallyespecially inin Switzerland.1177 PossiblyPossibly reflectingreflecting thethe conditionsconditions ooff herher ownown upbringingupbringing inin anan orthodoxorthodox DigambaraDigambara household,household, shshee mentionedmentioned thatthat mostmost JainaJaina bookbookss (in(in herher mind)mind) seemseem toto bbee inin Sanskrit, a languagelanguage sheshe doedoess not understanunderstandd (like(like Pratibha,Pratibha, AnitAnitaa totooo notenotedd ththee unnecessarunnecessaryy strictnessstrictness inin DigambaraDigambara teachings).teachings).

Ravi

RavRavii (real(real namnamee changed)changed) isis anan engineeringengineering studentstudent inin hishis earlyearly twentiestwenties whomwhom 1I memett iinn Delhi.Delhi. HeHe was thethe youngestyoungest persopers onn 1I interviewed,interviewed, andand alsoalso thethe mostmost "secular""secular" (he(he was leastleast concemedconcerned withwith religiousreligious matters).matters). AlthoughAlthough hhee calledcalled himselfhimself Jaina,Jaina, hehe was (he(he confessed)confessed) nonott veryvery consciousconscious ofof whatwhat thisthis meant.meant. RavRavii was certainlycertainly thethe leastleast knowledgeableknowledgeable onon JainaJaina conceptsconcepts oror scriptures.1188 WhileWhile others,others, includingincluding AnitaAnita fromfrom Geneva,Geneva, professeprofessedd quitequite a bibitt ofof knowledgeknowledge ofof scholasticscholastic Jainism,Jainism, RavRavii bbyy comparisoncomparison hadhad nevernever eveneven heardheard thethe wordword anekantavada beforebefore.. NeverthelessNevertheless,, hehe consideredconsidered hishis JainJainaa identitidentityy equalequal toto hishis identitidentityy asas a Hindu.Hindu. RaviRavi,, too,too, identifiedidentified familyfamily traditionstraditions asas mostmost importantimportant inin hihiss day-to-dayday-to-day life.life. HeHe waswas thethe onlyonly one,one, howeverhowever,, toto alsoalso citcitee thethe teachingsteachings ofof JainJainaa acaryas. ThisThis camcamee asas a surprisesurprise toto meme consideringconsidering hishis lacklack ofof formalformal knowledgeknowledge ofof JainismJainism,, but thenthen againagain perhapperhapss RavRavii wisheswishes toto leamlearn moremore,, ifif nonott specificallyspecifically aboutabout hishis faith,faith, thenthen certainlycertainly aboutabout thethe collectioncollection ofof principleprincipless (culled(culled fromfrom JJainism ainism)) thatthat makemake uupp hihiss family'sfamily's worldview.worldview. Ravi'Ravi'ss ownown familyfamily seemsseems casualcasual inin theitheirr approachapproach ttoo religionreligion,, asas hhee oftenoften tolta Idd meme howhow hehe learnedlearned thethe importancimportancee ofof nonviolencnonviolencee andand toleratingtolerating another'another'ss viewview (ahimsa andand anekantavada - onceonce 1I toldtold himhim whatwhat thethe wordword meant)meant) notnot fromfrom themthem but fromfrom thethe socialsocial andand religiousreligious diversitydiversity atat universityuniversity (see(see below).below).

Amit

AmitAmit (real(real namename changed)changed) isis a middle-agedmiddle-aged policemapolicemann whowho hashas beebeenn onon thethe IndianIndian policepolice forceforce forfor manymany years.years. NeedlesNeedlesss toto say,say, Amit'sAmit's lineline ofof workwork isis unorthodounorthodoxx forfor a Jaina.Jaina. HisHis demeanordemeanor struckstruck meme asas botbothh professionaprofessionall andand sensitive,sensitive, a mixturemixture ofof pridpridee andand humility.humility.

17 17 Organizations like JAINA (Federation of Jaina Associations In North America) are trying to change this Organizations like JAINA (Federation of Jaina Associations In North America) are trying to change this by providing materials for download from their website (Sulekh Jain, ISSJS lecture, June 1 2007). by providing materials for download from their website (Sulekh Jain, ISSJS lecture, June 1 2007). 18 In this way, he was also the most "neo-orthodox" of my interviewees (see Conclusion). In this way, he was also the most "neo-orfhodox" of my interviewees (see Conclusion). 4343

PerhapsPerhaps itit isis possiblpossiblee toto considerconsider himhim thethe mostmost indicativeindicative ofof thethe JainaJaina warriorwarrior idealideal discusseddiscussed inin ChapterChapter One.One. AmitAmit offeredoffered a veryvery revealingrevealing looklook atat thethe intersectionintersection ofof JainaJaina idealsideals withwith real-worlreal-worldd situationssituations involvinginvolving ververyy reallevelsreal levels ofof violence.violence. HisHis responsesresponses toto keykey issuesissues - amonamongg themthem capitalcapital punishmentpunishment,, ahimsa andand worlworldd peacepeace,, anandd mostmost interestinglyinterestingly thethe relationshiprelationship ofof thethe JainaJaina communitycommunity toto policpolicee - werewere revealingrevealing.. 1I wishwish 1I hadhad hadhad moremore timetime toto speakspeak withwith him;him; however,however, thethe briebrieff glimpseglimpse 1I obtainedobtained willwill havehave toto dodo untiluntil furtherfurther researchresearch isis donedone onon ththee fascinatingfascinating minorityminority sub-sectionsub-section ofof thethe IndianIndian JainaJaina communitcommunityy thatthat isis JainaJaina policpolicee officers.officers.

Sadhvis

MyMy finalfinal intervieweesinterviewees werewere a groupgroup ofof fivefive SvetambaraSvetambara TerapanthiTerapanthi SadhvisSadhvis inin thethe orderorder ofof SrSrii Mahaprajna,Mahaprajna, thethe successorsuccessor toto AcaryaAcarya TulsiTulsi inin thethe directdirect lineagelineage ofof thethe seventeenth­seventeenth- centurycentury reformerreformer anandd establisherestablisher ofof thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi sect,sect, AcaryaAcarya Bhiksu.Bhiksu. TheyThey permittedpermitted meme toto ususee theirtheir fullfull religiousreligious namesnames.. TheseThese are:are: SadhviSadhvi SriSri MohanMohan KumariKumari JiJi (head(head Sadhvi);Sadhvi); SadhviSadhvi SriSri SankalpSankalp SriSri Ji;Ji; SadhviSadhvi SriSri ManMan KumariKumari Ji;Ji; SadhviSadhvi SriSri BasantBasant PrabhaPrabha Ji;Ji; andand SadhviSadhvi SriSri KalpmalaKalpmala Ji.Ji. SadhviSadhvi SriSri MohanMohan KumariKumari JiJi spokspokee ththee mostmost,, alongalong withwith SadhviSadhvi SrSrii SankalpSankalp SriSri Ji.Ji. SadhviSadhvi SriSri MohanMohan KumariKumari JiJi toldtold mmee thatthat inin theirtheir collectivecollective day-to-dayday-to-day life,life, aIlall thethe SadhvisSadhvis drawdraw upouponn ththee "teachings"teachings ofof thethe JainasJainas andand LordLord Mahavira,"Mahavira," preachinpreachingg hishis scripturesscriptures whereverwherever theythey went.went. AsAs mentionedmentioned inin thethe introduction,introduction, becausebecause ofof thethe languagelanguage barriebarrierr (1(I spokespoke nono Hindi),Hindi), 1I hadhad toto relyrely onon translatorstranslators fromfrom withinwithin thethe laylay communitycommunity ofof devoteesdevotees.. BecauseBecause mymy presencpresencee was somethingsomething ofof a novelty,novelty, manymany laylay TerapanthiTerapanthi JainasJainas (young(young andand old,old, menmen andand women),women), camecame toto hearhear ourour conversation.conversation. ManyMany ofof thesethese devoteesdevotees spokespoke EnglishEnglish andand freelyfreely gavegave opinionsopinions oror clarificationsclarifications - a situationsituation thatthat atat timestimes tumedturned chaoticchaotic asas everybodyeverybody spokespoke atat once.once. SometimesSometimes thethe devoteesdevotees debateddebated withwith thethe SadhvisSadhvis (in(in Hindi)Hindi) forfor severalseveral minutes,minutes, leavingleaving meme toto wonderwonder howhow muchmuch ofof thethe actualactual conversationconversation waswas sadlysadly lostlost inin translation.translation. NeverthelessNevertheless,, 1I foundfound thatthat 1I couldcould communicatecommunicate witwithh thethe SadhvisSadhvis onon keykey pointspoints.. EvenEven thoughthough theythey spokespoke veryvery littlelittle EnglishEnglish (only(only a fewfew words),words), theythey seemedseemed toto understandunderstand thethe languagelanguage bettebetterr thanthan theythey spokespoke it,it, andand oftenoften pre-emptepre-emptedd mymy translatorstranslators bbyy answeringanswering meme directlydirectly (in(in Hindi).Hindi). OnOn importantimportant pointspoints,, susuc chh asas thethe rolerole ofof thethe uniqueunique 4444

TerapanthiTerapanthi socialsocial serviceservice movementmovement calledcalled AnuvratAnuvrat (see(see nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons questionquestion iinn ChapterChapter Three),Three), thethe heaheadd SadhviSadhvi SriSri MohanMohan KumariKumari JiJi personallpersonallyy mademade suresure 1I understood.understood.

JainaJaina ValuesValues

InIn general,general, ethicsethics (with(with thethe exceptionexception ofof valuevalue thetheory ory)) isis concemedconcerned withwith thethe relationrelation ooff valuesvalues toto conduct.conduct. Thus,Thus, anan ethicalethical valuationvaluation considerconsiderss anan acactt rightright oror wrongwrong basebasedd onon valuesvalues deemeddeemed goodgood oror badbad.. ThisThis isis oneone tasktask ofof moramorall theorytheory (to(to evaluateevaluate actionactionss based onon theirtheir deonticdeontic statusstatus aass rightright oror wrong).wrong). TheThe other,other, asas mentioned,mentioned, isis purelpurelyy toto investigateinvestigate thethe naturenature ofof moralmoral valuevalue itselfitself (Timmons(Timmons 2006,2006,12) 12).. InIn lineline withwith this,this, 1I begabegann mymy inquiryinquiry intointo viewsviews onon self-defenseself-defense bbyy askingasking mymy intervieweesinterviewees what,what, inin theirtheir opinion,opinion, constitutedconstituted thethe mainmain JainaJaina "value.""value." This,This, 1I reasoned,reasoned, shouldshould formform thethe basibasiss oftheirof their subsequentsubsequent viewsviews andand reactionsreactions toto challengingchallenging problemproblemss susuc chh asas nuclearnuclear weapons,weapons, capitalcapital punishmentpunishment,, andand soso forth.forth.

Plurality of values

AlthoughAlthough inin generalgeneral mymy intervieweesinterviewees privilegeprivilegedd ahimsa asas thethe mainmain JainaJaina valuevalue (there(there werewere sornesome exceptions,exceptions, asas 1I showshow below)below),, everyoneeveryone exceptexcept KaminiKamini situatedsituated ahimsa withinwithin a largerlarger frameworkframework ofof otherother JainaJaina values.values. AskedAsked "what"what isis thethe mainmain JainaJaina value?,"value?," ShuganShugan repliedreplied "nonviolence"nonviolence andand beinbeingg self-oriented."self-oriented." VmaUma saidsaid "nonviolence,"nonviolence, tellingtelling thethe truth,truth, nonott harmingharming anybody,anybody, andand helpinghelping everyoneeveryone whereverwherever helphelp isis required.,,19required."19 RaviRavi repliedreplied 20 "nonviolence"nonviolence andand attachmenattachmentt toto familyfamily valuesvalues andand beliebelieff systems.systems." ,,20 Later,Later, hehe alsoalso expressedexpressed a strongstrong beliebelieff inin individualismindividualism andand mutualmutual respect,respect, inin thethe spiritspirit ooff anekantavada (non-absolutism),(non-absolutism), althoughalthough hehe hadhad troubletrouble sayingsaying whethewhetherr thesethese valuesvalues werewere JainaJaina values.values. Anita citedcited "nonviolence"nonviolence andand vegetarianism."vegetarianism." OnlyOnly KaminiKamini mentionedmentioned nonviolencenonviolence bbyy itself.itself.

19 ForFor moremore onon thethe altruistialtruisticc tendencietendenciess ofof mymy interviewees,interviewees, seesee sectionsection onon JainaJaina conduct.conduct. 20 20 Ravi stressed the need to "carry forward to your kids [such proper values as] respecting your eIders, Ravi stressed the need to "carry forward to your kids [such proper values as] respecting your elders, contributingcontributing bacbackk ttoo youyourr familyfamily andand society."society." TheseThese araree ververyy generalgeneral values,values, toto bbee sure,sure, bubutt thetheyy araree it consistentconsistent witwithh hihiss emphasisemphasis onon personapersonall familyfamily identity.identity. NeverthelessNevertheless,, it isis interestinginteresting thatthat hehe identifiesidentifies these as "Jaina" values. these as "Jaina" values. 45

Ahimsa, aparigraha, anekantavada

TheThe SadhvisSadhvis statedstated thatthat thethe maimainn JainaJaina valuesvalues araree ahimsa (nonviolence),(nonviolence), aparigraha (non-possessiveness),(non-possessiveness), andand anekantavada (non-absolutism).(non-absolutism). SadhviSadhvi SriSri MohanMohan KumariKumari JiJi repliedreplied directlydirectly toto me:me: "Ahimsa, aparigraha, anekantavada. Three."Three." NoNott one,one, 1I asked? "No.""No." Pratibha,Pratibha, too,too, mentionedmentioned ahimsa, aparigraha, andand anekantavada (although(although sheshe diddid nonott mentionmention anekantavada bbyy namename but referredreferred iinn generalgeneral toto thethe JainaJaina "theory"theory ooff knowledge"),knowledge"), asas diddid thethe policemapolicemann Amit.Amit. PratibhaPratibha alsoalso characterizedcharacterized JainismJainism onon thethe basisbasis ofof itsits "concept"concept ofof godhood"godhood" andand "sorne"some kindkind ofof emphasisemphasis onon celibacy."21celibacy."21

The guiding principle of lainaJaina values

OutOut ofof everyone,everyone, AmitAmit elaboratedelaborated mostmost onon thethe topictopic ofof values.values. InIn particularparticular,, hehe relatedrelated themthem toto hishis linlinee ofof work.work. HeHe emphasizedemphasized howhow theythey providprovidee thethe moralmoral fortitudefortitude toto dealdeal witwithh a numbernumber ooff high-streshigh-stresss situationssituations,, thusthus keepingkeeping himhim oonn thethe righrightt course.course. IInn thisthis way,way, AmitAmit echoedechoed thethe medievalmedieval beHefbelief thatthat lalayy actionaction (especially(especially inin conflictconflict situations)situations) requiresrequires thethe strongstrong guidanceguidance ofof JainaJaina religiousreligious idealidealss toto keekeepp itit justjust,, asas epitomizedepitomized byby thethe monk­monk­ likelike cakravartin. HoweverHowever (as(as 1I showshow below)below),, AmitAmit doesdoes not considerconsider himselfhimself taotoo muchmuch liklikee a monk.monk. InIn fact,fact, hehe spokespoke outout againstagainst thethe ineffectivenessineffectiveness ofof monasticmonastic approachesapproaches toto violentviolent situations.situations. AmitAmit listedlisted aparigraha, anekantavada, andand toto a lesserlesser extentextent ahimsa asas principalprincipal JainJainaa values.values. HeHe interpreteinterpretedd aparigraha (the(the "doctrine"doctrine ofof non-accumulation")non-accumulation") iinn thethe mannermanner ofof mostmost laylay Jainas,Jainas, asas responsiblyresponsibly balancinbalancingg accumulatedaccumulated wealth;wealth; however,however, hehe alsoalso emphasizedemphasized aparigraha iinn personapersonall termsterms asas resistingresisting consumeristconsumerist pressurepressuress onon relativelyrelatively poopoorr copcop salaries.salaries. AmitAmit repeatedlyrepeatedly referredreferred toto thethe challengeschallenges - physical,physical, psychologicalpsychological,, economiceconomic - thatthat IndianIndian policemepolicemenn faceface onon a dailydaily basis.2222 TheThe JainaJaina valuesvalues

21 AIlAll JainasJainas holdhold thatthat thethe vowvow (vrata)(yrata) ofof celibacycelibacy,, botbothh laylay (lesser)(lesser) andand monasticmonastic (greater)(greater) variants,variants, waswas Mahavira'sMahavira's uniquuniquee contributiocontributionn toto JainismJainism aass thethe lastlast TirthankaraTirthankara ofof thisthis world-age.world-age. ThusThus MahaviraMahavira expandedexpanded onon Parsvanatha'sParsvanatha's four-foldfour-fold systemsystem ofof vratas, whichwhich includedincluded ahimsa andand aparigraha, toto a five­five­ foldfold systemsystem withwith ththee introductionintroduction ofof thethe vowvow ofof brahma (celibacy).(celibacy). JainasJainas claimclaim thisthis waswas necessarnecessaryy forfor thethe transitiontransition fromfrom thethe fourthfourth toto thethe fifthfifth yuga (world(world age),age), inin whichwhich ththee perfecperfectt statestate ofof thethe universeuniverse fellfell intointo furtherfurther degradation.degradation. TheThe fivefive vowsvows areare thus:thus: ahimsa, (truth)(truth),, asteya (non-stealing),(non-stealing), brahma, andand aparigraha (non-possessiveness).(non-possessiveness). 2222 As he wryly put it, "your world is very different from mine." He alluded to grizzly murder scenes, As he wryly put it, "your world is very different from mine." He alluded to grizzly murder scenes, described being shot, and spoke at length of corruption in the police force. He emphasized the personal and described being shot, and spoke at length of corruption in the police force. He emphasized the personal and 4646 ofof aparigraha andand anekantavada serveserve toto balancbalancee thesethese pressurepressuress andand toto givgivee oneone strength;strength; thusthus anekantavada, hehe saidsaid,, makes oneone readyready toto receivereceive anythinganything throughthrough "all"all kindkindss ofof inputs"inputs" withwith thethe bolboldd attitudeattitude ofof "give"give itit toto me."me." Ahimsa, byby contrast,contrast, despitedespite increasingincreasing sensitivitysensitivity toto lifelife andand yieldingyielding "harmony"harmony witwithh creation,"creation," wawass a muchmuch moremore ambiguousambiguous concept.concept. AmitAmit saidsaid thatthat ahimsa isis difficuldifficultt toto carrycarry outout inin lifelife andand thusthus takes greatgreat couragecourage andand alsoalso mentalmental fortitudefortitude (see(see below)below).. UniquelyUniquely ofof aIlall mymy interviewees,interviewees, andand perhapperhapss mostmost indicativeindicative ofof thethe medievalmedieval warriorwarrior ideal,ideal, AmitAmit directlydirectly mentionedmentioned thethe ThreeThree JewelsJewels themselvesthemselves (right(right faith,faith, rightright knowledge,knowledge, rightright conduct),conduct), statingstating howhow asas a policpolicee officerofficer theythey helphelp hihimm taketake a principledprincipled moralmoral standstand iinn situations wherewhere thethe rightright coursecourse ofof actionaction iiss not alwaysalways c1earclear andand easy.easy. AsAs hehe put itit,, thethe ThreeThree JewelsJewels establishestablish a moralmoral ceilingceiling - a poinpointt paspastt whicwhichh oneone willwill not gogo.. ThisThis isis inin lineline withwith thethe constantconstant adherenceadherence ofof warriorwarriorss toto thethe ThreeThree JewelsJewels suggestedsuggested byby thethe Adipurana.Adipurana.

Ahimsa "not for cowards"

AAss mentioned,mentioned, AmitAmit echoedechoed a populapopularr JainJainaa beliebelieff - drawindrawingg onon warriorwarrior traitstraits - whewhenn hehe emphasizedemphasized that,that, mostmost importantlyimportantly,, ahimsa iiss "not"not forfor cowards."cowards." ShuganShugan alsoalso stressedstressed thithiss aspectaspect ofof ahimsa iinn hishis responseresponse toto thethe nuc1earnuclear weaponweaponss questionquestion (see(see below).below).2323 AmitAmit similarlysimilarly statedstated thatthat takingtaking refugrefugee inin thethe ThreeThree JewelsJewels takestakes "moral"moral courage."courage." FinaIly,Finally, asas wewe havehave seenseen,, hehe describeddescribed anekantavada inin termsterms ofof havinghaving thethe couragecourage toto bbee readyready toto receivereceive anythinganything throughthrough "aIl"all kindskinds ofof inputs"inputs" witwithh anan attitudeattitude ofof "give"give iitt toto me."me." AmitAmit stronglystrongly opposedopposed ahimsa iiff itit meantmeant thethe paralysis andand sacrificesacrifice ofof society.society. DoDo you,you, hehe askedasked rhetoricaIly,rhetorically, "like"like a dumbdumb,, nudenude blinblindd fellowfellow - keepkeep sittingsitting andand notnot actact atat all?all?"" NotablyNotably,, AmiAmitt iiss essentiallessentiallyy describindescribingg thethe appearancappearancee anandd demeanodemeanorr ooff a DigambaraDigambara monkmonk oror (in(in conducconductt only)only) a SvetambaraSvetambara nun.nun. Amit'sAmit's viewview waswas notnot uniquuniquee amongamong thethe laylay

publipublicc effectseffects ofthisof this corruption,corruption, includingincluding thethe widespreadwidespread publipublicc distrustdistrust ooff policpolicee (commo(commonn throughoutthroughout India),India), whichwhich itselfitself sometimessometimes leadsleads toto violence.violence. Indeed,Indeed, thethe viewview thatthat a largelarge numbenumberr ofof policpolicee officers,officers, politicianspoliticians,, andand judgejudgess areare inin generalgeneral corruptcorrupt wawass reflectereflectedd bbyy manmanyy ofof mymy interviewees,interviewees, mostmost notablynotably Anita.Anita. ThisThis echoesechoes Babb'sBabb's findingsfindings thatthat many JainasJainas areare suspicioussuspicious ofof government,government, howeverhowever asas 1I argueargue iinn thethe ConclusionConclusion thisthis doesdoes notnot meanmean thatthat theythey areare necessarilynecessarily "apolitical.""apolitical." 23 It is interesting that the men (Amit, Shugan, and Ravi) emphasized this aspect of ahimsa, but the women 23 It is interesting that the men (Amit, Shugan, and Ravi) emphasized this aspect of ahimsa, but the women diddid not.not. 4747

JainasJainas 1I spokespoke to.to. WhenWhen 1I askedasked Vma,Uma, forfor instance,instance, ifif wewe shouldshould keepkeep silentsilent aIlall thethe timetime soso asas not toto hurthurt anybodyanybody (with(with speechspeech oror otherwise),otherwise), sheshe repliedreplied "no,"no, yoyouu havehave toto protest.,,24protest."24

Ahimsa in terms of "human to human relations"

KaminiKamini waswas thethe onlyonly oneone toto single outout ahimsa alonalonee aass thethe mainmain JainaJaina valuevalue,, statingstating thathatt thethe depthdepth toto whichwhich JainismJainism takestakes thethe notionnotion ofof ahimsa qualifiesqualifies itit aass such:such: "The"The mainmain JainaJaina valuevalue accordingaccording toto meme isis ofof coursecourse nonviolencenonviolence becausbecausee itit hashas gonegone toto thethe extentextent ooff eveneven treatingtreating one-sensedjivasone-sensed jivas [souls][souls] asas living.living. ThisThis makes youyou moremore inin harmony,harmony, notnot jusjustt toto humanshumans but toto thethe wholwholee cosmos."cosmos." ForFor Kamini,Kamini, thethe truetrue sensesense ooff ahimsa inin practicepractice isis groundedgrounded inin "human"human toto humanhuman relations,"relations," meaningmeaning thethe welfarwelfaree ofof humanityhumanity andand thethe waysways humanityhumanity treatstreats itsits ownown.. AlIAll understandingunderstandingss ofof ahimsa areare predicatepredicatedd onon thisthis positionposition,, whichwhich sheshe explainsexplains thusthus::

ItIt hashas ttoo startstart fromfrom thethe humans,humans, ofof course,course, humanhuman toto humanhuman relationsrelations,, anandd thenthen iitt hashas toto gogo downwards.downwards. [Because[Because firstfirst we]we] understanunderstandd humanhuman relations,relations, ourour lifelife andand thethe cosmos,cosmos, andand day-to-dayday-to-day life.life. ThenThen itit hashas toto gogo ttoo thethe complicatedcomplicated onesones [that[that isis,, microscopicmicroscopic beingsbeings]] becausbecausee wwee don't knowknow them,them, wewe knowknow humans.humans. WeWe [aIso][also] knowknow trees.trees. WeWe knowknow animalsanimaIs.. AndAnd thenthen [we[we mustmust brinbringg thisthis understandingunderstanding]] toto aIlall thethe smallestsmallest [microscopie[microscopic beings]beings],, ratheratherr thanthan jusjustt limitinglimiting ourselvesourselves toto thethe smalsmaIIl sensedsensed livingliving beingbeingss [such[such asas insects],insects], andand humans.humans. lnIn thisthis way,way, KaminiKamini advocatesadvocates beginninbeginningg witwithh whatwhat youyou knowknow besbestt (humans,(humans, animaIs,animals, plantsplants)) andand extendingextending thethe samesame amountamount ooff carecare toto thosethose thingthingss thatthat youyou cannotcannot eveneven seesee (cellula(cellularr beings).beings). InIn thisthis webweb ofof lifelife thatthat ahimsa encompasses,encompasses, sheshe privilegeprivilegess "human"human toto humanhuman relations"relations" asas thethe foundationfoundation forfor ethicalethical action.2255 1tIt iiss temptingtempting toto relatrelatee Kamini'sKamini's emphasisemphasis onon thethe humanhuman levelevell withwith ththee way violenceviolence was originallyoriginally envisionedenvisioned iinn thethe earliestearliest partpartss ofof ththee SvetambaraSvetambara canon:canon: onlyonly asas anan extemalexternal activityactivity andand onlyonly onon thethe levellevel

24 ForFor moremore onon Uma'Uma'ss viewsviews inin thisthis regard,regard, seesee thethe CapitaCapitall PunishmentPunishment section.section. 25 25 lnIn thithiss regard,regard, sheshe alsoalso expressedexpressed worriesworries overover thethe WorlWorIdd WideWide WebWeb becausebecause "it"it hashas lessenedlessened peoplepeople meetingmeeting withwith people.people. InIn thatthat sensesense 1I seesee itit aass a badbad [influence][influence]...Yo ... Youu havehave a lotlot ofof informationinformation itit isis givinggiving us.us. It'sIt's bringinbringingg thethe worIdworld dosercloser intellectually,intellectually, bubutt 1I findfind itit driftingdrifting awayaway bbyy heart."heart." 4848 ofhumans,of humans, thatthat iiss toto say,say, multi-sensemulti-sensedd organisms.organisms. 26 HoweverHowever,, asas wewe cancan see,see, KaminiKamini doesdoes notnot limitlimit heherr understandinunderstandingg ofof ahimsa toto onlyonly this.2277 NotNotee alsoalso thethe emphasiemphasiss onon harmony,harmony, inin thisthis andand Kamini'sKamini's previoupreviouss response,response, whichwhich a fewfew ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees mentioned,mentioned, mostmost notablynotably Amit.Amit.

Downplaying ahimsa

Interestingly,Interestingly, AmiAmitt andand PratibhaPratibha bothboth downplayeddownplayed ahimsa toto anan extent,extent, thoughthough forfor differentdifferent reasonsreasons.. AAss mentionedmentioned,, Amit'Amit'ss concemconcern waswas overover thethe difficultydifficulty ofof practicingpracticing ahimsa inin hishis day-to-dayday-to-day lifelife asas a policpolicee officer.officer. HeHe mentionedmentioned ahimsa onlyonly atat thethe end,end, commentingcommenting onon howhow iitt iiss "so"so easyeasy toto finishfinish [sic],[sic], soso hard toto carrycarry outout iinn life."life." AlthougAlthoughh hehe saidsaid ahimsa increasesincreases sensitivitysensitivity ttoo lifelife andand yieldyieldss "harmony"harmony witwithh creation,"creation," thithiss harmonyharmony isis nonott easyeasy toto comecome bbyy andand demandsdemands greatgreat sacrificessacrifices - henchencee ththee neeneedd forfor couragecourage iinn ititss applicationapplication (for(for mormoree onon thisthis,, seesee alsoalso Amit'Amit'ss acceptanceacceptance ofof capitalcapital punishment).punishment). ByBy contrast,contrast, PratibhaPratibha waswas a greatgreat supportersupporter ofof ahimsa (not(not surprising,surprising, becausbecausee sheshe iiss a Gandhian);Gandhian); sheshe neverthelessnevertheless initiallyinitially failedfailed toto includinc1udee itit iinn herher listlist ofof JainaJaina valuesvalues.. WhenWhen 1I askeaskedd herher why,why, sheshe explainedexplained thatthat ahimsa, iinn herher viewview,, iiss a universaluniversal moramorall valuevalue thatthat iiss widespreadwidespread inin IndianIndian religiousreligious thoughtthought andand thereforetherefore cannocannott bebe consideredconsidered a uniquely JainaJaina valuevalue:: "ahimsa [is[is problematicproblematic]] iinn thethe sensesense thatthat ahimsa iiss prevalentprevalent inin Hinduism,Hinduism, iinn Jainism,Jainism, inin Buddhism.Buddhism. ButBut yes,yes, JainasJainas emphasizeemphasize nonviolencenonviolence,, oror ahimsa,ahimsa, moremore thanthan otherother streamsstreams oror traditions."traditions." InIn thisthis way,way, bothboth sheshe andand AmiAmitt downplayeddownplayed thethe centralitycentrality ofof ahimsa amongamong thethe JainaJaina values.2288

26 SeSeee ChapterChapter One.One. Kamini'sKamini's fascinationfascination withwith thethe humanhuman levellevel extendedextended toto a discussiondiscussion sheshe hahadd withwith herher acarya aboutabout earlyearly canonicalcanonical ideasideas ofof rebirth.rebirth. ShShee toldtold meme that,that, accordingaccording toto herher acarya, thethe earliestearliest partpartss ofof thethe SvetambaraSvetambara canoncanon saysay nothingnothing onon thethe issueissue ofof karmakarma affectingaffecting creaturescreatures otherother thanthan humanhuman beingsbeings.. ThisThis castscasts doubtsdoubts onon whetherwhether earliestearliest recordedrecorded JainismJainism acceptedaccepted rebirthrebirth fromfrom animalanimal ttoo humanhuman (or(or vicevice versa)versa).. WeWe willwill recallrecall fromfrom ChapterChapter OneOne thatthat earliestearliest canonicalcanonical viewsviews (in(in thethe Ayaranga andand thethe Suyagadanga Suttas, forfor instance)instance) depictdepict rebirthrebirth asas anan either/oreither/or situationsituation betweebetweenn moksa onon thethe oneone handhand andand thethe worlworldd ooff "hellish"hellish beingbeingss andand animais"animals" onon thethe other.other. A laterlater AgamaAgama (the(the Niriya-ValyaNiriya-Valya Upanga), however,however, doesdoes allowallow thatthat overover manymany lifetimeslifetimes four-prana beingbeingss (beings(beings containingcontaining thethe elementselements ofof water,water, air,air, fire,fire, earth)earth) graduallygradually diminishdiminish theirtheir karmaskarmas andand becombec ornee humanhumanss (Private(Private discussion,discussion, JuneJune 152007).15 2007). 27 27 1I elaborateelaborate onon thisthis pointpoint furtherfurther inin thethe sectionsection onon JainaJaina conduct.conduct. 28 28 HerHer responsesresponses toto thethe ethicalethical issuesissues (below)(below) alsoalso reinforcedreinforced thatthat sheshe thinksthinks ahimsa isis a foundationfoundation notnot onlyonly ofof religiousreligious bubutt ofof secularsecular thoughtthought asas well.well. 49

Other values - -forgivenessforgiveness

WeWe cancan seesee that,that, bbyy andand large,large, thethe values enumeratedenumerated bbyy mymy intervieweesinterviewees areare variantvariantss ooff thethe FiveFive Vows:Vows: ahimsa, aparigraha, satya (telling(telling thethe truth),truth), acaurya/asteya (non­(non- stealing),stealing), andand brahma (celibacy).29(celibacy).29 TheThe practicpracticee ofof thethe FiveFive VowsVows inin tumturn cultivatescultivates thethe ThreeThree Jewels.Jewels. OneOne importantimportant additionaddition toto thisthis listlist ofof valuesvalues iiss forgivenessforgiveness (ksama), a keykey JainaJaina practicpracticee c10selyclosely associatedassociated withwith thethe FiveFive VowsVows andand oneone ofof thethe principaprincipall virtuesvirtues celebratedcelebrated duringduring thethe festivalfestival ofof Paryusan.3030 AmitAmit placeplacedd greatgreat emphasisemphasis onon .forgiveness. "Jainas,""Jainas," hhee said,said, "are"are hardwiredhardwired forfor forgiveness."forgiveness." AmiAmitt pointepointedd out how,how, duringduring Paryusan, JainaJaina eIderselders touchtouch theirtheir grandchildrens'grandchildrens' feetfeet andand askask forfor forgiveness.3311 ForFor Amit,Amit, thisthis representsrepresents a fundamentalfundamental eveningevening outout ofof highhigh andand low,low, youngyoung andand old,old, inin thethe trutruee spiritspirit ofof JainaJaina tolerancetolerance (anekantavada). ThisThis themetheme ofof eveningevening outout highhigh andand lowlow isis alsoalso prevalenprevalentt throughoutthroughout thethe medievalmedieval JainaJaina canon,canon, asas thethe previoupreviouss chapterchapter hahass shown.shown. Amit,Amit, too,too, relatedrelated forgivenessforgiveness toto hishis lineline ooff workwork,, mentioningmentioning howhow itit isis crucialcrucial forfor removinremovingg mentalmental tensiontension andand keepingkeeping oneone inin "harmony""harmony" withwith one'sone's surroundings.surroundings. TheThe

29 OnlyOnly non-stealingnon-stealing waswas omitted.omitted. 30 30 Paryusan isis thethe mostmost importantimportant JainJainaa festivalfestival forfor bothboth DigambarasDigambaras andand Svetambaras.Svetambaras. ItIt occursoccurs onceonce a yearyear (in(in latlatee August/earlAugust/earlyy SeptemberSeptember)) andand lastslasts tenten days.days. ForFor bothboth SvetambarasSvetambaras andand DigambarasDigambaras iitt commemoratescommemorates thethe entryentry ofof humanityhumanity intointo a newnew yuga, oror cyclcyclee ofof timetime (for(for Digambaras,Digambaras, thisthis isis thethe transitiontransition fromfrom thethe thirdthird toto thethe fourthfourth yuga, markingmarking thethe beginninbeginningg ofof thethe needneed forfor laboulabourr amongamong humans).humans). Paryusan isis markedmarked bbyy fastingfasting oonn thethe parpartt ofbothof both menmen andand womenwomen (these(these fastsfasts areare declareddeclared withwith greatgreat pompompp andand showshow inin frontfront ofof thethe restrest ofof thethe JainaJaina community).community). TheThe festivalfestival culminateculminatess inin a dadayy ofof universaluniversal forgiveness.forgiveness. DigambarasDigambaras alsoalso callcall itit Paryusana Das Laksana, whichwhich refersrefers toto thethe tenten (das) characteristics,characteristics, oror virtuesvirtues (called(called cardinalcardinal virtues),virtues), thatthat areare consideredconsidered inhereninherentt traitstraits oftheof the soul. TheThe ten, whichwhich areare typicallytypically readread andand discusseddiscussed atat thisthis time,time, are:are: 1.1. FORGIVENESSFORGIVENESS (KSAMA) - TotallackTotal lack ofof anger.anger. 2.2. HUMILITYHUMILITY (MARDA(MARDAVA)- VA) - LackLack ofof pridepride.. 33.. STRAIGHTSTRAIGHT FORWARDNESSFORWARDNESS (ARJAVA) - LackLack ofof cunning.cunning. 4.4. CONTENTMENTCONTENTMENT (SAUCH) - LackLack ofof greed.greed. 55.. TRUTHFULNESSTRUTHFULNESS (SATYA) - LackLack offalsehood.of falsehood. 6.6. SELF-CONTROLSELF-CONTROL (SAYAMA) - ControlControl overover physicaphysicall violence.violence. 7.7. AUSTERITYAUSTERITY (TAPPA) - AusterityAusterity asas repentancerepentance ofof one'sone's sinssins.. 8.8. RENUNCIATIONRENUNCIATION (TYAGA) - GivingGiving uupp possessions botbothh internaIinternal andand external.external. 9.9. DETACHMENTDETACHMENT (APARIGRAHA) - LackLack ofof attachment.attachment. 10.10. CELIBACYCELIBACY () - SexualSexual abstinence.abstinence. (This(This listlist isis fromfrom http://www.jaindharmonline.comlfestival/festival1.htm.http://www.jaindhcirmonline.com/festival/festivall.htm, accessedaccessed NoNovv 2202007)0 2007) 3131 Typically, the asking offorgiveness is, like most lay actions in Jainism, considered an independent activityTypically of the, th laite askin y in gthe o fsense forgivenes that its doesis, lik note mos requiret lay monasticactions in authority Jainism, toconsidere legitimated a nit. independen That beingt said, onactivit oney occasionof the lait Shugany in the actually sense tha describedt it does nothet requirJaina rituale monasti of askingc authorit for yforgiveness to legitimat ine ait manner. That bein aking saidto , Catholicon one occasio Christianity,n Shuga wheren actuall oney asksdescribe forgivenessd the Jain ofa theirritual guru of askin andg receives for forgivenes a penances in ain mannethe formr aki ofn to Catholifasting. cFrom Christianity what 1 ,discovered, where one however,asks forgivenes this practices of thei ofr guru receiving and receive penances ahanded penanc downe in th bye for a mguru of stronglyfasting. Fro opposesm wha thet I discoveredusual view,, howeverrepeatedly, thi mentioneds practice byof receivinmy intervieweesg penanc e(including handed dow Shugann by ahimself), guru that thestrongl Jainay opposehouseholders the usua is notl view accountable, repeatedl toy anybodymentione ind hisby mchoices,y interviewee his owns (includinkarma beingg Shuga his nrightful himself) due., tha t Forthe Jainmorea householdeon the independencer is not accountabl of the Jainae to layperson,anybody in see hi sbelow. choices , his own karma being his rightful due. For more on the independence of the Jaina layperson, see below. 5050 capacitycapacity toto letlet gogo andand forgiveforgive isis a keykey wayway ofof lesseninglessening thethe pressurpressuree ofof situationssituations wherewhere oneone facesfaces thethe resultsresults ofof brutabrutall violence,violence, witnesseswitnesses corruption,corruption, andand soso forth.forth. InIn thisthis way,way, forgivenessforgiveness seemsseems toto bbee principallprincipallyy a methodmethod ofof controllingcontrolling anger.anger. AmitAmit explainedexplained howhow thethe practicpracticee ofof forgivenessforgiveness "takes"takes awayaway aIlall thethe poisopoisonn bottlebottledd upup insideinside you"you" andand "c1eanses"cleanses thethe system."system." TheThe nenett resultresult isis nothingnothing lessless thanthan transformative.transformative. Forgiveness,Forgiveness, hehe said,said, "changes"changes youryour psyche;psyche;"" itit freesfrees youyou fromfrom thethe self-inflictedself-inflicted paipainn ofof a troubledtroubled mind.mind. Again,Again, wewe maymay assumeassume thatthat manymany ofof thethes see troublestroubles andand conflictsconflicts arisearise directlydirectly fromfrom Amit'sAmit's lineline ofof work.work. NNoo doubtdoubt therethere isis alsalsoo stressstress inin thethe veryvery acactt ofof tryingtrying toto harmonizeharmonize thisthis workwork withwith JainaJaina values.values. InIn thisthis regard,regard, Amit'sAmit's JainaJaina valuesvalues functionfunction bothboth aass stress­stress- makersmakers anandd relieverrelieverss ofof thatthat stress,stress, althoughalthough hehe doesdoes notnot saysay thisthis..

Recognition of anekantavada

AlIAll mymy interviewees,interviewees, withwith thethe exceptionexception ofof Ravi,Ravi, werewere familiafamiliarr withwith thethe principlprinciplee ooff anekantavada bbyy name.name. ItIt was not somethingsomething distantdistant oror unidentifiableunidentifiable toto them;them; rather,rather, theythey readilyreadily identifiedidentified withwith itit andand werewere atat easeease discussingdiscussing itit andand relatingrelating itit toto theirtheir dailydaily lives.lives. ForFor example,example, whenwhen 1I askedasked VmaUma whetherwhether itit was violentviolent forfor a parenparentt toto bebe thethe bossboss ofof a child,child, sheshe replied:replied:

ToTo sornesome extent,extent, tilltill thethe ageage whenwhen a childchild cannotcannot [sic:[sic: can] makemake hishis ownown decisions.decisions. Then,Then, a parenparentt hashas toto bossboss - but whenwhen hehe growsgrows up,up, likelike eighteen,eighteen, twentytwenty years,years, thenthen hehe cancan makemake hishis ownown decisions.decisions. ButBut [if][if] somehowsomehow oror thethe otherother hehe cannotcannot stickstick toto hishis decisions,decisions, hehe hashas toto taketake thethe helphelp ofof hishis parentsparents.. ThenThen 1I don'don'tt thinkthink itit isis goodgood thatthat youyou becombecomee thethe bossboss.. HeHe shouldshould havehave thethe freedomfreedom toto dodo whatwhat hehe likeslikes toto [do][do].. [Me:][Me:] KindKind ofof aann anekantavada principle?principle? Yeah.Yeah.

AlIAll identifiedidentified tolerancetolerance andand acceptanceacceptance ofof multiplemultiple perspectiveperspectivess asas keykey factorsfactors inin theirtheir liveslives - eveneven ifif theythey diddid notnot alwaysalways caUcall thisthis non-absolutismnon-absolutism oror anekantavada. RaviRavi saidsaid hehe daildailyy triestries "to"to bbee moremore understandingunderstanding,, anandd respecrespectt others.others. WhateverWhatever hehe oror sheshe is,is, hehe isis aann individualindividual andand hehe hashas hishis ownown identity.identity. [So[So 1]I] trytry toto respectrespect them."them." 1I askedasked himhim ifif hehe wouldwould calIcall thisthis a HinduHindu oror a JainaJaina value.value. HeHe replied:replied: 5151

WeIlWell 1I learnedlearned itit duringduring mymy engineeringengineering yearsyears,, soso 1I cannotcannot say.say. 1I metmet differentdifferent sortssorts ooff peoplepeople,, fromfrom differendifferentt communities,communities, differentdifferent castes,castes, differentdifferent backgroundsbackgrounds,, soso everybodyeverybody hadhad a differentdifferent perspectiveperspective onon a particulaparticularr issue.issue. SoSo 1I mademade aann understandinunderstandingg that,that, okay,okay, hehe oror sheshe isis rightright inin thatthat respect.respect. LikeLike ifif 1I talktalk ofof a pen,pen, maybemaybe 1I saysay thatthat it'sit's anan objectobject toto bbee usedused forfor writingwriting...... l'mI'm rightright.. ButBut ifif l'mI'm someonesomeone whowho isis involvedinvolved withwith geometrygeometry,, soso 1I seesee thatthat particulaparticularr stuffstuff asas a cylindricalcylindrical object,object, longlong andand elongated.elongated. BotBothh perspectiveperspectivess areare rightright,, soso wwee neeneedd toto thinkthink whichwhich perspectivperspectivee wewe areare considering.considering. [Me:][Me:] DidDid youryour parentparentss teachteach youyou anekantavada?anekantavadal NoNo.. [Me:][Me:] ReaIly?Really? DoDo youyou knowknow whawhatt thatthat means?means? NoNo.. 1I havehave nnoo idea.idea. [Me:][Me:] It'sIt's a JainaJaina principlprinciplee ooff seeingseeing thethe otherother viewpoint.viewpoint. Okay,Okay, that'sthat's great. [Me:][Me:] MaybeMaybe thetheyy didn'tdidn't ususee thethe word,word, but diddid theythey teachteach youyou thatthat perspectivperspectivee aatt all,all, oror againagain isis thatthat jusjustt somethingsomething youyou pickepickedd upup iinn thethe collegecollege days?days? Yeah,Yeah, 1I havehave beebeenn interactininteractingg withwith manmanyy peoplpeoplee andand 1I havehave beebeenn learninglearning throughthrough everyevery oneone ofof them.them.

1I notenote sornesome trendstrends fromfrom mymy findingsfindings thusthus far:far: 1)1) AhimsaAhimsa isis mostmost oftenoften discusseddiscussed withinwithin a pluralitpluralityy ofof otherother values,values, suchsuch aass aparigraha (non-attachment)(non-attachment) andand anekantavada (non-absolutism);32(non-absolutism);32 2)2) Ahimsa isis occasionallyoccasionally downplayeddownplayed asas a specificallyspecifically JainaJaina value;value;3333 3)3) therethere mamayy bbee gendergender differencesdifferences aroundaround thethe wayway ahimsa iiss envisioned:envisioned: menmen stressstress thatthat ahimsa takes couragecourage andand isis "not"not forfor cowards,"cowards," whilewhile nonnonee ooff thethe womenwomen mentionedmentioned thisthis aspectaspect ofof ahimsa. However,However, sornesome (Kamini,(Kamini, Uma)Uma) stressedstressed ahimsa's relationrelation toto "humans""humans" andand "humanity;""humanity;" 4)4) therethere waswas anan emphasisemphasis (mostly(mostly bbyy AmiAmitt andand Kamini)Kamini) onon "harmony,""harmony,"

32 CompareCompare AnneAnne Vallely:Vallely: "Jainism"Jainism embracesembraces thethe philosophphilosophyy ofof anekanta asas staunchlstaunchlyy asas Ïtit espousesespouses thethe righteousnessrighteousness ofof ahimsa. Anekanta andand ahimsa areare customarilycustomarily discusseddiscussed iinn termsterms ofof howhow eacheach presupposespresupposes thethe other.other. TheThe acceptanceacceptance ofof thethe partialitpartialityy ofof knowledgeknowledge isis anan expressionexpression ofof nonnonviolence violence;; andand a commitmentcommitment toto nonnonviolenc violencee necessitatenecessÏtatess a pluralistipluralisticc outlook.outlook. TheThe twotwo areare seenseen essentiallyessentially asas differentdifferent aspectsaspects ofof thethe samesame ethicalethical orientation"orientation" (Vallely(Vallely 2004,2004, 99)99).. 33 For an opposite view, compare Jaini's quote in my introduction - that, for Jainas, ahimsa "is not simply 33 For an opposite view, compare Jaini s quote in my introduction - that, for Jainas, ahimsa "is not simply the first among virtues but the virtue" (Jaini 1979, 167). This, of course, is Kamini's view as weIl. the first among virtues but the virtue" (Jaini 1979, 167). This, of course, is Kamini's view as well. 5252 aass weIlwell asas anan emphasisemphasis onon forgiveness.forgiveness. Interestingly,Interestingly, nobodynobody mentionedmentioned austerityausterity (tappa) aass a mainmain JainaJaina value.value. SoSo importanimportantt toto monks,monks, anandd recognizedrecognized inin smallersmaller degreesdegrees inin laitlaity y,, tappa isis practicepracticedd regularlyregularly bbyy JainaJaina womenwomen inin thethe formform ofof fasting,fasting, andand engagedengaged inin bbyy thethe wholewhole communitycommunity duringduring festivalsfestivals likelike Paryusan, wherewhere itit isis celebratedcelebrated (along(along withwith forgiveness)forgiveness) asas oneone ofof thethe tenten JainaJaina virtuesvirtues..

QuestionsQuestions ofof JainJainaa ConductConduct

AnAn extensionextension ofof mymy discussiondiscussion ofof JainaJaina values involvedinvolved a discussiondiscussion ofof howhow thosethose values werewere mostmost commonlycommonly enactedenacted inin JainaJaina society.society. AIso,Also, iinn lightlight ofof Pratibha'sPratibha's briebrieff mentionmention ofof ahimsa inin conflict-resolutionconflict-resolution (see(see herher profileprofile)) andand Vma'sUma's identificationidentification ofof "helping"helping others"others" aass a mainmain JainaJaina valuvaluee (above),(above), 1I wantedwanted toto gagegage thethe extentextent toto whichwhich thethe JainasJainas 1I spokespoke toto eithereither encouragedencouraged oror discourageddiscouraged conductconduct inin accordanceaccordance withwith JJain ainaa valuesvalues beyonbeyondd jusjustt thethe personapersonall sphere.sphere. InIn thisthis wayway,, 1I wawass interesteinterestedd iinn ththee way JainJainaa attitudeattitudess toto socialsocial serviceservice perhapperhapss reflectedreflected importantimportant featuresfeatures ofof attitudesattitudes towardtoward self-defense.self-defense. ForFor a longlong time,time, JainasJainas havehave beebeenn characterizedcharacterized asas close-minded,close-minded, "apolitical,""apolitical," andand inin generalgeneral uninteresteuninterestedd inin reachingreaching outout beyonbeyondd theirtheir ownown community.community. TheThe viewsviews ofof mmyy interviewees,interviewees, asas 1I show,show, revealreveal thatthat thisthis isis mostlmostlyy a stereotype.stereotype.

Vegetarianism - acceptance and dismissal

WhenWhen askedasked howhow nonviolencnon violencee isis mostmost commonlycommonly practicepracticedd inin society,society, 1I expectedexpected toto hearhear "through"through vegetarianism"vegetarianism" oror sornesome variantvariant onon thisthis widelywidely heldheld view.3344 However,However, 1I foundfound thisthis was not alwayalwayss thethe case.case. Pratibha,Pratibha, forfor instanceinstance,, repliedreplied withwith a question:question: "do"do yoyouu meanmean amongstamongst JainasJainas oror inin IndianIndian societysociety atat large?"large?" WhenWhen 1I replied thatthat 1I meantmeant amongstamongst JainasJainas,, sheshe hesitatedhesitated forfor a momentmoment,, thenthen saidsaid:: "most"most obviouobviouss anandd apparenapparentt iiss vegetarianismvegetarianism.. ButBut atat anotheranother levellevel ofof politicapoliticall ideologyideology oror socialsocial customs,customs, oror societysociety atat large,large, it'sit's difficultdifficult toto identify."identify."

34 34 ComparComparee Laidlaw:Laidlaw: "the"the mostmost routinroutinee andand pervasivpervasivee wayway inin whichwhich...asceti ... asceticc renunciationrenunciation entersenters thethe liveslives ooff laylay JainsJains isis inin theirtheir diet.diet. ToTo saysay thatthat JainsJains areare strictlystrictly vegetarianvegetarian hardlyhardly beginbeginss toto conveconveyy eithereither ththee rigourrigour andand severityseverity ofof thethe rulesrules whichwhich sornesome JainsJains putput themselvesthemselves underunder oror ththee centralitycentrality ofof suchsuch practicepracticess toto JainJain religiousreligious lifelife...almos ... almostt everythingeverything abouaboutt foodfood isis problematiproblematicc [from[from a religioureligiouss perspective]perspective]"" (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 19951995,, 153).153). 5353

WhileWhile PratibhaPratibha pointepointedd toto difficultiesdifficulties withwith narrowlynarrowly definingdefining JainJainaa nonviolencenonviolence inin termsterms ofof vegetarianismvegetarianism,, KarniniKamini disrnisseddismissed vegetarianismvegetarianism outright:outright: "Vegetarianism,"Vegetarianism, asas 1I seesee it,it, becambecamee parpartt ofof a laterlater culture,culture, becausbecausee nono externaIexternal thingthing cancan harharrnm youryour spirituaIity.spirituality. FoodFood aIsoalso cannotcannot inin thatthat sense.sense. ItIt isis helpful,helpful, itit rnightmight bbee helpfulhelpful forfor youyourr health,health, but 35 definitelydefinitely not parpartt ofof youryour spirituality."spirituality. ,,35 SheShe diddid notnot gogo soso farfar asas toto callcall vegetarianismvegetarianism un­un- Jaina;Jaina; however,however, itit isis clearclear thatthat sheshe primarilyprimarily definesdefines JainisJainismm onon ththee levellevel ofof "spirituaIity""spirituality" ratheratherr thanthan mermeree "externaI"external things.things."" lnIn thisthis way,way, sheshe doesdoes notnot considerconsider vegetarianismvegetarianism a keykey markermarker ofof JainismJainism nornor a particularlparticularlyy goodgood exampleexample ofof nonviolencenonviolence inin actionaction (to(to sasayy thethe least).least). WeWe cancan seseee fromfrom thisthis that,that, althoughalthough KaminiKamini earlierearlier definesdefines ahimsa asas extendingextending toto anan engagementengagement withwith plantsplants,, animaIs,animals, andand eveneven microscopiemicroscopic beingsbeings,, sheshe framesframes thisthis not fromfrom thethe perspectivperspectivee ofof thethe externallevelexternal level but fromfrom thatthat ofof thethe internal/spirituaIlevel.internal/spiritual level. Thus,Thus, ahimsa excluexclude dess vegetarianismvegetarianism but encompassesencompasses withinwithin itsits spheresphere "human"human toto humanhuman relations"relations" - whichwhich bridgbridgee thethe internaIinternal andand thethe externaI.external. ThisThis isis whatwhat sheshe means byby "starting"starting withwith humans,"humans," andand extendingextending whatwhat oneone "knows""knows" toto thethe levellevel ofof animaIs,animals, plantsplants,, andand eventuallyeventually microscopiemicroscopic beings.3366 lnIn a relatedrelated question,question, 1I hadhad thethe opportunityopportunity toto askask Anita whatwhat sheshe consideredconsidered thethe mostmost frequentfrequent actact ofof violenceviolence cornrnittedcommitted everyevery day.day. RerHer responseresponse echoedechoed Karnini'sKamini's emphasisemphasis awayaway fromfrom thethe externalexternal andand towardtoward thethe internaI,internal, humanhuman level.level. AnitaAnita repliedreplied thatthat thethe mostmost frequentfrequent actact ofof violenceviolence waswas "not"not literaIlyliterally inflictinginflicting violenceviolence onon others,others, but repressingrepressing ourselves,ourselves, ourour trutruee wisheswishes andand beliefsbeliefs andand followingfollowing a differentdifferent protocol.protocol. Thus,Thus, anan 'internaI''internal' actact ofof violenceviolence isis doingdoing somethingsomething becausbecausee someonesomeone elseelse toldtold youyou toto dodo so,so, oror thethe traditions,traditions, oror that'sthat's thethe wayway thingthingss happen,happen, but youyou don'tdon't believbelievee inin it."it." RerHer emphasisemphasis onon internaIinternal actsacts ofof violenceviolence highlightshighlights howhow sheshe valuesvalues autonomyautonomy andand self-worth.self-worth. AdditionaIly,Additionally, sheshe aIsoalso saidsaid thethe mostmost frequentfrequent actact ofof nonviolencnonviolencee committedcommitted everyevery dayday waswas "greeting"greeting somebodysomebody new.new. ExpressingExpressing warrnthwarmth towardtoward oneone another."another."

35 ItIt isis interestinginteresting thatthat sheshe articulatearticulatess thethe benefitbenefitss ofof vegetarianismvegetarianism fromfrom a healthealthh perspectivperspectivee andand notnot fromfrom a religiousreligious perspectiveperspective.. ThisThis isis "neo-orthodox""neo-orthodox" (see(see Conclusion).Conclusion). TheThe divisiondivision betweebetweenn worldlyworldly andand religiousreligious oror "spiritual,""spiritual," andand herher appealappeal toto thethe termterm "spirituality,""spirituality," isis inin thethe samesame sensesense asas Sogani'sSogani's elaborationelaboration ofof thethe spiritualspiritual versus thethe ethicalethical (see(see earlierearlier note).note). TheThe distinctiondistinction isis anan importantimportant oneone inin thethe mindsminds ofof thethe JainasJainas 1I spoke to.to. Historically,Historically, itit restsrests onon thethe JainaJaina ideasideas ofof vyavahara-naya andand niscaya-naya (worldly(worldly poinpointt ooff viewview andand transcendenttranscendent poinpointt ofof view),view), firstfirst elaboratedelaborated arounaroundd ththee secondsecond centurycentury C.E.C.E. bbyy thethe DigambaraDigambara JainaJaina mysticmystic Kundakunda.Kundakunda. ForFor moremore onon KundakundaKundakunda andand DigambaraDigambara mysticism,mysticism, seesee DundasDundas 2002,107.2002,107. 36 KaminiKamini alsoalso saidsaid thatthat "ahimsa, ofof course,course, isis a wawayy toto dealdeal witwithh sornesome complicatedcomplicated situationssituations oflife."of life." WeWe cancan inferinfer thatthat sheshe meansmeans humahumann situations,situations, whicwhichh originateoriginate onon ththee internallevelinternal level andand extendextend ttoo ththee externalexternal level.level. 5454

LikeLike Kamini,Kamini, AnitAnitaa valuesvalues "human"human ttoo humanhuman relations.relations."" NeverthelessNevertheless,, sheshe alsoalso stronglystrongly believebelievess inin vegetarianismvegetarianism.. ForFor exampleexample,, ofof heherr childrenchildren sheshe sayssays "1"I knowknow 1I cannotcannot forceforce itit onon themthem bubutt 1I hopehope toto GodGod theythey willwill growgrow upup vegetarian."vegetarian." YYe ett thethe impressionimpression 1I gotgot fromfrom herher andand KaminiKamini (bot(bothh vegetarians)vegetarians) waswas thatthat vegetarianismvegetarianism was moremore a markemarkerr ofof identity,identity, notnot a deeplydeeply feltfelt expressionexpression ofof ahimsa.ahimsa. lnIn fact,fact, wewe cancan seesee thatthat aIlall mymy intervieweesinterviewees initiallyinitially expressedexpressed similarsimilar tendenciestendencies toto frameframe JainaJaina valuesvalues susuc chh asas ahimsa, aparigraha, andand anekantavada inin termsterms ofof thethe personapersonallevel.l level. Amit'sAmit's emphasisemphasis onon "cleansing"cleansing thethe system,"system," Kamini'sKamini's andand Amit'Amit'ss sharedshared emphasisemphasis onon "harmony,""harmony," Shugan'Shugan'ss emphasisemphasis onon "being"being self-oriented,self-oriented,"" anandd (a(ass 1I shoshoww iinn ChapterChapter Three)Three) Pratibha'sPratibha's emphasisemphasis onon personalpersonal freedomfreedom allall indicateindicate thathatt JainaJaina valuesvalues areare firstfirst andand foremostforemost defineddefined onon thethe levelevell ofof ththee self.self. ThisThis isis consistenconsistentt withwith Jaini'sJaini's statementstatement thatthat "what"what distinguishesdistinguishes thethe JainaJaina conceptioconceptionn ofof nonviolencenonviolence fromfrom thatthat foundfound inin otherother worldworld religionsreligions isis thatthat itit isis trulytruly a personapersonall wayway ooff religiousreligious discipline"discipline" (Jain(Jainii 2004,2004, 60)60).. UnderlyinUnderlyingg this,this, however,however, isis alsoalso thethe fundamentalfundamental beliebelieff thatthat ahimsa andand otherother valuesvalues cancan functionfunction inin thethe worldworld - that,that, asas K.c.K.C. SoganiSogani said,said, "ahimsa doesdoes notnot existexist inin a vacuum,vacuum, butbut inin thethe worldworld ofof livinlivingg beingsbeings"" (Sogani(Sogani,, K.c.K.C. ISSJSISSJS lecture,lecture, JuneJune 152007).15 2007). TheThe factfact thatthat AmiAmitt laterlater mentionmentionss harmonyharmony oonn thethe levelevell ofof thethe externalexternal worldworld,, KaminKaminii speakspeakss ooff "human"human toto humanhuman relations,"relations," andand thatthat Anita identifiesidentifies "expressing"expressing warmthwarmth towardtoward oneone another"another" asas examplesexamples ofof nonviolentnonviolent action,action, pointpointss inin turnturn toto ththee wayway thatthat thesethese internaIinternal valuesvalues areare takentaken andand mappedmapped ontoonto thethe sociallevel.social level. ThisThis isis a keykey featurefeature ofof thethe wayway mymy intervieweesinterviewees approachapproach issuesissues toto dodo withwith violence,violence, asas 1I show.show.

Relation to service

MMyy nexnextt questioquestionn centrecentredd oonn thethe besbestt examplexamplee ooff propeproperr JainJainaa conducconductt givegivenn a limitedlimited numbernumber ofof choices.choices. TheThe choicechoicess were:were: a)a) responsiblyresponsibly balancinbalancingg familyfamily finances;finances; b)b) establishingestablishing a feedingfeeding systemsystem forfor thethe poorpoor;; oror c)c) financingfinancing thethe buildinbuildingg ofof JainaJaina temples.temples. GivenGiven howhow mymy intervieweesinterviewees hahadd previouslpreviouslyy stressedstressed thethe importancimportancee ofof familyfamily andand familyfamily traditions,traditions, 1I wantedwanted toto know,know, inin general,general, howhow farfar theirtheir values anandd traditiontraditionss extendedextended intointo thethe widewiderr community.community. DidDid mmyy interviewees,interviewees, forfor instance,instance, drawdraw ththee lineline atat familyfamily oror theirtheir religioureligiouss communitycommunity?? WWee havhavee seenseen hohoww medievamedievall JainaJaina texttextss defineddefined communitcommunityy asas thethe sumsum totatotall ofof thethe four-foldfour-fold sangha (in(in effect,effect, thethe religiousreligious community)community).. ThereforeTherefore 5555 medievalmedieval communitycommunity serviceservice was reallyreally serviceservice toto thethe JainaJaina communitycommunity itselfitself (non-Jainas(non-Jainas werewere notnot considered).considered). TheThe questionquestion is:is: hadhad thisthis traditionatradition all beliefbelief inin communitycommunity alteredaltered overover time?time? TwoTwo ways thethe traditionatraditionall JainaJaina beliefbelief inin communitycommunity couldcould havehave alteredaltered isis throughthrough contractioncontraction oror expansionexpansion - iinn otherother words,words, bbyy de-emphasizingde-emphasizing communitycommunity iinn favourfavour ofof increasedincreased individualismindividualism onon thethe levellevel ofof thethe personperson,, oror bbyy anan extensionextension ofof thethe traditiontraditiona all notionnotion ofof communitycommunity toto includeinclude anan eveneven largerlarger communitycommunity (in(in thisthis case,case, thethe non-Jainanon-Jaina community;community; inin effect,effect, a secularsecular notionnotion ofof community).community). ProvidedProvided mymy intervieweesinterviewees supportedsupported thethe extensionextension ofof theirtheir JainaJaina values intointo thethe widerwider community,community, 1I wantedwanted toto knoknoww whetherwhether thithiss waswas intintoo a religious oror secular ideideaa ofof communitycommunity viavia a religious oror secular formform ofof service.service. 1I arbitrarilyarbitrarily chosechose thethe exampleexample ooff feedingfeeding thethe poopoorr inin contrastcontrast toto financingfinancing ththee buildinbuildingg ofof JainaJaina templestemples,, a veryvery popularpopular medievalmedieval formform ofof "social""social" (that(that isis toto saysay "religious")"religious") service.3377 ThisThis alsoalso allowedallowed meme toto gagegage whetherwhether thethe strengtheningstrengthening ofof thethe JainaJaina kula (family)(family) throughthrough religiousreligious givinggiving (dana)(dana) waswas a chiefchief concem.concern.3388 1I foundfound that,that, withwith onlyonly oneone exception,exception, aIlall mymy intervieweesinterviewees chosechose (b),(b), establishing a feedingfeeding systemsystem forfor thethe poor,poor, thusthus reinforcingreinforcing thethe generalgeneral altruisticaltruistic attitudeattitude ofof thisthis particulaparticularr grougroupp ofof JainasJainas.. RaviRavi answereansweredd thethe questionquestion iinn aann eveneven moremore interestinginteresting way,way, choosingchoosing (b)(b) but emphasizingemphasizing thethe needneed notnot onlyonly ttoo helphelp thethe poopoorr but alsoalso thethe ricrichh whowho fallfall onon hardhard times.times. AsAs hehe explained,explained, weIl-offwell-off peoplpeoplee maymay "have"have sornesome ambitionambition anandd thetheyy loselose

37 DundasDundas writeswrites thatthat fromfrom aboutabout ththee tenttenthh century,century, followingfollowing oonn ththee shiftshift ofof ththee traditionatraditionallayl lay occupationoccupation ttoo tradetrade,, thethe primarprimaryy formform ofof accumulatingaccumulating meritmerit andand prestigprestigee waswas throughthrough thethe financingfinancing andand buildinbuildingg ooff templetempless (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 195).195). ThisThis followsfollows onon ththee practicpracticee ofof JainaJaina kingskings andand noblemennoblemen erectingerecting templestemples andand holyholy sites,sites, susuc chh asas Camunda'sCamunda's massivemassive GommatesvaraGommatesvara BahubaliBahubali colossuscolossus atat SravanaSravana Belagola.Belagola. ForFor moremore onon ththee concepconceptt ofof "prestige""prestige" (abru), seesee nexnextt notenote.. 38 38 AsAs DundasDundas (2002)(2002) pointpointss out,out, religiousreligious supportsupport amongamong JainasJainas throughthrough ththee practicpracticee ofof dana waswas a mainmain formform ofof accumulatingaccumulating abru, a pan-Indiapan-Indiann conceptconcept meaningmeaning "prestige""prestige" oror "reputation""reputation" (the(the equivalentequivalent SanskritSanskrit tertermm isis pratistha). InIn a sectionsection titledtitled "Wealth,"Wealth, HonourHonour andand Piety,"Piety," hehe writeswrites:: "It"It waswas abru whichwhich waswas ththee testtest ofof whetherwhether a merchantmerchant waswas creditworthycreditworthy andand competentcompetent andand suchsuch respectability,respectability, whenwhen confirmed,confirmed, servedserved ttoo generategenerate furtherfurther abru andand stillstill moremore creditcredit andand concomitantconcomitant financialfinancial success.success. ReputationReputation waswas basedbased onon publiclypublicly observableobservable correctcorrect behaviour,behaviour, itselfitself regardedregarded asas anan indexindex ofof innerinner piety,piety, whichwhich hadhad ttoo taketake ththee formform ofof thethe organizationorganization ofof one'sone's lifelife andand thosthosee ofof one'sone's immediateimmediate relativesrelatives iinn accordancaccordancee withwith certaincertain essentiallyessentially conservativeconservative principlesprinciples.. TheseThese woulwouldd includeinclude lacklack ofof ostentationostentation oror scandaIscandal inin ththee conductconduct ofof privatprivatee andand commercialcommercial affairs,affairs, strictstrict vegetarianismvegetarianism andand temperance,temperance, avoidance of overt involvement in political malters,matters, carefullycarefully regulatedregulated marrimarriag agee alliancesalliances andand aa cautiouscautious approachapproach toto businessbusiness enterprisesenterprises inin whichwhich financialfinancial creditcredit waswas generallygenerally advancedadvanced onlyonly onon ththee basibasiss ofof short-termshort-term returns,returns, andand active support of the religious sect to which one belonged" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002,196 196.ltalics. Italics added)added).. InIn thisthis regard,regard, "it"it wawass consistentlyconsistently acceptedaccepted thatthat a particularlparticularlyy efficaciousefficacious wayway ofof gaininggaining honourhonour andand reputation,reputation, andand thus greatergreater prosperity,prosperity, waswas ttoo directdirect one'sone's wealthwealth outwardsoutwards asas religiousreligious givinggiving (dana){dana) inin ththee formform ofof expenditureexpenditure upouponn ththee constructionconstruction andand upkeepupkeep ofof templetempless (which(which coucoul Idd alsoalso havhavee a positivpositivee effecteffect upouponn locallocal economies),economies), ththee financingfinancing ofof communalcommunal festivalsfestivals anandd ththee endowmentendowment ofof animalanimal hospitalshospitals,, thethe latterlatter beinbeingg a tangibltangiblee signsign ofof commitrnentcommitment ttoo non-violence"non-violence" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002,197) 197).. 5656 something,something, ssoo theythey havehave nono ideaidea whatwhat toto dodo next.next. SoSo it'it'ss helpinghelping anybodyanybody whowho iiss iinn need."need." InIn keepingkeeping withwith herher emphasisemphasis oonn family,family, UmaUma actuallyactually chosechose (a)(a) firstfirst (balancing(balancing familyfamily 39 finances),finances), followedfollowed bbyy (b),(b), "but"but not thethe thirdthird one.one." ,,39 TheThe thirdthird exampleexample ofof conductconduct (financing(financing thethe buildinbuildingg ofof JainaJaina temples)temples) waswas chosenchosen onlyonly bbyy Anita,Anita, althoughalthough sheshe chosechose itit aass a secondsecond choicechoice afterafter (b).(b). HerHer choicechoice ooff (c)(c) isis perhapperhapss unsurprisinunsurprisingg consideringconsidering herher statedstated desiredesire forfor a JainaJaina templetemple inin Geneva.Geneva. SinceSince lI diddid notnot havehave thethe opportunityopportunity toto asaskk herher moremore aboutabout this,this, lI cancan onlyonly wonder:wonder: diddid sheshe wishwish thisthis templetemple mainlymainly forfor reasonreasonss ooff convenienceconvenience andand becausbecausee itit remindedreminded herher ofof herher religioureligiouss roots,roots, oror diddid herher choicechoice alsoalso reflectreflect a widerwider desiredesire toto celebrate thethe JainaJaina communitycommunity inin thethe restrest ofof thethe world?world? RegardlessRegardless ofof anyany religiousreligious motives,motives, however,however, herher obviousobvious choicechoice ofof (b)(b) overover (a)(a) reflectsreflects a preferencepreference forfor secularsecular socialsocial serviceservice toto strictlystrictly religiousreligious service.service. Shugan,Shugan, finally,finally, was thethe onlyonly oneone whowho diddid notnot choosechoose (b),(b), insteadinstead choosingchoosing onlyonly (a),(a), responsiblyresponsibly balancingbalancing familyfamily finances.finances. OnOnee cancan seesee a connectionconnection herehere betweebetweenn thisthis choicechoice anandd hishis valuevalue ofof stayingstaying self-orientedself-oriented (above)(above)..

The TTerapanthierapanthi view

NotablyNotably,, thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi SadhviSadhviss diddid notnot shareshare thisthis emphasisemphasis onon socialsocial service,service, bbee itit religiousreligious oror secular,secular, nornor diddid theythey extol thethe virtuesvirtues ofof responsiblyresponsibly balancinbalancingg familyfamily finances.finances. InIn sharpsharp contrascontrastt toto thethe viewsviews ofof thethe laitlaity y,, thethe SadhvisSadhvis rejecterejectedd ailall thethe choices,choices, shiftingshifting thethe discussiondiscussion insteadinstead toto a moremore spirituallevel.spiritual level. InIn thethe mannermanner ofof thethe oldestoldest JainaJaina scriptures,scriptures, theythey pointepointedd outout thethe inabilityinability ofof simplesimple outwardoutward showsshows ofof virtuevirtue toto improveimprove thethe statestate ofof thethe soul.soul. TheyThey stressedstressed inin thisthis regardregard thethe needneed forfor emotional equanimity.equanimity. AsAs thethe translatortranslator forfor thethe headhead Sadhvi,Sadhvi, SriSri MohanMohan KumariKumari Ji,Ji, explainedexplained toto me,me, sheshe diddid notnot agreeagree withwith anyany ofof thethe choices.choices. ForFor thethe first,first, sheshe reasonedreasoned thatthat

thethe besbestt JainaJaina wouldwould bbee [one][one] whowho controlscontrols hishis emotions,emotions, whowho liveslives a lifelife veryvery easily,easily, calmly.calmly. OrdinaryOrdinary life,life, simplesimple life,life, likelike he'she's balancinbalancingg life.life. [Let's[Let's say,say, forfor exexample ample]] he'she's givinggiving usus a JainaJaina temple.temple. AnyoneAnyone cacann taketake moneymoney byby smugglingsmuggling anandd buildbuild uupp a JainaJaina

39 Uma'sUma's oppositionopposition toto templetemple buildinbuildingg maymay alsoalso reflectreflect thethe SthanakvasiSthanakvasi sect'ssect's strongstrong oppositionopposition toto thisthis practicpracticee (see(see DundasDundas 2002,2002, 251-4)251-4).. 5757

temple.temple. That'sThat's notnot a bibigg deal.deal. You'reYou're not doingdoing anythinganything right.right.40 Okay,Okay, balancinbalancingg youryour familyfamily finances.finances. ThisThis isis a thingthing whichwhich everyoneeveryone hashas toto do.do. ItIt isis a compulsion.compulsion. IfIf yoyouu havehave toto livelive a googoodd lifelife youyou havehave toto balancbalancee - that'sthat's notnot a bibigg deal,deal, oror a goodgood exexampl amplee ofof Jainism.Jainism.

A secondsecond personperson thenthen added:added: "AlI"All threethree optionsoptions dodo notnot workwork forfor anan idealideal JainaJaina family.family. YouYou needneed toto havehave honesty,honesty, youyou needneed toto bbee veryvery...... [in[in responseresponse toto someonesomeone else]else] yeah,yeah, simplesimple livingliving andand highhigh thinking."thinking." WhenWhen 1I broughbroughtt upup thethe issuissuee ofof feedingfeeding thethe poorpo or,, a conversationconversation ensued betweenbetween thethe translatortranslator andand thethe Sadhvis,Sadhvis, duringduring whichwhich timetime 1I againagain heardheard thethe phrasphrasee "simple"simple living,living, highhigh thinking."thinking." AfterAfter a while,while, thethe translatortranslator tumedturned toto meme::

TheThe secondsecond optionoption isis establishingestablishing a feedingfeeding systemsystem forfor thethe poorpoor.. TheyThey don'tdon't supportsupport [this][this] completelycompletely becausbecausee iiff youyou feedfeed someonesomeone anandd hehe getsgets strength,strength, thenthen hehe walkswalks around.around. IfIf hehe doesdoes sornesome kindkind ofof violenceviolence oror sornesome unethicalunethical activity,activity, soso eveneven youyou areare a parpartt ofof itit becausbecausee youyou areare thethe persopersonn whowho isis givinggiving thethe strength,strength, becausbecausee youyou feedfeed him.him.

TheThe Sadhvis'Sadhvis' warningwarning againstagainst ththee karmickarmic illsills broughtbrought aboutabout bbyy aidingaiding anotheranother persopersonn reflectsreflects ththee mostmost ancientancient JainaJaina viewview ofof action,action, foundfound iinn thethe earliestearliest textstexts beforbeforee thethe Tattvartha-sutra (TvS).(TvS). TheThe JainaJaina theorytheory ofof karma,karma, iinn whichwhich karmakarma iiss understoounderstoodd toto bbee a physicaphysicall substancesubstance thatthat literallyliterally clingsclings toto the jiva (self)(self) andand iinn thisthis wayway definedefiness ititss shape,shape, lifespan,lifespan, whetherwhether iitt isis humanhuman oror not,not, andand soso forth,forth, hashas remainedremained unchangeunchangedd throughoutthroughout JainaJaina history.history. OpinionsOpinions differ,differ, however,however, onon whetherwhether intentiointentionn mitigatesmitigates thisthis procesprocesss ooff influx.4411 AAss wewe havhavee seenseen iinn ChapterChapter One,One, thethe earliesearliestt viewsviews ofof thethe JainJainaa canocanonn (prior(prior toto thethe TvS)TvS) uncompromisinglyuncompromisingly statestate thatthat aIlall actionaction causescauses violence.violence. BecauseBecause ofof this,this, andand becausbecausee karmakarma iiss a physicaphysicall substancesubstance thatthat adheresadheres mechanicallymechanically toto thethey'rv jivaa asas soonsoon asas aann actionaction isis performedperfonned,, anyany activityactivity (such(such asas feedingfeeding someone)someone) bindbindss babadd karmakarma toto thejiva,the jiva,

40 ItIt isis somewhatsomewhat ironic,ironic, givegivenn thatthat TerapanthisTerapanthis seesee themselvesthemselves asas reformersreformers (see(see "History"History ofof ththee Terapanth,"Terapanth," below)below),, that,that, asas DundasDundas pointpointss out,out, thethe HinduHindu andand GujaratiGujarati termterm forfor reformreform (uddhar) "signifies"signifies literallyliterally 'a'a raisingraising up'up'"" thatthat isis commonlycommonly useusedd toto describdescribee thethe restorationrestoration ofof a ruinedruined templetemple (Dundas(Dundas 20022002,, 245).245). 41 41 ForFor a generalgeneral discussiodiscussionn ofof thethe JainJainaa theorytheory ofof karma,karma, seesee JainJainii 1979,1979, ch.ch. 4.4. 5858 irrespectiveirrespective ofof thethe intentiointentionn behinbehindd thethe action.action. ThisThis isis whywhy thethe earliestearliest textstexts suchsuch aass thethe Acaranga-sutra prohibiprohibitt aIlall actioactionn toto thethe maximummaximum extentextent possible.4422 WeWe cacann seesee thatthat thethe Sadhvis,Sadhvis, likelike mymy laylay interviewees,interviewees, primarilprimarilyy emphasizedemphasized thethe practicpracticee ofof ahimsa, aparigraha andand anekantavada onon thethe internallevelinternal level throughthrough "controlling"controlling emotions"emotions" andand "living"living calmly;"calmly;" however,however, theythey sharplysharply deviateddeviated fromfrom thethe viewview thatthat internalinternal expressionsexpressions ofof thesethese values cancan bbee mappedmapped ontoonto thethe externallevelexternal level throughthrough socialsocial service.service. Instead,Instead, theythey wamedwarned againstagainst personallpersonallyy incurringincurring karmickarmic illsills fromfrom thethe actact ofof feedingfeeding someonesomeone whowho thenthen laterlater doesdoes a violentviolent action.action. AsAs mymy translatortranslator said,said, shouldshould thatthat persopersonn commitcommit a violentviolent act,act, "even"even yoyouu araree a parpartt ofof it.it."" ThisThis hashas potentiallypotentially devastatingdevastating effectseffects forfor one'sone's soul.soul.

History of the Terapanth and distinguishing featufeatures res lnIn orderorder toto bettebetterr understanunderstandd thethe perspectivperspectivee ofof thethe Sadhvis,Sadhvis, 1I willwill elaborateelaborate onon thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi orderorder andand itsits founder,founder, AcaryaAcarya Bhiksu.Bhiksu. TheThe TerapanthiTerapanthi ("followers("followers ofof thethe PathPath ofof Thirteen")Thirteen") was thethe lastlast majomajorr monasticmonastic reformreform movementmovement ofof SvetambaraSvetambara Jainism.Jainism. ItIt originatedoriginated iinn thethe eighteentheighteenth century,century, abouaboutt oneone hundredhundred yearsyears afteafterr anotheanotherr SvetambaraSvetambara monasticmonastic reformreform movement,movement, thethe SthanakvasiSthanakvasi ("those("those whowho livelive inin lodginglodging houses,"houses," oror sthanaks). AsAs withwith mostmost religiousreligious reformreform movements,movements, thethe emphasisemphasis was onon eliminatingeliminating sectariansectarian conflictconflict andand recapturinrecapturingg thethe "true""true" meaningmeaning ofof thethe scriptures;43scriptures;43 however,however, ratherrather thanthan diminishdiminish sectarianism,sectarianism, overover timetime thesethese movementsmovements "merely"merely succeededsucceeded iinn perpetuatinperpetuatingg anandd expandingexpanding it"it" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 245)245).. AcaryAcaryaa BhiksuBhiksu (1726-1803),(1726-1803), thethe founderfounder ofof thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi orderorder andand incidentallyincidentally oneone ofof thethe best-documentebest-documentedd figuresfigures inin thethe historyhistory ofof Jainism,Jainism, waswas a conservativeconservative fundamentalistfundamentalist ofof unbendinunbendingg nature,nature, particularlparticularlyy whenwhen itit camecame toto thethe doctrinedoctrine ofof ahimsa,ahimsa,

42 ThiThiss viewview isis mostmost strikinglystrikingly conveyedconveyed bbyy thethe storystory 1I waswas toldtold ofof killingkilling anan antant witwithh a deaddead man's bone.bone. TheThe oldestoldest JainaJaina positiopositionn maintainsmaintains thatthat botbothh youyou and the dead man incurincur thethe babadd karmakarma fromfrom thisthis act.act. Similarly,Similarly, whenwhen 1I askeaskedd thethe SadhvisSadhvis aboutabout anan actact asas seeminglyseemingly innocentinnocent asas throwingthrowing a candycandy wrapperwrapper inin a garbagegarbage can,can, 1I waswas toldtold thatthat itit tootoo cancan incuincurr harmfuharmfull karmakarma "because"because yoyouu havehave thrownthrown thethe wrappewrapperr thatthat mightmight bbee contain[ing]containing] somsornee sugarsugar,, andand antsants areare there."there." 1I wawass toltoldd "that"that isis violenceviolence,, asas peperr Jainism,"Jainism," becausebecause ththee antsants wilwilll thethenn bbee attracteattractedd ttoo ththee wrapperwrapper,, thereforthereforee endangeringendangering themselvethemselvess andand probablprobablyy dying.dying. WhatWhat wawass interesting,interesting, howeverhowever,, isis thathatt thethe SadhvisSadhvis did allowallow thatthat intentionintention cancan compromisecompromise thethe effectseffects ofof karmakarma inin certain casescases (see(see below)below).. ItIt wawass notnot alwaysalways apparentapparent whetherwhether thesethese werewere casescases wherewhere religiousreligious meritmerit wawass involved.involved. 43 43 BothBoth sectssects areare todaytoday besbestt knownknown forfor theirtheir oppositionopposition toto imageimage worship,worship, promotinpromotingg exc1usivelyexclusively bhavapuja,bhavapuja, oror mentalmental worship.worship. 5959 whichwhich hehe consideredconsidered thethe essenceessence ofof JainismJainism (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002,257) 257).. BhiksuBhiksu was borbornn intointo thethe BisaBisa OsvalOsval merchantmerchant castecaste inin thethe dedeser sertt regionregion ofof Marwar,Marwar, whosewhose "rugged"rugged andand oftenoften harsh"harsh" landscape,landscape, DundasDundas suggests,suggests, "imparted"imparted somethingsomething ofof itselfitself toto thethe uncompromisinguncompromising anandd vigorousvigorous JainismJainism whichwhich hhee preachedpreached"" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 255).255). TheThe BisaBisa OsvalOsval castecaste continuescontinues toto represenrepresentt thethe majoritymajority ofof TerapanthisTerapanthis today.today. AsAs DundasDundas states,states, "while"while presentinpresentingg itselitselff iinn universalistuniversalist terms,terms, thethe TerapanthTerapanth hashas remainedremained particularlparticularlyy Rajasthani,Rajasthani, anandd indeeindeedd Marwari,Marwari, iinn ethos"ethos" (Dunda(Dundass 2002,2002, 255)255).. BhiksuBhiksu tooktook initiatioinitiationn fromfrom thethe SthanakvasiSthanakvasi AcaryaAcarya RaghunathaRaghunatha (1710-1790)(1710-1790) iinn 1751,1751, but brokebroke fromfrom himhim eighteight yearsyears later,44later,44 reinitiatingreinitiating himselfhimself alongalong withwith sisixx othersothers intointo a groupgroup hehe calledcalled Terapanthi.4455 ForFor Terapanthis,Terapanthis, ththee definingdefining featurefeature isis a rejectionrejection ofof thethe conventionconventiona all ideaidea ooff meritoriousmeritorious actioactionn (a(a featurefeature ofof post-Agamipost-Agamiec JainismJainism sincesince thethe Tattvartha-sutra), andand aann attemptattempt toto returnreturn toto thethe earliestearliest recordedrecorded teachingsteachings onon ahimsa inin thethe SvetambaraSvetambara canon.canon. MostMost importantlyimportantly,, andand inin contrastcontrast toto JainaJaina practicepracticess ofof thethe time,time, BhiksuBhiksu de-emphasizedde-emphasized 4646 intentionintention (and(and itsits relatedrelated emphasisemphasis onon compassion )),, returningreturning insteainsteadd toto thethe oldestoldest

44 WileyWiley notesnotes differingdiffering viewsviews onon "compassionate"compassionate help"help" waswas a keykey reasonreason forfor Bhiksu'sBhiksu's splitsplit fromfrom AcaryaAcarya RaghunathaRaghunatha (Wiley(Wiley 2006,445)2006,445).. ForFor moremore onon thisthis,, seesee belowbelow.. TheThe neneww orderorder recognizerecognizedd RaghunathaRaghunatha asas Bhiksu'sBhiksu's teacheteacherr "only"only inin ththee mosmostt provisionaprovisionall sense"sense" (Dunda(Dundass 2002,2002, 256)256),, c1aimingclaiming insteadinstead directdirect lineagelineage fromfrom ththee scripturesscriptures andand MahaviraMahavira himself.himself. 45 45 SvetambaraSvetambara TerapanthisTerapanthis offeroffer threethree explanationsexplanations forfor thethe originorigin ofof theirtheir name.name. OneOne explanationexplanation (the(the mostmost popularpopular)) centrescentres onon thethe ministerminister ofof thethe MaharajaMaharaja ofof Jodhpur,Jodhpur, whowho noticednoticed thirteethirteenn laymenlaymen inin anan abandonedabandoned shopshop carryingcarrying outout thethe ritual.ritual. UpoUponn beinbeingg toldtold thethe newnew sectsect consistedconsisted ofof thirteenthirteen laymenlaymen andand thirteenthirteen monksmonks inin aIl,all, a poepoett laterlater composedcomposed a coupletcouplet inin praisepraise ofof thethe TerapanthTerapanth (the(the PathPath ooff Thirteen).Thirteen). AnotherAnother explanationexplanation ofof thethe namename moremore piouslpiouslyy refersrefers toto thethe fivefive GreatGreat Vows,Vows, thethe threethree ProtectionsProtections (gupti)(gupti) andand thethe fivefive AttentiveAttentive ActionsActions (samiti) atat thethe heartheart ofof Bhiksu'sBhiksu's reformistreformist asceticascetic practicpracticee (this(this indeedindeed waswas thethe explanationexplanation offeredoffered toto meme bbyy thethe SadhvisSadhvis themselves).themselves). A finalfinal explanationexplanation restsrests onon thethe RajasthaniRajasthani wordword tera (y(your) our),, asas inin thethe phrasphrasee "you,"you, LordLord Mahavira"Mahavira" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 256-7)256-7).. 4646 This is in contrast to the Sthanakvasis. Dundas describes the Sthanakvasis as "a resilient component of theThi Jains i scorn in contras munit yt withto th ea Sthanakvasishigh reputation. Dunda for adherences describe tos ththee Sthanakvasiprinciples ofs non-violenceas "a resilient andcomponen compassiont of manifestedthe Jain communit in socialy witworks"h a hig (Dundash reputatio 2002,n fo253).r adherenc Over theire to thhistory,e principle Sthanakvasis of non-violenc monks ehave and attemptedcompassio ton influencemanifeste dIndian in socia societyl works (and" (Dunda beyond)s 2002 in ways, 253) that. Ove sometimesr their history differ, Sthanakvasradically fromi monk orthodoxs have monasticattempte d to tradition.influence ForIndia instance,n societ y"in (an recentd beyond times,) in the way Sthanakvasis that sometime monks diffeAcaryar radicall Susilkumary from (1926-94),orthodox monasti gained cfame intradition public. lifeFor forinstance his attempts, "in recen to intervenet times, th positivelye Sthanakvas in ithe mon variousk Acary communala Susilkuma disputesr (1926-94) which , plaguedgained fame contemporaryin public life fo Indianr his attempt society.s tIno interven1975, havinge positivel left they in Sraman the variou Sanghs communa [formedl indispute 1952;s thewhic largesth plague Sthanakd contemporargroup whichy is India headedn society by one. Iacarya]n 1975, havinand ignoringg left th ethe Srama old rulen Sang prohibitingh [forme dJain in 1952ascetics; th efrom larges journeyingt Sthanak overgrou pthe whic sea,h heis headetraveledd b yby on aire acarya] to the United and ignorin States,g wherethe old he rul hade prohibitin lay supporters,g Jain ascetic and eventuallys from journeyin foundedg a religiousover the seacentre, he intravele Newd Jersey by air calledto the Siddhacalam.United States, Thewher currente he ha leaderd lay supporters of the Sraman, and Sangh,eventuall Acaryay founde Sivd a Munireligiou (borns centr 1942),e in Nehasw also Jerse showny calle ad readiness Siddhacalam to travel. The outsidecurrent Indialeade regularly"r of the Srama (Dundasn Sangh 2002,, Acary 254).a Siv Muni (borSimilarly,n 1942), haSthanakvasiss also show nare a readinesrelativelys t"liberalo travel comparedoutside Indi toa their regularly Svetambara" (Dunda image-worshippings 2002, 254). counterparts."Similarly They, Sthanakvasi allow their slait ar ye fullrelativel accessy "libera to scripturesl compare andd theirto thei nunsr Svetambar occasionala image-worshippin free-reign to travelg counterparts.outside the company" They allo of monks.w their laitMosty ful notably,l acces s"one to scripture Sthanakvasis and subsect,their nun thes occasiona Amarrnunil free-reig Sampraday,n to trave l towardsoutside ththee companend of they o flast monks century. Mos promotedt notably ,a "onnun,e SthanakvasCandanaji, ito subsect the rank, th ofe Amarmun acarya, ani Sampradayunprecedented, towardoccurrences the inen Jaind of asceticthe las t history"century (Dundaspromote d2002, a nun 254)., Candanaji , to the rank of acarya, an unprecedented occurrence in Jain ascetic history" (Dundas 2002,254). 6060 messagemessage ofof thethe scripturesscriptures - thatthat is,is, acquirinacquiringg strictlystrictly religiousreligious merimeritt throughthrough thethe practicepractice ofof restraintrestraint fromfrom action:action:

TakingTaking hishis cucuee fromfrom a scripturalscriptural statementstatement (Dasavaikalika-sutra{Dasavaikalika-sutra 6.9)6.9) whichwhich statesstates thatthat thethe firstfirst thingthing whichwhich MahaviraMahavira hadhad taught,taught, non-violence,non-violence, involvedinvolved restraintrestraint towardstowards aIlall creatures,creatures, BhiksuBhiksu insistedinsisted thatthat itit was notnot compassioncompassion andand givinggiving anandd thethe merimeritt thatthat arosearose fromfrom thethemm whicwhichh laylay aatt thethe heartheart ofof thethe religiousreligious patpathh but continuaIcontinual self­self- discipline,discipline, basebasedd onon a correctcorrect understandinunderstandingg ofof thethe naturenature ofof life-forms,life-forms, whichwhich aIonealone couldcould stopstop karmakarma beingbeing boundbound toto thethe soulsoul andand eventuaIlyeventually effecteffect spiritualspiritual release.release. ByBy thisthis standard,standard, BhiksuBhiksu viewedviewed anyany actact ofof violence,violence, irrespectiveirrespective ofof whetherwhether itit waswas performeperformedd outout ofof necessitynecessity oror not,not, asas babadd (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 257-58)257-58)..

Laukika and lokattara

AlIAll JainaJaina sourcessources emphasizeemphasize thethe traditionaltraditional distinctiondistinction betweenbetween thethe worldlyworldly realmrealm ooff valuesvalues (laukika){laukika) andand thethe transcendenttranscendent reaImrealm (lokattara),{lokattara), whichwhich havehave nono connectionconnection toto oneone another.4477 ModerModemn opinionsopinions differ,differ, however,however, onon whetherwhether certaincertain activitiesactivities suchsuch asas compassionatecompassionate actactss oror mysticalmystical practicepracticess cancan bridgbridgee thisthis gap.gap. AsAs wewe havehave seen,seen, iinn hishis strictstrict reformistreformist stance,stance, BhiksuBhiksu adoptedadopted thethe positiopositionn ofof thethe oldestoldest AgamasAgamas iinn emphasizingemphasizing thatthat restraintrestraint isis thethe onlyonly humanhuman activityactivity thatthat cancan establishestablish a positivpositivee relationshiprelationship (o(off transcendence)transcendence) betweebetweenn thethe twotwo reaIms.realms. ThusThus hehe saidsaid thatthat restraintrestraint towardstowards livingliving beingsbeings is nonnonviolence violence;; itit isis a prerequisitprerequisitee forfor ahimsa andand isis itselfitself predicatepredicatedd onon ahimsa (Wiley(Wiley 2006,446).2006,446). ByBy contrast,contrast, worldlyworldly (laukika){laukika) vaIuesvalues forfor BhiksuBhiksu inc1udedincluded aIlall typestypes ofof religiousreligious practicepracticess anandd ritualsrituals directedirectedd aatt gettingettingg meritmerit commonlycommonly folIowedfollowed bbyy JainasJainas.. ThereThere waswas "no"no possibilitpossibilityy ofof buyinbuyingg merit,merit, asas itit were,were, bbyy religiousreligious practicespractices"" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 258).258).4848

47 ThisThis "two-Ievels""two-levels" idea isis usuallusuallyy tracedtraced backback,, onon thethe JainaJaina sideside,, toto thethe DigambaraDigambara AcaryaAcarya KundakundaKundakunda (see(see earlierearlier note).note). ItIt sharesshares a virtuallyvirtually identicalidentical commonalitycommonality withwith ththee samesame modelmodel inin NagarjunNagarjunaa anandd alsoalso Sankara.Sankara. ScholarsScholars thinkthink thatthat thethe BuddhistBuddhist NagarjunNagarjunaa wawass thethe originatororiginator ofof thisthis "two-levels""two-levels" mode!.model. 48 TheThe strongstrong de-emphasisde-emphasis onon meritmerit inin TerapanthiTerapanthi ethicsethics isis consideredconsidered a universauniversall attitudeattitude ofof thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi mendicants.mendicants. Nevertheless, acaryas dodo notnot contradictcontradict thisthis bbyy emphasizingemphasizing thethe meritmerit gainedgained fromfrom religiousreligious service.service. ForFor example,example, AcaryaAcarya Jaya,Jaya, alsoalso knownknown asas JitmaljiJitmalji (d.1881),(d.1881), instructedinstructed hishis asceticsascetics toto copycopy manuscripts,manuscripts, "a"a formform ofof compulsorycompulsory religiousreligious worworkk forfor thethe benefibenefitt ofof thethe order"order" duringduring whicwhichh timetime "entries"entries recordingrecording achievementsachievements werweree mademade inin whatwhat are,are, inin effect,effect, meritmerit booksbooks"" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 260).260). ThisThis recognitionrecognition ofof googoodd meritmerit (albeit(albeit withinwithin a strictstrict religiousreligious atrnosphere)atmosphere) setssets thethe stagestage forfor ourour discussiondiscussion ooff 6161

ThusThus,, actionactionss thatthat otherother JainaJainass considerconsider botbothh meritoriousmeritorious andand indicativeindicative ofof nonviolence,nonviolence, suchsuch asas buyinbuyingg animaIsanimals fromfrom butcherbutcherss andand settingsetting thethemm free,free, werewere forfor BhiksuBhiksu merelymerely socialsocial actionsactions withwith nono religiousreligious vaIuevalue (Dundas(Dundas 20022002,, 258).258). Similarly,Similarly, BhiksuBhiksu distinguisheddistinguished betweebetweenn spiritualspiritual compassioncompassion (lokottara oror dharma daya) andand worldlyworldly compassioncompassion (laukika daya) (Wiley(Wiley 2006,445)2006, 445).. HeHe maintained,maintained, againagain inin thethe mannemannerr ofof thethe oldestoldest SvetambaraSvetambara scriptures,scriptures, thatthat worldlyworldly compassion,compassion, becausbecausee itit representedrepresented aann entanglemententanglement withwith thethe world,world, onlyonly furtherfurther perpetuateperpetuatedd ahimsa. Consequently,Consequently, thethe onlyonly truetrue socialsocial serviceservice was thethe teachingteaching ofof restraintrestraint.. AsAs Dundas summarizes,summarizes,

GenuineGenuine,, lokattara compassioncompassion forfor otherother creaturescreatures anandd non-violencenon-violence towardstowards themthem mustmust bbee conjoinedconjoined withwith correctcorrect understandinunderstandingg andand asceticascetic restraintrestraint.. GivingGiving a poorpoor mamann monemoneyy anandd foodfood outout ofof charitycharity iiss ultimatelultimatelyy nono moremore thanthan a socialsocial act,act, asas opposedopposed ttoo lokottara givinggiving,, ththee teachingteaching ofof thethe patpathh ofof restraintrestraint toto aIlall creatures.creatures. Bhiksu'sBhiksu's message is that of the very oldest Jain scriptures: it is not the duty of the true monk to rescue other creatures but rather firstlyfirstly to concern himself with his own spiritual development. The purpurposepose ofnon-violenceof non-violence isis purificationpurification ofof thethe soulsoul (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 258,258, italicsitalics mine).mine).4949

AcaryaAcarya Tulsi'sTulsi's (1914-97)(1914-97) AnuvratAnuvrat movement,movement, whichwhich proposeproposedd a neneww balancbalancee betweebetweenn asceticascetic idealidealss andand directdirect socialsocial serviceservice (see(see below)below).. 49 49 CompareCompare thesethese wordswords bbyy AcaryaAcarya Mahaprajna,Mahaprajna, thethe CUITentcurrent headhead ofof thethe TerapanthisTerapanthis andand thethe Sadhvis'Sadhvis' directdirect superior:superior: "When"When a strongstrong persopers onn isis movedmoved atat thethe sufferingsuffering ofof thethe weak,weak, thisthis isis sympathysympathy ofof thethe strongstrong towardstowards thethe weak.weak. TheThe wordword compassioncompassion (daya) isis anan expressionexpression ofof thisthis feeling.feeling. WhenWhen a persopersonn isis movedmoved atat thethe sufferingsuffering ofof thethe stronstrongg oror thethe weak,weak, thisthis isis thethe realizationrealization ofof thethe equalityequality ofof oneone soulsoul withwith ailall otherother souIs.souls. TheThe worwordd compassioncompassion isis anan expressionexpression ofof thisthis feeling.feeling. Thus,Thus, thethe wordword compassioncompassion representsrepresents twotwo feelings.feelings. AfterAfter beinbeingg soso moved,moved, therethere areare twotwo coursescourses ofof action:action: toto notnot causecause sufferingsuffering andand toto removeremove suffering.suffering. EveryoneEveryone agreesagrees thatthat oneone shouldshould notnot causecause suffering,suffering, bubutt therethere isis sornesome questionquestion withwith respectrespect toto removingremoving thethe sufferingsuffering ofof thethe afflicted.afflicted. Therefore,Therefore, AcaryaAcarya BhiksuBhiksu hashas said,said, 'The"The dharma ofof compassioncompassion isis properproper,, butbut salvationsalvation isis attainedattained onlyonly bbyy thosethose whwhoo havhavee recognizerecognizedd itit asas itit reallreallyy isis andand havhavee observedobserved itit properly.properly.'' HeHe warnswarns,, 'Do'Do nonott bbee deceiveddeceived iinn thethe namnamee ofof compassion.compassion. PenetratePenetrate itit inin depthdepth andand investigateinvestigate it'"it'" (in(in WileyWiley 2006,2006,445-6) 445-6).. MahaprajnaMahaprajna concIudesconcludes thatthat therethere isis nono answeranswer toto thethe questions:questions: "Why"Why shouldshould oneone removeremove suffering?suffering? WhoseWhose sufferingsuffering shouldshould bbee removed?removed? HowHow shouldshould oneone removeremove it?"it?" (in(in WileyWiley 2006,2006,446) 446).. CertainlyCertainly fromfrom thethe perspectivperspectivee ofof thethe world,world, sufferingsuffering shouldshould bbee removedremoved soso aass toto increaseincrease happinesshappiness (sukha); however,however, fromfrom thethe spiritualspiritual perspectiveperspective,, accordingaccording toto thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi positionposition,, sufferinsufferingg mustmust bebe removedremoved inin thethe righrightt wayway soso asas toto purifpurifyy thethe soulsoul andand ultimatelyultimately gaigainn liberation.liberation. SpiritualSpiritual compassioncompassion (lokattara daya) mustmust thereforetherefore bbee informedinformed bbyy restraintrestraint,, ththee ali-importantall-important principleprinciple.. AsAs MahaprajnaMahaprajna emphasizes,emphasizes, thethe ultimatultimatee welfarewelfare ofof thethe soulsoul isis whawhatt isis trultrulyy important;important; thereforetherefore a personperson shouldshould bebe allowedallowed eveve enn toto suffersuffer ifif itit meansmeans thethe eventualeventual cIeansingcleansing ofof thethe burdeburdenn offoff hishis soulsoul (Wiley(Wiley 2006,2006, 446).446). InIn thisthis regard,regard, AnneAnne VallelyVallely writeswrites thatthat "Jain"Jain compassioncompassion isis notnot directeddirected soso muchmuch atat thethe sufferingsuffering in sociallifesocial life bubutt atat thethe sufferingsuffering of sociallife"social life" (Vallely(Vallely 2002,2002, 29)29).. 6262

Terapanthis,Terapanthis, moremore thanthan otherother Jainas,Jainas, emphasizeemphasize thatthat spiritualspiritual compassioncompassion isis compassioncompassion informedinformed bbyy restraint,restraint, leadingleading toto thethe lesseninglessening ofof fearfear (Wiley(Wiley 2006,2006,446) 446).. Similarly,Similarly, restraintrestraint itselfitself isis shownshown inin thethe persopers onn whowho doesdoes notnot causecause sufferingsuffering toto othersothers throughthrough actsacts thatthat maymay causecause violenceviolence oror fearfear (Wiley(Wiley 2006,2006,446) 446).. Usually,Usually, thethe emphasisemphasis onon restraintrestraint andand thethe lesseninglessening ofof fearfear isis pairepairedd witwithh aann equalequal emphasisemphasis onon education.education. Therefore,Therefore, thethe bestbest formform ofof compassionatecompassionate savingsaving isis throughthrough religiousreligious instructioninstruction thatthat inspiresinspires othersothers towardtoward restraint.restraint. ThisThis isis muchmuch bettebetterr thanthan simplysimply savinsavingg someonesomeone throughthrough financialfinancial means,means, asas mymy discussiondiscussion withwith thethe SadhvisSadhvis confirmed.confirmed. AsAs WileyWiley summarizes,summarizes, accordingaccording toto thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi positionposition,, "to"to givgivee peacpeacee (santi) toto someonesomeone whwhoo iiss burninbumingg inin thethe firefire ofof desiredesire bbyy givinggiving religiousreligious instructioninstruction isis spiritualspiritual kindness"kindness" (Wiley(Wiley 2006,2006,446) 446).. Therefore,Therefore, thethe teachingteaching ofof restraintrestraint soso asas toto leslesse senn fearfear isis thethe keykey TerapanthiTerapanthi formform ooff 50 socialsocial service. 50

ModernModem departures fromfrom Bhiksu - "the barebare minimum"

1I foundfound thatthat thethe SadhvisSadhvis diddid allowallow forfor intentionintention toto compromisecompromise thethe effectseffects ofof badbad karmakarma inin certaincertain cases.cases. ForFor instance,instance, theythey gavgavee thethe exampleexample ofof a speedingspeeding carcar thatthat lurchelurchess toto thethe sidsidee ofof thethe roadroad iinn orderorder toto avoidavoid anan erraticerratic driverdriver butbut hithitss someonesomeone elels see instead.instead. InIn thatthat

50 WhileWhile TerapanthisTerapanthis areare uniquuniquee inin thethe degreedegree toto whichwhich theythey emphasizeemphasize thethe teachingteaching ofof restraintrestraint andand den y thethe efficacyefficacy ofof mostmost traditionaltraditional formsforms ofof merit-givingmerit-giving socialsocial action,action, theirtheir emphasisemphasis onon educationeducation asas thethe highesthighest socialsocial activityactivity iiss notnot inin itselfitself uniqueunique.. AlIAll traditionaltraditional JainasJainas considerconsider thethe impartinimpartingg ofof knowledgeknowledge asas thethe highesthighest socialsocial service.service. ThisThis iiss highlightedhighlighted byby thethe factfact thatthat itit isis thethe onlyonly socialsocial serviceservice thoughtthought toto havehave beenbeen performedperformed byby thethe Tirthankaras.Tirthankaras. AccordingAccording toto SvetambaraSvetambara Jainas,Jainas, teachingteaching iiss thethe onlyonly actact ooff compassioncompassion forfor a TirthankaraTirthankara (Wiley(Wiley 2006,2006,449) 449).. DigambarasDigambaras believbelievee givinggiving protectioprotectionn isis alsoalso associatedassociated witwithh thethe riserise ofof Tirthankara nama karma (Wiley(Wiley 2006,2006,453n62) 453n62),, bubutt thisthis isis alsoalso donedone throughthrough teaching.teaching. IInn thisthis way,way, asas WileyWiley writes,writes, "the"the perfecperfectt knowledgeknowledge ofof Tirthankaras,Tirthankaras, whichwhich isis conveyedconveyed throughthrough theirtheir preachingspreachings,, encompassesencompasses thethe conceptconcept ofof compassion"compassion" (Wiley(Wiley 2006,2006, 449).449). WileyWiley supportssupports thisthis statementstatement witwithh Laksmivallabhagani'sLaksmivallabhagani's commentarycommentary onon thethe Uttarajjhayana-sutta 21.13:21.13: "A"A mendicantmendicant shouldshould havehave compassioncompassion forfor aIlall beingsbeings.. ThisThis means thatthat thethe mendicanmendicantt shouldshould bbee intentintent onon observingobserving compassioncompassion inin thethe formform ofof salutarysalutary instruction"instruction" (in(in WileyWiley 2006,449;2006,449; translatetranslatedd bbyy Wiley).Wiley). InIn a relatedrelated pointpoint,, compassioncompassion iiss oftenoften describeddescribed asas perfecperfectt knowledgeknowledge itselitselff (kevala-jnana): "Perhaps"Perhaps iinn thethe casecase ofof omniscientomniscient sayoga kevalin (kevalins andand TirthankarasTirthankaras inin thethe thirteenththirteenth gunasthana), thethe qualityquality thatthat isis expressedexpressed bbyy thethe wordword compassioncompassion inin thethe contextcontext ofof a non-omniscientnon-omniscient beinbeingg inin thethe statestate ofof bondagbondagee (cadmastha) couldcould bebe understoodunderstood aass aann expressionexpression ofof perfecperfectt knowledgeknowledge (kevala-jnana). ThisThis iiss howhow sornesome DigambaraDigambara commentatorscommentators havehave understoodunderstood thethe soul'ssoul's qualityquality ofof infinitinfinitee blisblisss (ananta-sukha)" (Wiley(Wiley 2006,449).2006,449). WileyWiley citescites Pujyapaada'sPujyapaada's commentarycommentary Sarvarthasiddhi (sixth(sixth centurycentury C.E.)C.E.) onon ththee Tattvartha-sutra 1004,10.4, whicwhichh listslists thethe fourfour qualitiequalitiess thatthat remainremain inin thethe siddha (emancipated(emancipated soul)soul).. InIn lineline withwith this,this, K.C.K.C. SoganiSogani statesstates thatthat knowledgknowledgee (awareness)(awareness) isis thethe kekeyy determiningdetermining factorfactor iinn whetherwhether anan actact iiss violentviolent oror not,not, alongalong withwith intentiointentionn (Sogani,(Sogani, personapersonall discussion,discussion, JuneJune 1313 2007).2007). TheThe associationassociation ofof knowledgeknowledge witwithh compassioncompassion explainsexplains hishis emphasisemphasis onon andand elevationelevation ofof compassioncompassion toto somethingsomething ofof a supremesupreme principlprinciplee inin JainaJaina ethicsethics (see(see SoganiSogani 20012001 andand SoganiSogani 2002).2002). SoganiSogani alsoalso discusseddiscussed thethe importanceimportance ofof turningturning sexsex energyenergy intintoo compassioncompassion (Sogani,(Sogani, ISSJSISSJS lecture,lecture, JuneJune 1515 2007)2007).. 6363 case,case, accordinaccordingg toto mymy translator,translator, "what"what happenshappens isis thatthat youyou didn'tdidn't intendintend toto killkill thatthat personperson,, but toto savesave someonesomeone else.else. SSoo nono doubtdoubt youyou willwill bbee categorizedcategorized asas [having[having done]done] 51 violencviolencee but thatthat levellevel ofof violencviolencee wilwilll bbee muchmuch less,less, youryour karmaskarmas willwill bbee muchmuch less."less. ,,51 Similarly,Similarly, inin thethe casecase ofof feedingfeeding thethe poorpoor,, thethe SadhvisSadhvis suggestedsuggested itit isis allowableallowable toto feedfeed themthem underunder specialspecial circumstances;circumstances; however,however, theythey emphasizedemphasized thatthat truetrue serviceservice involvesinvolves givinggiving themthem knowledge.knowledge. AsAs thethe translatortranslator acknowledged,acknowledged,

theythey saysay thatthat youyou do feedfeed them,them, but youyou alsoalso givegive themthem a guideline,guideline, youyou givegive themthem a gatewagatewayy toto workwork.. HowHow toto workwork,, yoyouu guidguidee them,them, likelike hohoww oneone shouldshould guidguidee hihiss life,life, wherwheree shouldshould hhee go,go, whatwhat processeprocessess hehe shouldshould useuse,, andand thethe thingsthings hehe shouldshould dodo andand don't dodo andand don'tdon't thinkthink [of][of] doing.doing. SSoo yoyouu shouldshould guideguide hihimm ratheratherr thathann feedingfeeding him,him, becausbecausee feedingfeeding hihimm mamayy createcreate anotheranother kinkindd ofof violence.violence. A strengthstrength [strong][strong] personperson cancan gogo andand dodo anything.anything. SSoo youyou guideguide him.him. YouYou feedfeed himhim but toto a certaincertain extent,extent, youyou dodo guideguide himhim...yo ... youu givegive himhim a goodgood guidelineguideline soso thatthat hehe cancan eamearn hihiss ownown breabreadd andand butterbutter..

HHee thenthen returneretumedd ttoo emphasizingemphasizing thethe negativenegativess ofof feedingfeeding a personperson.. HeHe notednoted thatthat a personperson whwhoo hashas beebeenn fedfed "is"is moremore dependentdependent onon othersothers now,now, soso hehe doesdoes notnot feellikefeel like working."working." lnIn thisthis way,way, "you"you areare makingmaking a persopersonn notnot toto work.work. That'sThat's notnot a goodgood act."act." 1I was confusedconfused byby thethe Sadhvis'Sadhvis' positionposition onon feeding.feeding. WhenWhen was itit allowableallowable toto feedfeed a person,person, andand whenwhen was itit not?not? AIso,Also, whatwhat ofof thethe karmickarmic burdenburden involved?involved? 1I askedasked "what"what ifif youyou savesave somebody'ssomebody's life?life? Does thatthat makemake a persopersonn dependentdependent onon youyou aass weIl?"well?" TheThe SadhvisSadhvis respondedresponded thatthat "it"it isis jusjustt a one-timeone-time help;"help;" therefore,therefore, thethe persperso onn willwill notnot bebe dependentdependent onon youyou "for"for theirtheir entireentire life."life." ItIt appearsappears thatthat thethe differencedifference lieslies iinn thethe urgencyurgency ofof thethe situation,situation, anandd thethe valuevaluess thatthat thethe acactt itselitselff promulgatespromulgates.. IfIf thethe acactt promotepromotess lazinesslaziness,, thenthen iitt isis wrongwrong,, but iiff iitt isis betweebetweenn lifelife andand death,death, itit musmustt bbee done.done. MyMy translatortranslator acknowledgeacknow ledgedd thithiss bbyy sayingsaying that,that, iiff ththee mattematterr iiss betweebetweenn lifelife andand death,death,

51 AnotherAnother exampleexample relatesrelates toto thethe candycandy wrapperwrapper discussiondiscussion aboveabove (see(see earlierearlier note).note). 1I waswas toldtold thatthat thethe mannermanner inin whicwhichh yoyouu throwthrow thethe wrappewrapperr makes ththee actionaction moremore oror lessless violent.violent. ItIt seemsseems thatthat thethe SadhvisSadhvis aboveabove aIlall stressedstressed thethe needneed toto bhee aware: toto checkcheck forfor insects,insects, toto throwthrow thethe wrapperwrapper outout "slowly,"slowly, dodo itit calmly,calmly, don'tdon't dodo itit ferociouslyferociously oror don'tdon't get aggressive.aggressive. LookLook aroundaround thethe placeplace.. EvenEven ifif you'reyou're puttinputtingg a papepaperr onon thethe table,table, justjust taketake itit outout ifif there'sthere's anyany kindkind ofof organism."organism." AtAt thisthis point,point, someonesomeone elseelse pointedpointed outout thatthat thisthis attitudeattitude ofof carcaree notnot toto hurthurt minuteminute life-formslife-forms isis thethe reasonreason thethe SadhvisSadhvis wearwear thethe muhpati, thethe distinctivedistinctive mouthmouth covering wornworn bbyy TerapanthiTerapanthi andand SthanakvasiSthanakvasi mendicantsmendicants onon a constantconstant basisbasis.. 6464

atat thatthat timetime youyou feelfeel that'sthat's notnot a violence,violence, but ifif someonesomeone doesn'tdoesn't wantwant toto work,work, hehe isis tryingtrying toto getget freefree food,food, inin thatthat casecase [they[they saysay toto telltell him]him] ifif youyou areare a healthyhealthy personperson youyou cancan workwork forfor yourselfyourself,, yoyouu cancan earnearn youyourr ownown breadbread,, soso yoyouu shouldshould workwork.. YoYouu shouldshould guidguidee him.him. [Me:][Me:] SoSo thethe SadhviSadhvi woulwou Idd saysay thatthat ifif a persopersonn isis dying,dying, givegive himhim a meal?meal? Yes,Yes, but onlonlyy oneone timetime [consults[consults withwith thethe Sadhvis,Sadhvis, correctscorrects himself].himself]. ItIt isis thethe barebare minimumminimum forfor thatthat persopersonn toto bbee sustained.sustained. [Sadhvi[Sadhvi interruptsinterrupts hihimm anandd talkstalks forfor a while.while. HeHe tumsturns bacbackk toto meme]] GiveGive himhim youryour knowledge,knowledge, givgivee himhim knowledge.knowledge. It'It'ss thethe bestbest thingthing toto give.give. IfIf youyou wantwant toto serveserve something,something, givegive himhim knowledge.knowledge. IfIf youyou wantwant toto serveserve something,something, givegive himhim guidance.5522

Expanding attitudes to service and self-defense?self-defense?

AsAs wewe havehave seen,seen, inin mappingmapping JainaJaina valuesvalues ontoonto thethe sociallevelsocial level mostmost ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees showshow a concemconcern forfor whatwhat PratibhaPratibha caUscalls thethe levellevel ofof "society"society atat large."large." ThisThis isis evidentevident iinn thethe wayway theythey extendextend personapersonall religioureligiouss valuevaluess ontoonto thethe seculasecularr sociasociallevel,l level, not onlyonly throughthrough "human"human toto humanhuman relations"relations" anandd "expressing"expressing warmthwarmth toward oneone another"another" butbut alsoalso bbyy supportingsupporting suchsuch explicitexplicit formsforms ofof socialsocial serviceservice asas feedingfeeding thethe poorpOOf.. InIn thisthis way,way,

52 AnneAnne VallelyVallely notesnotes thatthat TerapanthiTerapanthi laity emphasizeemphasize thethe needneed toto dodo moremore directdirect compassionatecompassionate actsacts iinn theirtheir day-to-dayday-to-day lives.lives. SorneSome creativelycreatively reinterpretreinterpret thethe orthodoxorthodox monasticmonastic positiopositionn andand believbelievee therethere isis karmickarmic benefibenefitt toto worldlyworldly compassionatecompassionate acts.acts. VallelyVallely pointpointss toto thethe women'women'ss groupgroup TerapanthiTerapanthi MahilaMahila MandaIMandal asas oneone susuc chh exampleexample (see(see VallelyVallely 2002,2002, 68).68). MyMy ownown experienceexperience aroundaround TerapanthiTerapanthi JainasJainas corroboratescorroborates thisthis conclusionconclusion asas weIl.well. EvenEven ththee SadhvisSadhvis seemedseemed toto compromisecompromise thisthis toto anan extent,extent, asas wewe havehave seen.seen. InIn thisthis regardregard,, VallelyVallely recountrecountss a storystory thatthat showsshows hohoww inin factfact modernmodern TerapanthTerapanthii mendicantsmendicants toto aann extentextent acceptaccept lesselesserr actsacts ofof compassioncompassion.. SheShe recountsrecounts anan episodeepisode duringduring herher yearyear inin thethe JainJain VishvaVishva BharatiBharati InstÏtuteInstitute (JVBI) atat LadnunLadnun whenwhen (in(in thethe spiritspirit ofof anekantavada) sheshe triedtried toto conveyconvey toto a groupgroup ofof samanis thethe meaningmeaning behinbehindd susuc chh populapopularr ChristianChristian storiesstories asas thethe raisingraising ofof LazarusLazarus andand thethe turningturning ofof waterwater intointo wine.wine. ThThee samanis consideredconsidered thesethese actsacts ratheratherr mundanemundane andand eveneven objectionableobjectionable (the(the distributiondistribution ofof aann intoxicatingintoxicating substance;substance; thethe physicaphysicall andand temporarytemporary raisingraising ofof a persopersonn insteadinstead ofof helpinghelping hishis soul,soul, oror helpinghelping hishis familyfamily understandunderstand death).death). AtAt a lossloss forfor whatwhat toto say,say, VallelyVallely eventuallyeventually suggestedsuggested thatthat thesethese storiesstories werewere aboutabout universauniversall compassioncompassion andand thethe GoldenGolden Rule:Rule: "imagine"imagine thethe powepowerr ofof hishis actionsactions - thatthat a persopersonn capablecapable ofof suchsuch greatnessgreatness wouldwould concernconcern himselfhimself withwith ourour mundanemundane needneedss provesproves hishis boundlessboundless compassion."compassion." VallelyVallely writeswrites thatthat thethe samanis "were"were notnot greatlgreatlyy impressedimpressed withwith thethe explanation,"explanation," butbut "reckoned"reckoned...tha ... thatt perhapperhapss thisthis 'blunt''blunt' compassioncompassion waswas whatwhat waswas mostmost suitablesuitable forfor thosethose onon thethe lowlow rungsrungs ooff thethe gunasthana (stages(stages ofof spiritualspiritual progress)progress).. 'Perhaps'Perhaps thisthis wawass aIlall thethe peoplpeoplee coucoul Idd understand,understand,'' oneone samani proposedproposed.. AnotherAnother agreedagreed bbyy adding,adding, 'Later'Later thethe peoplepeople couldcould bbee taughttaught thatthat truetrue compassioncompassion isis concernedconcerned withwith thethe soul,soul, notnot thethe body'"body'" (Vallely(Vallely 2004,2004, 105-6).105-6). 6565 thesethese issuesissues tootoo becomebecome,, inin a sense,sense, religious,53religious, asas reflectereflectedd bbyy Vma'sUma's statementstatement thatthat "helping"helping anyoneanyone inin need"need" isis a mainmain Jaina value.5544 TheThe exceptions,exceptions, ofof course,course, areare thethe Sadhvis,Sadhvis, whowho insteadinstead stressstress a religiousreligious formform ofof serviceservice basebasedd onon traditionaltraditional notionsnotions ooff karma.karma. TheirTheir concern,concern, above all,all, isis toto uplifupliftt thethe statestate ofof thethe soulsoul andand brinbringg itit dosercloser toto liberationliberation throughthrough anan emphasisemphasis onon educationeducation inin restraintrestraint soso asas toto lessenlessen fear;fear; however,however, eveneven thethe SadhvisSadhvis acknowledgeacknowledge a widerwider viewview atat timestimes.. AsAs DundasDundas (2002,(2002, 197)197) pointpointss out,out, laylay viewviewss ofof socialsocial serviceservice havehave beenbeen expandingexpanding overover time,time, especiallyespecially sincesince thethe nineteenthnineteenth century,century, toto induincludde e thethe widerwider secularsecular community.55community.55 TheseThese changingchanging attitudes,attitudes, inin thethe mindsminds ofof modemmodern Jainas,Jainas, distinctlydistinctly reflectreflect a tangibletangible andand practicapracticall applicationapplication ofof ahimsa anandd otherother religiousreligious values toto socialsocial issuesissues -- issuesissues thatthat areare not self-consciouslyself-consciously religiousreligious inin nature,nature, bubutt inin a sensesense becombecomee soso.. TheThe questionquestion thenthen becomesbecomes:: ifif changingchanging laylay JainaJaina viewviewss onon socialsocial serviceservice reflectreflect expandedexpanded notionsnotions ofof communitycommunity asas weIlwell asas thethe practicapracticall applicationapplication ofof JainaJaina religiousreligious valuesvalues toto socialsocial affairs,affairs, cancan wewe saysay thethe samesame ofof laylay attitudesattitudes toto self-defense?self-defense? DoDo wwee findfind a similarsimilar mappingmapping ofof religiousreligious values suchsuch asas ahimsa, anekantavada, andand aparigraha ontoonto thethe levleve ell ofof politicpoliticss andand internationalinternational relations?relations? WhatWhat ofof otherother JainaJaina values suchsuch aass forgiveness?56forgiveness?56 Similarly,Similarly, dodo TerapanthiTerapanthi viewsviews onon self-defenseself-defense differdiffer fromfrom laylay viewsviews inin thethe

53 ThisThis isis a veryvery importantimportant poinpointt thatthat 1I borrobOITOWw fromfrom G.c.G.C. Pande.Pande. PandePande rejectsrejects thethe vievieww thatthat politicpoliticss andand religionreligion areare separate:separate: "that"that politicapoliticall theorytheory isis oror ought toto bebe a sciencescience andand notnot a philosophphilosophyy isis a timelesstimeless philosophicalphilosophical opinion"opinion" (Pande(Pande 1984,1984, 2).2). Also,Also, "if"if inin oneone sensesense inin India,India, traditionaIly,traditionally, religionreligion tendedtended toto keepkeep awayaway fromfrom politics,politics, todaytoday politicpoliticss threatensthreatens toto bebe a veritableveritable religion"religion" (3).(3). "In"In thisthis context,"context," hehe writes,writes, "it"it isis worthyworthy ofof notenote thatthat duringduring thisthis entirentiree perioperiodd ofof ourour modermodernn andand contemporarycontemporary vicissitudes,vicissitudes, ourour politicalpolitical reflectionsreflections havehave beebeenn shapedshaped bbyy thethe borroweborrowedd lightlight ofof WesternWestern politicapoliticall ideasideas...w ... wee havehave neitherneither beebeenn originaloriginal nornor criticalcritical [he[he citescites GandhiGandhi asas oneone exception]"exception]" (Pande(Pande 1984,3).1984, 3). 54 54 AndAnd alsoalso bbyy thethe factfact thatthat mymy questionquestion onon conductconduct pertainedpertained toto thethe besbestt formform ofof conductforconduct for a Jaina. 55 DundasDundas framesframes thisthis primarilprimarilyy iinn termsterms ofof religiousreligious givinggiving (dana): "By"By thethe nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury andand after,after, religiousreligious givinggiving hadhad alsalsoo broadenebroadenedd toto taketake thethe formform ofof a generalgeneral philanthropphilanthropyy andand charitycharity throughthrough whicwhichh socialsocial creditcredit couldcould bbee furtherfurther enhancedenhanced inin thethe communitycommunity asas a whole.whole. ToTo taketake oneone recentrecent example:example: inin 19881988,, duringduring a periodperiod ofof extreme draughtdraught inin Gujarat,Gujarat, itit wawass estimatedestimated thatthat overover 6060 peperr centcent ofof thethe state'sstate's voluntaryvoluntary reliefrelief agencies werewere controlledcontrolled bbyy Jains,Jains, a meremere 1 perper centcent oror soso ofof thethe area'sarea's population.population . TheThe Jain Jain communitycommunity waswas alsoalso particularlparticularlyy prominenprominentt inin thethe reliefrelief worworkk whichwhich followedfollowed thethe earthquakeearthquake inin KaccKacchh iinn 2002001 1"" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 197).197). ThisThis expansionexpansion beyonbeyondd jusjustt religiousreligious boundarieboundariess waswas alsoalso truetrue ofof Hindus;Hindus; howeverhowever,, hehe pointpointss outout thatthat "it"it hashas alwaysalways beebeenn thethe JainJainss whowho enactedenacted thethe requirementsrequirements ofof thethe frugalfrugal andand disciplineddisciplined modemode ofof lifelife withwith thethe mostmost assiduityassiduity,, andand religiousreligious givinggiving hashas generallygenerally assumedassumed forfor themthem a dimensiondimension ofof meaningmeaning lackinglacking amonamongg theirtheir HinduHindu counterpartscounterparts (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 197).197). 56 Aparigraha isis consideredconsidered bbyy sornesome JainasJainas (Shugan, forfor example)example) toto bbee thethe JainaJaina versionversion ofof niskama­niskama- karma, thethe conceptconcept ofof disinteresteddisinterested actionaction inin thethe Bhagavad Cita.Gita. Aparigraha andand anekantavada araree mentionedmentioned enoughenough (by(by AmitAmit andand PratibhaPratibha directly,directly, asas weIlwell asas bbyy thethe Sadhvis)Sadhvis) toto suggessuggestt thisthis combinationcombination ooff valuesvalues maymay reasonablyreasonably informinform JainJainaa attitudesattitudes ofof self-defense.self-defense. ItIt isis certainlycertainly possiblpossiblee thatthat fromfrom thethe rightright perspectivperspectivee non-attachmennon-attachmentt inin thethe activityactivity ofof warwar couldcould allowallow oneone toto disinterestedlydisinterestedly actact defensivelydefensively ratherrather thanthan offensivelyoffensively oror aggressively.aggressively. TheThe emphasisemphasis onon harmony,harmony, tootoo (by(by AmitAmit andand Kamini,Kamini, forfor exexample) ample),, cancan bebe seenseen asas reflectingreflecting thisthis principle.principle. EvenEven thethe desiredesire toto readilyreadily helphelp others,others, emphasizedemphasized byby mostmost ofof mmyy 6666 samesame wayway thatthat theythey differdiffer onon thethe issueissue ofof socialsocial serviceservice - or,or, rather,rather, isis itit stillstill consideredconsidered a signsign ofof pioupiouss goodgood intentionintention (for(for botbothh laity andand monasticsmonastics alikealike)) toto avoid,avoid, aass DundasDundas writes,writes, "overt"overt involvementinvolvement iinn politicapoliticall matters?"matters?" InIn thethe contextcontext ofof warningwarning againstagainst tootoo­- narrowlnarrowlyy associatinassociatingg JainisJainismm withwith jusjustt vegetarianism,vegetarianism, PratibhaPratibha mentionedmentioned "the"the levellevel ooff politicapoliticall ideologyideology andand socialsocial custom."custom." DidDid thethe remainder ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees shareshare herher concemconcern overover thisthis too?too?

interviewees,interviewees, mightmight suggestsuggest non-aggressionon-aggressionn alongalong thesethese samesame lineslines - althoughalthough lainasJainas emphasizeemphasize positivepositive ratherrather thanthan negativnegativee valuesvalues inin socialsocial serviceservice (ie:(ie: compassion,compassion, friendship).friendship). ChapterChapter ThreeThree

SorneSome ConternporaryContemporary ViewsViews OnOn Self-DefenseSelf-Defense

TheThe followingfollowing chapterchapter presentpresentss a summarysummary ofof viewsviews onon issuesissues pertaininpertainingg toto societalsocietal self­self- defense.defense. AAss mentionedmentioned inin thethe Introduction,Introduction, inin analyzinganalyzing thesethese viewsviews 1I papayy specialspecial attentionattention toto patternpatternss thatthat emergeemerge andand pointpointss ofof similaritysimilarity andand difference.difference. MyMy analysisanalysis examinesexamines conflictsconflicts ofof values,values, differencesdifferences andand similaritiesimilaritiess betweebetweenn lay/monasticlay/monastic andand male/femalemale/female viewpointsviewpoints,, anandd finally,finally, thethe appropriationappropriation and/orand/or reconfiguratioreconfigurationn ofof thethe JainaJaina textualtextual tradition.tradition. 1I taketake upup mymy generalgeneral findingsfindings fromfrom thisthis analysisanalysis inin thethe Conclusion.Conclusion.

Ahimsa andand WorldWorld PeacePeace lnIn keepingkeeping withwith mmyy emphasisemphasis fromfrom thethe generalgeneral toto thethe particularpartieular,, andand followingfollowing onon thethe previoupreviouss chapter'schapter's discussiondiscussion ofof JainaJaina valuesvalues applicableapplicable toto thethe widerwider socialsocial spheresphere viavia sociasociall service,service, 1I begabegann mymy discussiondiscussion ofof legitimatinglegitimating violenceviolence onon issuesissues specificallyspecifically relatedrelated toto self-defense11 bbyy firstfirst seekingseeking toto determinedetermine whetherwhether oror nonott mymy intervieweesinterviewees consideredconsidered ahimsa effectiveeffective onon thethe internationalinternational scale.scale. SuchSuch anan inquiry,inquiry, 1I reasoned,reasoned, wouldwould revealreveal howhow mymy intervieweesinterviewees relatedrelated toto thethe levellevel ofof politicpoliticss andand internationalinternational affairs,affairs, andand whetherwhether theythey eveneven feltfelt thethe needneed toto legitimatelegitimate violenceviolence inin thisthis sphere.sphere. 1I alsalsoo askedasked mymy intervieweesinterviewees relatedrelated questionquestionss aboutabout thethe possibilitypossibility ofof achievingachieving worlworldd peacepeace,, andand whetherwhether theythey consideredconsidered JainismJainism silentsilent onon topiestopics suchsuch asas governmentgovernment policpolicyy andand internationalinternational politicspolitics.. 1I foundfound that,that, bbyy andand large,large, everybodyeverybody addressedaddressed thethe limitationslimitations ooff ahimsa inin internationalinternational affairs;affairs; however,however, mostmost stressedstressed thethe needneed forfor itit anyway.anyway. Power corrupts: doubts over ahimsa

1 ForFor a listlist ofof thesthesee issues,issues, seesee thethe Introduction.Introduction. 6868

WhileWhile manymany ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees (Uma,(Uma, Anita,Anita, andand Ravi)Ravi) initiallyinitially replierepliedd thatthat ahimsa cancan worworkk onon thethe internationalinternational scale,scale, alaIllaterl later expressedexpressed doubtsdoubts anandd eventuallyeventually withdrewithdreww thisthis positionposition.. InIn thethe end,end, theythey feltfelt thatthat thethe probleproblemm restedrested withwith thethe widerwider politicapoliticallevel,l level, wherewhere uncheckedunchecked passionpassionss manifestingmanifesting asas greed,greed, ambitionambition,, andand powepowerr negatenegatedd thethe effecteffect ooff rationarationall appealsappeals toto restraint.22 Uma,Uma, whwhoo clearlyclearly feltfelt uncomfortabluncomfortablee answerinansweringg thethe question,question, initiallyinitially saidsaid thatthat ahimsa cancan workwork,, eveneven onon thethe internationainternationallevel,l level, becausbecausee oneone cancan teachteach restraintrestraint inin thethe mannemannerr ofof thethe Sadhvis'Sadhvis' viewsviews onon socialsocial service:service: "When"When somebodysomebody isis angryangry,, isis tryingtrying toto suppresssuppress neighboursneighbours,, youyou cancan teachteach themthem a lessonlesson byby encouragingencouraging themthem nonott toto dodo thethe samesame thing.thing. YouYou cancan shoshoww themthem thethe effectseffects ooff theirtheir 3 violence.violence." ,,3 ButBut whewhenn askedasked ifif sheshe thoughtthought thisthis methodmethod wouldwould worworkk withwith thethe likeslikes ooff SaddamSaddam HusseinHussein oror Hitler,Hitler, sheshe quicklyquickly replied "No"No itit cannot.cannot. TheyThey [tyrants][tyrants] willwill keepkeep onon addingadding powepowerr andand powepowerr andand powerpower;; ultimatelultimatelyy they'llthey'll blobloww uupp everything."everything." lnIn Uma'sUma's view,view, ahimsa onon thatthat levellevel ultimatelultimatelyy diddid notnot standstand a chancechance againstagainst nakenakedd powepowerr andand ambition:ambition: "Y"Yo ouu cannotcannot satisfysatisfy everybody.everybody. PeoplePeople areare veryvery ambitious,ambitious, soso areare ththee nations..nations .... veryvery ambitious.ambitious. AndAnd theythey staystay veryvery powerfulpowerful.. TheyThey trytry toto grabgrab thethe neighbourinneighbouringg countriescountries likelike IraqIraq andand IranIran.. TheyThey havhavee beebeenn tryingtrying toto fightfight witwithh eacheach otherother andand getget thethe landland andand aIlall that.that. SSoo youyou cannotcannot [have[have worlworldd peace].peace]."" ButBut ifif UmaUma diddid notnot holdhold muchmuch faithfaith thatthat religioureligiouss valuesvalues suchsuch asas ahimsa andand restraintrestraint cancan standstand uupp toto thethe politicpoliticss ofof greed,greed, sheshe neverthelessnevertheless maintainedmaintained thatthat JainismJainism shouldshould bbee activeactive inin internationalinternational affairs.affairs. WhileWhile Jainism,Jainism, sheshe said,said, wawass traditionalltraditionallyy silesilen ntt onon suchsuch topictopicss asas gogovernmen vern mentt policpolicyy andand internationalinternational politicspolitics,, "now"now theythey dodo trytry toto givegive theirtheir opinions."opinions." This,This, sheshe continued,continued, isis "definitely"definitely goodgood forfor thethe community."community." AnitAnitaa alsoalso initiallinitiallyy expressedexpressed optimismoptimism thatthat ahimsa cancan worworkk onon thethe internationalinternational scalescale ("y("Yeses, , likelike Gandhi!");Gandhi!"); however,however, afterafter pausinpausingg toto thinkthink aboutabout itit sornesome more,more, sheshe added:added: "but"but iiff 1I reallyreally knewknew thethe answeranswer toto thisthis questionquestion 1I woulwouldd bbee outout therethere doingdoing something."something." SheShe confessedconfessed toto feelingfeeling disillusioneddisillusioned withwith thethe GandhianGandhian positiopositionn onon ahimsa inin internationalinternational affairs:affairs: "you"you know,know, IndiaIndia isis surroundedsurrounded bbyy enemies.enemies. 1I meanmean,, 1I understandunderstand

2 ForFor moremore onon a rnistrustmistrust ofof politicspolitics,, seesee below.below. 3 3 Urna'sUma's ernphasisemphasis onon thethe communalcommunal isis inin lineline withwith herher many effortsefforts toto promotprornotee ahimsa onon thatthat levellevel throughthrough education,education, financialfinancial support,support, andand rnediatingmediating disputesdisputes betweebetweenn neighbours.neighbours. SheShe hashas alsoalso beenbeen involveinvolvedd iinn socialsocial serviceservice initiativesinitiatives asas diversediverse asas donatingdonating toto charitiecharitiess ("I("I woulwouldd dodo a lotlot forfor charitiescharities...i .. .inn ththee DivaliDivali season,season, oonn Christmas;Christmas; wewe alsoalso donateddonated toto thethe IndianIndian CancerCancer Society,Society, thethe SOSSOS Village,Village, thethe CheshireCheshire Horne")Home") andand knittingknitting woolewoolenn capscaps forfor IndianIndian soldierssoldiers duringduring thethe ChineseChinese crisiscrisis ("they("they wantedwanted sornesome jerseysjerseys,, rnufflers,mufflers, andand capscaps toto bbee knittedknitted forfor thernthem toto ususee inin thethe rnountains.mountains. 1I saidsaid 1I wouldwould taketake thethe challengechallenge andand 1I diddid it")it").. 6969 ifif Gandhi waswas alivealive hehe wouldwould say:say: letlet othersothers dodo whatwhat theythey havehave toto do,do, wewe havehave toto bbee right.right. ButBut youyou knowknow wewe areare livingliving inin thethe twenty-firsttwenty-first century,century, andand we'vewe've gotgot toto havehave a self-helpself-help plan.plan."" TheThe onlyonly wayway worldworld peacpeacee mightmight bbee possiblepossible,, sheshe suggested,suggested, waswas ifif everyevery countrycountry adoptedadopted a strictstrict policpolicyy ofof non-intervention:non-intervention: "if"if wewe keepkeep toto ourour territories,territories, itit isis possiblepossible,, but thethe moment wewe stepstep intointo someonesomeone else'selse's interestsinterests rit[it isis not possible].possible]."" Anita'sAnita's emphasisemphasis onon "keeping"keeping toto ourour territories"territories" highlightshighlights thethe shishif ftt awayaway fromfrom medievalmedieval idealsideals ofof expansiveexpansive 4 albeitalbeit moralmoral kingshikingshipp4 anandd reinforcesreinforces a modernmodern attitudeattitude ofof engagementengagement onlyonly inin self­self- defense.defense. AnitaAnita believebelievedd thatthat JainismJainism was mostlymostly silentsilent onon suchsuch issuesissues asas governmentgovernment policpolicyy anandd internationainternationall politicpoliticss becausbecausee "Jainism"Jainism focusesfocuses onon selselff improvemenimprovementt nonott massmass improvement;"improvement;" however,however, sheshe alsoalso believebelievedd thisthis isis changing.changing. TheThe needneed forfor itit toto changechange possiblpossiblyy expressesexpresses a desiredesire toto expandexpand conventionconventiona all notionsnotions ofof virodhi-himsa (allowable(allowable violenceviolence inin self-defense).self-defense). ButBut AnitaAnita diddid not saysay thisthis (she(she nevernever useusedd thethe termterm outright)outright).. Ravi,Ravi, thethe youngyoung engineeringengineering student,student, suggestedsuggested worlworldd peacpeacee was possiblpossiblee "i"iff everybodyeverybody isis understandinunderstandingg anandd maturmaturee enough;"enough;" howeverhowever,, hhee echoedechoed Anita'Anita'ss vievieww thatthat countriescountries neeneedd ttoo keekeepp ttoo theitheirr ownown territorieterri toriess forfor ahimsa ttoo worworkk onon ththee internationalinternational scale.scale. HisHis viewsviews,, likelike Anita'Anita'ss onon thithiss issue,issue, coincidedcoincided witwithh a pro-nucleapro-nuclearr stancestance (for(for moremore onon thisthis,, seesee below)below).. RaviRavi,, iinn effect,effect, paintepaintedd a réal-politiquereal-politique 5 scenarioscenario wherewhere thethe safestsafest situationsituation was a groupgroup ofof countriescountries armedarmed withwith nucleanuclearr weaponsweapons asas deterrents.deterrents. Ahimsa onon thethe internationalinternational scale,scale, hehe said,said,

cancan definitelydefinitely workwork...... ifif everyevery nationnation isis havinghaving theirtheir ownown nuclearnuclear capability,capability, warfarewarfare capability,capability, andand theythey reallyreally don'tdon't [dislike][dislike] ananyy otherother nations,nations, likelike trytry toto invadeinvade anotheranother nationnation,, thenthen wwee cancan talktalk ofof ahimsa onon anan internationalinternational scale.scale. ButBut ifif anyany otherother countrycountry triestries toto attackattack anyany otherother smallersmaller country,country, oror a rivalrival country,country, somethingsomething likelike that,that, thenthen maybemaybe wewe cannotcannot talktalk ofof ahimsa atat thatthat time.time.

4 4 RecallRecall thethe JainJainaa cakravartin, whowho traveledtraveled acrossacross thethe landland andand subduedsubdued hishis enemiesenemies witwithh a minimumminimum ooff efforteffort becausbecausee hishis opponentsopponents realizedrealized thatthat hehe isis anan embodimentembodiment ofof perfecperfectt merit.merit. 5 KimKim SkoogSkoog writewritess thatthat "the"the RealistRealist positiopositionn onon wawarr andand internationainternationall conflictconflict presupposepresupposess thethe vievieww thatthat therethere areare nono bindinbindingg moralmoral obligationsobligations amongamong nationsnations (or(or a nationnation toto a terrorist organization);organization); rather,rather, therethere areare onlyonly relationsrelations ofof powepowerr betweebetweenn them,them, unconstraineunconstrainedd bbyy moralmoral rules.rules. OftenOften associatedassociated withwith ThomasThomas Hobbes,Hobbes, itit identifiesidentifies wawarr asas a statestate ofof affairsaffairs whenwhen humanityhumanity isis operatingoperating outsideoutside thethe realmrealm ofof socialsocial order,order, wherewhere innatinnatee humanhuman aggressionaggression takestakes over.over. WhileWhile a governmentgovernment isis requiredrequired toto upholduphold itsits ownown internallaw,internal law, therethere isis nono overarchingoverarching internationallawinternational law thatthat itit mustmust uphold;uphold; hence,hence, warwar isis anan instrumentinstrument ofof foreignforeign policypolicy andand itit isis restrictedrestricted onlyonly bbyy prudentiaprudentiall concerns,concerns, notnot justicejustice"" (Skoog(Skoog 2004,2004, 27n2)27n2).. 7700

InIn emphasizingemphasizing thethe needneed forfor countriescountries not toto harbourharbour ill-willill-will againstagainst oneone another,another, Ravi'sRavi's vievieww isis consistentconsistent withwith Jainism'Jainism'ss privileginprivilegingg ofof innerinner valuesvalues overover outerouter conduct,conduct, althoughalthough iinn thisthis casecase thesethese valuevaluess areare reinforcedreinforced nonott bbyy religiousreligious idealidealss bubutt bbyy thethe threatthreat ooff warwar (in(in effect,effect, nonnonviolenc violencee maintainedmaintained byby thethe threatthreat ofof violence).violence). ThisThis privileginprivilegingg ooff violenceviolence overover nonviolencnonviolencee contributescontributes toto Ravi'sRavi's skepticismskepticism overover thethe effectivenesseffectiveness ooff ahimsa withinwithin repressiverepressive militarymilitary regimes.regimes. "We"We cancan talktalk aboutabout it,it,"" hehe said,said, "but"but thenthen youyou mighmightt bbee thethe oneone oddodd guguyy whowho isis talkingtalking abouaboutt itit,, andand ninety-ninninety-ninee otherother peoplpeoplee araree nonott talkingtalking aboutabout itit,, soso youyou mightmight vanishvanish inin thosethose ninety-ninninety-ninee people."people." EvenEven Pratibha,Pratibha, thethe Gandhian,Gandhian, expressedexpressed doubtsdoubts overover whetherwhether ahimsa cancan workwork internationally.internationally. SheShe saidsaid itit iiss difficultdifficult toto controlcontrol allall thethe differentdifferent ways violenceviolence manifestsmanifests itselfitself::

ToTo bbee practicapracticall itit doesn'tdoesn't seemseem likelike [it[it wouldwould work],work], becausbecausee oneone cannotcannot controlcontrol thethe variousvarious parameterparameterss ofof violence,violence, andand particularlparticularlyy thisthis newnew formform ofof violenceviolence inin thethe formform ofof terrorismterrorism...It' .. .lt'ss veryvery difficultdifficult toto visualizvisualizee thatthat thethe worldworld wouldwould bbee completelycompletely freefree ofof violence.violence. [However][However] nnoo mattemaii~rr ho,,:how muc.hmuch yoyouu areare convincedconvinced thatthat therethere wouldwould bebe violence,violence, ththee effortsefforts forfor nonviolencenonviolence shouldshould continue.continue.

ShShee tootoo stressedstressed thethe corruptincorruptingg influencinfluencee ofof powepowerr resultingresulting inin thethe "desire"desire toto dominate":dominate":

TheThe generalgeneral efforteffort towardstowards nonviolencnon violencee anandd peacepeace wouldwould certainlycertainly taketake uuss a stepstep forwardforward towardstowards [a][a] bettebetterr world.world. ButBut aass a historianhistorian 1I knowknow thatthat sornesome oror otherother formform ooff violenceviolence anandd warfarewarfare havehave continuecontinuedd eveevenn iiff thethe formsforms ooff imperialisimperialismm havhavee changechangedd -- thethe formsforms ofof dominationdomination havehave changed.changed. TheThe desirdesiree toto dominatedominate andand thethe desiredesire toto ususee violenceviolence havehave beebeenn therethere inin history.history.

ShShee stopstopss shortshort,, however,however, ooff suggestinsuggestingg thisthis cannocannott bbee alteredaltered.. TheThe answeanswerr toto whetherwhether worldworld peacpeacee isis possiblepossible,, sheshe saisaid d,, "is"is yesyes andand nono both.both."" AskedAsked whetherwhether JainismJainism waswas silentsilent onon topicstopics suchsuch asas governmentgovernment policpolicyy anandd internationalinternational politicspolitics,, PratibhaPratibha replied "no."no. 1I knowknow ofof a veryvery distinguisheddistinguished professoprofessorr whowho isis learnedlearned oonn politicapoliticall ideologyideology inin 7171

Jainisrn,Jainism, soso 1I don'tdon't thinkthink JainisrnJainism isis silentsilent bubutt 1I confessconfess 1I amam not soso familiarfamiliar [with[with thisthis topiC]."6topic]."6 WhatWhat becomebecorness clearclear iiss thathatt eveneven wherewhere therethere iiss overalloverall faitfaithh iinn ahimsa, therethere isis alsoalso a decidedlydecidedly pragmatipragrnatiec understandinunderstandingg thatthat violenceviolence veryvery easilyeasily arises,arises, andand cancan overrideoverride effortsefforts atat nonviolence,nonviolence, whenwhen restraintrestraint isis abandonedabandoned andand thethe rnornenturnmomentum shiftsshifts towardstowards thethe passionspassions.. AsAs ShuganShugan said,said,

lnIn principleprinciple,, 'yes''yes' [world[world peacpeacee isis a possibility]possibility],, but iinn realitrealityy itit appearsappears 'no.''no.' BecauseBecause generallygenerally wewe areare attractedattracted bbyy worldlyworldly pleasurepleasuress andand worldlyworldly possessionspossessions,, andand everybodyeverybody wantswants this.this. AndAnd withwith thethe informationinformation age,age, nownow everybodyeverybody knowsknows whatwhat iitt isis,, ssoo everybodyeverybody iiss tryingtrying toto getget a piecpiecee ofof thethe cake,cake, anandd thethe cakecake iiss not bibigg enoughenough forfor everybody.everybody. NowadayNowadayss egoego - andand thithiss isis wherewhere rnymy philosophphilosophyy cornescomes inin - ego,ego, pridepride,, greedgreed...... thesethese areare thethe thingsthings whichwhich rnakemake youyou rnad.mad. TheyThey don'tdon't letlet yoyouu thinkthink rationally.rationally. AndAnd worldworld peacpeacee withoutwithout rationalitrationalityy isis nonott possible.possible.

ThisThis ernphasisemphasis onon thethe harrnfulharmful effectseffects ofof thethe passionpassionss andand ththee needneed forfor restraintrestraint hashas strongstrong parallelparallelss withwith JainaJaina scripturalscriptural views,views, asas wellwell asas witwithh thethe viewviewss ofof thethe Sadhvis.Sadhvis. Therefore,Therefore, sornesome ofof rnymy intervieweesinterviewees consideredconsidered deterrencedeterrence - where,where, inin effect,effect, oneone passiopassionn (fear)(fear) trurnpstrumps thethe othersothers - toto bbee aann effectiveffectivee formform ooff rnaintainingmaintaining order.order. AskedAsked whetherwhether hehe feelsfeels JJainis ainisrnm isis silentsilent onon topiestopics susuc chh asas governrnentgovernment policpolicyy andand internationalinternational politicspolitics,, ShuganShugan saidsaid "Yes,"Yes, definitelydefinitely yes.yes."" HeHe seeseess thisthis asas a majormajor weaknessweakness givengiven thethe diminutivediminutive sizesize ofof thethe JainaJaina cornrnunitycommunity - oneone thatthat itit cancan ill-affordill-afford toto ignore:ignore: "It"It iiss badbad,, anandd rnaybemaybe circumstantiacircurnstantiall alsalsoo becausbecausee wewe araree suchsuch a srnallsmall communitcornrnunityy thatthat [al[a] lotlot

6 TheThe professoprofessorr sheshe isis referringreferring toto isis G.c.G.C. Pande,Pande, whosewhose conflationconflation ofof politicpoliticss andand religionreligion 1I discussdiscuss brieflybriefly inin thethe lastlast chapter.chapter. AccordinAccordingg toto Pande,Pande, inin thethe IndianIndian conceptionconception itit isis "cosmic"cosmic principlesprinciples whichwhich constituteconstitute thethe groundground ofof realityreality...Societ ... Societyy andand statestate areare onlyonly thethe externalexternal projectionprojectionss ofof thesethese principleprincipless andand existexist ultimatelultimatelyy inin orderorder toto aiaidd thethe realizationrealization ooff innerinner self-government"self-government" (Pande(Pande 1984,8).1984, 8). "Jaina"Jaina politicapoliticall thought,thought, thusthus,, needsneeds ttoo bbee examinedexamined asas a specificspecific versionversion ofof traditionatraditionall [Indian)[Indian] thoughtthought,, whicwhichh itselitselff seeksseeks toto expressexpress universauniversall andand timelesstimeless principleprincipless givengiven inin moralmoral andand spiritualspiritual experience,experience, especiallyespecially inin itsits heightenedheightened formform availableavailable toto seersseers anandd sages.sages. TheseThese principleprincipless constituteconstitute anan integralintegral philosophphilosophyy inin whichwhich thethe socio-politicalsocio-political orderorder isis linkedlinked toto thethe ethico-spiritualethico-spiritual ordeorderr asas hierarchicalhierarchical partpartss ofof a cosmology"cosmology" (Pande(Pande 1984,1984,9-10) 9-10).. PandePande arguesargues thatthat althoughalthough JainaJaina politicapoliticall thought,thought, whichwhich hehe definesdefines aass "political"political thoughtthought consistentconsistent withwith thethe basibasicc principleprincipless ofof JainaJaina religion"religion" (Pande(Pande 1984,1984, 1),1), "exc1udes"excludes a positivpositivee conceptionconception ooff politicapoliticall theorytheory...thi ... thiss isis anan advantage, notnot a limitation"limitation" (Pande(Pande 1984,2).1984, 2). TheThe advantageadvantage isis preciselpreciselyy thatthat JainJainaa thinkingthinking oonn politicpoliticss anandd lawlaw isis aass a consequencconsequencee remarkablremarkablyy flexible.flexible. HeHe writewritess thathatt "the"the politicalpolitical ideasideas expressedexpressed inin avowedlavowedlyy politicapoliticall workworkss bbyy JainaJaina authorauthorss c1aimclaim toto belonbelongg toto thisthis categorycategory bubutt dodo notnot exhaustexhaust it.it. ReflectionReflection onon politicapoliticall realitrealityy anandd idealsideals inin thethe lightlight ofof thethe JainaJaina traditiontradition indeedindeed constitutesconstitutes aann inexhaustible veinvein becausbecausee itit inc1udesincludes withiwithinn itselfitself creativecreative possibilitiespossibilities"" (Pande(Pande 1984,1984, 1)1).. 7272 oftimesof times thethe fearfear ofbeingof being wipedwiped outout totaIly,totally, youyou know,know, cancan causecause problemsproblems.. AndAnd thisthis fearfear 1I havehave seenseen [realized][realized] withwith mymy ownown eyes.eyes. A lotlot ofof goodgood thingsthings andand memorialsmemorials ofof JainasJainas havehave beebeenn eliminated."eliminated." HeHe addedadded thatthat manymany JainasJainas "are"are veryvery earnestearnest now,now, iinn thethe community,community, thatthat wewe havehave toto comcomee togethetogetherr andand ususee ourour powepowerr atat leastleast toto protecprotectt ourour [way[way ofof life]."life]."

Ahimsa "too highhigh aa concept"concept"

WhileWhile Uma,Uma, Anita,Anita, RaviRavi andand PratibhaPratibha expressedexpressed doubtsdoubts overover thethe effectivenesseffectiveness ofof ahimsa onon thethe internationalinternational scale,scale, allall heldheld sornesome degreedegree ofof optimismoptimism thatthat itit mightmight yetyet workwork throughthrough deterrence,deterrence, continuecontinuedd effortsefforts atat nonnonviolence violence,, andand soso forth.forth. InIn contrastcontrast toto thisthis,, KaminiKamini saidsaid ahimsa "cannot"cannot workwork onon anan internationalinternational scale.scale. DefinitelyDefinitely not,not, becausebecause itit isis tootoo...... [she[she struggledstruggled herehere toto findfind thethe word]word] high a concept.concept. 1I don'tdon't feelfeel anyany hopehope [that][that] itit willwill work."work." WhatWhat aboutabout Gandhi,Gandhi, 1I asked? "WeIl,""Well," sheshe replied, "[Gandhi's"[Gandhi's satyagraha initiative]initiative] was a politicalpolitical movement.movement. ItIt waswas anan IndiaIndia ofof thatthat eraera,, andand accordingaccording toto meme thethe situationsituation was [that][that] anybodyanybody whowho wouldwould taketake IndiaIndia toto independence,independence, bbyy anyany meansmeans,, wouldwould havehave beenbeen attractedattracted [sic:[sic: attractive]."attractive]." SheShe sayssays thatthat despitedespite Gandhi'sGandhi's charisma,charisma, iitt waswas notnot thethe uniquenessuniqueness ofof hishis messagemessage thatthat ensuredensured hishis ideas successsuccess bubutt ratherrather thethe momentummomentum alreadyalready builbuiltt undeunderr himhim bbyy manymany precedinprecedingg playerplayerss inin thethe strugglestruggle forfor independence,independence, notnot toto mentionmention thethe realitrealityy ofof a BritishBritish empireempire muchmuch weakenedweakened bbyy thethe SecondSecond WorldWorld War:War:

TheyThey werewere tootoo tiredtired toto havehave holdhold overover anyany otherother country.country. OnOn thethe otherother hand,hand, therethere werewere thethe revolutionariesrevolutionaries workingworking atat variousvarious levelslevels creatincreatingg problemproblemss forfor BritishersBritishers...s ... soo inin thatthat respect,respect, thoughthough GandhiGandhi hadhad charismacharisma toto attractattract people,people, 1I don'tdon't seesee himhim [as][as] thethe onlonlyy one.one. HadHad notnot WorldWorld WarWar IlII occurred,occurred, probablprobablyy IndiaIndia wouldwould havehave beenbeen stillstill underunder thethe BritishBritish rule.rule. lnIn effect,effect, Kamini'sKamini's onlyonly answeranswer asas toto whywhy Gandhi'sGandhi's ahimsa movementmovement succeededsucceeded wherewhere thethe otherother revolutionaryrevolutionary movementsmovements diddid notnot was thatthat GandhiGandhi was inin thethe rightright placplacee atat thethe rightright time.time. SheShe diddid notnot considerconsider JainaJaina values particularlyparticularly suitedsuited toto wider-Ievelwider-level issues,issues, andand consideredconsidered JainisJainismm completelycompletely silentsilent onon topicstopics suchsuch asas governmentgovernment policpolicyy andand 7373 internationalinternational politicspolitics.. WhenWhen 1I askeaskedd why,why, sheshe repliedreplied "1"I havehave notnot thoughtthought aboutabout it,it, soso itit wouldwould bbee difficultdifficult forfor meme toto givegive thisthis answeanswerr immediately."immediately." Kamini'sKamini's viewsviews onon worldworld peacpeacee werewere equallyequally pragmatipragmaticc toto saysay thethe least.least. AskedAsked "Is"Is worldworld peacpeacee possible?,possible?,"" sheshe repliedreplied "Definitely"Definitely not.not. ForFor me,me, itit isis notnot possiblpossiblee atat all."all." SheShe alludedalluded toto "complicated"complicated tensionstensions atat everyevery level"level" thathatt prevenpreventt ththee carefulcareful anandd systematicsystematic executionexecution ofof ahimsa inin thethe globagloball goagoall ofof worldworld peacepeace..

Acts necessÏfatenecessitate other acts

LikeLike Kamini,Kamini, AmitAmit waswas equallequallyy certaincertain thatthat ahimsa cannotcannot workwork onon anan internationalinternational scalescale (it(it wouldwould appearappear hishis experiencesexperiences asas a policemapolicemann havehave eradicatederadicated thisthis notion).notion). TheThe gistgist ooff hishis responseresponse toto meme waswas thatthat acts necessitatnecessitatee otherother actsacts.. ThisThis bringbringss toto mindmind thethe earliestearliest JainaJaina ideasideas ofbeingof being embroiledembroiled inin thethe worldworld ofof actionaction - a worldworld ofof "hellish"hellish beingbeingss anandd animals."animals." AmitAmit gavegave thethe exexampl amplee ofof a groupgroup "burning"burning andand killing."killing." lnIn thatthat case,case, hehe asked,asked, whatwhat isis thethe lawlaw enforcerenforcer toto do?do? JustJust asas oneone needsneeds toto "bum"burn a rowrow ofof treestrees inin orderorder toto savesave thethe forest,forest, whywhy shoulshouldd 1I not shootshoot a criminalcriminal toto dispersedisperse thethe crowd?"crowd?,,77 1I foundfound Amit'sAmit's attitudeattitude veryvery revealingrevealing consideringconsidering hishis faithfaith inin strategiesstrategies forfor maintaininmaintainingg peacpeacee anandd ordeorderr onon thethe personapersonallevel.l level. Clearly,Clearly, hhee doesdoes not thinkthink thethe positivepositive potentiapotentiall ofof acts susuc chh asas forgivenessforgiveness cancan fosterfoster nonnonviolenc violencee inin thethe worldlyworldly spheresphere aass weIl.well. Rather,Rather, oneone needsneeds toto actact violentlyviolently ("bum("burn a roroww ofof trees, " "shoot"shoot a criminal"s)criminal"8) inin orderorder toto curbcurb violenceviolence ("save("save thethe forest,"forest," "disperse"disperse thethe crowd")crowd")..

Ahimsa as a "weapon of the strong"

DespiteDespite hishis reservationsreservations aboutabout passionpassionss affectinaffectingg thethe possibilitpossibilityy forfor worldworld peacepeace,, ShuganShugan neverthelesneverthelesss replierepliedd thatthat ahimsa cancan effectivelyeffectively workwork onon anan internationalinternational scale.scale. "Definitely,"Definitely, definitely,"definitely," hhee said.said. HeHe emphasizedemphasized (as(as GandhiGandhi did,did, thoughthough toto differentdifferent effecteffect asas wewe shaHshall see)see) thatthat ahimsa isis notnot a tooltool ofof thethe weak:weak: "The"The mostmost importantimportant thingthing thatthat wewe

7 7 lnIn India,India, itit isis leftleft toto thethe discretiondiscretion ofof thethe copcop whethewhetherr oror notnot hehe shoots,shoots, althoughalthough hehe mustmust justifjustifyy hishis actionaction ttoo a commissioncommission decidingdeciding whethewhetherr excessiveexcessive forceforce waswas usedused.. However,However, asas AmitAmit wrylwrylyy notednoted,, ththee outcomeoutcome ultimatelultimatelyy dependsdepends onon hohoww "convincing""convincing" ththee copcop is,is, anandd usuallusuallyy workworkss inin hihiss favour.favour. AsAs mentionedmentioned earlier,earlier, AmitAmit wawass nonott aboveabove sayingsaying thatthat thethe systemsystem isis nonott exactlyexactly objective.objective. gsAmit stressed the fact, however, that criminality must be established. Anita also stressed this (see Capital PunishmentAmit stresse section,d the fact below)., however , that criminality must be established. Anita also stressed this (see Capital Punishment section, below). 7474 aIlall failfail toto understandunderstand isis [that][that] ahimsa isis a weaponweapon ofof thethe strongstrong...o ... off peoplpeoplee inin command."command." UnlikeUnlike thethe others,others, ShuganShugan inin thisthis wayway emphasizeemphasizedd ahimsa's positivpositivee relationrelation toto power.power. Ahimsa isis somethingsomething thatthat cancan bbee strongestrongerr thanthan greedgreed oror ambition;ambition; therefore,therefore, itit isis notnot onlyonly not out ofof placplacee inin politicspolitics,, bubutt necessary. HeHe seemeseemedd toto genuinelygenuinely believbelievee inin reformreform byby example.example. InIn supportsupport ofof thisthis idea,idea, hehe himselfhimself citedcited thethe JainaJaina medievalmedieval ruler,ruler, alludingalluding toto thethe JainJainaa conceptconcept ofof thethe cakravartin andand aIsoalso toto currentcurrent politicapoliticall events:events:

IfIf thethe rulerruler becomebecomess nonnonviolent violent,, [corrects[corrects himself]himself] oror violent,violent, anandd hehe startsstarts killingkilling hishis subjects,subjects, youyou knowknow whatwhat wilwilll happen.happen. [In[In thatthat case,]case,] nonnonviolenc violencee cancan nevernever bebe.. However,However, ifif thethe rulerruler himselfhimself becomebecomess nonviolent,nonviolent, likelike thethe storiestoriess ofof JainaJaina emperors,emperors, thenthen chanceschances araree thatthat violenceviolence willwill subside.subside. SoSo nonnonviolence violence, , 1I think,think, isis thethe onlyonly wayway toto dodo this;this; 1I givgivee yoyouu aann exampleexample iinn mymy lifelife:: AmericAmericaa useusess allaIl ititss mightmight iinn Vietnam,Vietnam, iinn IraqIraq andand AfghanistanAfghanistan,, anandd itit mighmightt havhavee wowonn thethe war?war? ButBut itit hashas causedcaused moremore violence,violence, andand nownow wewe havehave termsterms likelike state-sponsoredstate-sponsored terrorism.terrorism. SoSo 1I wouldwould sasayy nonviolencnonviolencee isis thethe onlyonly way.way. ButBut itit cornescomes fromfrom thethe poinpointt ofof strength,strength, notnot fromfrom pointpoint ofof weakness,weakness, wherewhere itit becomebecomess cowardice.cowardice.

Shugan'Shugan'ss responseresponse bringbringss toto minmindd manymany precedentprecedentss fromfrom ChapterChapter One,One, forfor instancinstancee thethe beliebelieff thatthat orderorder cancan bbee setset bbyy virtuousvirtuous example,example, andand thethe emphasisemphasis onon couragecourage andand determinationdetermination (warrio(warriorr traits).traits). NeverthelessNevertheless,, ShuganShugan alsaIsoo displayeddisplayed a decidedlydecidedly pragmaticpragmatic side.side. PerhapsPerhaps hehe doesdoes not believbelievee thatthat susuc chh heroicheroic andand benevolenbene vole ntt rulersrulers existexist today.9today.9 Therefore,Therefore, hehe aIsoalso emphasizesemphasizes thethe needneed forfor a deterrentdeterrent inin thethe faceface ofof thethe passionspassions'' ever-ever- 10 mcreasmgincreasin. . g hhol 0 Idd overover reason: 10

WhenWhen a manman getsgets wildwild oror madmad,, then,then, yoyouu knowknow,, logiclogic doesdoes notnot prevailprevail.. AnAndd therethere 1I thinkthink mighmightt mamayy bbee requirerequiredd ttoo brinbringg hihimm ttoo ththee dialoguedialogue tabletable.. ThatThat means thathatt ifsit's not necessarynecessary thatthat thethe otherother superpowersuperpower shouldshould ususee violence.violence. ButBut therethere hashas toto bbee a deterrent.deterrent. AndAnd sometimessometimes useuse [of[of violence]violence] hashas toto bbee mademade alsoalso toto brinbringg himhim [the[the violentviolent partyparty]] toto thethe negotiationnegotiation table,table, andand atat thatthat timetime [once[once atat thethe table]table] nonnonviolenc violencee iiss thethe onlyonly way.way.

9 9 AlthoughAlthough hehe seemedseemed toto admireadmire GandhiGandhi (see(see below)below).. lU InIn thisthis regard,regard, ShuganShugan believebelievedd thatthat passionpassionss areare runningrunning particularlparticularlyy rampantrampant iinn ourour informationinformation age,age, andand hhee predictepredictedd thatthat itit maymay taketake a "war"war oror naturalnatural calamitycalamity [to][to] brinbringg sornesome sortsort ofof sensesense inin thethe people."people." 7575

lnIn supportsupport ofof this,this, hehe citedcited thethe storystory "from"from thethe epicsepics ofof JainJainaa philosophy,philosophy,"" whichwhich hehe quotedquoted quitequite often,often, ofof thethe wrestlingwrestling matchmatch betweebetweenn thethe twotwo warringwarring brothersbrothers,, BharataBharata andand Bahubali,Bahubali, fromfrom thethe Adipurana:

lnIn thatthat fightfight BahubaliBahubali won,won, andand BharataBharata lost,lost, andand BharataBharata gotgot madmad andand hehe triedtried toto useuse weaponweaponss toto killkill Bahubali.Bahubali. AnAndd aatt thatthat timetime BahubaliBahubali saidsaid "wait..."wait... JustJust forfor thisthis piecpiecee ooff landland youyou wantwant toto killkill me?me? GoGo taketake it;it; it'sit's yours,yours, 1I don'tdon't needneed thisthis land." SoSo herheree iiss a story.story. YouYou cancan saysay thatthat BharataBharata isis a NaziNazi.. SoSo useuse powepowerr toto brinbringg himhim toto thethe table,table, andand thenthen ddoo nonviolence.nonviolence. SometimesSometimes trusttrust things;things; yoyouu knowknow [they][they] givegive youyou a lesson.lesson. AAtt timestimes itit maymay bebe possible,possible, oror itit isis a necessity,necessity, eveneven toto fightfight withwith youryour ownown kin,kin, toto bringbring themthem toto thethe negotiatingnegotiating table.table.

Shugan'sShugan's pointpoint inin personifyingpersonifying thethe power-hungry countrycountry asas BharataBharata andand thethe benignbenign countrycountry aass BahubaliBahubali isis thatthat forceforce isis sometimessometimes necessarynecessary toto subduesubdue thethe instigatorinstigator beforebefore recognitiorecognitionn ofof thethe patpathh ofof ahimsa dawns.dawns. InIn continuationcontinuation ofof thethe DigambaraDigambara story,story, remember thatthat Bahubali'sBahubali's recognitiorecognitionn of ahimsa (after(after subduingsubduing hishis warringwarring brotherbrother)) isis soso powerfulpowerful,, anandd accompanieaccompaniedd bbyy a disgustdisgust soso profoundprofound,, thatthat hehe immediatelimmediatelyy renouncesrenounces hishis kingship,kingship, shedssheds hishis c1othes,clothes, andand retreatsretreats toto thethe forest,forest, where,where, emptiedemptied ofof passionspassions,, hehe eventuallyeventually gainsgains enlightenment.enlightenment. ThusThus Shugan'sShugan's conceptconcept thatthat ahimsa "works"works withinwithin a frameframe ofof powerpower"" meansmeans thatthat ahimsa isis notnot itselfitself powerlesspowerless.. ItIt cancan ultimatelultimatelyy standstand "in"in opposition"opposition" (just(just aass violenceviolence standsstands "in"in opposition"opposition" inin Jaini'sJaini's definitiondefinition ofof virodhi-himsa) toto violenceviolence inin ththee formform ooff greedgreed andand ambition,ambition, eveneven thougthoughh initialinitial forceforce maymay bbee necessary.necessary. ThisThis isis simplysimply duedue toto thethe imperfectimperfect naturnaturee ofof thethe worldworld (this(this isis alsoalso thethe basibasicc ideaidea behinbehindd thethe anuvratas, thethe lalayy

11ll lesselesserr vows ))..

Il InIn lineline withwith this,this, SoganiSogani statesstates thatthat inin JainaJaina ethics,ethics, whichwhich isis confinedconfined toto thethe worldlyworldly sphere,sphere, ahimsa meansmeans notnot ssoo muchmuch nonnonviolenc violencee asas minimalminimal violenceviolence (Sogani.(Sogani. ISSJSISSJS lecturelecture JuneJune 142007).14 2007). ThusThus JainJainaa ethicsethics isis whatwhat hehe caUscalls "modified"modified acactt utilitarianismutilitarianism"" (Sogani(Sogani 2002,2002, 55).55). ForFor thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi viewview onon this,this, seesee below.below. 76

The Terapanthi response lnIn responsresponsee toto thethe questionquestion "can"can ahimsa workwork effectivelyeffectively onon thethe internationalinternational scale?,"scale?," thethe SadhvisSadhvis electedelected ttoo emphasizemphasizee CUITentcurrent TerapanthiTerapanthi effortsefforts inin thisthis direction.direction. TheirTheir examples,examples, however,however, werweree "international""international" notnot soso mucmuchh becausbecausee theythey soughtsought toto injectinject anan awarenessawareness ofof ahimsa intointo internationalinternational affairsaffairs,, but ratheratherr becausbecausee theythey affectedaffected individuindividual aIss inin differentdifferent countriescountries arounaroundd thethe world.world. TheThe typetype ofof worworkk describeddescribed was education.education. TheThe SadhvisSadhvis spokespoke ofof TerapanthiTerapanthi samanis, lower-orderlower-order femalefemale monasticsmonastics whowho areare grantedgranted specialspecial dispensationdispensation toto travetravell abroadabroad (their(their malmalee equivalentsequivalents araree calledcalled samans), aass welweIll aass laypeoplelaypeople whowho werewere engagedengaged inin variousvarious educationeducation efforts:efforts: "We"We havehave ourour samanis goinggoing awaawayy theretherc.w ... wee havehave peoplpeoplee network[ing]networking] fromfrom Malaysia,Malaysia, Singapore,Singapore, USUS,, UKUK,, Canada,Canada, andand manmanyy partpartss ofof ththee world.world. SoSo youyou havehave thesethese peoplepeople;; andand theythey araree travelingtraveling overover there,there, theythey areare givingivingg messages,messages, theythey areare goinggoing toto colleges,colleges, givinggiving lectures."lectures." lnIn thisthis way,way, thethe "international""international" TerapanthiTerapanthi efforteffort remainremainss focusedfocused (as(as always)always) onon thethe levellevel ofof thethe individuindividua all - ahimsa isis primarilprimarilyy taughttaught inin thethe fonnform ofof "micro"micro levellevel sacrifices,"sacrifices," asas mmyy translatortranslator calledcalled themthem (see(see below)below).. TheThe SadhvisSadhvis emphasizedemphasized greatgreat

12l2 successuccesss inin "converting""converting" (m(myy translator'stranslator's word ) peoplpeoplee toto vegetarianismvegetarianism,, refonningreforming a1coholics,alcoholics, andand soso forth.forth. "Over"Over there,"there," hehe said,said, "all"all thethe AmericansAmericans andand thethe Englishmen,Englishmen, generallygenerally thesethese peoplpeoplee areare converting.converting. Like,Like, allall thethe alcoholicsalcoholics andand thethe non-vegetariannon-vegetarianss areare convertingconverting themselves,themselves, theythey araree becomingbecoming vegetarian,vegetarian, theythey araree becomingbecoming teetotalersteetotalers andand they'rethey're improvinimprovingg theirtheir lifestyle.lifestyle. TheyThey areare notnot gettinggetting intointo drugsdrugs andand aIlall thatthat.. TheyThey areare 13 gettinggetting moremore ofof meditation.meditation." ,,13 MyMy translatortranslator eveneven favourablyfavourably comparedcompared thisthis "conversion""conversion" toto Buddism'sBuddism's spreadspread beyonbeyondd thethe borderborderss ofof India:India: "Right"Right fromfrom thethe ageagess ofof Asoka,Asoka, ifif youyou looklook atat history,history, BuddhismBuddhism wentwent outout ofof IndiaIndia andand nonoww youyou cancan seesee [it[it is]is] aIlall over,over, [in][in] China,China, Bunna,Burma, Nepal.Nepal."" Ilnn a similarsimilar way,way, "slowly"slowly anandd graduallygradually,, JainisJainismm iiss gettingettingg intintoo thethe

12 TheThe wordword "converting""converting" isis extremelyextremely rarerare inin JainaJaina circles,circles, anandd possiblpossiblyy indicativeindicative ofof a changechange inin attitudeattitude amongamong modemmodern Terapanthis.Terapanthis. 1I couldcould notnot tell,tell, howeverhowever,, whetherwhether thisthis wawass thethe exactexact worwordd ththee SadhviSadhvi herselfherself hahadd usedused.. InIn anyany case,case, sheshe seemedseemed ttoo approveapprove ththee ususee ofof thethe word.word. 13 l3 Preksadhyana, "insight meditation," is a widely popular Terapanthi practice associated mostly with Preksadhyana, "insight meditation," is a widely popular Terapanthi practice associated mostly with Tulsi'sTulsi's successor,successor, AcaryaAcarya Mahaprajna.Mahaprajna. ItIt "provides"provides a meditativmeditativee structure,structure, similarsimilar inin stylestyle toto BuddhistBuddhist insightinsight meditation,meditation, forfor a religionreligion whicwhichh seemsseems toto havehave lostlost contactcontact withwith itsits originaloriginal systemsystem ofof contemplationcontemplation atat leastleast oneone thousandthousand yearsyears ago"ago" (Dundas(Dundas 20022002,, 262).262). Preksadhyana isis obligatoryobligatory forfor TerapanthiTerapanthi asceticsascetics andand supposedlysupposedly forfor membersmembers ofof thethe AnuvratAnuvrat movement.movement. AIso,Also, therethere isis evidenceevidence ooff growinggrowing interestinterest inin iitt outsideoutside India.India. 7777 deepdeep rootsroots ofof thethe world,world, andand theythey [the[the Sadhvis]Sadhvis] araree gettinggetting internationalinternational appreciationappreciation forfor theirtheir work,work, whichwhich theythey araree doingdoing onon nonnonviolence. violence. " AlthoughAlthough thethe claimsclaims toto a TerapanthiTerapanthi JainaJaina revolutionrevolution inin NortNorthh AmericaAmerica areare exaggeratedexaggerated (most(most likelylikely forfor thethe benefibenefitt ofof IndianIndian devotees),devotees), inin generagenerall thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi JainJainaa presencpresencee inin NortNorthh AmericaAmerica andand otherother partpartss ofof thethe worldworld isis slowlyslowly growing.growing. TerapanthiTerapanthi centrescentres areare openingopening inin HoustonHouston andand NeNeww YorkYork (one(one devotedevoteee aIsoalso mentionedmentioned centrescentres inin LondonLondon andand Malaysia).Malaysia). ToTo thesethese TerapanthiTerapanthi centres,centres, "the"the samanis areare goinggoing continuously;continuously; theythey havehave beebeenn holdingholding classes,classes, andand sornesome ofof thethe samanis araree aIsoalso teachingteaching iinn universities.universities. AnAndd thethe responsesresponses araree soso unexpectedunexpected - theythey araree overwhelming.,,14overwhelming."14 WhenWhen 1I askedasked whetherwhether thethe SadhvisSadhvis feltfelt thatthat worldworld peacpeacee waswas possiblepossible,, theythey againagain distinguisheddistinguished betweebetweenn thethe worldlyworldly andand spiritualspiritual spheres.spheres. "Religious"Religious leadersleaders areare tryintryingg toto dodo this,"this," theythey said.said. "The"The politicapoliticaIleadersl leaders areare aIsoalso tryingtrying toto dodo thisthis kindkind ofof work.work. ItIt iiss possiblepossible.. ItIt wilwilll comecome soonersooner oror laterlater...yo ... youu needneed ththee supportsupport ofof thethe politicapoliticalleadersl leaders asas weIl."well." TheyThey sawsaw theirtheir jojobb aass primarilprimarilyy fosterinfosteringg ahimsa oonn ththee personapersonallevel.l level. ThisThis,, thetheyy 1155 said,said, whenwhen combinedcombined withwith politicapoliticall willwill,, cancan leadlead toto worldworld peace.

NucleaNuclearr WeaponsWeapons lnIn MayMay ofof 1998,1998, underunder thethe auspicesauspices ofof thethe BharatiyaBharatiya JanataJanata PartyParty (BJP)(BJP) governmentgovernment ooff AtaIAtal BehariBehari Vajpayee,Vajpayee, IndiaIndia detonateddetonated fivefive nucleanuclearr bombbombss atat Pokhran.Pokhran. AAss KatherineKatherine YoungYoung writeswrites,, thisthis shatteredshattered ththee internationainternationall imagimagee ofof IndiaIndia aass a nationnation ofof peacpeacee (santi) andand tolerancetolerance (tulyatva) promotepromotedd bbyy philosopherphilosopherss andand statesmenstatesmen suchsuch aass SarvepalliSarvepalli RadhakrishnanRadhakrishnan (1888-1975)(1888-1975) andand MahatmaMahatma GandhiGandhi (1869-1948)(1869-1948) (Young(Young 2004,2004,277) 277).. WithinWithin IndiaIndia itself,itself, thethe fiftyfifty yearyearss betweebetweenn IndianIndian IndependenceIndependence inin 19481948 andand thethe nuclearnuclear testtest atat PokhranPokhran inin 19981998 representedrepresented a dramaticdramatic shiftshift inin thinkingthinking amongamong IndianIndian intellectualintellectualss andand politicianspoliticians.. GandhiGandhi hadhad said,said, afteafterr thethe nuclearnuclear bombingbombing ofof Hiroshima,Hiroshima,

14 14 WhenWhen 1I askedasked whichwhich universities,universities, 1I wawass toldtold thatthat thethe SadhvisSadhvis coucoul Idd notnot rememberremember theirtheir names,names, "but"but theythey camecame recentlyrecently inin thethe newspaper."newspaper." 15 AAtt thethe conclusionconclusion ofof ourour interview,interview, 1I askedasked mymy groupgroup ofof TerapanthiTerapanthi SadhvisSadhvis whatwhat theythey consideredconsidered thethe besbestt formform ofof socialsocial service.service. TheyThey repliedreplied (through(through thethe translator)translator) "to"to livelive andand lelett live.live. AndAnd spreadingspreading thethe messagemessage ofof ahimsa aIlall over."over." DidDid theythey considerconsider itit theirtheir rolerole toto weighweigh inin onon worldlyworldly issues?issues? "Yes,""Yes," theythey replied,replied, bubutt ththee emphasisemphasis waswas onon "how"how cacann [a[a personperson]] bbee betterbetter,, healthier,healthier, lealeadd a goodgood life.life."" MyMy translatortranslator continuecontinuedd thathatt "they"they cacann helphelp leadlead himhim onon socialsocial issues,issues, bubutt theirtheir centrecentre ofof interestinterest isis onon jusjustt ahimsa, howhow toto gaingain knowledgeknowledge,, howhow toto bbee a bettebetterr humanhuman being."being." 7878 thatthat "unless"unless nonoww thethe worldworld adoptsadopts non-violence,non-violence, itit willwill spellspell certaincertain suicidesuicide forfor mankind;"mankind;" similarly,similarly, lawaharlalJawaharlal NehrNehruu (1889-1964)(1889-1964) inin 19541954 plepIedd forfor universaluniversal disarmament,disarmament, thethe firstfirst worldworld statesmanstatesman toto dodo ssoo (Young(Young 2004,2004, 277,277, quotingquoting fromfrom IyerIyer 1986,455).1986,455). However,However, India'sIndia's ongoingongoing conflictsconflicts withwith PakistanPakistan andand ChinaChina (the(the formerformer overover KashmirKashmir,, thethe latterlatter culminatingculminating inin thethe borderborder crisiscrisis ofof 1962)1962) "undermined"undermined confidenceconfidence inin Nehru'Nehru'ss Gandhian­Gandhian- stylestyle politics,politics,"" andand resultedresulted,, uponupon Nehru'Nehru'ss deathdeath inin 1962,1962, inin "a"a shiftshift fromfrom acceptanceacceptance ooff GandhianGandhian nonnonviolenc violencee toto greatergreater acceptanceacceptance ofof forceforce forfor nationalnational security"security" (Young(Young 20042004,, 278).278). IndiIndiaa hadhad beebeenn developingdeveloping thethe capacitycapacity foforr atomicatomic energyenergy sincsincee 19481948 withwith thethe helphelp ofof CanadaCanada andand thethe UnitedUnited States.States. When,When, inin 1965,1965, thenthen PrimePrime MinisterMinister LalLai BahadurBahadur ShastriShastri endorsedendorsed a newnew prograprogramm forfor subterraneansubterranean nuclearnuclear teststests (continued(continued byby IndiraIndira GandhiGandhi inin 1971),1971), CanadaCanada andand thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates haltedhalted nuclearnuclear cooperationcooperation withwith India.India. However,However, IndiaIndia beganbegan receivinreceivingg heavyheavy waterwater suppliessupplies fromfrom thethe UnioUnionn ofof SovietSoviet SocialistSocialist Republics,Republics, whichwhich allowedallowed itit toto continuecontinue developingdeveloping itsits nuclearnuclear prograpro gramm throughoutthroughout thethe 1970s1970s andand 80s80s - atat thethe samesame timetime thatthat PakistanPakistan pursuepursuedd itsits ownown nucleanuclearr proprogram gram,, allegedlyallegedly witwithh thethe helhelpp ofof ChinaChina (Young(Young 2004,2004, 278).278).1616 IndiaIndia conductedconducted anan earlyearly testtest ofof a twelve-to-fifteentwelve-to-fifteen kilokiloto tonn nuclearnuclear devicedevice inin PokhranPokhran onon MayMay 1818 1974,1974, whichwhich itit dubbeddubbed a "peaceful"peaceful nuclearnuclear explosion."explosion." TheThe muchmuch largerlarger nuclearnuclear testtest atat PokhranPokhran inin 19981998 servedserved toto confirmconfirm India'sIndia's nuclearnuclear capabilitiescapabilities andand propelled IndiaIndia intointo thethe exclusiveexclusive nuclearnuclear club.club. YoungYoung pointspoints toto feelingsfeelings ofof "jubilation""jubilation" feltfelt bbyy manmanyy IndiansIndians atat finallyfinally "coming"coming ofof ageage andand [India][India] takingtaking itsits placplacee amongamong thethe powerfupowerfull nationsnations ofof thethe world"world" (Young(Young 2004,2004, 280).280). OtheOtherr Indians,Indians, however,however, opposedopposed thethe teststests andand organizedorganized massivemassive countrywidecountrywide anti-nuclearanti-nuclear demonstrations.1177 TheseThese demonstrationsdemonstrations werewere sponsoredsponsored byby groupsgroups fromfrom withinwithin IndiaIndia andand without,without, suchsuch asas GreenpeaceGreenpeace International,International, FriendsFriends ofof thethe Earth,Earth, AssociationAssociation forfor India'sIndia's Development,Development, 18 GlobalGlobal Initiative,Initiative, andand variousvarious PakistaniPakistani peacpeacee groupsgroups (Young(Young 2004,2004, 279).18279). lnIn thethe wakewake ooff

16 YoungYoung outlinesoutlines thethe detaildetailss ofof thethe tripartitetripartite nuclearnuclear rivalryrivalry betweebetweenn India,India, PakistanPakistan andand China,China, whichwhich resultedresulted inin "a"a statstatee ofof nuclearnuclear ambiguityambiguity forfor twotwo decades,decades, whilewhile botbothh [India[India anandd Pakistan]Pakistan] refusedrefused toto signsign thethe NonproliferatioNonproliferationn Treaty."Treaty." ThereThere waswas alsoalso speculationspeculation aboutabout whetherwhether IndiaIndia hadhad a chemicalchemical weaponsweapons productioproductionn programprogram,, a suspicionsuspicion thatthat waswas confrrmedconfirmed inin 19971997 whenwhen IndiaIndia ratifieratifiedd thethe ChemicalChemical WeaponsWeapons Convention,Convention, andand undeunderr ththee termsterms ofof thethe ConventionConvention admittedadmitted toto havinghaving susuc chh a prograprogramm andand dismantleddismantled iitt (Young(Young 2004,2004,278) 278).. 17 17 lnIn whichwhich PratibhaPratibha tooktook part,part, asas 1I discussdiscuss below.below. 18 18 YoungYoung describesdescribes oneone anti-nuclearanti-nuclear protestprotest,, hehel Idd a yearyear afterafter thethe tests:tests: "The"The protesprotestt tooktook thethe formform ofof a longlong marchmarch fromfrom thethe testtest sitesite neanearr Pokhran,Pokhran, beginninbeginningg onon MayMay Il,11,1999 1999,, andand endingending inin SarnathSarnath (Varanasi)(Varanasi) onon 7979 thesethese protestsprotests,, thethe BharatiyaBharatiya JanatJanataa PartyParty (BJP),(BJP), whichwhich was thenthen inin powerpower,, stressedstressed secularsecular argumentsarguments susuc chh aass thethe practicapracticall needneed forfor deterrence.deterrence. ItIt alsoalso accusedaccused thethe internationalinternational communitycommunity ofof hypocrisyhypocrisy andand discrimination:discrimination:

InIn itsits electionelection manifestosmanifestos ofof 19961996 andand 1998,1998, thethe BJPBJP supportedsupported thethe long-rangelong-range goalgoal ooff a weapons-freeweapons-free world,world, but arguedargued forfor thethe rightright toto havehave nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons inin thethe meantime.meantime. AsAs a result,result, itit opposeopposedd thethe ComprehensiveComprehensive TestTest BanBan TreatyTreaty (CTBT),(CTBT), thethe FissileFissile MaterialMaterial ControlControl RegimeRegime (FM(FMCR) CR) , anandd thethe MissileMissile TechnologyTechnology ControlControl RegimeRegime (MTCR)(MTCR) onon thethe groundgroundss thatthat thesethese treatiestreaties werweree discriminatorydiscriminatory (permitting(permitting onlyonly sornesome countriecountriess toto havhavee nuclearnuclear weapons)weapons).. (Young(Young 2004,2004, 279)279f919

ThisThis marksmarks a toningtoning downdown ofof thethe overtlyovertly religioureligiouss rhetoricrhetoric whenwhen thethe governinggoverning BJPBJP party,party, whichwhich YoungYoung describesdescribes asas "hawkish"hawkish onon nationanationall security,"security," promotepromotedd forfor a shortshort timetime iinn thethe 1980's1980's a "Hindu"Hindu bombbomb"" inin oppositionopposition toto thethe "Islamic"Islamic bombbomb"" allegedlyallegedly beingbeing developeddeveloped bbyy PakistanPakistan (Young(Young 20042004,, 279)279).. ObjectingObjecting toto thethe wawayy thethe BJPBJP initiallinitiallyy emphasizedemphasized a religiousreligious connectionconnection betweenbetween ththee bombombb anandd HinduismHinduism,, thethe anti-nucleaanti-nuclearr sideside alsalsoo advanceadvancedd seculasecularr argumentargumentss againstagainst nucleanuclearr weaponweaponss (Young(Young 20042004,, 280).280). Thus,Thus, anti-nuclearanti-nuclear protestersprotesters,, whowhomm YoungYoung characterizescharacterizes aass a "coalition"coalition ofof leftistsleftists,, minorities,minorities, andand (mostly(mostly secular)secular) Gandhians,"Gandhians," advancedadvanced social-justicesocial-justice andand economicseconomics arguments,arguments, mainlmainlyy toto dodo witwithh thethe country'scountry's continuaIcontinual povertpovertyy problemproblem.. InIn thisthis regard,regard, theythey condemnedcondemned thethe "'illusions'"illusions ofof grandeur'grandeur' intendeintendedd onlyonly toto confusconfusee thethe massesmasses bbyy makingmaking themthem forgetforget aboutabout thethe starkstark realityreality ooff povertypo vert y"" (Young(Young 2004,2004, 280,280, quotingquoting anan articlearticle inin Asian Age).Age). Interestingly,Interestingly, WesternWestern supportersupporterss ofof India'sIndia's nuclearnuclear prograprogramm bbyy contrastcontrast appealedappealed toto IndianIndian religioureligiouss historhistoryy anandd iinn particulaparticularr toto thethe HindHinduu tradition'tradition'ss acceptancacceptancee ooff defensivedefensive war.war. Additionally,Additionally, manymany WesternWestern observersobservers suchsuch asas DavidDavid Frawley,Frawley, directordirector ofof

AugustAugust 6,6, 1999,1999, HiroshimaHiroshima Day.Day. TheThe purpospurposee waswas 'to'to highlighthighlight thethe perilperilss ooff thethe nuclearnuclear armsarms racerace andand ththee IndianIndian govemment'sgovernment's "twisted""twisted" logiclogic behinbehindd conductingconducting nuclearnuclear blastblastss inin 1998.'1998.' ThisThis strategystrategy waswas ostensiblyostensibly inin thethe GandhianGandhian traditiontradition ofof marchesmarches toto educateeducate andand mobilizemobilize peoplepeople.. These,These, inin tum,turn, hadhad beebeenn derivedderived fromfrom thethe pan-Indipan-Indice traditiontradition ofof pilgrimagpilgrimagee (yatra). TheThe choicechoice ofof SarnathSarnath isis strikingstriking becausbecausee itit isis a famousfamous BuddhistBuddhist sitesite (where(where BuddhaBuddha tirstfirst begabegann toto teachteach afterafter achievingachieving enlightenment)enlightenment) ratherrather thanthan a HinduHindu pilgrimagpilgrimagee site"site" (Young(Young 2004,2004,279 279,, citingciting Asian Age 1999)1999).. 19 19 Similarly, the Indian High Commissioner in Ottawa at the time, Rajnikanta Verma, argued that "every Similarly, the Indian High Commissioner in Ottawa at the time, Rajnikanta Verma, argued that "every Govemment, at least since the Chinese nuclear test in 1964, has been engaged in developing this Government, at least since the Chinese nuclear test in 1964, has been engaged in developing this capability" (in Young 2004, 279). capability" (in Young 2004, 279). 8080 thethe AmericanAmerican InstituteInstitute ooff VedicVedic Studies,Studies, attackedattacked "the"the hypocrisyhypocrisy ofof WesternWestern commentatorscommentators whowho decrydecry howhow thethe nuclearnuclear teststests havehave destroyeddestroyed Gandhi'sGandhi's legacylegacy inin India,India, yetyet dodo not callcall forfor Gandhian-styleGandhian-style nonviolencenonviolence fromfrom theirtheir ownown WesternWestern governments"governments" (Young(Young 2004,2004, 280)280).. DoDo thesethese HinduHindu andand WesternWestern reactionsreactions differdiffer fromfrom JainaJaina onesones?? HowHow dodo thethe viewsviews ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees oonn nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons relaterelate toto thethe previoupreviouss discussiondiscussion oonn ahimsa andand worldworld peace?peace?

Need for for deterrent

AAss wewe havehave seenseen,, alalll mmyy intervieweeintervieweess withwith thethe exceptionexception ooff thethe SadhvisSadhvis anandd ShuganShugan expressedexpressed doubtsdoubts overover whetherwhether ahimsa cancan workwork oonn thethe internationallevel.international level. Nevertheless,Nevertheless, eveneven ShuganShugan acknowledgedacknowledged thethe neeneedd forfor a deterrentdeterrent inin today'stoday's unpredictablunpredictablee world.world. Furthermore,Furthermore, everyoneeveryone whowho citedcited thethe needneed forfor a deterrentdeterrent agreedagreed thatthat nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons werewere thethe besbestt suchsuch deterrentdeterrent.. Kamini,Kamini, forfor instanceinstance,, said:said: "in"in thethe largerlarger context,context, [because[because everybodyeverybody elseelse hashas them]them] ofof coursecourse IndiaIndia shouldshould havehave nuclearnuclear weapons."weapons." WhenWhen 1I askedasked herher ifif sheshe meantmeant bbyy thisthis thathatt nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons areare necessarnecessaryy becausbecausee internationalinternational politicspolitics 20 demands it,it, sheshe replierepliedd "yes,"yes, 1I thinkthink soso,, veryvery much.much." ,,20 SometimesSometimes,, thethe responsesresponses ooff mymy intervieweeintervieweess werweree terse.terse. ForFor instanceinstance,, UmaUma simplsimplyy saisaidd "1"I don'tdon't believbelievee inin nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons,, bubutt ifif youyou wantwant themthem forfor youryour protection,protection, youyou shouldshould have."have." Anita differentiateddifferentiated betweebetweenn nuclearnuclear energyenergy andand nuclearnuclear weapons,weapons, but inin thethe endend alsoalso camecame downdown onon thethe sideside ofof deterrence.deterrence. InIn thisthis regard,regard, sheshe alsoalso attackedattacked thethe hypocrisyhypocrisy ofof thethe internationalinternational communitycommunity:: "Whether"Whether IndiaIndia shoulshouldd havehave nucleanuclearr teststests oorr not,not, ifif AmericaAmerica can,can, whywhy notnot India?India? SoSo it'sit's a veryvery politicapoliticall debate.debate. YouYou know,know, IndiaIndia isis surroundedsurrounded bbyy enemiesenemies...an ... andd we'vewe've gotgot toto havehave a self-helpself-help planplan.. 1I don't havehave anythinganything againstagainst India'sIndia's nuclearnuclear tests,tests, andand it'sit's veryvery easyeasy forfor otherother countries,countries, AmericaAmerica andand Britain,Britain, toto sasayy 'don't'don't ddoo that.'that.' TheyThey araree doindoingg thatthat too.too."" AsAs wewe havehave seen,seen, thethe medievalmedieval JainaJaina textstexts dodo notnot mentionmention thethe deterrencedeterrence argumentargument directly;directly; however,however, thethe Adipurana likenslikens thethe kingking toto a cowherdcowherd protectinprotectingg hishis flockflock andand

20 lncidentally,Incidentally, herher earlierearlier dismissaldismissal ofof GandhiGandhi mimics,mimics, inin thisthis context,context, similar viewsviews amonamongg Hindus iinn thethe wakewake ofof thethe nuc1earnuclear tests.tests. AsAs YoungYoung summarizessummarizes fromfrom DavidDavid Frawley'sFrawley's observationsobservations,, "many"many Hindus todaytoday feelfeel thathatt MahatmaMahatma Gandhi'sGandhi's ususee ofof nonnonviolenc violencee inin thethe lndianIndian independenceindependence movement waswas a temporartemporaryy politicizatiopoliticizationn ofof a spiritualspiritual principlprinciplee traditional1ytraditionally confinedconfined toto monksmonks andand ascetics " (Young(Young 2004,2004, 280)280).. 8181 acknowledgesacknowledges thatthat thethe evil onesones shouldshould bbee punishepunishedd andand thethe goodgood onesones (that(that is,is, thethe nonviolentnonviolent ones)ones) protectedprotected.. AsAs 1I mentionedmentioned earlier,earlier, thethe Adipurana decidedlydecidedly favoursfavours thethe ideaidea ofof a moralmoral kingshipkingship thatthat maintainsmaintains orderorder bbyy imposingimposing JainaJaina valuesvalues suchsuch asas tolerancetolerance andand nonnonviolenc violencee - notnot oneone thatthat keepskeeps peacpeacee throughthrough fearfear ofof violencviolencee - thatthat isis,, deterrence.deterrence. FromFrom thethe perspectivperspectivee ofof virodhi-himsa, wewe cancan seesee howhow deterrencdeterrencee throughthrough thethe threatthreat ofof destructiondestruction qualifiesqualifies asas "standing"standing inin opposition"opposition" toto thethe threatthreat ofof violence.violence. Additionally,Additionally, itit acknowledgesacknowledges a greatergreater laylay realityreality ofof thethe worldworld asas anan imperfectimperfect sphere,sphere, wherewhere values areare necessarilnecessarilyy compromised.compromised. InIn thisthis sphere,sphere, thethe storystory ofof BahubaliBahubali andand Bharata,Bharata, asas wewe havehave seen,seen, takestakes onon nonott jusjustt thethe meaningmeaning itit hashas inin thethe AdipuranaAdipurana (showcasing(showcasing thethe ftawedflawed naturnaturee ofof kingship)kingship) but alsoalso a moremore positive rolerole asas reinforcementreinforcement toto thethe ideaidea that,that, thethe worldworld beinbeingg whawhatt itit is,is, forceforce isis oftenoften necessarynecessary.. This,This, aass wewe saw,saw, waswas exactlyexactly Shugan'sShugan's poinpointt inin referencinreferencingg ththee storystory soso asas ttoo emphasizeemphasize ththee deterrencedeterrence argumentargument.. WeWe havhavee alreadyalready sesee enn hohoww ShuganShugan articulatedarticulated hihiss supportsupport forfor deterrence.deterrence. HeHe emphasizedemphasized thithiss furtherfurther bbyy notinnotingg "in"in HindiHindi thertheree isis a sayingsaying thathatt means thertheree isis nnoo lovelove withouwithoutt fear.fear. SoSo ifif 1I wantwant mymy enemyenemy notnot toto disturbdisturb meme oror harmharm me,me, 1I mustmust havehave a deterrentdeterrent forceforce withwith me."me." HeHe thenthen justifiejustifiedd thisthis bbyy directlydirectly mentioningmentioning virodhi-himsa: "when"when wewe comecome toto distinguishdistinguish JainaJaina philosophyphilosophy,, a householderhouseholder hashas fourfour typestypes ofof violenceviolence permittedperrnitted:: oneone ofof themthem isis self-defense.self-defense. So,So, aass a parpartt ofof self-defenseself-defense,, 1I thinkthink wewe shouldshould 21 havehave a nuclearnuclear deterrentdeterrent ifif requiredrequired - but onlyonly forfor self-defense,self-defense, notnot forfor violence.violence." ,,21

Nonviolent deterrent - not testing lnIn thisthis way,way, despitedespite thethe factfact thatthat thethe viewsviews ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees dodo notnot differdiffer substantiallysubstantially fromfrom thethe viewsviews ofof ththee majoritymajority ofof HindusHindus (as(as describeddescribed bbyy FrawleyFrawley anandd Young),Young), thetheyy

21 TheThe extentextent toto whichwhich virodhi-himsa waswas sometimessometimes takentaken iinn JainJainaa textstexts isis epitomizedepitomized inin thethe storystory ofof thethe fighterfighter Varuna,Varuna, whowho shotshot hishis enemyenemy inin battlbattlee onlyonly afterafter callingcalling onon hishis enemyenemy ttoo shootshoot first.first. AsAs JainJainii writeswrites,, "only"only afterafter hihiss opponent'sopponent's arrowarrow wawass alreadalreadyy onon itsits deadlydeadly flightflight diddid hhee leftleft flyfly hihiss ownown arrow.arrow. HisHis enemyenemy wawass killedkilled instantly,instantly, bubutt VarunaVaruna himselfhimself laylay mortallmortallyy woundedwounded"" (Jaini(Jaini 2004,2004, 58).58). VarunaVaruna thus drovedrove hishis chariotchariot offoff ththee battlefieldbattlefield,, satsat down,down, and,and, accompaniedaccompanied byby a friendfriend thathatt presidepresidedd overover him,him, dieddied peacefullypeacefully whilewhile prayinprayingg ttoo Mahavira.Mahavira. ThThee storystory isis foundfound iinn thethe inin thethe canonicalcanonical Bhagavati-sutra, andand wawass purportedlypurportedly toldtold bbyy MahaviraMahavira ttoo hishis disciplesdisciples inin responseresponse ttoo a questionquestion aboutabout whetherwhether thethe eight-hundredeight-hundred andand fortforty y­- thousandthousand soldierssoldiers thathatt dieddied inin a warwar betweebetweenn Konika,Konika, ththee emperoremperor ofof MagadhaMagadha duringduring Mahavira'sMahavira's time,time, andand a federationfederation ofof eighteeneighteen kingskings hadhad aIlall attainedattained heheave avenn inin thethe mannermanner describeddescribed inin thethe Vedas.Vedas. MahaviraMahavira declareddeclared thathatt outout ofof ailall thosethose memenn onlyonly VarunaVaruna waswas rebomreborn inin heaven.heaven. HisHis friend,friend, whwhoo wawass alsoalso wounded,wounded, waswas reborrebomn asas a human.human. AIlAll othersothers werewere confinedconfined toto ththee hellishhellish andand animaianimal realmsrealms (see(see JainJainii 2004,2004,57-9) 57-9).. 8282 neverthelessnevertheless havehave precedentprecedentss inin JainaJaina textualtextual history.history. WherWheree thethe viewsviews ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees reflectedreflected a distinctivedistinctive JainaJaina perspectivperspectivee was onon thethe issueissue ofof nucleanuclearr testing.testing. AIlAll mymy intervieweesinterviewees unequivocallyunequivocally opposedopposed testingtesting onon thethe basibasiss thatthat itit harmsharms microscopicmicroscopic life-formslife-forms iinn thethe soil,soil, air,air, andand soso forth.forth. ForFor instanceinstance,, ShuganShugan directlydirectly urged thatthat thethe permittepermittedd violencviolencee involvedinvolved iinn testingtesting bbee asas nonviolennon violentt asas possiblepossible.. ThereforeTherefore,, whenwhen 1I askedasked himhim whwhethe etherr hehe wouldwould protesprote stt againstagainst nuclearnuclear testing,testing, hehe replied,replied, "definitely,"definitely, yes.yes."" WhenWhen 1I expressedexpressed mymy surprisesurprise atat whatwhat seemedseemed likelike a contradictioncontradiction betweenbetween,, onon thethe oneone hand,hand, hishis supportsupport forfor nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons and,and, onon thethe other,other, thethe prohibition ofof testingtesting anyany devices,devices, hehe explainedexplained thatthat hehe wouwoul Idd stilstilll supporsupportt havinghaving a nuclearnuclear prograpro gramm yeyett opposeoppose ititss testingtesting "because"because youyou seesee testingtesting involveinvolvess violence,violence, andand 1I saidsaid toto youyou thatthat 1I wantwant toto keepkeep nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons asas a deterrent.deterrent. ItIt cancan bbee a fakefake nuclearnuclear [weapon],[weapon], youyou know,know, but asas longlong asas iitt meetsmeets mymy purpospurposee ofof beinbeingg a deterrent,deterrent, it'it 'ss fine.fine. 1I don't intendintend,, oror 1I don't wishwish thatthat itit hashas toto bbee usedused,, andand soso testingtesting iiss iinn vain.vain. SoSo 1I wilwilll stronglystrongly deterdeter that."that." 1I pointedpointed outout that,that, byby thatthat logic,logic, perhapsperhaps thethe bestbest nuclearnuclear weaponweapon wouldwould bebe oneone thatthat doesdoes notnot work.work. HeHe replied, "You"You know,know, iinn life,life, faithfaith iiss a bigbig thing.thing. IfIf youyou havehave faithfaith iinn youryour scientistsscientists...... [Besides][Besides] iinn thisthis computercomputer [age][age] youyou cancan testtest thingsthings bbyy simulation.simulation. SoSo youyou cancan testtest thethe effectivenesseffectiveness ofof youryour weaponryweaponry,, ooff youyourr systemssystems,, bbyy simulatingsimulating themthem anandd notnot bbyy actuallyactually usinusingg them."them." HeHe useusedd thethe samsamee logiclogic onon otherother issueissuess involvinginvolving testing,testing, suchsuch asas animalanimal testing,testing, sayingsaying hehe wouldwould ratherrather "encourage"encourage testing,testing, lablab testing,testing, ratherrather thanthan fieldfield testing.,,22testing."22 Shugan'sShugan's emphasisemphasis onon preservinpreservingg thethe sanctitysanctity ofof thethe lifelife formsforms inin thethe groundground whilewhile maintainingmaintaining a deterrentdeterrent forfor thethe necessarynecessary tasktask ofof keepinkeepingg statestate violenceviolence atat babayy was bbyy farfar thethe mosmostt JainaJaina responseresponse onon thisthis issue.issue. HeHe was nonott alonealone inin thisthis wawayy ofof thinking.thinking. AtAt leastleast twotwo othersothers - VmaUma andand Anita - werweree moremore oror lessless ofof thethe samesame opinionopinion (1(I diddid notnot havehave a

22 lnIn anan unrelatedunrelated questioquestionn onon animalanimal testingtesting forfor anan AIDS vaccine,vaccine, Kamini alsoalso expressedexpressed thethe desiredesire ttoo findfind alternativealternative modesmodes ofof testing:testing: "there"there shouldshould bbee anyany otherother means toto findfind outout [a[a cure]cure],, whwhyy onlyonly animaIs?"animals?" Interestingly,Interestingly, sheshe andand otherotherss (Shugan,(Shugan, Anita)Anita) explicitlyexplicitly opposedopposed animalanimal testingtesting outrighoutrightt inin thethe casecase ooff AIDSAIDS becausbecausee theythey consideredconsidered AIDSAIDS anan avoidableavoidable diseasedisease - thethe resulresultt ofof a laclackk ofof restraint.restraint. ShuganShugan saidsaid AIDS "itself"itself isis anan evil.evil. SoSo ratherrather thanthan talktalk ofof curingcuring something,something, oneone shouldshould seesee whywhy peoplepeople,, youyou know,know, get thithiss AIDSAIDS...... ItIt cornescomes fromfrom sexualsexual permissivenesspermissiveness,, whichwhich isis notnot acceptableacceptable toto meme.. ForgetForget Jainism.Jainism. AsAs a personperson,, 1I don'tdon't subscribesubscribe toto thatthat idea.idea."" Therefore,Therefore, mostmost feltfelt comfortablecomfortable attributingattributing thethe sufferingsuffering ofof thethe diseasedisease toto individuaindividuall kanna.karma. ShuganShugan acknowledgedacknowledged thatthat itit couldcould bbee gottengotten fromfrom otherother waywayss (fo(forr instance,instance, bbyy beingbeing borbornn withwith it),it), bubutt consideredconsidered thesethese casescases toto bebe inin thethe minority.minority. Pratibha,Pratibha, Vma,Uma, andand RaviRavi aIlall feltfelt uneasyuneasy aboutabout thethe issueissue ofof animalanimal testingtesting forfor AIDSAIDS becausbecausee ofof thethe sufferingsuffering ofof thethe animal,animal, notnot becausbecausee ofof thethe naturenature ofof thethe disease.disease. NeverthelesNeverthelesss aIlall ultimatelultimatelyy supportedsupported animalanimal testing.testing. AsAs VmaUma said,said, "to"to sornesome extentextent youyou havehave toto dodo aIlall thesethese thingsthings...i .. .iff theythey cancan findfind thethe vaccinevaccine,, 1I wouwoul Idd agreeagree toto it."it." TheThe translatortranslator forfor thethe SadhvisSadhvis saidsaid thatthat thethe procedurproceduree ofof testingtesting andand findingfinding a curecure isis violence,violence, bubutt alsoalso stressedstressed thatthat intentionintention mitigatesmitigates itit toto aann extent.extent. 8383 chancechance toto asaskk KaminiKamini thisthis question).question). ForFor instance,instance, eveneven thoughthough VmaUma worriedworried thatthat a protesprotestt againstagainst nuc1earnuclear testingtesting mightmight interfereinterfere withwith thethe essentialessential procedurproceduree ofof developingdeveloping andand testingtesting thethe weapons,weapons, whichwhich inin googoodd faithfaith shshee assumedassumed iiss necessary,necessary, sheshe diddid stressstress thathatt "ifyou"if you testtest it,it, then,then, 1I meanmean...[so ... [so]] there'sthere's notnot muchmuch destruction."destruction." Anita replied thatthat "yes"yes"" sheshe wouldwould protesprote stt againstagainst nuc1earnuclear testing,testing, "for"for thethe environmentenvironment andand peacpeacee reasons."reasons." SheShe 23 diddid notnot elaborateelaborate onon whawhatt sheshe meanmeantt byby "peace"peace reasons."reasons. ,,23

Nuclear energy, not nuclear weapons

Anita mentionedmentioned thethe issueissue ofof nuc1earnuclear energyenergy inin conjunctionconjunction withwith nuc1earnuclear weapons.weapons. SheShe consideredconsidered thethe maintenancmaintenancee ofof nucleanuc1earr powepowerr anan eveneven moremore validvalid andand realisticrealistic righrightt ooff IndiaIndia inin thethe twenty-firsttwenty-first centurycentury thanthan thethe rightright toto havehave nuc1earnuclear weaponsweapons aass deterrents.deterrents. SheShe alsoalso emphasizedemphasized itit overover nuc1earnuclear weaponweaponss asas a wayway toto makemake meme understandunderstand thatthat sheshe onlyonly reluctantlyreluctantly supportssupports nuc1earnuclear weaponsweapons (and(and thenthen onlyonly withwith a prohibition againstagainst nuc1earnuclear testing).testing). However,However, whilewhile AnitaAnita,, Shugan,Shugan, VmaUma anandd toto anan extentextent KaminiKamini allall supportedsupported nuc1earnuclear weaponsweapons (though(though opposedopposed testing),testing), RaviRavi reversedreversed thethe trend,trend, opposingopposing nuc1earnuclear weaponweaponss outright,outright, bubutt supportingsupporting

nuc1earnuclear technologtechnologyy forfor powepowerr generationgeneration andand researchresearch purposespurposes.. SoSo ifif wewe areare talkingtalking ofof warfare,warfare, 1I wouwoul Idd saysay 'no''no' [India[India shouldshould notnot engageengage inin thisthis pursuit]pursuit].. IfIf wewe araree talkingtalking ofof powepowerr generationgeneration oror anyany otherother researchresearch andand developmentdevelopment thatthat contributescontributes bacbackk toto thethe societysociety inin a positivpositivee way,way, soso 'yes''yes' [India[India shouldshould havehave this].this]. [Me:][Me:] SoSo wouldwould youyou saysay thatthat youyou wouldwould protesprotestt thethe testingtesting ifif itit waswas a nuc1earnuclear bombbomb?? [pause][pause] Yeah.Yeah.

Economic, social justice,justice, and religious arguments

OfOf allall mymy interviewees,interviewees, onlyonly PratibhaPratibha andand thethe SadhvisSadhvis werewere uncompromisingluncompromisinglyy againstagainst botbothh nucleanuc1earr weaponsweapons anandd nucleanuc1earr powerpower.. InIn thethe casecase ofof thethe Sadhvis,Sadhvis, asas alwaysalways itit was

23 WeWe willwill notenote thathatt Anita'sAnita's "environment"environment andand peacpeacee reasons"reasons" differdiffer slightlyslightly fromfrom ththee moremore overtovert concemconcern forfor lifelife formsforms expressedexpressed bbyy Shugan.Shugan. 8484 difficultdifficult toto distinguishdistinguish theirtheir viewpointsviewpoints fromfrom thosethose ooff thethe laylay translators.translators. ForFor instance,instance, thethe translatorstranslators opposeopposedd nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons (as(as diddid Pratibha)Pratibha) onon thethe basisbasis ofof thethe above­above- mentionedmentioned economiceconomic arguments;arguments; however,however, 1I aamm notnot suresure whetherwhether thithiss was necessarilynecessarily ththee viewview ofof thethe SadhvisSadhvis themselves.themselves. PratibhaPratibha alsoalso mentionedmentioned thethe hypocrisyhypocrisy argument.argument. lnIn additionaddition toto thesethese secularsecular argumentsarguments,, bothboth PratibhaPratibha andand thethe SadhvisSadhvis alsoalso expressedexpressed thethe JJain ainaa argumentargument thatthat itit isis unacceptablunacceptablee toto destroydestroy lifelife forms.forms. DrawingDrawing onon allall threethree argumentsarguments (economic,(economic, hypocrisy,hypocrisy, ahimsa), PratibhaPratibha concludedconcluded thatthat everyoneeveryone shouldshould simplysimply disarm:disarm:

l'mI'm opposedopposed toto [nuclear[nuclear weapons}.weapons]. l'mI'm opposedopposed toto itit world-over.world-over. 1I meanmean 1I dodo notnot thinkthink thatthat fivefive powerpowerss shouldshould decidedecide whowho wouldwould havehave nuclearnuclear powepowerr anandd whowho wouwoul Idd not havehave nuclearnuclear powerpower.. MyMy primarprimaryy concemconcern isis destruction,destruction, but atat thethe samesame timetime mymy deepdeep concemconcern isis thatthat thisthis countrycountry hashas twotwo majormajor problemsproblems toto taketake inin [to[to consideration},consideration], anandd oneone isis poverty,poverty, anandd wewe cannotcannot affordafford thesethese [nukes).[nukes]. SoSo bothboth atat thethe levellevel ofof violenceviolence andand atat thethe levellevel ofof economiceconomic privatizatioprivatizationn whichwhich neglectsneglects thethe poorpoor,, l'mI'm definitelydefinitely opposedopposed toto nuclearnuclear testing.testing. NeverthelessNevertheless,, sincesince 1I havehave nono impactimpact andand 1I amam notnot closelyclosely connectedconnected withwith thethe powerpowerss ofof thethe worldworld andand cannotcannot decidedecide atat thethe globallevel,global level, atat mmyy ownown nationallevelnational level mymy voicevoice isis "no""no" forfor nuclearnuclear weapons.weapons.

Incidentally,Incidentally, thethe feelingfeeling ofof losinglosing politicapoliticalleveragel leverage inin thethe fightfight toto maintainmaintain GandhianGandhian principleprincipless (as(as expressedexpressed bbyy suchsuch statementsstatements asas "1"I havehave nono impact")impact") was a commoncommon themetheme inin Pratibha'sPratibha's responses.responses. Eisewhere,Elsewhere, sheshe alsoalso saidsaid (on(on thethe issueissue ofof nuclearnuclear weapons):weapons):

1I feelfeel veryvery frustratedfrustrated thatthat forfor a fewfew decadesdecades thethe worldworld was talkingtalking aboutabout disarmament...disarmament... AtAt thethe globallevelglobal level alsoalso l'mI'm talkingtalking ofof mymy disappointment.disappointment. [1[I feelfeel disappointed)disappointed] thatthat oneone [today}[today] isis notnot eveneven consideringconsidering it,it, andand peoplpeoplee areare thinkingthinking thatthat acquiringacquiring nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons becomebecomess a deterrent,deterrent, anandd thereforetherefore mormoree countriescountries havehave nuclearnuclear weapons,weapons, [sol[so] thetheyy areare unlikelunlikelyy toto induigeindulge inin ththee kindkind ofof warwar whichwhich wouldwould requirerequire nuclearnuclear weapons.weapons. l'mI'm nonott convincedconvinced ofof thithiss explanation.

DespiteDespite herher disappointmentdisappointment onon thethe "globallevel,""global level," sheshe remainsremains committedcommitted toto thethe GandhianGandhian reading ofof ahimsa, stressingstressing itsits importance.importance. 1I followedfollowed uupp bbyy askingasking PratibhaPratibha ifif sheshe wouldwould 8585 protesprote stt againstagainst nucleanuclearr testing.testing. SheShe replied "We"We did,"did," andand mentionedmentioned thethe protesprote stt marchesmarches directly:directly: "1"I amam parpartt ofof a groupgroup whichwhich diddid protestprotest;; althoughalthough 1I diddid nonott ggoo forfor marches,marches, mymy heartheart was withwith them,them, andand 1I dididd put signaturessignatures iinn thethe campaignscampaigns whichwhich protestedprotested againstagainst nuclearnuclear weapons."weapons." 1I couldcould not helphelp but wonderwonder ifif herher attitudeattitude andand herher continuaIcontinual faithfaith inin ahimsa werewere not facilitatedfacilitated toto sornesome degreedegree bbyy thethe emphasisemphasis JainismJainism putputss onon thethe micrmicroo level,level, andand howhow inin thethe JainaJaina viewview thethe fightfight toto makemake anan impactimpact is,is, inin fact,fact, most importantimportant onon thethe micromicro levellevel (see(see discussiondiscussion withwith thethe Sadhvis,Sadhvis, below)below).. ItIt occurredoccurred toto meme thatthat perhapperhapss thisthis isis whywhy thethe religionreligion stresses thethe micrmicroo levellevel soso mucmuchh - preciselpreciselyy iinn orderorder toto keekeepp steadfaststeadfast iinn ititss values andand maintaimaintainn faithfaith inin a worlworldd thathatt isis usuallusuallyy totooo distracteddistracted andand totooo impulsiveimpulsive toto trultrulyy papayy mormoree thathann jusjustt liplip serviceservice ttoo ththee messagmessagee ofof ahimsa. ItIt isis a wayway ofof guardingguarding againstagainst disappointment.disappointment. Pratibha'sPratibha's answersanswers reinforcedreinforced botbothh a sensesense ofof resignedresigned acceptanceacceptance toto thethe newnew waysways ofof thethe worldworld but alsoalso a renewedrenewed emphasisemphasis onon thethe necessitnecessityy forfor ahimsa inin spite ofof that.that. ThisThis was clearclear fromfrom herher answeranswer (quoted(quoted above)above) asas toto whetherwhether ahimsa couldcould workwork onon thethe internationalinternational scale,scale, andand herher conclusionconclusion thatthat "no"no mattermatter howhow muchmuch youyou araree convincedconvinced thatthat therethere wouldwould bbee violence,violence, thethe effortsefforts forfor nonviolencenonviolence shouldshould continue."continue." Shugan,Shugan, too,too, expressedexpressed thethe samesame faithfaith inin ahimsa. NeverthelesNeverthelesss hehe supportedsupported deterrence.deterrence. HeHe diddid thisthis bbyy appealingappealing toto botbothh thethe BahubaliIBharataBahubali/Bharata storystory fromfrom thethe Adipurana andand thethe notionotionn ofof virodhi-himsa ("standin("standingg inin opposition").opposition"). ByBy contrast,contrast, Pratibha'sPratibha's GandhianGandhian emphasisemphasis onon uncompromiseduncompromised ahimsa onon thethe politicapoliticallevell level hashas nnoo precedentprecedentss fromfrom thethe JainaJaina textualtextual historyhistory outlinedoutlined inin mymy firstfirst chapter.chapter. TheThe closestclosest oneone cornescomes toto findingfinding a viewview ofof uncompromiseuncompromisedd ahimsa isis inin thethe earliestearliest AgamasAgamas - yetyet thatthat viewview functionsfunctions exclusivelyexclusively withinwithin a monasticmonastic contextcontext (the(the laylay perspectivperspectivee isis rejected,rejected, asas JohnsonJohnson writes,writes, exceptexcept inin soso farfar asas toto "wam"warn thethe asceticascetic awayaway fromfrom socialsocial contact").contact"). Therefore,Therefore, inin actuaactuall fact,fact, therethere areare nnoo textualtextual precedentprecedentss toto a GandhianGandhian readingreading ofof ahimsa inin worldworld affairs.affairs. PerhapsPerhaps PratibhaPratibha isis awareaware ofof this,this, andand thisthis isis oneone ofof thethe reasonsreasons sheshe doesdoes notnot includeinclude ahimsa asas a distinctldistinctlyy JainJainaa value.value. WeWe maymay surmisesurmise thatthat sheshe considersconsiders herher reading ofof ahimsa distinctdistinct fromfrom thatthat ofof traditionaltraditional Jainism.Jainism. HerHer positiopositionn againstagainst nuclearnuclear weapons,weapons, eveneven asas deterrentsdeterrents,, suggestssuggests thatthat sheshe articulatesarticulates ahimsa inin thethe spheresphere ooff internationalinternational relationsrelations inin mostlymostly secularsecular terms.terms. ByBy contrast,contrast, Shugan'sShugan's translationtranslation ofof thethe innerinner valuesvalues ofof ahimsa toto thethe globalglobal contextcontext viavia thethe storystory ofof BahubaliBahubali andand BharataBharata andand thethe 8686 conceptconcept ofof virodhi-himsa isis indicativeindicative ofof JainaJaina religion'sreligion's traditiontraditiona all approachapproach toto thethe limitationlimitation ooff ahimsa inin worldworld affairs.affairs.

The Terapanthi view - AnuvratAnuvrat

TheThe Sadhvis'Sadhvis' avoidedavoided suchsuch quandariesquandaries since,since, asas mendicants,mendicants, theirtheir positiopositionn againstagainst violenceviolence andand inin favourfavour ofof ahimsa isis prettprettyy muchmuch fixed.fixed. ThisThis waswas certainlycertainly ththee casecase onon thethe questionquestion ofof nuc1earnuclear weapons.weapons. TheThe SadhvisSadhvis alignedaligned theirtheir strongstrong advocacyadvocacy onon totaltotal disarmamentdisarmament inin thethe namnamee ofof ahimsa withwith a rationalration alee firmlyfirmly inin lineline withwith thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi emphasisemphasis onon restraintrestraint inin orderorder toto leslesse senn fear.fear. "If"If oneone countrycountry makes susuc chh weapons,"weapons," theythey said,said, "then"then anotheranother wouldwould makemake more,more, strongerstronger weapons,weapons, mormoree advancedadvanced weaponweaponss thathann thethe otherother country,country, andand everyoneeveryone willwill feelfeel thethe fearfear ofof thethe otherother country."country." AsAs a solutionsolution toto thisthis problemproblem,, thetheyy emphasizedemphasized thethe famousfamous TerapanthiTerapanthi socialsocial movementmovement calledcalled Anuvrat.Anuvrat. AsAs mymy translatortranslator put it,it, "Anuvrat,"Anuvrat, not anugam ["atom["atom bomb!bomb!"" SadhviSadhvi MohanMohan KumariKumari JiJi corrected].corrected]. TheyThey dodo not wanwantt bombbomb,, theythey wanwantt AnuvratAnuvrat.. TheyThey ddoo not wantwant bomb.bomb."" AnuvratAnuvrat isis a modemmodern typetype ofof socialsocial serviceservice inventedinvented bbyy AcaryaAcarya TulsiTulsi (1914-1997),(1914-1997), thethe ninthninth successorsuccessor toto AcaryaAcarya BhiksuBhiksu andand thethe mostmost famousfamous TerapanthiTerapanthi figurefigure botbothh insideinside thethe sectsect (next(next toto Bhiksu)Bhiksu) andand outsideoutside thethe sectsect itself.itself. TulsiTulsi oversawoversaw a remarkableremarkable expansionexpansion ofof TerapanthiTerapanthi activity,activity, ththee resultresult ofof whichwhich was a sharpsharp increaseincrease inin thethe profilprofilee ofof thethe TerapanthisTerapanthis inin post-independencpost-independencee IndiaIndia (it(it remainsremains thethe best-knowbest-knownn JainaJaina sectsect amongamong non-Jainas).non-Jainas). TulsiTulsi was sociallysocially activeactive inin manymany ways,ways, amongamong otherother thingsthings carryingcarrying out moremore initiationinitiationss thanthan anyany TerapanthiTerapanthi AcaryaAcarya beforbeforee hihimm andand establishingestablishing thethe firstfirst JainaJaina universituniversityy inin Ladnun.Ladnun. AsAs DundasDundas writes,writes, "Tulsi"Tulsi contrived botbothh toto maintaimaintainn thethe exc1usivityexclusivity ofof thethe asceticascetic idealideal andand toto leadlead hishis secsectt towardstowards a fullerfuller engagementengagement withwith thethe surroundingsurrounding socialsocial worldworld inin a mannermanner moremore akiakinn toto thatthat ofof traditionaltraditional Jainism"Jainism" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 260).260). InIn thisthis way,way, TulsiTulsi attemptedattempted a newnew balancbalancee betweebetweenn thethe asceticascetic idealideal andand directdirect socialsocial serviceservice.. ThisThis tooktook thethe forformm ofof so-calleso-calledd "ahimsa drives,"drives," wherwheree hehe involveinvolvedd himselfhimself inin issuesissues ofof locallocal oror eveneven nationalnational importanceimportance,, alaIll ththee whilewhile emphasizingemphasizing restraintrestraint iinn ththee formform oflayof lay (or(or sometimessometimes modifiedmodified lay)lay) JainaJaina vows.vows. Tulsi'sTulsi's gist,gist, accordingaccording toto oneone ofmyof my translators,translators, was promotinpromotingg thethe "micro"micro levellevel sacrifices."sacrifices." AsAs thatthat translatortranslator toldtold meme,, "Anuvrat"Anuvrat isis a revolutionrevolution whichwhich wewe [Terapanthi][Terapanthi] JainaJaina peoplepeople havehave started.started. WeWe dodo thethe 8787 micro levellevel sacrifices.sacrifices. ThisThis isis knownknown asas Anuvrat."Anuvrat." AnotherAnother persopersonn inin thethe audienceaudience memorablmemorablyy addedadded,, "micro"micro levellevel sacrificessacrifices is a nonnonviolenc violencee movement.,,24movement."24 TheThe uniqueunique innovationinnovation ofof thethe AnuvratAnuvrat movementmovement (and(and whywhy 1I callcall iitt a bona fidefide formform ofof socialsocial service)service) isis thethe scopescope withwith whichwhich itit ininvolve volvess itselfitself inin thethe largerlarger worldworld contextcontext beyonbeyondd jusjustt JainisJ ainismm - thisthis desdespit pitee itit beinbeingg initiatedinitiated bbyy monks.monks. AsAs DundasDundas explains,explains,

lnIn 19491949 TulsiTulsi foundedfounded thethe AnuvratAnuvrat movement,movement, dedicateddedicated toto raisingraising thethe moralmoral tonetone ooff IndianIndian publipublicc andand commerciallifecommercial life bbyy takingtaking JainisJainismm beyondbeyond thethe Jains,Jains, whicwhichh was toto becomebecome thethe best-knownbest-known TerapanthiTerapanthi enterpriseenterprise inin IndiaIndia andand aann outwardoutward expressionexpression ooff thethe sect'ssect's identity.identity. Tulsi'sTulsi's initialinitial statementstatement ofof intent suggestsuggestss howhow itit camecame toto overlapoverlap withwith andand assume,assume, aatt leastleast amongamong thethe moremore westemizedwesternized TerapanthiTerapanthi laitlaityy , sornesome ofof thethe trappingstrappings ofof anan internationalist western-style peace movement: "If"If anan atoatomm (anu) hashas inin itit thethe monstrousmonstrous powepowerr toto destroydestroy thethe worldworld,, amplyamply demonstrateddemonstrated inin thethe unprecedentedunprecedented holocaustholocaust atat HiroshimaHiroshima andand NagasakiNagasaki,, 1I wantwant toto telltell thethe worldworld thatthat wewe havehave itsits counterpartcounterpart inin anuvrata - a smallsmall oror atomicatomic vowvow - whichwhich alonalonee hashas thethe powerpower toto wardward offoff andand countercounter thethe threatthreat ofof anan atomatom bomb.bomb."" A membermember ofof thithiss movement,movement, asas conceivedconceived bbyy Tulsi,Tulsi, wouldwould taketake botbothh a generagenerall and,and, dependingdepending onon hishis oror herher statusstatus andand walkwalk ofof life,life, a modifiedmodified versionversion ofof thethe anuvratas, thethe laylay LesserLesser VowsVows,, whichwhich throughthrough effectingeffecting a moralmoral reformationreformation wouldwould "inspire"inspire peoplpeoplee toto cultivatcultivatee self-restraintself-restraint irrespectiveirrespective ofof theirtheir castecaste,, colourcol our,, creed,creed, countrycountry anandd language,language, toto establishestablish thethe values ofof friendship,friendship, unityunit y , peacpeacee anandd morality,morality, toto createcreate anan unfettereunfetteredd societysociety freefree fromfrom exploitation."exploitation." (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 261,261, citingciting BhatnagarBhatnagar 1985,1985, 1 andand TulsiTulsi 1988,1988, 8.ltalics8. Italics mine)mine)

24 lnIn general,general, asas wewe havehave seen,seen, ailall JainasJainas stressstress carecare onon thethe micromicro levellevel asas a firstfirst prioritpriorityy andand thethe bestbest formform ofof ethicaethicall action.action. TheThe followingfollowing responseresponse bbyy mymy translatortranslator afterafter a lengthylengthy discussiondiscussion withwith thethe SadhvisSadhvis highlighthighlightss thethe degreedegree toto whichwhich JainasJainas valuevalue carecare onon ththee micrmicroo levellevel andand considerconsider itit a whollwhollyy appropriateappropriate andand necessarnecessaryy formform ofof ethicalethical actionaction (at(at thethe samesame time,time, hishis responseresponse alsoalso showsshows thatthat thethe micromicro levleve ell isis connectedconnected toto thethe macromacro level):level): "If"If wewe areare thinkingthinking onon thethe micromicro level,level, [then)[then] wwee areare alsoalso thinkingthinking onon thethe uppeupperr levellevel also.also. IfIf youyou areare onon thethe top,top, youyou willwill seesee thethe bottobottomm ofof thethe thing.thing. BecauseBecause ifif 1I amam onon thethe toptop ofof thethe hill,hill, 1I cancan seesee ailall thethe thingsthings whichwhich areare goinggoing onon inin thethe lowerlower levellevel.. SoSo wheneverwhenever wwee get thethe opportunitopportunityy wewe werewere thinkingthinking ofthatof that oneone [the[the biggebiggerr level)level] andand wwee feelfeel thatthat ifIif I gotgot anan opportunityopportunity toto bbee PresidentPresident oror a PrimePrime Minister,Minister, oror [some[some such)such] higherhigher postpost,, 1I cancan alsoalso applyapply alaill thesethese feelingsfeelings toto disardisarmm thethe thingthing [in[in referencereference toto nucleanucJearr weapons)."weapons]." TheThe factfact thatthat modernmodern TerapanthiTerapanthi laylay JainasJainas applyapply theirtheir faithfaith andand beliefsbeliefs onon thethe micromicro levellevel toto susuc chh issuesissues asas nucJearnuclear weaponsweapons isis notnot surprisingsurprising consideringconsidering thethe particulaparticularr naturenature ofof AcaryaAcarya Tulsi'sTulsi's AnuvratAnuvrat movement.movement. 8888

Dundas conc1udesconcludes thatthat Tulsi'sTulsi's attemptattempt waswas nono lessless thanthan toto "provide"provide a codecode ooff moralmoral conductconduct whichwhich wouldwould penetratpenetratee allall areasareas ofof Indian,Indian, andand indeedindeed world,world, societsocietyy andand revolutionizerevolutionize ethicalethical behaviour"behaviour" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 261).261). InIn thisthis regard,regard, "it"it shouldshould bebe stressedstressed thatthat AcaryaAcarya TulsTulsii waswas veryvery muchmuch thethe heirheir ofof Bhiksu,Bhiksu, whowho diddid not wiswishh toto engageengage inin sectariansectarian disputes,disputes, inin hishis eireniceirenic attitudeattitude towardstowards otherother JainJain sectssects anandd hishis attemptattempt toto bringbring aboutabout thethe unity ofof thethe JJai ainn community,community, andand thethe TeraapanthTeraapanth hashas inin generagenerall arguedargued thatthat allall religionsreligions shareshare certaincertain basibasicc idealsideals andand aspirations"aspirations" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 261)261).. DespiteDespite followingfollowing inin Bhiksu'sBhiksu's footstepsfootsteps inin thisthis way,way, Tulsi'sTulsi's emphasisemphasis onon "values"values ofof friendship,friendship, unityunit y , peacpeacee anandd moralitymorality"" iiss significant,significant, becausbecausee iitt representrepresentss a departuredeparture fromfrom thethe strictestrictes stt TerapanthiTerapanthi doctrinedoctrine asas advocatedadvocated byby Bhiksu.Bhiksu. WhereasWhereas BhiksuBhiksu emphasizedemphasized thethe gulfgulf betweenbetween thethe twotwo truthstruths iinn thethe sharpsharp differencedifference betweenbetween laukika andand lokattara conductconduct (whic(whichh itselitselff resultedresulted iinn a de-emphaside-emphasiss oonn thethe meritmerit ofof compassioncompassion andand giving,giving, exceptexcept iinn thethe strictstrict sensesense ofof providinprovidingg education),education), TulsiTulsi markedmarked a retumreturn ofof sortssorts toto positive valuesvalues ofof friendship,friendship, unityunity , peacpeacee anandd morality.morality. lnIn responseresponse toto mymy questionquestion aboutabout whethewhetherr thethe SadhvisSadhvis wouldwould supportsupport protestsprotests againstagainst nuc1earnuclear testing,testing, 1I wawass toldtold ofof thethe unprecedenteunprecedentedd successsuccess ofof thethe AnuvratAnuvrat movementmovement undeunderr Tulsi'sTulsi's successorsuccessor,, AcaryaAcarya Mahaprajna,Mahaprajna, onon variousvarious locallocal andand nationanationall issues.issues. AsAs mmyy translatortranslator explained,explained,

IfIf youyou looklook atat whatwhat JainismJainism iiss doingdoing isis righrightt nownow,, ourour guruguru,, AcaryaAcarya SrSrii Mahaprajnaji,Mahaprajnaji, hhee iiss ontoonto anan "ahimsa drive."drive." ThisThis means a nonviolencnonviolencee drive.drive. ForFor thethe lastlast eighteight yearsyears he'she's beenbeen onon thethe samesame drive.drive. [For[For example,]example,] whenwhen iitt was thethe GujaratGujarat riotriotss [in[in 2002]2002],, wewe wentwent toto thatthat area.area. AcaryaAcarya SriSri MahaprajnaMahaprajna madmadee peoplpeoplee calmcalm andand silent.silent. Recently,Recently, iinn Rajasthan,Rajasthan, therethere waswas oneone GujjarGujjar [group][group] armingarming forfor thethe STST category,category, thatthat isis,, forfor thethe reservereserve list.2255 OurOur guru, AcaryaAcarya SriSri Mahaprajna,Mahaprajna, hehe onceonce againagain saidsaid "please"please don't gegett intintoo pettpettyy issuesissues.. WeWe mustmust workwork broadlbroadlyy andand gegett intointo nonviolence."nonviolence." SoSo likelike thisthis wewe areare workingworking onon [issues[issues suchsuch asas these].these]. HeHe hashas gongonee aroundaround thethe entireentire countrcountryy onon thisthis

25 25 InIn JulyJuly 2007,2007, thethe GuiiarsGujjars werewere demandingdemanding ScheduledScheduled Tribes (ST)(ST) statusstatus fromfrom Rajasthan'sRajasthan's BharatiyaBharatiya JanataJanata PartyParty overover thethe issueissue ofof reservations.reservations. TheyThey wishedwished toto bbee inc1udedincluded onon thethe government'sgovernment's reservereserve list,list, whicwhichh affordafford employmentemployment andand otherother opportunitiesopportunities forfor underrepresentedunderrepresented castescastes andand groups.groups. TheThe debatedebate developeddeveloped intintoo a riotriot iinn thethe streetsstreets ofof JaipurJaipur andand surroundingsurrounding areas.areas. AlIAll told,told, thirtythirty peoplpeoplee werewere killed,killed, includininc1udingg sornesome policemenpolicemen.. TheThe GuiiarsGujjars eventualIyeventually succeededsucceeded inin gaininggaining victory,victory, withwith thethe StateState BJPBJP govemmentgovernment promisinpromisingg toto forwardforward theirtheir requestrequest forfor STST statusstatus bbyy DecemberDecember 20072007 (see(see andand )). . 8989

ahimsa-vrata [drive[drive forfor nonviolence].nonviolence]. HeHe hashas takentaken thisthis vrata, andand hehe iiss travelingtraveling toto eacheach andand everyevery placplacee andand conveyingconveying hishis messagemessage ofof nonviolence.nonviolence.

DespiteDespite thethe daimsclaims ofof mymy translatortranslator thatthat "the"the entireentire country"country" iiss beinbeingg sweptswept uupp iinn thethe AnuvratAnuvrat movement,movement, inin realityreality thethe effectivenesseffectiveness ofof Tulsi'sTulsi's initiativeinitiative isis minimal.minimal. Dundas callscalls Tulsi'sTulsi's attemptattempt "utopian,""Utopian," anandd writeswrites that,that, "while"while itit hashas notnot yetyet runrun itsits course,course, a cursorycursory examinationexamination ofof contemporarycontemporary IndianIndian lifelife woulwouldd suggestsuggest thatthat thethe AnuvratAnuvrat movementmovement hashas hardlhardlyy hahadd anyany seriousserious impact"impact" (Dundas(Dundas 2002,2002, 261).261).2626

NonviolenNonviolentt ProtestProtest MovementsMovements

ThisThis highlightshighlights thethe questionquestion ofof howhow besbestt toto combatcombat violenceviolence onon thethe internationalinternational scale.scale. WeWe havehave alreadyalready sesee enn thatthat a populapopularr choicechoice amonamongg mymy intervieweesinterviewees waswas deterrence,deterrence, whichwhich involvesinvolves settingsetting oneone passiopassionn (greed)(greed) againstagainst anotheranother (fear),(fear), asas inin thethe casecase ofof a nudearnuclear deterrent.deterrent. However,However, notnot everyoneeveryone agreedagreed.. Pratibha,Pratibha, Ravi,Ravi, andand thethe SadhvisSadhvis opposedopposed deterrencedeterrence onon religiousreligious andand economiceconomic grounds,grounds, aass wellwell aass throughthrough thethe hypocrisyhypocrisy argument.argument. ByBy contrast,contrast, mymy intervieweesinterviewees showeshowedd moremore ofof a consensus onon thethe issueissue ooff nonviolentnonviolent protesprotestt movements.movements. DespitDespitee theirtheir initiainitiall doubtsdoubts overover thethe effectivenesseffectiveness ooff ahimsa, everybodyeverybody supportedsupported them;them; sorne,some, suchsuch asas PratibhaPratibha andand Uma,Uma, participateparticipatedd iinn themthem asas weIl.well.

People should get involvedinvolved

UmaUma saidsaid sheshe waswas activactivee "maybe"maybe onceonce oror twicetwice aboutabout twenty,twenty, twenty-fivetwenty-five yearsyears backback"" inin a groupgroup petitioninpetitioningg toto removeremove a slaughterhouse,slaughterhouse, but diddid notnot remember thethe details.details. OpposingOpposing slaughterhouses,slaughterhouses, leatherleather factories,factories, andand soso forthforth isis a veryvery cornrnoncommon formform ofof JainaJaina socialsocial action,action, andand oneone thatthat self-consciouslyself-consciously reachesreaches beyonbeyondd thethe JainJainaa communitycommunity (as(as wewe havehave

26 AnotherAnother (more(more modern)modern) TerapanthiTerapanthi innovation,innovation, asas wewe havehave seen,seen, isis preksadhyana ("insight("insight meditation"),meditation"), associatedassociated mostlymostly witwithh Mahaprajna.Mahaprajna. ItIt isis inin thethe samesame spiritspirit oftakingof taking JainisJainismm beyonbeyondd thethe JainaJainass andand affectingaffecting a JainJainaa moralmoral andand spiritualspiritual revolution;revolution; however,however, itit aIsoalso seemsseems toto bbee largelylargely negligible.negligible. Laidlaw,Laidlaw, forfor ononee (wLiting(writing iinn 1995),1995), sayssays thatthat itit hashas hadhad nono significantsignificant impactimpact yet (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1995,1995, 140).140). 9090 seen).seen). InIn fact,fact, itit was atat thisthis poinpointt inin ourour interviewinterview thatthat VmaUma openedopened upup,, andand quitequite enthusiasticallyenthusiastically recounterecountedd sornesome ooff thethe waywayss inin whichwhich sheshe engagesengages inin spreadingspreading ahimsa throughthrough educationeducation anandd mediationmediation inin herher community.community. AfterAfter a slightslight pausepause,, RaviRavi saidsaid hehe believebelievedd peoplpeoplee shouldshould bbee activeactive inin nonviolent protesprotestt movements,movements, althoughalthough hehe himselfhimself hashas nevernever beenbeen.. HeHe saidsaid thisthis was becausbecausee mostmost movementsmovements ofof thisthis sortsort areare alignedaligned withwith specifiespecific politicapoliticall interests,interests, "mostly"mostly ofof sornesome particulaparticularr parties.parties."" lnIn mostmost cases,cases, hehe said,said, "nonviolence"nonviolence means [a[a movementmovement towards]towards] a particulaparticularr partpartyy oror a particulaparticularr groupgroup ofof people,people,"" whichwhich doesdoes notnot interestinterest himhim (no(no suchsuch movement,movement, hehe said,said, hahass proveprovenn "penetrable""penetrable" toto himhim givengiven hishis particulaparticularr feelingsfeelings andand convictionsconvictions) ).. DespiteDespite historiehistorica all precedentsprecedents,, PratibhaPratibha was veryvery emphaticemphatic thatthat peoplpeoplee shouldshould getget involvedinvolved inin nonnonviolent violent protesprotestt movements:movements: "Yeah,"Yeah, seriouslyseriously.. l'mI'm veryvery convincedconvinced ofof that.that. AndAnd 1I feelfeel that,that, eveneven ifif youyou feelfeel frustratedfrustrated atat timestimes thatthat youyou makemake soso mucmuchh ofof anan efforteffort but nothinnothingg hashas changed,changed, eveneven if you havehave changedchanged oror you'veyou've becombec ornee a changechange agentagent forfor certaincertain peoplepeople,, oror createdcreated a kindkind ofof c1imate,climate, eacheach oneone ofof uuss cancan makemake a differencedifference ttoo thisthis world."world." 1I askedasked herher whetherwhether thethe involvementinvolvement inin nonviolentnonviolent protesprote stt movementsmovements increasedincreased oror decreaseddecreased overover thethe years.years. SheShe replied,

1I feelfeel atat thethe levellevel ofof ideasideas 1I knowknow a fewfew groups,groups, saysay forfor exampleexample inin Europe,Europe, thatthat isis concemedconcerned forfor thethe environment,environment, suchsuch asas GreenpeaceGreenpeace movement,movement, oror inin EnglandEngland therethere waswas a peacpeacee corpscorps [sic],[sic], oror inin AmericaAmerica therethere areare effortsefforts...... SoSo thethe worldworld overover therethere areare peoplpeoplee [who[who are]are] rightright thinking,thinking, oror [who[who have]have] thinkingthinking thatthat isis akinakin toto mine.mine. TheyThey areare makingmaking seriouseriouss efforts,efforts, andand mymy intuitionintuition isis thatthat they'rethey're likelylikely toto builbuildd pressure.pressure.

SheShe addedadded thatthat "an"an enormousenormous oppositionopposition ofof indulgenceindulgence inin warswars bacbackk homehome doesdoes createcreate [a][a] littlelittle dilemmadilemma inin thethe mindsminds ofof thethe politicianpoliticianss asas well.weIl."" 1I havehave alreadyalready alludedalluded toto Pratibha'sPratibha's ownown historyhistory ofof involvementinvolvement inin nonviolentnonviolent protesprotestt movements.movements. SheShe alsoalso emphasizedemphasized education.education. AsAs sheshe explained,explained,

ThereThere areare a couple ofof instancesinstances inin whichwhich 1I was involvedinvolved inin protesprotestt movements,movements, thenthen followedfollowed itit upup withwith educatingeducating certaincertain groups.groups. TheThe first majormajor involvementinvolvement ofof minemine was againstagainst a dowrydowry death.death. SecondSecond waswas againstagainst thethe practicpracticee ofof Sati.Sati. 1I was parpartt ofof a 9191

women'swomen's groupgroup andand atat thatthat timetime 1I waswas headingheading thethe groupgroup whenwhen wewe gotgot involvedinvolved inin thisthis anti-Satianti-Sati education,education, andand 1I was personally threatenedthreatened andand was veryvery deeplydeeply intointo it.it. StartingStarting fromfrom that,that, 1I havehave beebeenn involvedinvolved withwith groupsgroups againstagainst openingopening liquorliquor shopsshops oror otherother majormajor issues.issues.

SheShe elaboratedelaborated a littlelittle oonn thethe anti-dowryanti-dowry protestprotest:: "The"The firstfirst timetime wewe protesteprotestedd onon a road inin a procession2277 herehere inin JaipurJaipur was againstagainst a girlgirl whowho waswas killedkilled becausebecause ofof thethe demandsdemands ofof dowry.dowry. SoSo thatthat was thethe firstfirst timetime wewe wentwent toto a policpolicee station,station, wewe wentwent ttoo thethe houhouse se,, wewe wentwent intointo thethe government,government, wewe wenwentt toto thethe court.court. That'sThat's nonott onlyonly meme but thethe wholewhole group.group. AndAnd 1I waswas veryvery muchmuch parpartt ofof that."that." lnIn contrastcontrast toto this,this, Karnini,Kamini, questionedquestioned thethe effectivenesseffectiveness ofof nonviolentnonviolent proteprotes stt movementsmovements onon nationanationall andand internationalinternational issues:issues: "It"It dependsdepends whatwhat probleproblemm youyou areare dealingdealing with.with. IfIf somebodysomebody isis againagain comingcoming toto attackattack youyourr country,country, definitelydefinitely itit willwill notnot [work].[work]. ButBut ifif itit isis somethingsomething relatedrelated toto domesticdomestic issues,issues, thenthen somewhere,somewhere, ifif thethe nonviolent movementmovement waswas inin smallsmall pocketspockets,, thenthen itit mightmight bebe,, toto a certaincertain extent,extent, [a][a] littlelittle bibitt successful."successful." AsAs wewe havehave seen,seen, KaminiKamini was usuallusuallyy reluctantreluctant toto attributeattribute efficacyefficacy toto ahimsa asas a widerwider forceforce forfor socialsocial change;change; however,however, whenwhen pressepressedd sheshe oftenoften seemedseemed unsurunsuree andand relented.relented. ThusThus,, whenwhen 1I broughbroughtt uupp thethe casecase ofof thethe massivemassive anti-Iraqanti-Iraq protestprotestss iinn LondonLondon inin 2003,2003, whichwhich featuredfeatured overover fivefive hundredhundred thousandthousand peoplpeoplee andand receivedreceived internationalinternational news coverage,coverage, askingasking ifif sheshe thoughtthought somethingsomething onon thisthis scalescale mighrnightt havehave sornesome success,success, sheshe pausepausedd forfor a longlong timetime beforbeforee replyinreplyingg inin a loweredlowered voice,voice, "1"I don'tdon't knowknow howhow farfar they'rethey're successful,successful, soso forfor meme itit isis difficultdifficult toto analyzeanalyze thatthat definitely."definitely." WhenWhen 1I askedasked herher ifif sheshe hadhad everever beenbeen involvedinvolved inin a nonviolentnonviolent protestprotest movement,movement, sheshe replied "No,"No, 1I havehave notnot beebeenn involvedinvolved yet,yet, inin anyany movement."movement." DespiteDespite beinbeingg skepticalskeptical thatthat worldworld peacpeacee cancan bbee achieved,achieved, ShuganShugan stillstill emphasizedemphasized thethe needneed forfor nonnonviolent violent protesprote stt movements.movements. HeHe againagain mentionedmentioned thethe importanceimportance ofof havinghaving faithfaith inin ahimsa:

1I thinkthink thisthis [a[a nonnonviolen violentt proteprotes stt movement]movement] isis thethe onlyonly wayway thatthat youyou cancan makemake peoplepeople believbelievee andand bbee involvedinvolved inin suchsuch activities.activities. OtherwiseOtherwise itit [ahimsa] willwill againagain becomebecome aa textbooktextbook exerciseexercise toto bbee talkedtalked aboutabout atat universitieuniversitiess oror thinkthink tanks.tanks. SoSo itit mustmust be..be .... itit

27 ForFor Young'sYoung's observationobservationss onon protesprote stt marchesmarches suchsuch asas thisthis resemblinresemblingg ancientancient pilgrimagespilgrimages,, seesee above.above. 9292

shouldshould becombec ornee actuallyactually a movement.movement. AndAnd l'mI'm gladglad thatthat now,now, internationally,internationally, MahatmaMahatma Gandhi'sGandhi's birthdabirthdayy atat leastleast isis beingbeing celebratedcelebrated asas a dadayy ofof nonnonviolenc violencee [October[October 2nd,2nd, calledcalled "Ahimsa Day"].Day"].

ShuganShugan consideredconsidered hishis involvementinvolvement overover thethe paspastt threethree yearsyears asas directordirector forfor thethe InternationalInternational SummerSummer SchoolSchool forfor JainJainaa StudiesStudies "my"my humblehumble contributioncontribution inin thatthat regard."regard." HeHe gavegave a littlelittle backgrounbackgroundd asas toto whywhy hehe doesdoes this:this: ''l'm"I'm not workingworking herehere toto convertconvert peoplpeoplee toto Jainism,Jainism, nornor amam 1I lookinglooking forfor followersfollowers oror peoplpeoplee whowho appreciateappreciate whatwhat l'mI'm doing.doing. ButBut l'mI'm jusjustt tryingtrying ttoo seesee thatthat thethe messagemessage ooff nonviolencenonviolence goesgoes toto asas manymany peoplepeople asas possiblepossible.. AndAnd hopefullyhopefully thesethese peoplpeoplee wilwilll taktakee thethe messagemessage further,further, andand itit shouldshould becombecomee a movement."movement." AskeAskedd whethewhetherr hehe seessees thethe schoolschool asas a kindkind ofof socialsocial service,service, hehe replied "definitely."definitely. 1I dodo not seesee itit asas a religiousreligious serviceservice atat aIl.all. It'sIt's socialsocial andand academic,academic, both.both. AndAnd 1I thinkthink socialsocial serviceservice cornescomes...... youyou know,know, 1I don'tdon't knowknow whichwhich oneone cornescomes first,first, academicacademic oror socialsocial,, oror botbothh together.together. ButBut it'it'ss mormoree liklikee a sociasociall serviceservice witwithh academiacademicc flavouring."flavouring."

MandatoryMandatory ConscriptionConscription

ThisThis sectionsection ofof mymy discussiondiscussion ofof JainaJaina viewsviews onon externalexternal self-defenseself-defense dealsdeals withwith thethe issueissue ofof mandatorymandatory conscription.conscription. 1I treattreat thethe relatedrelated issueissue ofof soldierssoldiers andand policpolicee inin thethe followingfollowing sectionsection (see(see below)below)..

Importance of duty tato the nation

AsAs a generalgeneral question,question, 1I askedasked thethe SadhvisSadhvis whetherwhether a kingking shouldshould protecprotectt hishis peoplpeoplee byby fightinfightingg a warwar.. 1I waswas toIdtold "looking"looking fromfrom ononee perspectiveperspective,, iitt iiss hishis dutyduty.. LookingLooking fromfrom anotheranother perspectiveperspective,, itit isis himsa." WhichWhich perspectivperspectivee shouldshould hehe follow?follow? TheThe answeranswer thatthat camecame throughthrough mymy translatortranslator was "He"He cannotcannot testtest that.that. HeHe hashas toto followfollow hishis duties.duties. ThisThis isis a weaknessweakness ofof familyfamily life,life, [a][a] shortcomingshortcoming ofof familyfamily life."life." AfterAfter moremore conversationconversation withwith thethe Sadhvis,Sadhvis, a girlgirl fromfrom thethe audienceaudience toldtold me:me: "It"It isis thethe dutyY ofof thethe kingking toto savesave hishis lifelife andand asas a resultresult [the][the] public'public'ss life.life. SoSo hehe hashas toto dodo itit [fight]."[fight]." SheShe thenthen appealedappealed ttoo thethe JainaJaina 9393 viewview onon defensivedefensive war:war: "He"He cancan alsoalso makemake thethe otherother partpartyy understanunderstandd [that][that] ifif youyou willwill notnot hithit themthem first..."first..." MyMy originaoriginall translatortranslator finifinishe shedd thethe thoughtthought forfor her:her: "She"She isis tryingtrying toto saysay youyou shouldshould not bbee thethe firstfirst partpartyy toto intrude.intrude. YouYou shoulshouldd notnot startstart thethe war.war. YouYou cancan savesave yourself,yourself, youyou cancan defend,defend, but youyou shouldshould notnot bebe thethe starterstarter ofof thethe war."war." ButBut diddid thethe SadhvisSadhvis themselvesthemselves holdhold thisthis view?view? 1I decideddecided thatthat thethe bestbest wayway toto approachapproach thethe issueissue waswas throughthrough thethe ideaidea ofof karma.karma. 1I askedasked them:them: ifif thethe kingking doesdoes notnot startstart thethe war,war, doesdoes notnot pre-emppre-emptt itit inin anyany way;way; ifif thethe warwar isis onlonlyy defensive,defensive, onlyonly aass a lastlast result,result, andand thethe king'sking's mindmind isis clear - doesdoes hehe stillstill getget babadd karmakarma fromfrom thethe action?action? MyMy translatortranslator askeaskedd ththee SadhvisSadhvis,, anandd replied ttoo meme::

ThisThis isis a weaknessweakness ofof familyfamily life,life, a shortcomingshortcoming ofof familyfamily lifelife [lay[lay life].life]. InIn general,general, theythey [must][must] defenddefend themselves.themselves. ItIt isis categorizedcategorized asas violence.violence. KillingKilling andand gettinggetting killedkilled - bothboth areare violence.violence. ButBut thisthis isis a shortcomingshortcoming ofof a familyfamily life.life. TheyThey [the[the Sadhvis]Sadhvis] areare apartapart fromfrom it.it. TheyThey [have][have] sacrificedsacrificed aIlall families;families; theythey areare stayingstaying alone.alone. ButBut theythey willwill categorize itit aass himsa andand theythey [the[the kings]kings] wilwilll bbee conqueredconquered becausbecausee ofof babadd karmakarma...... itit isis becausbecausee ofof generalgeneral familyfamily life.life. [Me:][Me:] YesoYes. ThisThis isis anuvrata [minor[minor vow]vow].. [Sadhvi[Sadhvi agreeing]agreeing] "Anuvrata." [The[The SadhviSadhvi sayssays muchmuch more;more; everyoneeveryone startsstarts talkingtalking asas sheshe concludesconcludes herher story;story; thethe translatortranslator turnsturns toto meme andand says]says] ThereThere was a Sadhvi;Sadhvi; sheshe hadhad twotwo sons.sons. BothBoth ofof themthem werewere kings.kings. BothBoth ofof themthem startedstarted fightingfighting withwith eacheach otherother forfor sornesome territoryterritory oror otherother reasons.reasons. AndAnd thethe SadhviSadhvi sentsent a delegatiodelegationn ofof twotwo otherother Sadhvis,Sadhvis, toto trytry toto controlcontrol themthem [so[so as]as] toto [make[make them]them] notnot fightfight againstagainst eacheach other,other, [to][to] makemake themthem understandunderstand thatthat theythey shoulshouldd nonott fightfight withwith eacheach otherother forfor pettypetty reasonsreasons [because][because] itit isis himsa. ButBut thisthis sendingsending ofof a delegationdelegation jusjustt toto calmcalm themthem - itit isis anan actact ofof ahimsa. Nonviolence.Nonviolence.

1I decideddecided toto testtest thisthis viewview ofof duty onon mymy laylay interviewees.interviewees. 1I askedasked themthem if,if, inin thethe eventevent ofof a war,war, IndiaIndia enforcedenforced mandatorymandatory conscription,conscription, wouldwould theythey acceptaccept andand gogo toto warwar (or(or acceptaccept itit ifif a lovedloved oneone wentwent toto war)?war)? Kamini'sKamini's matter-of-factmatter-of-fact replyreply summedsummed uupp mostmost ofof thethe responses:responses: "Y"Yes,es," " sheshe saidsaid immediately.immediately. "It"It isis thethe causecause ofof mmyy nation.nation. 1I woulwouldd definitelydefinitely gogo forfor it."it." 9494

AsAs withwith Hindus,Hindus, thethe notionnotion ofof duty Y govemedgoverned mostmost responsesresponses toto thisthis question.question.28 VmaUma thusthus saidsaid sheshe wouldwould commandcommand herher son,son, "go"go toto war.war. ThisThis isis youyourr dutduty.y." " AnitaAnita tootoo said,said, "on"on whatwhat groundsgrounds willwill 1I bbee ableable toto saysay 'No''No' andand appearappear a coward!coward! 1I wouldwould acceptaccept [going][going] asas a dutyY toto mymy nationnation but wouldwould actuallyactually bbee caughtcaught inin a contradiction."contradiction." SheShe isis thethe onlyonly oneone whowho suggestedsuggested a contradictioncontradiction betweebetweenn JainJainaa viewsviews onon ahimsa andand goinggoing toto warwar toto defenddefend thethe country,country, bubutt sheshe diddid notnot elaborate.elaborate. OnlyOnly Ravi,Ravi, whowho appearedappeared notnot toto understanunderstandd thethe question,question, hadhad nono positiopositionn onon thethe issue:issue:

CanCan youyou pleaspleasee definedefine "mandatory"mandatory conscription"?conscription"? [Me:][Me:] WhereWhere thethe govemmentgovernment forcesforces youyou toto joijoinn thethe armyarmy becausbecausee IndiaIndia needsneeds peoplpeoplee toto fight.fight. WouldWould youyou agreeagree toto go?go? [pause][pause] 1I havehave nono ideaidea ofof thisthis question.question. [Me:][Me:] YouYou nevernever consideredconsidered that?that? NoNo..

Importance of ''free"free choiceschoices inin life"life"

WhileWhile Pratibha,Pratibha, too,too, emphasizesemphasizes thethe importanceimportance ofof fulfillingfulfilling one'sone's dutyY toto thethe nation,nation, sheshe tooktook a slightlyslightly differentdifferent angleangle toto thethe issueissue ofof mandatormandatoryy conscription:conscription:

ThereThere araree twotwo partpartss toto youryour question.question. OneOne is:is: shouldshould itit bbee mandatorymandatory?? l'mI'm veryvery mucmuchh forfor freefree choiceschoices inin life.life. AndAnd thereforetherefore thesethese mandatorymandatory provisionprovisionss don'tdon't appealappeal toto meme,, forfor anything.anything. [Not][Not] eveneven forfor goinggoing toto a villagevillage toto dodo socialsocial service,service, compulsorily,compulsorily, forfor twotwo years.years. MMyy feelingfeeling isis thatthat itit shouldshould comecome fromfrom within.within. SoSo 1I amam personallypersonally a veryvery liberalliberal person,person, convincedconvinced ofof makingmaking freefree choices,choices, andand thereforthereforee 1I don'tdon't thinkthink 1I Woulwouldd recommendrecommend thatthat itit shouldshould bbee mandatormandatoryy toto gogo andand serveserve forfor war.war. ButBut ifif itit has ttoo bebe,, 1I wouldn'twouldn't likelike mymy sonson toto bbee anan exception.exception. IfIf itit isis mandatorymandatory,, 1I wouldwould notnot saysay sincsincee hehe isis mymy sonson hehe shouldshould notnot gogo bubutt thethe restrest ofof thethe peoplpeoplee shouldshould gogo..

28 SeeSee YoungYoung 2004.2004. CompareCompare alsoalso LaidlawLaidlaw whowho,, inin a rarerare instance,instance, quotesquotes oneone JainaJaina laymanlayman onon thethe topictopic ooff war:war: "[Jaina]"[Jaina] religionreligion tirstfirst teachesteaches youyou aboutabout dutdutyY . SoSo ifif itit isis parpartt ofof youryour dutyY toto gogo toto thethe frontfront inin war,war, youyou shouldshould ddoo that"that" (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1995,1995,155) 155).. TheThe samesame persopersonn alsoalso sayssays "Jain"Jain religionreligion doesdoes notnot saysay youyou shouldshould bbee a coward.coward. JainsJains areare heroes.heroes."" 9595

[Me:][Me:] AndAnd ifif it'sit's notnot mandatory,mandatory, ifif itit isis anan individualindividual choice,choice, whatwhat wouldwould youyou telltell him?him? WouldWould youyou trytry toto convinceconvince himhim oneone wayway oror thethe other?other? 1I wouldn'twouldn't makemake thethe choicechoice forfor him.him. He'lIHe'll makemake thethe choice.choice.

Pratibha'sPratibha's answeranswer pointpointss toto thethe factfact thatthat sheshe isis muchmuch moremore concernedconcerned withwith ensuringensuring freedomfreedom ofof choicechoice thanthan withwith worryingworrying over,over, say,say, possiblpossiblee karmickarmic repercussionsrepercussions fromfrom killingkilling lifelife formsforms ifif herher sonson goesgoes toto war.war. Similarly,Similarly, iinn responsresponsee toto thethe questionquestion (see(see nextnext section)section) ofof whether,whether, assumingassuming herher sonson desireddesired toto becombecomee a soldier,soldier, sheshe wouldwould supportsupport herher son'son'ss desire,desire, sheshe said:said: "WeIl,"Well, 1'11I'll telltell hihimm thethe variouvariouss aspectsaspects ofof differentdifferent kindkind ofof choiceschoices hehe makes,makes, but 1I don'tdon't thinkthink 1I wouldwould dictatedictate whatwhat hehe shouldshould do.do."" ThisThis positiopositionn isis onlyonly strengthenedstrengthened byby thethe answeranswer ofof Shugan,Shugan, bbyy farfar thethe mostmost devoutdevout JainaJaina laymanlayman inin mymy group.group. HeHe was thethe onlyonly oneone toto resistresist thethe ideaidea ofof goinggoing toto war;war; however,however, aass hehe pointepointedd outout (with(with greatgreat honestly),honestly), thisthis isis foforr nono otherother reasonreason thanthan thethe factfact thatthat hehe isis himselfhimself afraidafraid ofof violentviolent conflict.conflict. Immediately,Immediately, andand withwith a laugh,laugh, hehe saidsaid "again,"again, thisthis isis mymy character,character, andand nothingnothing toto dodo withwith Jainism!"Jainism!" ThisThis dispelleddispelled anyany lastlast notionnotion 1I hadhad thatthat thethe JainaJaina positiopositionn onon ahimsa significantlysignificantly impactsimpacts thethe viewsviews onon mandatorymandatory conscriptionconscription ofof thisthis particulaparticularr groupgroup ofof Jainas.Jainas. Again,Again, wewe willwill observeobserve thethe samesame generalgeneral pointpointss asas wewe diddid withwith thethe nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons questionquestion - namely,namely, thathatt thethe Adipurana's self-assertiveself-assertive moralmoral stancestance towardtoward warwar inin thethe formform ofof a "moral"moral kingship"kingship" hashas beenbeen replacedreplaced byby thethe attitudeattitude ofof "standing"standing iinn opposition."opposition." Interestingly,Interestingly, however,however, onlyonly thethe translatorstranslators forfor thethe SadhvisSadhvis directlydirectly mentionedmentioned self-defenseself-defense inin thisthis context.context. AlIAll mymy otherother intervieweesinterviewees stressedstressed thethe importanceimportance ofof duty asas thethe primarprimaryy consideration.consideration. NeverthelessNevertheless,, givengiven Shugan'sShugan's earlier comments,comments, thethe acceptanceacceptance ofof thethe calIcall toto duty presumablpresumablyy takes forfor grantedgranted thatthat thethe warwar isis notnot offensiveoffensive but inin self-defense.self-defense. ThisThis waswas confirmedconfirmed inin thethe contextcontext ofof a relaterelatedd discussiondiscussion onon thethe JainaJaina ideaidea ooff samyak-darsana (spiritual(spiritual awakening).awakening). Samyak-darsana occursoccurs whenwhen a persopersonn reachesreaches thethe fourthfourth gunasthana.29 29 LaidlawLaidlaw writeswrites thatthat "the"the practicpracticee ofof ahimsa isis closelyclosely tiedtied toto a

29 29 JainiJaini writeswrites ofof a persopersonn whowho hashas receivedreceived samyak-darsana (the(the "first"first awakening,awakening,"" Iiterallyliterally "right"right seeing"):seeing"): "he"he penetratepenetratess toto thethe factfact thatthat everyevery aspectaspect ofof lifelife isis transitorytransitory andand mortal.mortal. ThisThis realizationrealization hashas a tremendoustremendous impact;impact; itit fillsfills himhim withwith extreme agitationagitation (samvega), anan innerinner turmoilturmoil thatthat isis expressedexpressed inin thethe formform ofof strongstrong disenchantrnentdisenchantment withwith worldlworIdIyy things.things. HeHe maymay atat thisthis poinpointt stillstill Iacklack thethe strengthstrength requiredrequired forfor renunciation;renunciation; nevertheless,nevertheless, hehe willwill nevernever againagain bbee drawdrawnn toto thethe worIdworld asas hehe onconcee waswas.. ThusThus hehe Ieadsleads a seeminglyseemingly normalnormal lifeIife,, actingacting outout ordinaryordinary societalsocietal raIes,roles, bubutt isis subjectsubject toto terrifieterrific internaIinternal conflictsconflicts whichwhich 9696

r-'.. wayway ofof seeingseeing thethe world,world, anan elementelement ofof whatwhat JainsJains callcall thethe rightright viewview (samyak-darsana).(samyak-darsana). TheThe mIesrules makemake sensesense inin termsterms ofof thisthis view,view, anandd followingfollowing thethe mIesrules isis supposedsupposed toto leadlead oneone toto seesee thingsthings thethe rightright way"way" (Laidla(Laidlaww 1995,1995,157) 157).. ButBut whatwhat ifif a persopersonn withwith samyak­samyak- darsana isis caIledcalled onon toto fight?fight? Kamini'sKamini's opinionopinion was that,that, eveneven thoughthough susuc chh a persopersonn "will"will notnot acactt violentlyviolently accordingaccording toto Jainism,Jainism, iinn a situationsituation ofof warwar onon inin a situationsituation ofof seriousserious [trouble],[trouble], hehe willwill actact wiselywisely becausbecausee hehe knowsknows whywhy hehe isis doingdoing so."so." Shugan,Shugan, tootoo,, expressedexpressed thisthis view:view:

YoYouu know,know, herehere agaiagainn whawhatt isis importantimportant isis ttoo minimizminimizee violenceviolence.. Samyak-darsanaSamyak-darsana cancan applyapply toto laitlaityy . So,So, eveneven ifif thatthat persopersonn getsgets engagedengaged inin violence,violence, hehe willwill knowknow iitt iiss badbad.. HeHe willwill gogo throughthrough a repentance,repentance, andand iinn normanormaIlifel life hehe willwill trytry toto minimizeminimize thisthis [violence].[violence]. ButBut iitt iiss possiblepossible,, yes,yes, thatthat samyak-drsti [one[one whowho possessepossessess samyak-samyak­ darsana] cancan bbee a violentviolent personperson.. 1I don't seesee [why[why not]not].. 1I can'tcan't saysay nono..

lnIn contrastcontrast toto this,this, VmaUma andand Anita disagreed.disagreed. VmaUma saidsaid "1"I thinkthink hehe willwill nevernever thinkthink ooff violence."violence." However,However, eveneven thethe SadhvisSadhvis sidedsided withwith a viewview toto compromise.compromise. AfterAfter muchmuch discussion,discussion, theythey concededconceded "there"there iiss a boundary...oboundary ... off doingdoing thethe violence.violence. YouYou shouldshould not dodo thethe violenceviolence forfor pettpettyy circumstances,circumstances, but forfor thethe circumstancescircumstances whichwhich cannotcannot bebe overlooked."overlooked." However,However, whenwhen 1I askedasked themthem whetherwhether violenceviolence isis allowedallowed undeunderr specificspecific conditionsconditions undeunderr thethe doctrinedoctrine ofof anekantavada, theythey repliedreplied iinn thethe negativenegative::

Anekantavada aIsoalso doesdoes not acceptaccept violence.violence. TheThe violenceviolence is violence.violence. VnderUnder anyany ooff thethe circumstances,circumstances, thethe violenceviolence is a violence.violence. [Me:][Me:] ButBut mmyy understandingunderstanding ofof anekantavada iiss thatthat no positiopositionn cancan bbee absolute.absolute. SoSo whywhy isis violenceviolence absolutelyabsolutely bad?bad? [Translator[Translator asksasks a Sadhvi,Sadhvi, thenthen replies]replies] Ninety-ninNinety-ninee poinpointt nine-ninenine-nine percentpercent,, [you[you can]can] saysay yesyes [violence[violence iiss bad]bad].. ItIt cancan bbee ttoo ninety-ninninety-ninee poinpointt nine-ninenine-nine,, but thethe oneone percentpercent [sic][sic] exceptionexception isis a1waysalways therethere.. [The[The SadhviSadhvi speaksspeaks againagain aatt somsornee length;length; ththee translatortranslator continues]continues] NeverthelessNevertheless,, violenceviolence isis violence.violence. ThereThere areare nono otherother in­in- betweenbetweenss - meaningmeaning youyou cannotcannot differentiatedifferentiate them.them. ViolenceViolence iiss violenceviolence,, then,then, underunder

mustmust soonersooner oror laterlater brinbringg himhim toto sornesome actact ofrenunciation,of renunciation, eithereither partiapartiall (taking(taking thethe layman'slayman's vows)vows) oror completecomplete (taking(taking ththee vowsvows ofof a monk)"monk)" (Jan(Janii 1979,1979,149) 149).. 9797

anyany ofof thethe circumstances.circumstances. TheThe violenceviolence isis conquereconqueredd [did[did hehe meanmean considered?considered?]] asas a violence.violence. UnderUnder anekantavada itit isis alsoalso...... [Sadhvi[Sadhvi interrupts;interrupts; thethe translatortranslator continues]continues] YouYou cancan differentiatedifferentiate mercy;mercy; itit cancan bebe divided.divided. ButBut doingdoing violenceviolence isis [itself][itself] a violence.violence. YouYou cannotcannot dividedivide it,it, youyou cannocannott differentiatedifferentiate it.it. ViolenceViolence isis a violence.33o0

SoldiersSoldiers anandd PolicePolice

Traditionally,Traditionally, therethere hashas beebeenn a sharpsharp declinedecline inin thethe acceptabilityacceptability ofof soldieringsoldiering aass a professioprofessionn amongamong JainasJainas inin thethe post-medievapost-medievall periodperiod.. IndeedIndeed duringduring medievalmedieval times,times, asas wewe sawsaw inin ChapterChapter One,One, JainaJaina textstexts reflectedreflected (both(both implicitlyimplicitly andand explicitly)explicitly) a distinctdistinct traditiontradition ofof JainaJaina warriorwarrior kingskings andand monkmonk advisorsadvisors toto thosethose kings.kings. WeWe findfind a sharpsharp anandd suddensudden collapscollapsee inin thethe popularitpopularityy ofof thethe soldieringsoldiering professionprofession,, andand a consequentconsequent reorientationreorientation ofof thethe JainaJaina communitycommunity,, afterafter thethe thirteenththirteenth centurycentury.. InIn thisthis regard,regard, JohnJohn CortCort describesdescribes "a"a tendency,tendency, whichwhich hashas existedexisted forfor sevenseven hundred years,years, inin whichwhich JainsJains havehave viewedviewed mosmostt rulersrulers asas alienalien andand potentiallpotentiallyy hostile"hostile" (Cort(Cort 1998,1998, 85)85)..

30 CompareCompare VallelyVallely (2004).(2004). SheShe quotesquotes fromfrom GavinGavin D'Costa'sD'Costa's critiquecritique ofof pluralismpluralism:: "[T]here"[T]here isis nono suchsuch thingthing asas pluralispluralismm becausbecausee pluralistpluralistss araree committedcommitted toto holdingholding sornesome formform ofof truthtruth criteriacriteria andand bbyy virtuevirtue ooff this,this, anythinganything thatthat fallsfalls fouIfoul ofof suchsuch criteriacriteria isis exc1udedexcluded fromfrom countingcounting asas truthtruth (in(in doctrinedoctrine andand practice)practice).. Thus,Thus, pluralispluralismm operatesoperates withiwithinn ththee samesame logicallogical structurestructure ofof exc1usivismexclusivism andand inin thisthis respectrespect pluralispluralismm cancan nevernever reallyreally affirmaffirm thethe genuinegenuine autonomousautonomous valuevalue ofof religiousreligious pluralispluralismm for,for, likelike exc1usivism,exclusivism, itit cancan onlyonly dodo soso bbyy tradition specificspecific criteriacriteria forfor truth"truth" (cited(cited inin VallelyVallely 2004,2004, 106-7).106-7). AnotheAnotherr formulationformulation ofof thisthis ideaidea isis asas thethe followingfollowing impossibilityimpossibility ofof logic:logic: "If"If othersothers areare rationallyrationally justifiejustifiedd inin theirtheir conceptionsconceptions ofof thingsthings andand [in[in thethe propositionproposition]] thatthat theirtheir conceptionconception isis differendifferentt fromfrom ours,ours, thenthen wewe cannotcannot bbee rationallyrationally justifiejustifiedd inin ourour conceptionconception ofof things,things, andand vice versa" (R(R.. Shweder,Shweder, paraphraseparaphrasedd inin VallelyVallely 2004,2004, 108).108). AgainsAgainstt thesethese c1aims,claims, VallelyVallely continuescontinues thatthat anekantavada isis "a"a differentdifferent expressioexpressionn ofof pluralispluralismm thanthan thethe oneone typicallytypically encounteredencountered (and(and critiqued)"critiqued)" mainlymainly becausebecause ofof thethe uniquenessuniqueness ofof itsits associatedassociated doctrinedoctrine ofof naya, thethe ideaidea ofof "logically"logically distincdistinctt viewpoints,viewpoints, eacheach coherentcoherent andand truetrue toto itsits context,context, bubutt ultimateluItimatelyy partialpartial"" (Vallely(Vallely 20042004,, 110).110). SheShe quotesquotes SiddhasenaSiddhasena Divakara'sDivakara's Sanmati Tarka asas sayingsaying thatthat "aIl"all thethe nayas,nay as, thereforetherefore,, iinn theirtheir exc1usivelyexclusively individualindividual standpointsstandpoints araree absolutelyabsolutely faulty.faulty. If,If, however,however, theythey considerconsider themselvesthemselves asas supplementarysupplementary toto eaceachh other,other, theythey araree rightright inin theirtheir viewpointsviewpoints...the ... thenn alonealone theythey areare worthyworthy ofof beinbeingg termedtermed asas 'the'the wholewhole truth'truth' oror thethe rightright viewview inin itsits entirety"entirety" (Vallely(Vallely 2004,2004,110-11) 110-11).. ThisThis acknowledgmentacknowledgment ofof thethe faultiness ofof partiapartiall truthtruth perspectiveperspectivess - andand theirtheir consequentconsequent need forfor eaceachh otherother - solidifiessolidifies thethe JainaJaina viewview andand guardsguards againstagainst itit fallingfalling intointo exclusivisexc1usivismm oror nihilisticnihilistic relativism.relativism. Instead,Instead, "anekantavada acceptsaccepts aann existentexistent reality"reality" thatthat isis alsoalso manifold,manifold, andand thereforetherefore reformulatereformulatess thethe above-mentionedabove-mentioned logicallogical conundrumconundrum intointo "If"If othersothers araree rationrationall aIl y justifiejustifiedd inin theirtheir conceptionconception ofof thingsthings andand thatthat conceptionconception isis differentdifferent fromfrom ours,ours, we tootao can be rationallyrationally justifiejustifiedd inin ourour conceptionconception ofof things,things, andand vice versa" (Vallely(Vallely 2004,2004, 111)111).. Thus,Thus, eveevenn thoughthough viewsviews countercounter toto ahimsa araree ultimatelultimatelyy rejectedrejected inin JainismJainism,, "what"what isis significant...issignificant...is thatthat botbothh thethe retentionretention andand rejectiorejectionn ofof viewviewss isis temperedtempered bbyy thethe beliebelieff thatthat ourour perceptioperceptionn conveysconveys onlyonly a partialpartial reality"reality" (Vallely(Vallely 2004,2004,112) 112).. InIn thisthis wayway,, "anekantavada"anekantavada...... does nonott merelmerelyy givegive 'permission''permission' ttoo diversity;diversity; iitt (ideally)(ideally) mandatemandatess anan encounteencounterr withwith if'it" withouwithoutt sacrificingsacrificing thethe partiapartiall c1aimclaim toto truthtruth ofof thethe originaloriginal positionposition.. "It"It isis onlyonly throughthrough exposureexposure toto otherother waysways ofof beingbeing,, willwill a fullerfuller picturpicturee ofof realityreality emerge"emerge" (Vallely(Vallely 2004,2004, 110).110). 9898

Cort tracestraces thisthis splitsplit toto thethe inabilityinability forfor JainasJainas toto meaningfullymeaningfully contributecontribute toto thethe IslamieIslamic politicapoliticall spheresphere afteafterr thethe MusliMuslimm invasionsinvasions ofof thethe thirteenththirteenth century.century. HeHe writeswrites thatthat althoughalthough therethere iiss "ample"ample evidenceevidence fromfrom botbothh textualtextual anandd inscriptionainscriptionall sourcesourcess toto indicateindicate thatthat thethe JainJainss werewere centrallycentrally involveinvolvedd iinn thethe politicapoliticallifel life ofof pre-Islamipre-Islamicc medievalmedieval westernwestern India,"India," durinduringg thethe MuslimMuslim occupancyoccupancy JJaina ainass diddid not understanunderstandd thethe newnew systemssystems ofof powepowerr andand werewere largelylargely forcedforced toto keepkeep awaawayy fromfrom politicpoliticss - yetyet "as"as bankerbankerss andand financiers,financiers, thethe JainsJains hadhad significantsignificant impacimpactt onon MusliMuslimm rulers"rulers" (Cort(Cort 1998,1998, 85).85).3131 TheThe thirteenththirteenth centurycentury iiss thereforetherefore anan importantimportant turningturning poinpointt forfor JJain ainaa attitudesattitudes towardstowards politicpoliticss anandd thethe state.state. AlthoughAlthough 1I taketake sornesome issueissue withwith Cort'sCort's designationdesignation ooff modernmodern JainasJainas aass "apolitieal,""apolitical," itit iiss generallygenerally truetrue thatthat mostmost dodo notnot preoccuppreoccupyy themselvesthemselves withwith issueissuess susuc chh aass statstatee warfarewarfare (as(as thethe quotequote fromfrom JainiJaini atat thethe endend ofof ChapterChapter OneOne alsoalso highlights).highlights). MyMy task,task, therefore,therefore, waswas toto canvascanvas thethe viewsviews ofof mymy groupgroup ofof contemporarycontemporary JainasJainas withwith regardregard toto thethe topietopic ofof soldiers.soldiers. HowHow diddid theythey feelfeel abouaboutt thethe professionprofession?? DidDid theythey brinbringg uupp ananyy associateassociatedd issuesissues thatthat werewere ofof valuevalue toto themthem aass JainasJainas (much(much likelike thethe nuclearnuclear questionquestion broughbroughtt uupp thethe needneed toto protecprotectt liflifee duringduring testing)?testing)? 1I askedasked eacheach personperson "if"if youryour son3322 oror sornesome membermember ofof youryour communitycommunity camecame toto youyou andand expressedexpressed thethe desiredesire toto bbee a soldier,soldier, wouldwould youyou encourageencourage himhim oror discouragediscourage him?him? WhatWhat wouldwould youryour adviceadvice toto himhim be?be?"" 1I thenthen askedasked thethe samesame questionquestion toto dodo withwith policpolicee (would(would yoyouu encourage oror discouragediscourage youryour sonson ifif hhee desireddesired toto bbee a policeman?).policeman?).

Importance of duty

AsAs beforebefore,, thethe issueissue ofof duty Y waswas paramounparamountt inin mostmost responses;responses; however,however, manymany ofof mmyy intervieweinterviewee ess (especially(especially thosethose withwith children)children) expressedexpressed moremore stronglystrongly thanthan inin thethe mandatormandatoryy conscriptionconscription questionquestion a feelingfeeling ofof uneaseunease.. ForFor instance,instance, KaminiKamini repliedreplied forfor botbothh soldierssoldiers andand policpolicee that:that:

31 CortCort givesgives thethe exampleexample ofof ViIjiVirji Vora,Vora, a JainaJaina merchant,merchant, andand SantidasSantidas Javahari,Javahari, thethe JainaJaina Nagarseth ("mayor")("mayor") ofof Ahmedabad,Ahmedabad, whowho eacheach loanedloaned half-a-millionhalf-a-million rupeesrupees toto ShahShah Jahan'sJahan's sonson MuradMurad BakhshBakhsh duringduring hishis attempattemptt toto succeedsucceed thethe MughalMughal thronethrone (Cort(Cort 1998,1998, 106n3).106n3). JainasJainas inin GujaratGujarat continuedcontinued toto influenceinfluence MuslimMuslim kingskings alongalong thethe samesame lines,lines, aass evidencedevidenced bbyy Hiravijayasuri'Hiravijayasuri'ss influenceinfluence onon AkbarAkbar - muchmuch celebratedcelebrated bbyy JainasJainas eveneven todaytoday (Cort(Cort 1998,1998, 105)105).. 32 32 lnIn thisthis particulaparticularr case,case, 1I thoughtthought itit unnecessarunnecessaryy toto frameframe thethe question inin a gender-neutralgender-neutral wayway sincesince bbyy andand largelarge thethe professioprofessionn ofof soldierssoldiers isis mostlymostly a malemale professionprofession inin India.India. NeverthelessNevertheless,, 1I assumedassumed (rightly)(rightly) thatthat thethe responseresponse amongamong mymy JainaJaina subjectssubjects wouldwould bbee sufficientlysufficiently againstagainst thethe ideaidea thatthat gendergender wouldwould notnot mattermatter much,much, thoughthough thisthis isis a directiondirection wortworthh pursuinpursuingg inin thethe future.future. 9999

OnOn [a][a] personapersonallevell level 1I woulwou Idd maybemaybe findfind outout whatwhat thethe reasoreasonn forfor itit [is][is] butbut,, okay,okay, iiff hehe hashas thatthat interest,interest, definitelydefinitely ggoo forfor it.it. [I[Itt isis a]a] mattermatter ofof a personapersonall choice,choice, andand ifif hehe hashas thisthis ideaidea [that][that] hehe wantwantss toto dodo somethingsomething forfor thethe nation,nation, hehe shouldshould gogo ahead.ahead. [Me:][Me:] ButBut initiallyinitially youyou wouldwould feelfeel a littlelittle bitbit uncomfortableuncomfortable witwithh thethe idea?idea? MaybeMaybe yes,yes, a littlelittle bit.bit. Because,Because, thoughthough youyou feelfeel that,that, youyou know,know, nonnonviolenc violencee isis a rootedrooted conditioncondition [that[that is,is, a conditioncondition aatt thethe rooroott ofof behaviour]behaviour].. AtAt thethe first momentmoment "yes""yes" [1[I woulwouldd feelfeel uncomfortable]uncomfortable],, bubutt thenthen thethe secondsecond thoughtthought woulwouldd bbee "if"if he'she's soso willinwillingg toto worworkk forfor a nation,nation, definitelydefinitely hehe shouldshould ggoo ahead."ahead."

ItIt appearappearss thatthat a majormajor considerationconsideration isis thatthat becominbecomingg a soldiersoldier bbyy professionprofession (rather(rather thanthan beinbeingg conscriptedconscripted forfor a perioperiodd oftime)of time) involvesinvolves a lifelonglifelong engagementengagement witwithh violence.violence. Therefore,Therefore, Shugan,Shugan, bbyy contrast,contrast, saidsaid (on(on thethe issuissuee ofof both)both),, "1"I wilwilll disdiscourag couragee him."him." lnIn a lecturelecture toto ISSJSISSJS onon JuneJune 2121 2007,2007, hehe tooktook thethe opportunityopportunity toto speculatespeculate onon thethe reasonreasonss a JainJainaa mightmight gogo intintoo sucsuchh careerscareers,, mentioningmentioning thathatt choicchoicee doedoess not alwayalwayss factorfactor intintoo one'sone's professionprofession.. ForFor example,example, iinn thethe civilcivil serviceservice exam,exam, thethe rankingsrankings ofof lowerlower levellevel candidatescandidates sometimessometimes forceforce oneone intintoo thethe policpolicee service,service, say.say. AnotherAnother specialspecial case,case, hehe suggested,suggested, iiss whewhenn a sonson followsfollows hishis fatherfather intintoo thethe force.force. InIn general,general, thethe perspectivperspectivee ooff RaviRavi cancan bbee seenseen asas typicaltypical ofof JainaJaina youtyouthh whowho dodo notnot comecome fromfrom thesethese backgrounds.backgrounds. AskedAsked iiff hehe wouldwould everever considerconsider a careercareer asas a policemanpoliceman,, RaviRavi replied "Uh"Uh...... notnot really.really. 1I meanmean,, wwee havhavee beebeenn growinggrowing uupp witwithh professionalismprofessionalism,, aIlall witwithh ourour friends,friends, soso 1I wouldwould ratheratherr likelike toto bbee a professional."professional." ForFor hihiss say,say, AmitAmit,, whwhoo is inin thethe force,force, saidsaid iitt wawass ververyy rarraree forfor boyboyss fromfrom JainaJaina communitiescommunities ttoo gogo intointo ththee force.force. HiHiss ownown familyfamily wawass "flabbergasted.""flabbergasted." NeverthelessNevertheless,, sayssays AmitAmit,, JainasJainas havhavee beebeenn sensendin dingg younyoungg memenn ttoo ththee policpolicee andand armyarmy iinn increasingincreasing numbers.numbers. HHee attributesattributes thithiss ttoo ththee highighh educationeducation ofof JainaJaina youth,youth, whichwhich hashas resultedresulted iinn themthem movingmoving beyonbeyondjustd just ththee businesbusinesss communitycommunity.. TherTheree is,is, aass AmitAmit says,says, anan increasedincreased awarenesawarenesss ooff thethe immediateimmediate environment.environment. 1I diddid notnot havehave a chancchancee toto verifyverify thesethese claimsc1aims,, but itit isis possiblpossiblee thatthat witwithh thethe overalloverall "modemization""modernization" ofof IndianIndian JainasJainas thisthis tabootaboo (as(as expressedexpressed iinn a wayway byby Shugan)Shugan) isis changing.3333

33 SeeSee foforr instanceinstance BabbBabb 2004,2004, 5757.. 100100

Vma,Uma, inin direcdirectt contrastcontrast toto herher husband,husband, saisaidd (for(for botbothh a professioprofessionn inin thethe policepolice forceforce oror asas a soldier)soldier) "1"I willwill letlet himhim go,go, whateverwhatever hehe wantswants toto do."do." Similarly,Similarly, Pratibha,Pratibha, muchmuch likelike beforebefore,, saidsaid ''1'11"I'll telltell himhim thethe variousvarious aspectsaspects ofof differentdifferent kindkind ofof choiceschoices hehe makes,makes, bubutt 1I don'tdon't thinkthink 1I wouldwould dictatedictate whatwhat hehe shouldshould do.do."" HerHer viewview was thethe samesame forfor soldierssoldiers andand forfor policepolice.. AnitaAnita disapproveddisapproved ofof thethe professioprofessionn ofof solidesoli derr onon accountaccount ofof itsits politicspolitics.. HerHer objectionobjection restedrested moremore onon politicpoli ticss thanthan ahimsa: "1"I wouldwould discouragediscourage him,him, asas it'sit's a serviceservice toto a countrycountry withwith interestinterest determinedeterminedd bbyy politicallpolitica11yy drivendriven leaders.leaders. 1I [would][would] ratherrather mymy childrenchildren pursuepursue a causecause andand givegive theirtheir lifelife toto thatthat ratherrather thanthan bebe parpartt ofof thethe armedarmed forces,forces, toto serveserve thethe aimsaims ofof sornesome corruptcorrupt people.people."" 1I noticednoticed that,that, withwith Anita, corruptiocorruptionn isis a keykey concerconcernn (see(see alsoalso below).below). InterestinglyInterestingly,, sheshe diddid notnot consideconsiderr thethe jojobb ooff a policemanpoliceman asas equa11yequally corrupt,corrupt, callingcalling itit "okay."okay. FightingFighting againstagainst thethe badbad...... it'sit's okay."okay."

CapitalCapital PunishmentPunishment

AccordingAccording toto AmnestyAmnesty International,International, 120120 countriecountriess havehave abolishedabolished thethe deatdeathh penaltypenalty inin lawlaw oror practice.practice. IndiaIndia isis amongamong 7676 countriecountriess thatthat stillstill retainretain thethe deatdeathh penaltpenaltyy ("The("The DeathDeath PenaltyPenalty inin India"India" 2005).2005). InIn 1983,1983, India'sIndia's SupremeSupreme CourtCourt ruledruled thatthat thethe deathdeath penaltypenalty cancan onlyonly bebe useusedd inin thethe "rarest"rarest ofof rare"rare" cases;cases; however,however, whatwhat thisthis actuallyactually means isis unclear.unclear. ThereforeTherefore handinghanding downdown a deatdeathh sentencesentence isis leftleft toto thethe discretiondiscretion ofof individuindividua all judgesjudges.. InIn thethe pastpast,, thethe deathdeath penaltpenaltyy hashas beebeenn handedhanded downdown onlyonly inin casescases ofof extremeextreme oror brutalbrutal violence,violence, drugdrug trafficking,trafficking, andand inin casescases ofof a sensitivesensitive politicapoliticall naturnaturee suchsuch asas politicalpolitical assassinations.assassinations. ForFor instance,instance, itit was handedhanded dowdownn undeunderr "terrorist""terrorist" lawslaws inin casescases involvinginvolving thethe assassinationsassassinations ofof MahatmaMahatma Gandhi,Gandhi, IndiraIndira Gandhi,Gandhi, andand RajivRajiv Gandhi,Gandhi, anandd inin thethe attackattack onon ththee IndianIndian parliamenparliamentt inin 20012001 ("The("The DeathDeath PenaltyPenalty inin India"India" 2005).2005). TheThe mostmost recentrecent executionexecution (with(with widespreadwidespread publipublicc support)support) was onon thethe 14th14th ofof AugustAugust 2004,2004, whenwhen DhanajoyDhanajoy ChatteIjeeChatterjee was hangedhanged forfor thethe MarchMarch 19901990 raperape andand murdermurder ofof a KolkataKolkata 34 schoolgirl'schoolgirl, HetalHetal Parekh.34 PriorPrior toto that,that, therethere hadhad beebeenn nono executionsexecutions inin IndiaIndia sincesince thethe latelate ninetiesnineties ("The("The DeathDeath PenaltyPenalty inin India"India" 2005).2005). However,However, a 20052005 BBCBBC articlearticle mentionsmentions thatthat "death"death sentencessentences [in[in India]India] appearedappeared toto bbee onon thethe riserise inin recentrecent years.years. OverOver thethe pastpast

34 ForFor moremore onon thethe ChatterjeeChatterjee verdict.verdict, seesee alsoalso http://www.hinduonnet.comlflineIfl2117/stories/20040827004602100.htmhttp://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2117/stories/20040827004602100.htm 101101

year,year, IndianIndian courtscourts havehave handedhanded outout threethree deathdeath sentencessentences inin casescases relatingrelating toto raperape andand murder"murder" (Majumder(Majumder,, 2005).2005). InIn aIlall cases,cases, prisonerprisonerss cancan appealappeal forfor clemencyclemency fromfrom thethe President.President. OneOne issueissue thatthat groupsgroups suchsuch asas AmnestyAmnesty InternationalInternational andand otherother humanhuman rightsrights groupsgroups suchsuch asas India'sIndia's ownown People'sPeople's UnionUnion forfor DemocratieDemocratic RightsRights (PUDR)(PUDR) highlighthighlight isis thethe secrecysecrecy andand inconsistencinconsistencyy surroundingsurrounding actualactual statisticsstatistics ofof deathdeath bbyy hanging3355 inin IndiaIndia sincesince independenceindependence iinn 1947.1947. InIn 2005,2005, thethe mediamedia reportedreported onlyonly 5555 executionsexecutions sincesince Independence;Independence; PUDRPUDR claimsclaims thethe actualactual numbernumber isis iinn thethe thousands.3366 lnIn generalgeneral,, abolitionistabolitionist argumentsarguments againstagainst thethe deathdeath penaltpenaltyy stressstress a fewfew keykey factors,factors, amongamong themthem thethe failurefailure ofof thethe deathdeath sentencesentence toto deterdeter violenviolentt crimecrime andand (as(as withwith thethe anti-nuclearanti-nuclear arguments)arguments) thethe terribleterrible burdeburdenn ofof costcost involved.involved. A 20062006 Hinduism Today articlearticle argues,argues, forfor instanceinstance,, thatthat "in"in Canada,Canada, thethe murdermurder raterate hashas fallenfallen 2323 percenpercentt sincesince thethe deathdeath penaltpenaltyy was abolishedabolished inin 1976.1976. TheThe CanadianCanadian statisticstatistic supportssupports thethe contentioncontention thatthat abolishingabolishing thethe deathdeath penaltpenaltyy cancan lowerlower thethe homicidehomicide ratratee ratherrather thanthan increaseincrease it"it" (Das(Das 2006).372006).37 Similarly,Similarly, inin termsterms ofof thethe costcost argument,argument, accordinaccordingg toto thethe statestate ofof NortNorthh Carolina,Carolina, murdermurder casescases iinn whicwhiehh thethe deathdeath penaltpenaltyy iiss handehandedd downdown costcost $2.16$2.16 millionmillion moremore thanthan thosethose thatthat endend inin lifelife imprisonment.imprisonment. "This"This includeincludess aIlall thethe expensesexpenses fromfrom trialtrial throughthrough appealsappeals andand executionexecution comparedcompared toto incarcerationincarceration forfor 4040 years.years. ItIt iiss estimatedestimated thatthat thethe deathdeath penaltpenaltyy costscosts thethe USUS justicjusticee systemsystem anan extraextra oneone billionbillion dollarsdollars a year"year" (Das(Das 2006)2006).. OtherOther abolitionistabolitionist argumentsarguments againstagainst thethe deathdeath penaltpenaltyy revolverevolve aroundaround ethicalethical andand practicapracticall issueissuess toto dodo withwith thethe possibilitpossibilityy forfor errorerror inin thethe legallegal procesprocesss andand reportedreported casescases ofof unfaiunfairr treatmenttreatment based onon ethnicethnic andand castecaste identities.identities. TheThe mostmost commoncommon argumentargument iinn defensedefense ofof thethe deathdeath penaltpenaltyy iiss thatthat itit detersdeters violentviolent crime.crime. ReligiousReligious argumentsarguments alsoalso comecome intintoo playplay.. ForFor instanceinstance,, thethe samesame Hinduism Today articlearticle quotesquotes a HinduHindu saint,saint, SwamiSwami ParamatmanandaParamatmananda Saraswati,Saraswati, a seniorsenior discipledisciple ofof SwamiSwami DayanandaDayananda SaraswatiSaraswati based iinn Rajkot,Rajkot, Gujarat,Gujarat, whwhoo sayssays::

35 ThisThis isis thethe officialofficial means ooff capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt inin India.India. 36 AccordingAccording toto AmnestyAmnesty International,International, PUDRPUDR statesstates "that"that accordinaccordingg toto a 19671967 LawLaw CommissionCommission report,report, atat leastleast 1,4221,422 peoplpeoplee werewere executeexecutedd betweebetweenn 19531953 andand 1963"1963" ("The("The DeathDeath PenaltyPenalty inin India"India" 2005)2005).. 37 37 DasDas continuescontinues thathatt "the"the murdermurder ratesrates inin Germany,Germany, Britain,Britain, Italy,Italy, France,France, NetherlandNetherlandss andand SwedenSweden areare lessless thathann twotwo peperr 100,000100,000 peoplpeoplee peperr year,year, whereaswhereas thethe raterate inin thethe USUS isis 6.3"6.3" (Das(Das 2006).2006). SheShe alsoalso citescites a UUNN studystudy thatthat statesstates "It"It isis notnot prudenprudentt toto acceptaccept thethe hypothesishypothesis thatthat capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt detersdeters murdermurder toto a .~. marginallymarginally greatergreater extentextent thanthan doesdoes thethe threathreatt andand applicatioapplicationn ofof thethe supposedlysupposedly lesserlesser punishmenpunishmentt ofof lifelife imprisonment"imprisonment" (in(in DasDas 2006).2006). AmnestyAmnesty International,International, tootoo,, claimsclaims therethere isis "no"no convincingconvincing evidence"evidence" thathatt capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt significantlysignificantly detersdeters crimecrime ("The("The DeathDeath PenaltyPenalty inin India"India" 2005)2005).. 102102

CapitalCapital punishmenpunishmentt isis allowedallowed underunder HinduHindu tradition.tradition. LordLord RamaRama isis thethe embodimentembodiment ofof dharma, yetyet hehe kiIledkilled KingKing Bali,Bali, whowho hadhad stolstole enn hishis ownown brother'sbrother's wife.wife. 1I dodo notnot knowknow whatwhat greagreatt saintsaintss andand gurus havehave saidsaid abouaboutt capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt inin thethe pastpast.. ItIt isis truetrue thathatt timestimes havehave changed.changed. TechnologicalTechnological advancementadvancement hashas mademade lifelife moremore comfortable,comfortable, andand wewe havehave moremore means ofof communication.communication. ButBut thethe naturenature ooff crimecrime hashas remainedremained thethe same.same. SometimesSometimes 1I feelfeel thatthat thethe crimecrimess todaytoday areare eveneven moremore heinousheinous thanthan iinn thethe pastpasto. HenceHence capitalcapital punishmentpunishment,, ifif sanctionesanctionedd bbyy thethe scriptures,scriptures, shouldshould continuecontinue., (i(inn DasDas 2006)2006)

TheThe widelywidely heldheld viewview ofof ancientancient andand medievalmedieval HinduHindu lawgiverslawgivers anandd rulersrulers thatthat danda (force(force,, alsoalso thethe rodrod ofof punishmenpunishmentt wieldedwielded bbyy a king)king) isis necessarynecessary forfor thethe functioningfunctioning ooff society,society, oror elels see "the"the strongerstronger wouldwould roastroast ththee weakerweaker likelike fishfish onon a spit"spit" (Manu(Manu 7:20,7:20, inin DonigerDoniger anandd SmithSmith 1991,1991, 130),130), hashas beebeenn muchmuch discusseddiscussed bbyy scholarsscholars suchsuch asas JamesJames AhoAho (see(see AhoAho 1981).1981). Similarly,Similarly, "the"the MahabharataMahabharata refersrefers toto fourfour kindskinds ofof punishmentspunishments:: gentlegentle admonitionadmonition (dhigdanda), severesevere reproofreproof (vagdanda), impositionimposition ofof finefine (arthadanda) andand lastlylastly capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt (mrityudanda)" (Das(Das 2006)2006).. Traditionally,Traditionally, thethe JainaJaina viewview differsdiffers littlelittle fromfrom thethe HinduHindu one.one. AccordingAccording toto JainaJaina legallegal expertexpert LekhLekh RaRajj Mehta,Mehta, "Jain"Jain rulers,rulers, inin fact,fact, dealtdealt witwithh instancesinstances ofof crimecrime asas waswas donedone bbyy anyany otherother ruler,ruler, includingincluding bbyy capitalcapital punishmentpunishment,, thoughthough itit waswas rare"rare" (in(in Das 2006).2006). AsAs DasDas concluconclude dess (and(and asas wewe havhavee seenseen inin ChapterChapter One),One), "these"these rulersrulers alsoalso maintainedmaintained armies...whicarrnies ... whichh necessarilynecessarily foughtfought andand eveneven eliminatedeliminated opponents.opponents. TheThe issueissue ofof statecraftstatecraft isis notnot dealtdealt withwith muchmuch inin JainJain scriptures,scriptures, accordingaccording toto Mehta.Mehta. TheThe overridingoverriding JainJain principleprincipless areare nonviolence,nonviolence, searchsearch forfor truth,truth, forgivenessforgiveness anandd reforrn"reform" (Das(Das 2006)2006)..

Effective formform of deterrence in the rarest cases

WhatWhat waswas thethe viewview ofof thethe JainasJainas 1I spokespoke to?to? ByBy andand large,large, theythey acceptedaccepted capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt aass aann effectiveeffective forrnform ofof deterrence,deterrence, althougalthoughh aIlall expressedexpressed reservationsreservations thatthat itit shouldshould bebe usedused onlyonly inin thethe "rarest"rarest ofof thethe rare"rare" cases.cases. AskedAsked ifif hehe acceptsaccepts capitalcapital punishmentpunishment,, RaviRavi saidsaid "yeah,"yeah, ifnecessary,if necessary, toto setset anan exampleexample forfor thethe societysociety ifif [a[a criminal]criminal] isis involvedinvolved inin a heinousheinous crime. "fi KaminiKamini replied "'Y"'Yes es'' andand 'no''no' toto a certaincertain extent.extent. Both.Both. ItIt 103103 dependsdepends onon thethe severitseverityy ofof thethe crimecrime"" asas wellwell asas thethe "rate"rate ofof crime,"crime," meaningmeaning thethe quantitativequantitative measuremeasure ofof thethe crime.crime. ForFor instanceinstance,, sheshe givesgives thethe exampleexample ofof genocidegenocide:: "definitely"definitely somebodysomebody whowho hashas killedkilled ssoo manymany [people].[people]. KillingKilling [entire][entire] nations,nations, forfor example."example." TheThe quantitativequantitative measuremeasure was inin factfact thethe mostmost commoncommon factorfactor amongamong mmyy interviewees.interviewees. AskedAsked ifif IndiaIndia shouldshould outlawoutlaw capitalcapital punishmentpunishment,, KaminiKamini saidsaid "no."no."" PratibhaPratibha waswas moremore conflictedconflicted aboutabout it:it: "For"For a veryvery longlong timetime 1I was deaddead [set][set] againstagainst it.it. AndAnd 1I thinkthink eveneven todaytoday 1I amam deadlydeadly [sic][sic] againsagainstt it.it. ButBut toto considerconsider sornesome ofof thethe situations inin whichwhich calamitiescalamities havehave beebeenn soso heavy,heavy, it'sit's hard forfor meme toto completelycompletely sasayy 'no'no'' ttoo it.it"" ShShee dididd not elaboratelaboratee oonn whethewhetherr shshee supportesupportedd itit aass a deterrendeterrentt oorr forfor sornesome otherother reasonreason,, suchsuch asas out ofof a feelingfeeling thathatt iitt isis justljustlyy deserved.deserved. AskedAsked ifif IndiaIndia shouldshould outlawoutlaw capitalcapital punishmentpunishment,, sheshe replied ''l'm"I'm inclinedinclined forfor that."that." SheShe diddid not knowknow thatthat capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt hashas beebeenn illegal inin CanadaCanada sincesince 19741974 (none(none ofmyof my intervieweesinterviewees did),did), but sheshe saidsaid ''l'm"I'm gladglad you'veyou've toldtold meme that."that." ShugaShugann saidsaid "it"it shouldshould bbee a deterrent,deterrent, useusedd asas a deterrent.deterrent. ButBut useusedd veryvery infrequently."infrequently." HeHe elaboratedelaborated thatthat "capital"capital punishmentpunishment,, euthanasia,euthanasia, suicidesuicide - 11 seesee themthem allall inin thethe samesame category,category, generally,generally, philosophicallyphilosophically.. AndAnd 1I thinkthink theythey shouldshould bbee avoidedavoided aass muchmuch asas possiblepossible.. YouYou know,know, wewe shouldshould trytry toto - therethere isis a veryvery populapopularr wordword -- 'rehabilitate''rehabilitate' asas muchmuch asas possible.possible."" AskedAsked ifif hhee wouldwould supportsupport thethe outlawingoutlawing ofof capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt inin India,India, hehe saidsaid "it's"it's a toughtough question.question. 1I willwill notnot saysay outlaw."outlaw." TheThe typetypess ooff crimescrimes ShuganShugan thinksthinks shouldshould bbee punishablpunishablee bbyy deathdeath areare repeatrepeat offensesoffenses (he(he diddid notnot saysay ooff whatwhat type)type) andand "mass"mass destruction,"destruction," althoughalthough hehe acknowledgedacknowledged thatthat hishis pro-capitalpro-capital punishmenpunishmentt vievieww "again"again iiss not asas peperr thethe [Jaina][Jaina] principle."principle."3838 Interestingly,Interestingly, whenwhen toldtold thatthat

38 InIn anan ISSJSISSJS lecture,lecture, hehe elaboratedelaborated thatthat thertheree areare fivefive perspectiveperspectivess toto considerconsider inin anyany ethicalethical dilemma:dilemma: 1.1. individualindividual will,will, desiresdesires 22.. familyfamily will,will, desiresdesires 3.3. societalsocietal obligationsobligations 4.4. governmentgovernment rulesrules,, lawslaws 5.5. doctor'sdoctor's professionaprofessionall opinioopinionn (in(in issuesissues suchsuch asas euthanasia,euthanasia, abortion)abortion) TheThe keykey questionsquestions are:are: whowho authorizesauthorizes thethe violence,violence, andand whatwhat isis ththee intention behinbehindd it?it? ThisThis emphasiemphasiss onon intentionintention isis veryvery important.important. Also,Also, asas wewe havehave seenseen fromfrom ChapterChapter OneOne,, stressstress isis alwaysalways placeplacedd onon creatingcreating a situationsituation wherewhere thethe persopersonn iiss calmcalm andand composedcomposed,, soso asas toto facilitatefacilitate a goodgood rebirtrebirthh (S.C(S.c.. Jain.Jain. ISSJSISSJS lecture,lecture, JunJunee 2211 2007)2007).. InIn aIlall cases,cases, therethere isis nono authorityauthority toto submitsubmit to,to, toto explainexplain yourselfyourself toto (although(although wewe havehave seenseen slightslight deviationsdeviations fromfrom thisthis inin thethe practicpracticee ofof askingasking forfor forgivenessforgiveness fromfrom one'sone's guru duringduring Paryusari).Paryusan). AccordingAccording ttoo thethe JainJainaa theorytheory ofof karma,karma, oneone alonealone iiss responsibleresponsible forfor thethe fruitsfruits ofof one'sone's actions.actions. AisoAlso relevantrelevant isis thethe populapopularr notionnotion ofof samavaya, thethe fivefive causescauses forfor action;action; thatthat isis toto say,say, thethe fivefive perspectiveperspectivess toto evaluateevaluate anan actionaction from.from. ShuganShugan mentionsmentions thithiss asas a typicaltypical wayway forfor dealingdealing withwith ethicalethical problemproblemss inin a self­self- sufficientsufficient mannermanner,, withoutwithout recoursrecoursee toto God.God. TheThe fivefive samavaya areare:: 1.1. KarmaKarma (previous(previous activity)activity) 2.2. Niyeti (destiny/fate(destiny/fate - ieie:: "what"what hashas toto happenhappen will,"will," asas dayday willwill followfollow night)night) 104104

CanadCanadaa hashas nono capitalcapital punishmentpunishment,, hehe saidsaid "1"I amam veryvery happy ttoo hearhear that.that. AtAt leastleast sornesome countrycountry isis inin agreemenagreementt withwith mymy thinking."thinking."

Inherent belief in capital punishment - "Pd"I'd rather not let him live" lnIn responseresponse toto thethe question,question, Anita saidsaid "1"I believbelievee inin punishmentpunishment.. 1I believbelievee inin capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt but onlyonly whenwhen proveprovenn thatthat thethe persopersonn hashas committedcommitted thethe crime."crime." CrimesCrimes worthyworthy ofof capitalcapital punishmentpunishment,, accordingaccording ttoo Anita, areare pedophiliapedophilia,, childchild abuse,abuse, andand torturetorture "inflicted"inflicted forfor thethe wrongwrong reasons."reasons." OneOne shouldshould initiallyinitially gogo inin forfor counseling,counseling, "to"to sortsort outout thethe mentalmental disorders."disorders." IfIf thatthat doesdoes notnot work,work, sheshe sayssays sheshe wouldwould ratherrather "see"see thathatt a pedophilpedophilee bbee killed."killed." SheShe conc1udesconcludes that,that,

iiff proveprovenn guilty,guilty, 1I wouwoul Idd havehave nono probleproblemm inin seeingseeing thatthat persopersonn beinbeingg punishedpunished,, andand dependingdepending onon thethe crimescrimes he'she's committed,committed, beinbeingg executed.executed. l'dI'd ratherrather not letlet himhim livelive.. BuButt l'mI'm suresure mymy JainJain bookbookss woulwouldd saysay differentlydifferently andand thetheyy wilwilll believbelievee inin ththee healinghealing ofof thisthis personperson.. ButBut 1I guessguess mymy thinkingthinking nownow isis alsoalso conditionedconditioned byby thethe factfact thatthat l'mI'm a mothermother ofof two,two, andand l'mI'm constantlyconstantly paranoiparanoidd aboutabout thisthis..

Later,Later, Anita reflectereflectedd onon thisthis positiopositionn sornesome moremore.. SheShe saidsaid sheshe realizerealizedd thatthat

thethe paipainn andand sufferingsuffering anan innocentinnocent victivictimm goesgoes throughthrough cannotcannot bbee quantified.quantified. NNoo oneone hahass thethe righrightt toto taketake someone'ssomeone's life.life. [Sol[So] withwith thethe samesame argument,argument, hohoww cancan wwee dodo capitalcapital punishmentpunishment?? AndAnd howhow cancan wewe eveneven trytry toto reformreform peoplepeople?? But,But, personallypersonally,, ifif 1I knowknow thethe persopersonn was really guiltyguilty,, thenthen capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt isis okay.okay.

SometimesSometimes mymy intervieweesinterviewees expressedexpressed anan inherentinherent beliebelieff inin givinggiving a persopersonn theirtheir jusjustt due,due, stoppingstopping shortshort ofof capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt bubutt condoningcondoning mutilation,mutilation, foforr example.example. VmaUma becambecamee particularlparticularlyy emotional overover thethe issueissue ofof raperape inin thisthis regard:regard: "If"If a persperso onn rapesrapes somebody,somebody, hehe hashas reallyreally hurthurt thethe woman,woman, andand spoiledspoiled herher lifelife - inin IndiaIndia wewe taktakee itit thatthat way.way. SorneSome kindkind ofpunishmentof punishment shouldshould bbee givengiven toto thatthat personperson,, soso thatthat hehe feelsfeels thatthat

3.3. Prakrti (nature)(nature) 44.. Purusartha (self-effort(self-effort - hehe stressesstresses thisthis asas mostmost important)important) 5.5. TimeTime (S.c.(S.C. Jain.Jain. ISSJSISSJS lecture,lecture, JulyJuly 2020 2007)2007) 105105 hishis [dignity,[dignity, hishis life,life, too,too, isis ruined].ruined]. 1I mean,mean, [mutilation[mutilation ofof]] sornesome privatprivatee partpartss oror somethingsomething likelike that.that. ThatThat wayway 1I reallyreally wantwant toto retaliate!"retaliate!"

Criticisms of the Indian penal system

UmVmaa alsalsoo directldirectlyy blameblamedd India'India'ss lalaxx penapenall systesystemm foforr failinfailingg ttoo rehabilitatrehabilitatee criminalscriminals.. Vltimately,Ultimately, sheshe believebelievedd capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt couldcould bbee anan effectiveeffective wayway toto stemstem thethe tidetide ooff repearepeatt offenders:offenders:

AsAs 1I hearhear iinn thethe newspaper,newspaper, peoplpeoplee jusjustt gogo scot-freescot-free andand kilI.kill. AndAnd toto killkill oneone persperso onn andand toto killkill hundredshundreds ofof peoplepeople,, thethe punishmenpunishmentt isis thethe same.same. SoSo ifif youyou don'tdon't stopstop themthem afteafterr ononee killingkilling...... eitheeitherr yoyouu stostopp thethemm anandd rehabilitatrehabilitatee thethemm [but][but] ifif youyou don't catchcatch them,them, youyou don'tdon't rehabilitatrehabilitatee them,them, thenthen thethe punishmenpunishmentt forfor oneone killingkilling,, andand twotwo killingkillingss andand tetenn killingkillingss areare ththee same.same. AnAndd a persopersonn becomebecomess hardenedhardened,, a hardenedhardened criminaI.criminal. ThatThat persopersonn hahass nnoo compassioncompassion oror anything.anything. SoSo forfor themthem 1I woulwouldd saysay ifsit's okayokay [to[to bbee put toto death]death]..

AtAt anotheranother poinpointt iinn ouourr interview,interview, sheshe continuedcontinued,, "if"if a persopersonn whwhoo hashas killedkilled onconcee feelsfeels guiltyguilty andand wantswants toto livelive andand bbee rehabilitated,rehabilitated, thenthen itit iiss okayokay [to[to rehabilitaterehabilitate him].him]. ButBut youyou havehave sesee enn thethe backgroundbackground:: ten,ten, twelvetwelve murders,murders, raperape andand killing,killing, soso whywhy notnot [kill[kill him]?him]? AndAnd ifif youyou onceonce kill-kill -11 mean,mean, givegive a capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt - thethe othersothers getget threatened."threatened." Economic argument

WheWhenn 1I suggestedsuggested lifelife imprisonmentimprisonment forfor repeatrepeat offendersoffenders ofof violent crimes,crimes, VmaUma highlightedhighlighted thethe economiceconomic andand geographicgeographic differencesdifferences betweebetweenn CanadaCanada andand India:India:

1I willwill telltell youyou oneone thing;thing; inin CanadaCanada itit maymay bebe possible.possible. YourYour populationpopulation isis notnot thatthat muchmuch andand youyou havehave time,time, money,money, andand a placplacee toto keepkeep them.them. ButBut inin IndiaIndia thethe populatiopopulationn isis soso much,much, soso muchmuch crimecrime isis there,there, andand therethere isis nono placplacee iinn ththee jailjailss toto keepkeep themthem.. TToo keekeepp thethemm becomebecomess a burdenburden.. A financiafinanciall strainstrain onon ththee government.government. [And][And] whenwhen a criminalcriminal meetsmeets anotheranother criminalcriminal [in[in jail],jail], theythey planplan manymany moremore...... things,things, whichwhich youyou normallnormallyy readread aboutabout inin thethe newspaper.newspaper. TheyThey havehave met,met, soso manymany criminals,criminals, 106106

they'vethey've metmet together,together, they'vethey've mademade thethe plaplann andand saysay 'when'when wewe getget outout we'llwe'll dodo thisthis [and][and] we'llwe'll dodo that.'that.' SornetirnesSometimes thethe ordinaryordinary criminalcriminal becomebecorness reallyreally hardenedhardened inin thatthat jailjail.. AndAnd IndianIndian jailjailss areare fullfull ofof crirninals.criminals. They'reThey're waitingwaiting forfor theirtheir tumturn toto hearhear theirtheir casecase andand aIlall that,that, but bbyy thethe tirnetime [they[they do]do] theythey havehave becombec ornee reallyreally hardenedhardened criminals.criminals. SoSo thatthat way,way, ifif they'vthey'vee killedkilled alreadyalready seven,seven, eight,eight, tenten peoplpeoplee atat differentdifferent timestirnes,, inin differendifferentt timestirnes,, differendifferentt statesstates,, thetheyy shouldshould not bbee givengiven anotheanotherr [chance][chance)..

Criticism of corruption

ShShee alsoalso accusedaccused IndianIndian politicianpoliticianss ofof corruption:corruption:

ThThee otheotherr dadayy 1I wawass readingreading iinn ththee newspapernewspaper thathatt [in[in ChinChinaa - seesee belowbelow)] thertheree waswas somsornee corruptedcorrupted personperson,, 1I rneanmean thertheree was sornesome seniorsenior minister,minister, sornebody,somebody, 1I don'tdon't rernernberremember exactly;exactly; theythey foundfound hirnhim inin corruptioncorruption practicespractices., [ernphatically][emphatically] At once [they][they] blebleww hirnhim upup,, soso thatthat thethe othersothers don't getget a chance.chance. JustJust toto scarescare thern.them. SoSo thatthat wawayy IndiaIndia shouldshould alsoalso actact.. Here,Here, thethe rninistersministers andand thethe bigbig peoplepeople areare doingdoing hanky­hanky- pankypanky things,things, andand iiff theythey reallyreally dodo thisthis thingthing [execute][execute] inin frontfront ofof ththee peoplpeoplee likelike Iran,Iran, IraqIraq andand allall ththee MiddleMiddle EasEastt countries,countries, 1I thinthinkk peoplpeoplee wilwilll gegett scaredscared andand thetheyy rnaymay notnot actact iinn sucsuchh a wayway.. JustJust toto teachteach thernthem a lesson.lesson. NoNott everyevery day.day. TeachTeach thernthem a lesson.lesson. OtherwiseOtherwise IndiansIndians - thethe rnentalitymentality hashas reallyreally gogon nee badbad.. NowadayNowadayss yoyouu willwill findfind soso rnanymany MLA'sMLA's andand ministers,ministers, andand theythey allall havehave suchsuch crirninalcriminal records.records.

AskedAsked "should"should theythey bbee killed?,"killed?," sheshe relentedrelented a little,little, sayingsaying "they"they shouldshould notnot bbee killedkilled but thetheyy shoulshouldd bebe,, 1I rnean,mean, they shouldshould faceface ththee chargecharge andand thetheyy shouldshould notnot bbee allowedallowed ttoo sisitt inin ththee ParliarnentParliament andand represenrepresentt theitheirr peoplepeople.. 1I don'tdon't taltalkk aboutabout killinkillingg but 1I justjust saysay thatthat thetheyy shouldshould bbee taughtaughtt a lesson."lesson." UmUrnaa doesdoes nonott believbelievee IndiaIndia shouldshould outlawoutlaw capitalcapital punishmentpunishrnent.. KaminiKamini alsoalso complainedcomplained ofof corruptcorrupt politicianspoliticians,, sayingsaying that,that, inin thethe worstworst cases,cases, ththee deathdeath penaltpenaltyy isis justifiejustifiedd inin thethe casecase ooff 107107

leadersleaders whowho reallyreally areare a threatthreat toto thethe nationnation bbyy beinbeingg corruptcorrupt andand whowho ususee peoplpeoplee forfor theirtheir selfisselfishh meansmeans.. OneOne whwhoo exploitsexploits childrenchildren andand maybmaybee women..women .... TheseThese areare thethe crimescrimes thatthat shouldshould bebe,, yoyouu knowknow,, capitalcapital punishment.punishment. [Me:][Me:] AnAndd yoyouu woulwouldd supportsupport killinkillingg thethe person?person? YesYes,, becausbecausee ththee crimecrime [justifies[justifies it].it]. EvenEven thoughthough youyou believebelieve inin karmakarma theorytheory [you[you reareapp whawhatt yoyouu sow],sow], yoyouu havhavee ttoo setset aann exampleexample toto ththee society.society. SorneSome ofof thethe punishmenpunishmentt youyou havehave toto dodo...... therethere araree certaincertain actsacts whichwhich youyou havehave toto taketake intointo consideration.consideration.

AnitaAnita,, too,too, whewhenn askeaskedd whethewhetherr capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt shouldshould bbee outlaweoutlawedd inin India,India, saisaidd "No. AAss ourour systemsystem isis corruptcorrupt andand [a][a] lotlot ofof innocentinnocent peoplpeoplee couldcould endend uupp gettinggetting wronglywrongly incriminated."incriminated." ThereforeTherefore capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt servesserves aass a deterrendeterrentt thatthat inin factfact guardsguards againstagainst grossegrosserr corruption.corruption.

SummarySummary

TheThe presenpresentt chapterchapter hashas shownshown thatthat mymy intervieweesinterviewees dodo mapmap JainaJaina religioureligiouss valuesvalues ontoonto issuesissues toto dodo withwith societalsocietal self-defense,self-defense, but theythey alsoalso acknowledgeacknowledge limitationslimitations --

39 particularlparticularlyy thethe limitationslimitations ooff ahimsa -- moremore readilyreadily thanthan theythey diddid forfor issuesissues ofof socialsocial service.service. AmitAmit inin particulaparticularr diddid notnot believbelievee forgivenessforgiveness couldcould workwork onon thethe largerlarger politicalpolitical levellevel inin thethe samsamee wayway thatthat itit couldcould onon thethe communitycommunity levellevel (that(that isis toto saysay,, inin orderorder toto achieveachieve "harmony")."harmony"). ItIt appearsappears thatthat forfor issuesissues toto dodo withwith violenceviolence andand nonnonviolence violence,, Amit,Amit, likelike thethe majoritmajorityy ofof mymy interviewees,interviewees, fellfell bacbackk onon hihiss earlierearlier statementstatement thatthat ahimsa isis "so"so 40 hardhard toto carrycarry outout inin life.life." ,,40 WhereasWhereas manymany ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees expressedexpressed doubtsdoubts overover thethe effectivenesseffectiveness ooff ahimsa onon thethe nationalnational andand internationalinternational scale,scale, sornesome (such(such aass ShuganShugan andand thethe Sadhvis)Sadhvis)

39 AsAs wwee havehave seen,seen, thesethese limitationslimitations comecome mostlymostly fromfrom thethe viewview - inin lilin nee withwith thethe JainaJaina religiousreligious viewview -- thatthat thethe passionpassionss cacann "make"make a persopersonn mad"mad" andand thus disruptdisrupt thethe applicationapplication ofof ahimsa ontoonto thethe widestwidest scscale ale.. InIn thisthis wayway,, manymany ooff mymy laylay intervieweesinterviewees emphasizedemphasized thethe educationeducation ooff restraintrestraint asas anan effectiveeffective meansmeans towardtoward reconcilingreconciling ahimsa andand worlworldd affairs.affairs. 40 40 SeeSee ChapterChapter Two.Two. WeWe willwill recalrecalll Amit'sAmit's viewview thatthat ahimsa increasesincreases sensitivitysensitivity toto lifelife andand yieldsyields "harmony"harmony witwithh creation."creation." ThisThis harmonyharmony isis notnot easyeasy toto comecome bbyy andand demanddemandss greatgreat sacrificessacrifices - hencehence thethe needneed forfor couragecourage inin itsits application.application. 108108 believebelievedd itit cancan "definitely""definitely" workwork becausbecausee ahimsa hashas a positivpositivee relationrelation toto powerpower.. AsAs suchsuch itit isis a "weapon"weapon ofof thethe strong."strong." 1I discusseddiscussed howhow thisthis isis evocativeevocative ofof thethe "moral"moral kingship"kingship" modelmodel fromfrom thethe Adipurana. TheThe Sadhvis,Sadhvis, asas wewe havehave seen,seen, stressedstressed thethe obligationobligation toto fosterfoster ahimsa onon thethe personapersonallevell level throughthrough "micro"micro levellevel sacrifices."sacrifices." TheyThey believebelievedd anan emphasisemphasis onon thethe micromicro level,level, whewhenn combinedcombined withwith politicapoliticall will,will, cancan leadlead toto worldworld peace.4411 ButBut theythey alsoalso elaboratedelaborated onon thethe successsuccess ofof thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi samanis, whowho traveltravel aroundaround thethe worldworld spreadingspreading JainaJaina valuesvalues toto bothboth JainasJainas andand non-Jainas.non-Jainas. OnOn thethe issueissue ofof nuc1earnuclear weapons,weapons, manymany ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees opposedopposed botbothh weaponsweapons andand testingtesting inin principlprinciplee but acknowledgedacknowledged thethe neeneedd forfor a deterrent.deterrent. ThisThis waswas alsoalso thethe casecase forfor capitacapitall punishmentpunishment.. AsAs KaminiKamini stated,stated, "even"even thoughthough yoyouu believbelievee inin karmakarma theory,"theory," thethe levellevel ooff corruptioncorruption inin societysociety demands thatthat youyou "set"set anan example."example." KaminiKamini similarlysimilarly saidsaid thatthat internationalinternational politicpoli ticss demandeddemanded thatthat a countrycountry havehave a strongstrong deterrentdeterrent - a poinpointt thatthat ShuganShugan reinforcedreinforced bbyy appealingappealing botbothh toto virodhi-himsa andand thethe storystory ofof BahubaliBahubali andand BharataBharata fromfrom thethe Adipurana. Interestingly,Interestingly, aIlall mymy intervieweesinterviewees opposedopposed nuc1earnuclear testingtesting forfor ththee harmharm itit causecausess ttoo ththee sanctitsanctityy ooff lifelife formsforms Uivas).(jivas). ThereforeTherefore,, ShugaShugann eveneven suggestedsuggested thatthat oneone perforperformm simulatedsimulated ratherrather thanthan actualactual testing.testing. This,This, asas 1I explained,explained, isis a uniqueluniquelyy JainaJaina view,view, andand anan excellentexcellent exampleexample ofof a JainaJaina religiousreligious principlprinciplee (ahimsa) beinbeingg directlydirectly appliedapplied toto anan issueissue concerningconcerning societalsocietal self-defense.self-defense. PratibhaPratibha opposedopposed nuc1earnuclear weaponsweapons bbyy appealingappealing notnot onlyonly toto thisthis samesame nonnonviolenc violencee argument,argument, bubutt alsoalso ttoo economiceconomic argumentsarguments toto dodo withwith povertpovertyy andand argumentsarguments focusingfocusing onon thethe hypocrisyhypocrisy ofof WesternWestern countriescountries thatthat criticizecriticize otherother countriescountries forfor havinghaving nuc1earnuclear weaponsweapons but dodo nonott dismantle theirtheir own.own. TheThe SadhvisSadhvis sharedshared Pratibha'sPratibha's firmfirm anti-nuc1earanti-nuclear stance,stance, bubutt theythey focusedfocused onon thethe potential forfor nuc1earnuclear weaponsweapons toto spreadspread fear.fear. AAss a solutionsolution toto thisthis problemproblem,, thetheyy emphasizedemphasized ththee positivpositivee effectseffects ofof thethe TerapanthiTerapanthi AnuvratAnuvrat socialsocial movement,movement, whichwhich extendsextends thethe teachingteaching ofof ahimsa intointo non-Jainanon-Jaina societysociety onon a varietyvariety ooff politicapoliticall issuesissues viavia so-calledso-called "ahimsa drives.drives."" lnIn ththee end,end, ververyy fefeww ofof mmyy intervieweesinterviewees believebelievedd thathatt ahimsa was unrelateunrelatedd ttoo oror completelycompletely powerlespowerlesss inin thethe spheresphere ofof politicpoliticss andand internationalinternational relationsrelations.. AlIAll emphasizedemphasized thatthat effortsefforts atat ahimsa shouldshould continue.continue. Furthermore,Furthermore, mostmost expressedexpressed a desiredesire toto bebe involvedinvolved inin issuesissues atat thesethese levelslevels givengiven thethe rightright reason.reason. Therefore,Therefore, manymany supportedsupported

41 41 RecallRecall thethe wordswords ofof mymy translatortranslator thathatt "if"if wewe areare thinkinthinkingg onon thethe micromicro level,level, [then][then] wewe areare alsoalso thinkingthinking onon thethe upperupper level."level." ThisThis isis putput intointo practicepractice directlydirectly anandd extendedextended intointo non-Jainnon-Jainaa societysociety throughthrough Tulsi'sTulsi's AnuvratAnuvrat movement.movement. 109109 nonviolentnonviolent protesprotestt movements.movements. EvenEven thethe SadhvisSadhvis emphasizedemphasized Anuvrat.Anuvrat. Finally,Finally, a fewfew ooff mymy interviewees,interviewees, suchsuch asas PratibhaPratibha andand Amit,Amit, hadhad themselvesthemselves beebeenn directlydirectly involvedinvolved onon thethe nationalnational andand eveneven internationalinternational scalesscales throughthrough education,education, participatioparticipationn inin NGO'NGO'ss andand soso forth.forth. EvenEven Shugan,Shugan, whowho professedprofessed anan interestinterest inin beingbeing "self-oriented""self-oriented" hashas neverthelessnevertheless servedserved forfor threethree yearsyears asas thethe DirectorDirector forfor a JJain ainaa summersummer schoolschool withwith trulytruly internationalinternational scope.scope. What'sWhat's more,more, hehe doedoess not seesee thisthis asas religiousreligious but asas "social"social andand academic"academic" service.service. ThatThat beingbeing said,said, allall mymy intervieweesinterviewees alsoalso saidsaid thatthat theythey wouwoul Idd fightfight forfor theirtheir country.42country.42 AmitAmit reportedreported thatthat recorrecordd numbenumberr ofof JainasJainas areare enlistingenlisting iinn thethe IndianIndian armyarmy andand becominbecomingg policemenpolicemen.. ThisThis showsshows anan equalequal readinesreadinesss toto acceptaccept violenceviolence onon thethe societalsocietal level.level. NowherNowheree iiss thisthis moremore clearclear thanthan inin thethe factfact thatthat aUall mymy laylay intervieweesinterviewees'' supportedsupported capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt - sornesome (like(like Vma)Uma) quitequite forcefullyforcefully tootoo.. GivenGiven thesethese realities,realities, 1I dodo not thinkthink thatthat wewe cacann calIcall mymy intervieweesinterviewees apolitical.apolitical. WhileWhile manymany expressedexpressed reservationsreservations againstagainst corruptiocorruptionn inin politicspolitics,, mostmost neverthelessnevertheless extendedextended sornesome ofof theirtheir valuesvalues andand beliefbeliefss intointo thethe politicapoliticall sphere,sphere, implyingimplying thathatt theythey woulwouldd getget involvedinvolved givengiven ththee righrightt reasonreason.. ManyMany combinecombinedd secularsecular argumentsarguments suchsuch aass economiceconomic argumentsarguments againstagainst povertpo verty witwithh religiousreligious argumentsarguments suchsuch asas thethe oppositionopposition toto killingjivaskilling jivas througthroughh nucleanuclearr testingtesting.. AlAlll feltfelt thathatt JainismJainism shouldshould givegive opinionsopinions oonn politicapoliticall matters,matters, andand thatthat effortsefforts aatt ahimsa shouldshould continuecontinue onon thisthis level.level. WeWe willwill alsoalso recallrecall Shugan'sShugan's statementstatement thatthat thethe JainaJaina communitycommunity needneedss toto comecome togethertogether toto protecprotectt itsits wayway ofof life,life, andand alsoalso hishis enumerationenumeration ofof thethe fivefive perspectiveperspectivess toto considerconsider inin anyany ethicalethical dilemma,dilemma, oneone ooff whichwhich includesincludes "government"government rulesrules andand laws.laws.""

42 42 TheThe onlyonly exceptionexception waswas Ravi,Ravi, whowho diddid notnot understandunderstand thethe question.question. WeWe maymay notenote thatthat thethe mainmain justificatiojustificationn waswas thethe pan-Indiapan-Indiann emphasisemphasis onon duty.duty. AlthoughAlthough thethe notionnotion ofof duty isis advancedadvanced throughthrough JainaJaina textstexts suchsuch asas thethe Adipurana, itit wouldwould bbee a stretchstretch toto saysay thatthat mymy laylay interviewees'interviewees' responsesresponses reflectedreflected a JainaJaina valuevalue perper sese.. ConclusionConclusion

WeWe havehave seenseen howhow medievallaymedieval lay JainasJainas consideredconsidered itit farfar moremore importantimportant toto applyapply thethe idealideal ofof nonnonviolenc violencee toto thethe practicapracticall needsneeds ofof lifelife ratherrather thanthan toto large-scalelarge-scale abstractionsabstractions susuc chh aass statestate warfare.warfare. ThisThis emphasiemphasiss onon thethe personapersonallevell level throughthrough internainternaIl mindfulnessmindfulness reflectsreflects thethe monasticmonastic idealideal aatt thethe heartheart ofof Jainism.Jainism. NeverthelessNevertheless,, overover history,history, thethe expansionexpansion ofof ththee JainJainaa laity resultedresulted inin anan increasinglyincreasingly specifiespecific discoursediscourse onon ksatriya-dharma (the(the duty ooff kings),kings), whichjustifiedwhich justified violenceviolence inin war,war, butbut mostlymostly indirectly,indirectly, inin threethree ways:ways: 1)1) byby appealingappealing toto communitycommunity andand thethe virtuevirtue ofof community-building;community-building; 2)2) bbyy drawingdrawing onon warriorwarrior traitstraits inherentinherent inin thethe religionreligion itself,itself, whichwhich werewere thenthen sacrilizedsacrilized;; andand finallyfinally 3)3) byby directdirect textualtextual injunctioninjunction withwith thethe conceptconcept ofof virodhi-himsa (allowable(allowable violenceviolence inin self-defense),self-defense), developeddeveloped inin thethe medievalmedieval perioperiodd (around(around thethe tenthtenth centurycentury C.E.).C.E.). WeWe havehave seenseen hohoww virodhi-himsa developeddeveloped throughthrough a perioperiodd ofof changchangee onon botbothh thethe socialsocial anandd philosophiealphilosophical 1 levels,levels, asas shiftsshifts inin JainJainaa philosophicaphilosophicall ideas (such(such asas thethe ascendancyascendancy ofof thethe ideaidea ofof merie)merit ) reflectereflectedd shiftsshifts onon thethe levellevel ofof medievalmedieval societysociety itselfitself (the(the mostmost notablnotablee suchsuch shiftshift beingbeing thethe risrisee ofof thethe JainaJaina laity anandd itsits associateassociatedd issueissue ofof war).war). However,However, wewe havehave alsalsoo seenseen textualtextual problemproblemss withwith virodhi-himsa based onon thethe factfact thatthat itit isis a non-canonicanon-canonicall conceptconcept andand waswas generallygenerally underrepresentedunderrepresented throughoutthroughout thethe medievalmedieval period.period. Turning,Turning, then,then, toto thethe contemporarycontemporary context,context, wewe findfind thatthat amongamong mymy IndianIndian lalayy interviewees,interviewees, medievamedievall JainaJaina viewviewss dodo factorfactor inin legitimatinglegitimating violencviolencee inin societalsocietal self­self- defense.defense. MyMy intervieweesinterviewees drewdrew upouponn thethe threethree principaprincipall methodsmethods listedlisted aboveabove onon certaincertain issuesissues ofof self-defenseself-defense (although(although theythey stressedstressed self-defenseself-defense directlydirectly throughthrough virodhi-himsa,virodhi-himsa, as,as, forfor example,example, inin thethe deterrencedeterrence argument).argument). TheyThey alsoalso emphasizedemphasized suchsuch medievamedievall JainaJaina notionnotionss aass religiousreligious values guidingguiding moralmoral behavioubehaviourr andand thereforetherefore beinbeingg ultimatelyultimately necessarynecessary withinwithin politicspolitics.. FinallyFinally theythey alsalsoo placeplacedd a strongstrong emphasisemphasis onon warriorwarrior virtuesvirtues evidentevident inin thethe calcaBl toto bbee "strong""strong" inin mattersmatters ofof ahimsa.

1 WeWe willwill recallrecall thatthat thisthis waswas introduceintroducedd bbyy thethe Tattvartha-sutra inin thethe secondsecond centurycentury C.E.C.E. withwith ththee adventadvent ooff arambhi-himsa (necessitous,(necessitous, unintentionalunintentional,, non-passionatenon-passionate violenceviolence)) inin oppositionopposition toto samkalpi-himsa (passionate,(passionate, bindinbindingg activityactivity formulatedformulated withwith a definitdefinitee intentionintention toto harm)harm).. 111Ill

WhereWhere thesethese strategiesstrategies failed,failed, oror werewere simplysimply notnot advanced,advanced, mymy intervieweesinterviewees exhibitedexhibited moremore modemmodern strategiesstrategies toto legitimatelegitimate violenceviolence inin self-defense.self-defense. TheseThese inc1udedincluded stressingstressing theirtheir independenceindependence fromfrom monasticmonastic idealsideals inin thethe formform ooff emphasizingemphasizing thethe partialitpartialityy ofof worldlyworldly vowsvows (anuvrata) andand privileginprivilegingg intentionintention asas a wayway toto mitigatemitigate thethe resultsresults ofof actionaction andand (karmic)(karmic) effect.effect. TheTheyy alsoalso situatedsituated ahimsa withinwithin a pluralitpluralityy ooff otherother religiousreligious valuesvalues andand thenthen mappedmapped thesethese valuesvalues ontontoo thethe secularsecular level,level, ofteoftenn addinaddingg secularsecular argumentsarguments suchsuch asas economiceconomic anandd socialsocial onesones.. OnOn thethe nuc1earnuclear weaponweaponss issue,issue, wewe seesee thatthat mymy interviewees,interviewees, bbyy andand largelarge,, reflectedreflected ththee contemporarcontemporaryy pan-Indiapan-Indiann attitudattitudee iinn favourfavour ooff deterrencdeterrencee - bubutt witwithh a JainaJaina twist.twist. MostMost opposeopposedd thethe testing ofof nucleanuc1earr weaponsweapons onon accountaccount ofof thethe destructiondestruction andand violencviolencee inflictedinflicted onon life-forms.life-forms. However,However, whatwhat camecame asas a realreal surprisesurprise toto meme waswas thethe unifiedunified responseresponse ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees toto thethe issueissue ofof capitalcapital punishmentpunishment.. AlAlll ofof themthem ((1I diddid notnot askask thethe SadhvisSadhvis thethe question)question) supportesupportedd capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt outrightoutright,, sornesome (such(such asas Uma)Uma) eveneven expressedexpressed quitequite forcefullyforcefully thethe desiredesire toto "set"set anan example"example" andand teachteach criminalscriminals "a"a lesson."lesson." TToo bebe sure,sure, therethere isis a strongstrong sensesense ofof outreachoutreach amongamong thethe IndianIndian laylay JainasJainas 1I spokespoke toto,, probablprobablyy correspondingcorresponding ttoo a changechange ofof identityidentity frofromm sectariansectarian JainismJainism givengiven a neneww sensesense ofof IndianIndian nationalismnationalism inin thethe wakewake ooff India'sIndia's nuc1earnuclear teststests iinn 19981998 (and(and India'sIndia's subsequentsubsequent riserise asas anan economic,economic, socialsocial andand politicapoliticall power)power).. ThiThiss sensesense ofof outreach,outreach, tootoo,, reflectsreflects increaseincreasedd contactcontact witwithh thethe Diaspora.Diaspora. MarcusMarcus BanksBanks categorizescategorizes JainaJaina DiasporaDiaspora beliefbeliefss inin Leicester,Leicester, UnitedUnited Kingdom,Kingdom, asas "neo-orthodox.""neo-orthodox." Neo-orthodoNeo-orthodoxx JainismJainism "presents"presents itselitselff asas modemmodern andand progressive,progressive, witwithh anan emphasisemphasis oonn thosethose aspectsaspects...whic ... whichh cancan bbee interpreteinterpretedd asas scientificscientific andand rationalrational andand cancan thereforthereforee bbee accommodatedaccommodated ttoo andand encompassencompass WesternWestern modemodess ofthought,"of thought," inc1udingincluding ethicsethics (Dunda(Dundass 2002,2002, 273,273, citingciting BanksBanks 1991).1991). Neo-orthodoxNeo-orthodoxyy primarilprimarilyy advocateadvocatess "the"the advantagesadvantages ooff a balancebalancedd andand healthyhealthy diet,diet, non-violencenon-violence andand relativism,relativism, thethe valuvaluee ooff meditation,meditation, a rejectionrejection ofof rituarituall andand sectarianism,sectarianism, andand a beliebelieff inin thethe possibilitpossibilityy ofof unaidedunaided self-perfection." " Does thisthis definitiondefinition workwork forfor mymy interviewees?interviewees? WeWe certainlycertainly dodo seesee sornesome parallelparalle1ss betweebetweenn mymy findingsfindings anandd Banks'Banks' ideaidea ofof neo-orthodoxyneo-orthodoxy - forfor exampleexample thethe strongstrong individualismindividualism ofof mymy interviewees,interviewees, asas wellwell aass Kamini'sKamini's articulationarticulation ofof vegetarianismvegetarianism aass primarilprimarilyy a healthhealth benefibenefitt unnecessarunnecessaryy forfor salvationsalvation ofof thethe soul,soul, anandd againagain Kamini'sKamini's 112112

emphasisemphasis onon thethe spirituallinternallevelspiritual/internal level overover externalexternal actionaction andand ritual.ritual. AIso,Also, wewe havehave seenseen thatthat manymany ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees mentionementionedd thethe benefitbenefitss ofof meditation,meditation, inin particulaparticularr thethe TerapanthiTerapanthiss (Sadhvis(Sadhvis)) anandd ShuganShugan.. MostMost obviouslyobviously,, iitt iiss evidenevidentt thathatt ththee lndianIndian laylay JainasJainas lI spokespoke toto seekseek toto overcomeovercome theirtheir sectariansectarian pastpast andand "unify""unify" (to(to useuse Shugan'sShugan's word)word) underunder a commoncommon lndianIndian (and(and eveneven global)global) JainaJaina identity.identity. OnOn thethe otherother hand,hand, sornesome ofof mymy findingsfindings stronglystrongly contradictcontradict thethe characteristicscharacteristics ooff Banks'Banks' "neo-orthodox""neo-orthodox" positionposition.. TheThe mostmost obviousobvious probleproblemm areareaa hashas toto dodo withwith whatwhat BanksBanks stressesstresses aass thethe neo-orthodoxneo-orthodox emphasisemphasis onon nonviolencenonviolence andand relativismrelativism.. AsAs wewe havehave seen,seen, thethe strongstrong supportsupport ofof mymy intervieweesinterviewees forfor violencviolencee inin thethe workwork ofof policpolicee andand soldierssoldiers andand inin casescases ofof capitalcapital punishmenpunishmentt seemsseems ttoo forcefuIlyforcefully contradictcontradict ththee neoneo­- orthodoxorthodox emphasisemphasis oonn ahimsa, eveneven beyonbeyondd whatwhat oneone cancan expectexpect fromfrom a compromisecompromise inin thethe vovoww (anuvrata). AsAs forfor relativism,relativism, thithiss supportsupport ofof violenceviolence doesdoes notnot seemseem openopen ttoo muchmuch compromisecompromise atat aIl.all. AlthoughAlthough wewe willwill recaIlrecall thatthat anekantavada cancan bbee a "flexible"flexible fundamentalism,,,2fundamentalism,"2 wewe mustmust remember thatthat itit isis neveneverr acknowledgedacknowledged asas suchsuch onon ththee issueissue ofof ahimsa. SimplySimply putput,, ahimsa iiss nonott a qualityquality thathatt cancan bbee compromised.compromised. AsAs ththee SadhvisSadhvis state,state, "violence"violence isis a violence."violence." TheThe neo-orthodoxneo-orthodox descriptordescriptor proposeproposedd bbyy BanksBanks needneedss toto bbee modifiedmodified toto taketake thesethese changeschanges intointo consideration.consideration. lI thinkthink thatthat "orthodoxy""orthodoxy" isis tootoo strongstrong a wordword forfor thethe values lI havehave detecteddetected here,here, andand lI wouldwould proposepropose insteadinstead "neo-Jainism.""neo-Jainism." ThisThis newnew markermarker woulwouldd bebe characterizedcharacterized bbyy a willingnesswillingness toto considerconsider exceptionsexceptions toto thethe principlprinciplee ofof ahimsa fromfrom a perspectivperspectivee inin supportsupport ofof thethe risingrising tidetide ofof lndianIndian nationalismnationalism andand globalglobal awarenessawareness.. ThereThere werewere medievalmedieval precedentprecedentss forfor aIlall this,this, toto bbee sure,sure, bubutt todaytoday theythey areare foregrounded.foregrounded.

I~

2 Chapple'sChappie's term.term. SeeSee thethe endend ooff ChapteChapterr One.One. REFERENCESREFERENCES

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