Bulletin ^ Vienna, Austria Quarterly Journal of the International Atomic Energy Agency

Jal VOL.38, N0.3 /// 1996 BULLETIN ^ VIENNA, AUSTRIA QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

TCHERNOBYL: MISE EN PERSPECTIVE riEPCriEKTHBbl HEPHOBblflfl CHERNOBIL EN PERSPECTIVA

X X X X X X

X Ì X X

Front Cover: Just over ten years after the world's tragic nuclear IAEA i plant accident at Chernobyl, how much have we learned about its BULLETIN actual consequences? The scientific and technical answers are QUARTERLY JOUHMAL of ATOMIC ENEHQV AGENCY many and cover much ground and an array of complex topics. Fortunately, as the accident's long shadows recede and myths unravel, perspectives sharpen. Through global efforts, more light is being shed on the accident's true effects, and the needs of its victims. While open issues still must be resolved, a factual framework was set in April 1996 at the International Chernobyl Conference in Vienna to support decisions — especially those affecting the millions of men, women, and children living in the towns, villages, and farms most in need of assistance. (Cover design: Hannelore Wilczek, IAEA; Stefan Brodek, Vienna.)

Facing Page: Women greet experts of the I990 International Chernobyl Project, one of many global studies that has examined post-Chernobyl social, health, and environmental effects in parts of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine. (Credit: Mouchkin, PavlicekJ IAEA).

CONTENTS

Features Chernobyl — Ten years after by Abel J. Gonzalez 12 One decade after Chernobyl: The basis for decisions Highlights of the International Chernobyl Conference and its results 114 Special Reports Post-Chernobyl scientific perspectives: Social, health, and environmental effects Environmental consequences, report by Mona Dreicer and Rudolf Alexakhin 124 Social!psychological effects, report by Britt-Marie Drottz-Sjoberg, G.M. Rumyantseva, A.I. Nyagu, and L.A. Ageeva I 27 Clinically observed effects, report by Gerard Wagemaker, Angelina K. Guskova, Vladimir G. Bebeshko, and Nina M. Griffiths 129 Thyroid effects, report by E.D. Williams, A. Pinchera, D. Becker, E.P. Demidchik, S. Nagataki, andN.D. Tronko 131 Health effects, report by Fred A. Mettler /33 Long-term health effects, report by E. Cardis, A.E. Okeanov, V.K. Ivanov, and A. Prisyazhniuk I 36 Agricultural countermeasures, report by John I. Richards and Raymond J. Hance I 38 Nuclear safety aspects, report by Luis Lederman 144

Bulletin Update Inside Technical Co-operation: Nuclear Energy for the Environment /Insert

Departments International Newsbriefs/Datafile / 48 Posts announced by the IAEA / 56 Keep abreast with IAEA publications / 58 Authors and Contributors to 1995 IAEA Bulletin / 60 Databases on line / 62 IAEA conferences and seminars/Co-ordinated research programmes / 64

ISSN 0020-6067 IAEA BULLETIN, VOL. 38, NO. 3 (SEPTEMBER 1996) FEATURES

Chernobyl — Ten years after

Global experts clarify the facts about the 1986 accident and its effects

by n 26 April 1986, a catastrophic explosion at international conference on One Decade after Abel J. González OUnit 4 of the Chernobyl nuclear power Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of plant in the Ukrainian Republic — close to the the Accident, held at the Austria Center in point marking the three-way border with the Vienna. The Chernobyl Conference was a Republics of Belarus and Russia — sent a very model of international co-operation: six organi- large amount of radioactive material into the zations of the UN family, including the IAEA, atmosphere. The event was to become one of the and two important regional agencies were most protracted and controversial themes of the involved in its organization. (See boxes on pages modern technological era. The Chernobyl acci- 8 and 17.) dent caused widespread concern over its radio- Between the accident in 1986 and this logical consequences, and also focused attention Chernobyl conference, the IAEA participated in on nuclear safety generally. The accident's a range of scientific endeavours which sought to aftermath evolved together with the unfolding quantify the actual consequences. (See boxes on of glasnost and perestroika in the former USSR pages 5,6,7 and 8). and soon became bound up with many misun- The aim of the Chernobyl Conference was to derstandings and apprehensions about the consolidate "an international consensus on the radioactive release and its real or perceived accident's consequences, to agree on proven sci- effects. entific facts, and to clarify information and There was initial secrecy and confusion prognoses in order to dispel confusion". The about the accident — candidly reported in Prof. results of the Conference speak for themselves. Leonid Ilyin's book, Chernobyl: Myths and (See the following article for Highlights of the Reality. The people living in the affected areas Chernobyl Conference: Summary of Results). learned about the event mainly from hearsay Some important issues have been summarised rather than from authoritative reporting. The here and are separately analysed in reports fea- first evidence of the accident outside the USSR tured in this edition of the IAEA Bulletin. resulted from measurements in Nordic countries Radioactive fallout. Although even today showing an unexpected increase in environmen- there is no complete consensus on the amount of tal radioactivity. This initial lack of transparen- radioactive material released by the Chernobyl cy had an impact on public confidence, and sub- accident, the best estimates — which are of the sequently so did the confusing and at times con- magnitude of 10 international units of activi- tradictory nature of the information released. ty, called becquerels — are illustrative of the Perceptions of the catastrophe ranged from catastrophic nature of the accident. Two chemi- those who believed that Chernobyl had been one cal elements in the radioactive plume formed by of the world's worst ever disasters to those who the materials released dominated the radiologi- saw it as a relatively limited health problem cal consequences: iodine and caesium. There is despite the tragic circumstances. a family of mainly short-lived radioactive iso- A decade later, in April 1996, more than 800 topes of iodine: a significant one is iodine-131. experts from 71 countries and 20 organizations whose activity falls by half every eight days. — observed by over 200 journalists — met to Radioiodines were mainly responsible for irradi- review the Chernobyl accident's actual and pos- ation of the thyroid gland of the people living in sible future consequences, and to put these into nearby regions shortly after the accident. Of the proper perspective. They came together at the radioactive caesiums, the most significant is caesium-137. a long-lived nuclide whose activity falls by half every 30 years. Caesium-137 was Mr. González ¡s Director of the IAEA Division of Radiation and Waste Safety, Department of Nuclear Safety. transported through the atmosphere for long dis-

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 FEATURES

Release of radioactive material into the environment

1 Q he destroyed reactor released a very large amount of radioac- About 10 becquerels of iodine-131 were released by the acci- Ttive material into the environment: lCr" international units dent. Iodine is mainly absorbed by a person's thyroid gland after of activity, termed becquerels. Although the discharge included inhalation or after consumption of contaminated foodstuffs such many radioactive chemical elements, just two of them — iodine as milk products; its short range beta particles irradiate the gland (in the short term) and caesium (in the long term) — were par- from the inside. Uptake of iodine by the thyroid is very easy to ticularly significant from a radiological point of view. prevent, for example by banning consumption of contaminated food for a few weeks until the iodine-131 decays sufficiently or by administering small amounts of non-radioactive iodine prophylactically to block the thyroid gland.

About 10' ' becquerels of radioactive caesiums were released, and precipitated over a vast area (see map MEPHOBblilbCKMM flPOEKT on page 5). Exposure to caesium is difficult to pre- 3KCnEPTH3A PAAHOJIOTHMECKHX vent. Once it is deposited in the soil, its long range H OL4EHKA 3AtHHTHblX gamma rays can expose anybody in the area. To clean UTOrOBAfl EPOWIOPA the surfaces is difficult and, if the concentration of caesium is high, often the only feasible countermeasure is to evacuate the inhabitants. Caesium in the soil can also be transferred into agricultural products and grazing animals.

For iodine-131, there is no clear information on where the release went, who was exposed to it and to which levels, or whether iodine uptake was effectively prevented. Indirect estimations gave firm indication that very high thyroid doses were incurred by some population groups. Children, who are particularly sensitive because of their normally high ingestion of milk products and their small thyroids, received higher doses.

In 1990 the International Chernobyl Project (see box, page 7) had predicted that, with high doses, a significant increase in the incidence of the relatively rare cancer of the thyroid would occur in affected children after a few years.

The cover of the Russian edition of a booklet describing the International Chernobyl Project, which was conducted by teams of international scientists in 1990 and 1991.

tances, deposited variably over vast areas, mainly sequences for people and ecosystems in and in Europe and — to a minor but measurable near the Chernobyl plant site. Radiation damage extent — elsewhere over the whole northern correlates with the radiation dose incurred by hemisphere. The deposited caesium became the people and biota. Dose is a quantity related to main cause of whole body radiation exposure in the amount of radiation energy absorbed by the the long term. (Sec box above and map on pai>e 51. mass of biological matter. The dose incurred by Radiation doses. The release of radioactive people is expressed in Sieverts and. most com- material was expected to have severe direct con- monly, in the submultiple millisieverts — one

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 FEATURES

Environmental damage. Lethal radiation Direct effects of radiation on the doses were reached in some radiosensitive local natural environment ecosystems, within a few kilometres of the accident, notably in coniferous trees and for voles. n the first few weeks following the accident, Doses fell sharply within a few months and the Ilethal doses were reached in local biota, ecosystems eventually recovered. No sustained notably for coniferous trees and voles (small severe impacts on the environment have been mice) in the area within a few kilometers of the observed so far. (See box on the left). A report reactor. By autumn 1986, dose rates had fallen by M. Dreicer and R. Alexakhin addresses the by a factor of 100, and by 1989, these local environmental consequences of the accident in ecosystems had begun to recover. No sustained more detail. (Page 24). severe impacts on animal populations or A by-product of the environmental contami- ecosystems have been observed. Possible long- nation was the contamination of foodstuffs pro- term genetic impacts and their significance duced in the affected areas. Although for some remain to be studied. time after the accident key foodstuffs showed activity levels exceeding the maximum levels permitted by the Codex Alimentarius,* no food now produced by collective farms exceeds these levels. Exceptionally, wild food products — such as mushrooms, berries and game — from forests in the more affected areas as well as fish from some European lakes remain above Codex levels. An important aspect in controlling the contamination of the human habitat was the agricultural countermeasures undertaken in the affected areas; these are examined by J. Richards and R. Hance in a related report. (Page 38). Health effects. Health effects attributed to the accident have commanded the most concern on the part of the public, decision-makers and political authorities, and the Chernobyl Conference devoted a great deal of time to the topic. Clinically observed (and individually attributable) effects were discussed separately millisievert being a thousandth of a sievert (for from long-term effects which can only be attrib- comparison purposes, people receive on average uted to radiation after long studies of a statisti- an annual dose of 2.4 millisieverts from natural cal epidemiological nature of large popula- background radiation). Many of the plant work- tions.** (See box on page 10). Among the latter, ers and many people who helped to deal with thyroid effects is a special case that was treated the accident's aftermath — who were called separately from other longer term health effects. 'liquidators' — received high doses, some of Clinically observed effects. The number of thousands of millisieverts, and suffered clinical people who suffered clinically observed health radiation syndromes. Twenty-eight people died effects individually attributable to radiation as a consequence of their radiation injuries. exposure due to the Chernobyl accident was rel- Over 100,000 members of the public who were atively modest, given the accident's dimensions. evacuated from the contaminated areas, and also A total of 237 persons, all of them workers deal- those who remained living in the less affected ing with the accident, were suspected of suffer- regions, received, or are committed to receiving, relatively low whole body doses: over their life- continued on page 9 times, these will be comparable with or lower than doses they would receive in a lifetime from natural sources of radiation. (See box on page The Codex Alimentarius — which is established by FAO 11). Doses to the thyroid gland — particularly and WHO — sets the maximum permitted level of radioactivity for foodstuffs moving in international trade. of children — were a notable exception and are presumed to have been very high. Another **See "Biological effects of low doses of ionizing radiation: exception was doses in local ecosystems. A fuller picture", by the author in the IAEA Bulletin. Vol. 36. No. 4 (December 1994).

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Projection Lambert Azimuthai © EC/IGCE, Roshydromet/Mincriernobyl (UA)/Belhydro

40 185 1480 kBq/m' Total caesium-137 deposition normalised to 10 May 19 Data not available Preliminary version of the total Caesium-137 deposition map taken from the "Atlas of Caesium deposition on Europe after the Chernobyl accident," EUR report 16733, EC Office of Publication. Luxembourg, 1996.

Cumulative Deposition of Caesium Across Europe

he radioactive materials released by the Chernobyl accident fell out over vast areas and the deposited activity was easily Tmeasurable. The deposits were shown in so-called "contamination" maps such as this one showing cumulative deposition of caesium across Europe which was presented at the Conference. For the scientific community, the maps clearly provided a pictorial view of measurable activity. However, in the minds of the public at large the maps showed areas regarded as "contaminated" and — therefore — "unsafe." Using sensitive radiation measuring devices, scientists were able to draw maps down to very low levels of activity and up to very large distances. Negligible levels were shown and presented as "contamination" in maps of the former USSR. When the maps were made available — some years after the accident — people became concerned even though the radiation doses caused by these deposits in much of the thousands of square kilometers so "contaminated" were lower than natural background radiation levels in many parts of the world.

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 FEATURES

Assessing the Chernobyl Consequences

During the past decade, many international activities have helped assess the Chernobyl accident's consequences. These activities can be divided into two periods: those carried out before the 1990 International Chernobyl Project which gave a fuller account of the accident, and those activities which follow up the Project to the time of the International Chernobyl Conference in April 1996.

1986-89:The Initial Picture — Piecing Together the Facts

August 1986: The Post-Accident Review Meeting. A widely • Releases of radioactive materials produced wide surface con- attended international gathering was organized by the IAEA a tamination with spots of up to 30 x Iff Bq/m2 (80 Cilkm1) and con- few months after the accident: the "Post-Accident Review tamination of milk with specific activity of up to 20,000 BqlL. Meeting". The outcome was reported on by the then recently cre- • • The collective dose commitment inside the former USSR was ated International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group, INSAG. * estimated at 226,000 man-Sv of which 30% was committed in the first year, with whole body doses up to 50 mSv in the first year The INSAG report examined the causes of the accident and pre- • Doses to the thyroids were confirmed to be up to 2500 mSv. sented the preliminary Soviet assessment of the amount of radioactive materials released from the damaged reactor. It also December 1988: Global Assessment by the United Nations contained a limited but significant early account of the radiolog- Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation ical consequences: (UNSCEAR). UNSCEAR did a thorough assessment of the • Of the on-site personnel, about 300 had to be hospitalized for impact outside the USSR. In its 1988 report to the UN General radiation injuries and burns. Assembly, UNSCEAR estimated that: • 135,000 people were evacuated: their collective dose from • The highest national average first-year dose was 0.7 mSv (or external radiation was estimated to be 1.6x10* man-sievert (man Sv).one third of the global average natural background exposure). • Doses to thyroids were estimated to be mostly below 300 mil- • The highest regional average total dose commitment was 1.2 lisieverts (mSv), although some children may have received thy- mSv (or 1130 of the average lifetime dose from natural sources). roid doses as high as 2500 mSv. • The total global impact of the Chernobyl accident was 600,000 • The long-term collective dose to the population was pes- man Sv, equivalent on average to 21 additional days of world expo- simistically estimated at 2x10" man Sv with a realistic estimate at sure to natural background radiation. 2x105 man Sv. May 1989: The Extent of Consequences Crystallizes —The Some calculations on the potential long-term health effects were IAEA "Ad Hoc Meeting". Three years after the accident, scien- also made and the chances of epidemiological detection of these tists obtained a more comprehensive insight into the magnitude effects were judged to be limited: only in the cohorts with sub- of the accident's consequences at an informal ad hoc meeting stantially high doses could some effects possibly be discovered, which was organized by the IAEA Secretariat in May 1989 at the e.g. benign and malignant thyroid neoplasms. time of the 38th session of UNSCEAR. It was attended by over 100 scientists from 20 countries and reported at a subsequent May 1988: The Kiev Conference. Two years later, the interna- symposium on recovery operations after accidents^. The infor- tional scientific community had the second opportunity to review mation provided by Soviet experts attending the meeting gave a the radiological consequences during the International Scientific more detailed account of the long-term situation: Conference on the Medical Aspects of the Accident at the • Contamination maps of the affected territories, open to inter- Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant held by the Soviet authorities in national scrutiny, showed 10,000 km2 of territories with radioac- co-operation with the IAEA in Kiev in May 1988. (An unedited tive contamination in excess ofSSxlO5 Bq/m2 (15Cilkm2). version of the Conference proceedings was issued by the IAEA • 786 settlements with 272,800 people were in "areas of strict as an unpriced publication and a report summarizing the infor- control" where — up to January 1990 — a collective dose of mation also was published.) 13,900 man Sv was expected to be incurred, with a few members of the public being expected to exceed 170 mSv. Information presented at the Conference covered various topics: • The international community was advised of the intervention • The actual number of clinically diagnosed radiation injuries criterion for countermeasures and protective actions established was precisely reported: 238 occupationally exposed persons had by the Soviet authorities, which would eventually become very declared signs of radiation syndromal sickness (eventually a lower controversial. 350 mSv of lifetime dose. number was positively diagnosed); of these 28 had died. Two other people were killed by the reactor explosion (another died of coronary thrombosis). continued on the next two pages

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1990-91 : A Fuller Account —The International Chernobyl Project

March 1990 - May 1991: Expert assessments on site — More uted to radiation exposure. As expected, at the time of the Project facts emerge. In October 1989, the USSR formally requested the no increase in the incidence of leukaemia or cancers could be sub- IAEA to co-ordinate "an international experts' assessment" of the stantiated and potential future increases in malignancies other than concept which the USSR had evolved to enable the population to thyroid cancer were expected to be difficult to discern. live safely in areas affected by radioactive contamination following • The general conclusions on the health situation were followed the Chernobyl accident, and an evaluation of the effectiveness of the by a number of detailed conclusions. Some were related to neo- steps taken in these areas to safeguard the health of the population. plasms, in particular to the increases in cancer reported at the time and to the potential future cancer increase, as follows: As a result, the International Chernobyl Project (1CP) was O Soviet data indicated that reported cancer incidence had launched in early 1990. It focused on four key issues of concern been rising for the last decade and had continued to rise at the to the population and policy makers: the extent of the existing same rate since the accident. However, the Project considered contamination in the inhabited areas; the projected radiation that there had been incomplete reporting in the past and could not exposure of the population; the current and potential health assess whether the rise was due to increased incidence, method- effects; and the adequacy of measures being taken at the time of ological differences, better detection and diagnosis, or other the Project to protect the public. Conclusions and recommenda- causes. tions were approved by the ICP International Advisory Committee O On the basis of estimated Project doses and currently on 22 March 1991 and presented for scrutiny to an international accepted radiation risk estimates, future increases over the natur- conference in Vienna 21-24 May 1991. They were published by al incidence of cancers and hereditary effects would be difficult to the IAEA and can be summarized as follows: discern, even with large and well designed long term epidemiological studies; however, reported estimates of absorbed thyroid • The surface contamination levels reported in the "contamina- dose in children were such that it was anticipated that there might tion" maps available at the time were generally corroborated: be a statistically detectable increase in the incidence of thyroid 25,000 km2 were defined as affected areas with ground concen- tumours in the future. tration levels of caesium-137 in excess of 1.85 x 10s Bqlm2 (5 0 Protective measures being taken at the time of the Project or Cilkm2); of this total, approximately 14,600 km2 are located in planned for the long term, such as some relocations and foodstuff Belarus, 8,100 km2 in Russia and 2,100 km2 in the Ukraine. restrictions, were found to exceed those which would be necessary 0 The whole body radiation doses to be incurred over a lifetime on radiation protection grounds. were estimated to be below 160 mSv or two to three times lower than originally thought; however, it was impossible to corrobo- The ICP also recommended a number of follow-up actions includ- rate the level of thyroid doses actually incurred. ing continuing epidemiological evaluations and fostering health 0 Significant but non-radiation related health disorders and psy- care, concentrating on "selected high risk populations!' chological disturbances such as stress and anxiety were found in the population, but — outside the group of heavily exposed workers — no health disorders were detected which could be directly attrib-

Notes to pages 6 and 7. International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group, Summary Report on the Post-Accident Review Meeting on the Chernobyl Accident, Safety Series No. 75-INSAG-l; IAEA; Vienna (1986).

2 See Proceedings of the All-Union Conference on the Medical Aspects of the Chernobyl Accident, IAEA-TECDOC 516, and Konstantinov, L.V. and Gonzalez, A.J., "The Radiological Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident", Nuclear Safety, Vol. 30, No. 1 (January-March 1989).

3Gonzalez, A.J ; "Recovery operations after the Chernobyl Accident: The intervention criteria of the USSR's National Commission on Radiation Protection"; IAEA-SM-316/57, in the Proceedings of International Symposium on Recovery Operations in the Event on a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency, IAEA-SM-316/57, page 313.

ICP was sponsored by the European Commission, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the International Labour Organisation, the World Health Organization, the World Meteorological Organization, the IAEA, and UNSCEAR. An independent "International Advisory Committee" of 19 members was set up under the chairmanship of Dr. Itsuzo Shigematsu, the Director of the Radiation Effects Research Foundation in Hiroshima, which, ever since 1950, has monitored and analysed the health of atomic bomb survivors in Japan, the largest population ever exposed to high doses of radiation. The other scientists on the Committee came from ten countries and five international organizations. The expertise encompassed, among other disciplines, medicine, radiopathology, radiation protection, radioepidemiology and psychology. The most active phase of the project ran from May 1990 until the end of that year. About 200 experts from 23 countries and 7 international organizations participated, and 50 scientific missions visited the USSR Laboratories in several countries, including Austria, France and the USA, helped to analyse and evaluate collected material.

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1991-96: Follow-up Co-operative Studies —Toward Clearer Perspectives

Many international initiatives followed the International a small number of children exposed to radiation in utero; howev- Chernobyl Project, including those highlighted here. er, the extent to which radiation might have contributed to such mental changes cannot be determined because of the absence of Follow-up initiatives by the IAEA. An agricultural countermea- individual dosimetry data. sures project was sponsored by FAO and IAEA-' and a new envi- • The types and distribution of oral diseases observed in the ronmental assessment was organized by IAEA and supported by residents of "contaminated" areas were the same as those of the the Institut de protection et de sûreté nucléaire (IPSN, France)^. residents of "uncontaminated" areas.

The WHO International Programme on the Health Effects of Projects supported by the European Commission (EC). The the Chernobyl Accident (IPHECA). The results of the IPHECA EC supported many scientific research projects on Chernobyl's project were recently published and discussed at the WHO consequences. The results were summarized at the First International Conference on the Health Consequences of the International Conference of the European Union, Belarus, the Chernobyl and other Radiological Accidents, held in Geneva, 20- Russian Federation and the Ukraine on the Consequences of the 23 November 1995. IPHECA generally confirmed the conclu- Chernobyl Accident, held in Minsk, on 18-22 March 1996. The sions of the ICP and provided additional information on the projects produced valuable information that can be used for future increase in child thyroid cancer incidence foreseen by the ICP. emergency planning, dose assessment and environmental remedi- ation, as well as in the treatment of highly exposed individuals The IPHECA conclusions can be summarized as follows: and in screening for thyroid cancer in children.

• Psychosocial effects, believed to be unrelated to radiation Other initiatives. These include several UNESCO supported exposure, resulted from the lack of information immediately after studies, mainly on psychological consequences; special reports the accident, the stress and trauma of compulsory relocation to from UNSCEAR and the Nuclear Energy Agency of the OECD; less contaminated areas, the breaking of social ties, and the fear and individual studies in the affected States and in other countries, that radiation exposure could cause health damage in the future. e.g. a comprehensive monitoring of the affected people carried 0 A sharp increase in thyroid cancer was reported, especially out by Germany, an extensive study sponsored by Japan's among children living in the affected areas. By end-1994, 565 Sasakawa foundation, a major USA project and a large Cuban children aged 0-14 years were diagnosed as having thyroid can- assessment on the intake of caesium-137, covering about 15,000 cer (333 in Belarus, 24 in the Russian Federation, 208 in children. Ukraine). 0 There was no significant increase in the incidence of April 1996: the International Conference on One Decade leukaemia or other blood disorders. After Chernobyl — Summing up the Accident's • Some evidence was found to suggest retarded mental devel- Consequences. The main organizations involved in assessing the opment and deviations in behavioural and emotional reactions in Chernobyl accident's consequences, namely the IAEA, WHO and EC, united their efforts in co-sponsoring the recent Chernobyl Conference. They organized the event in co-operation with the 5The "Prussian Blue (PB) Project" aimed to reduce contamination in UN itself (through its Department of Humanitarian Affairs), milk and meat using a technique involving the use of the PB chemical UNESCO, UNSCEAR, FAO and the Nuclear Energy Agency of compound in ruminants'foodstuffs. It was mainly funded by the IAEA OECD. The Chernobyl Conference was attended by 845 scientists and Norway whose specialists developed the technique. With time this from 71 countries and 20 organizations and covered by 280 jour- project would prove to be the most cost effective of all post-ICP follow up projects. A US $50,000 annual investment by Belarus saved US $30m nalists. It was presided over by Germany's Federal Minister for of lost milk/meat production annually. the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety and attended by high-level officials and members of government, "Following a specific request of Belarus at the 1994 IAEA General including the President of Belarus, the Prime Minister of Ukraine, Conference, the IAEA engaged in a mainly environmental project on and the Russian Federation's Minister for Civil Defence, "prospects for the contaminated area". The project has been financed Emergencies and Elimination of Consequences of Natural mostly by IPSN, which was heavily involved in its technical implemen- Disasters, as well as by France's Minister for the Environment. tation together with scientists of the affected regions. Some conclusions arose that extend beyond the general conclusions of the ICP to cover the Three national reports, 4 addresses by intergovernmental organi- general environment. Referring to the forested biocoenosis — the envi- zations, 11 keynote presentations, 8 background papers, 181 ronmental system that had reportedly suffered most from the Chernobyl detailed poster papers and 12 technical exhibits provided the basis accident — the project concluded that the radioactive contamination was for this summing up of the Chernobyl accident's consequences. not on a massive scale and affected mainly pine forests: the death of the pine plantations, although severe in the immediate vicinity of the plant, amounted to less than 0.5% of the forested area of the exclusion zone.

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Symptoms unrelated to radiation Social, economic, institutional and political impacts

A population survey on non-radiation related A background paper on Chernobyl's socio-economic, institutional, and polit- symptoms was carried out in areas directly affect- ical impact was prepared by high-level officials of Belarus, Russia, and ed by the accident (so-called "contaminated Ukraine and discussed at the International Conference*. The various coun- areas") and control areas in the "uncontaminated" termeasures taken by the authorities, some of them to address radiation haz- regions. Results presented at the International ards, created many social and economic problems. Some problems identified Conference show on the one hand a surprisingly in the paper follow: high incidence of these symptoms and on the • Immediately after the accident 116,000 people had to be evacuated. other hand that the incidence is not clearly relat- Further, between 1990 and the end of 1995, almost 210,000 additional peo- ed to whether people are living in "contaminated" ple were resettled. A new town, Slavutich, was built for the personnel of the or "uncontaminated" areas. These effects could Chernobyl plant to replace Pripyat, which had to be evacuated. be attributed to the accident itself or to economic • Complete villages had to be decontaminated and major work on infra- hardship and social disruption in the region. structure, such as gas and water supply networks and sewage systems was carried out. The loss of Chernobyl Unit 4 together with the halt on construc- Percentage tion of new reactors, hampered electricity supplies. 100 • There was major disruption to normal life and economic activity in the affected areas. In particular, agricultural and forestry production was severely disturbed and large production losses were incurred. Compensation was granted to agricultural enterprises, co-operatives and the population at large for losses of crops, animals and possessions. Moreover, monetary payments were made to different sectors of the population — for example, to purchase imported foodstuffs to replace home-grown produce. • The control measures limited industrial and commercial activities. It was difficult to sell or export products, leading to a fall in local incomes. Also, the perception of an "unsafe" life in the affected areas and of the unavailability Headache Depression Fatigue Appetite loss of "clean" products have held back industrial and commercial investment. ] "contaminated areas" uncontaminated areas" • Restrictions on customary activities made everyday life difficult and unsettling. Anxiety, distress, fatalistic attitudes and a kind of "victim" men- tality grew among the population and are still prevalent in the affected areas. ing clinical syndromes of radiation exposure • Significant demographic changes in the region due to emigration — par- and were hospitalized, and 134 of them were ticularly among young people — and the subsequent shift in the birth rate diagnosed with acute radiation syndrome. Of have led to shortages of young skilled workers and professionals. these, 28 died of the consequences of radiation • After the accident, a transformation from a centrally planned to a market injuries (three other persons died at the time of economy started in the affected countries. This difficult transformation was the accident: two due to non-radiation blast complicated by the need to deal with the consequences of the accident. injuries and one due to a coronary thrombosis). (See graph on page 10). Some years after the accident, 14 additional persons in this group died; however, their deaths were found to be not * Rolevich, I.V.; Kenik, I.A.; Babosov, E.M; and Lych, CM.; Voznyak, U.V; necessarily attributable to radiation exposure. A Kholosha, V.l.; Koval'skij, N.G.; and Babich, A.A. Background paper 6 on the Social, Economic, and Institutional Impact, in the Proceedings of the Chernobyl Conference following report in this edition by Dr. G. being published by the IAEA. Wagemaker et al. describes the clinically observed effects in more detail. (Page 29). Thyroid effects. The situation in relation to thyroid effects is serious. Up to the end of 1995, early diagnosis, treatment and attention. At the there were more than 800 cases of thyroid can- time of the Chernobyl Conference, three of the cer reported in children, mainly in Belarus. (See affected children had already died. The graph on page 10). Thyroid cancer may be prospects cannot be precisely predicted: the induced by causes other than radiation, but all high incidence is expected to continue for some these cases seem to be likely associated with time and the number of reported cases may be in radiation exposure due to the accident. They the thousands; the mortality will depend very represent a dramatic increase in the normal inci- much on the quality and intensity of the treat- dence of this rare type of cancer and the increase ment given to the affected children. Prof. E.D. seems not to persist among children born after Williams et al. reviewed the thyroid effects in a 1986. Thyroid cancer is usually non-fatal with separate report. (Page 31).

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Clinically observed effects among liquidators Health effects attributable to radiation exposure The figure shows the total number of people hospitalized after the accident, among them those who have been clinically diagnosed as having acute radiation syndrome here are two types of health effects that can (ARS), and those who died either by radiation related causes or by other causes. Tbe attributable to the radiation exposure due to the Chernobyl accident.

250 Hospitalized H Coronary but no ARS The first are early syndromes that can be clinical- • 35 200 ly observed in the exposed individuals — i.e. they ü ARS survivors 30 ÜH Non-radiation can be diagnosed by a specialized practitioner who can unequivocally attribute the type and severity of 150 Death ,'' ^ Radiation 0 the effect to the amount of the individual's radia- S 20 100 - 15 tion exposure. They only occur at relatively high radiation doses, above a threshold dose, and pre- 10 - 50 sent a distinctive pathology affecting specific organs and tissues. With large doses they affect the 0 whole body and are diagnosed as acute radiation syndrome (ARS). At Chernobyl, these effects were suffered by a number of fire fighters and other emergency workers only. Number of thyroid cancer cases among children in Belarus The second are potential long-term radiation The increase in the incidence of thyroid cancers in children has been notable. The induced malignancies and — plausibly — hered- graph shows the number of cases in children in Belarus aged below 15 at the time itary effects, which are difficult or sometimes of treatment. The total number of cases reported so far is 800. The high incidence impossible to discern from the usually high normal is expected to continue for some time and the total number of excess cases report- incidence of these types of effects in the popula- ed will probably be in the thousands. tion. These long-term effects cannot be directly attributed to radiation from the results of individual clinical examinations but only indirectly through long epidemiological studies in large pop- Number of cases per year 100 ulation groups. They became evident as an increase in the statistical incidence of the effects in the population. However, if the radiation dose is very small or the number of people affected is small, the effects become undetectable against the normal incidence. At Chernobyl, such effects have become evident only as an increase in the incidence of thyroid malignances in children.

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Year

Longer term health effects. There is no evi- dences of these effects in people are relatively dence to date of any increase in the incidence of high, it is not surprising that no effects could be any malignancies other than thyroid carcinoma detected. (See box, page 11). or of any hereditary effects attributable to radi- An exception to the lack of evidence of long- ation exposure caused by the Chernobyl acci- term effects might have occurred in the group of dent. This conclusion, surprising for some liquidators: taking into account the relatively observers, is in accordance with the relatively high doses reported in this group, an increase in small whole body doses incurred by the popu- the incidence of leukaemia might have been lations exposed to the radioactive material detected. For all other malignancies and heredi- released. The lifetime doses expected to be tary effects, the theoretically predicted number incurred by these populations are also small. In of cases due to radiation exposure from the acci- fact, the risks of radiation induced malignancies dent are so small in comparison with the back- and hereditary effects are extremely small at ground incidence as to be impossible to confirm low radiation doses and. as the normal inci- statistically.

10 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 FEATURES

Estimating long-term effects

For predicting the long-term effects in a population exposed to radiation, it is important to estimate the radiation doses to be incurred by people during their lifetime. Except for the liquidators, the levels of whole body doses were relatively low. Of the 116,000 people that were evacuated for radiation protection reasons, fewer than 10% received doses of more than 50 mSv, a dose that can be incurred in a few years of living in an area of high natural levels of background radiation. Even for people who continued to live in the highest contamination areas, the doses they have committed for life will be in the same order of magnitude; the maximum accumulated dose — which was predicted by the ICP in 1990 to be around 160 mSv — is now estimated to be around 120 mSv. Outside the most affected areas the doses are even smaller: the highest European regional average dose committed over 70 years was estimated by UNSCEAR to be 1.2 mSv, or half the average dose that will be incurred in just one year of exposure to average background radiation, as shown below.

Some perspective on dose rates 100 I- r*~ do occur —— not uncommon I - Highest regional 6 average total 4 2 •»— average (in mSv) 0 Natural background Strict control "Contaminated" "Contaminated" Highest national zones" area - area , average (555 kBq/m ) (185 kBq/m ) (first-year)

The graphs show the predictions of radiation induced long-term effects versus the cases of these effects expected to occur normally among the same population. The first set presents cases of leukaemia in four population groups, namely: the "liquidators"; the evacuees from the "exclusion zone"; the residents of "strict control zones"; and the residents of the so-called "contaminated" areas. The second set expands on the comparison for the liquidators between radiation-induced and normal cases for leukaemia, solid cancers and hereditary disorders. Except for leukaemia in the liquidators (and thyroid cancers in children), the number of theoretically predicted radiation induced effects is statistically not significant when compared with the normal occurrences. However, the detection of increase in leukaemia in liquidators is elusive and no long- term effects attributable to the Chernobyl accident — other than thyroid carcinomas — have been found.

Predictions of radiation-induced leukaemia compared with normal occurrences Liquidators Evacuees from the "exclusion zone"

Lifetime First ten years Lifetime First ten years

Residents of "strict control zones" Residents of other "contaminated" areas 1.200 24.000 1.000 800 18.000 600 12.000 400 200 6.000 0 0 Lifetime First ten years Lifetime First ten years Predictions of radiation-induced effects among liquidators compared with normal occurrences Leukaemia Solid cancers Hereditary disorders 1.200 50.000 _ Normal occurrences 1.000 40.000 800 30.000 600 Predicted effects 400 - 20.000 200 - 10.000 0 0 Lifetime First ten years Lifetime

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More than 800 experts The reason why the theoretically expected compensations and payments of allowances to from over 70 countries increase in the incidence of leukaemia in the liq- the population. The President of Belarus, report- and organizations uidators has not become evident requires further ed that, "According to our most modest esti- attended the investigation. It could be that the dose was lower mates, the economic damage incurred following International Chernobyl than reported, or that the epidemiological stud- the Chernobyl accident is equal to 32 annual Conference. ies of this group are somehow inadequate. Less budgets of the Republic, i.e. US $ 235,000 mil- (Credit: Pavlicek/IAEA) plausibly, the risk factors for radiation induced lions. For these purposes we allocate annually leukaemia could be lower than the currently 20-25% of the State budget." The Russian estimated cases of leukaemia in the 2(X).000 Federation Minister for Civil Defence. registered liquidators who worked in 1986-87, Emergencies and Elimination of Consequences which was of the order of 200 over a lifetime as of Natural Disasters reported that, "Over the compared to a spontaneous number of around past years, trillions of roubles have been made 800. (See graph on page II). Dr. E. Cardis et al. available for the rehabilitation of the parts of go into greater detail in their report on the long- Russia affected by the accident." For the term health effects. (Page 36). Ukraine, its Prime Minister reported that, "The A retrospective look at the findings of the total expenditure in eliminating the conse- International Chernobyl Project in 1990 in rela- quences of the accident over the period 1992 to tion to health effects is provided by Dr. Fred 1996 alone, paid out of the Ukrainian national Mettler. (Page 33). budget, exceeds US $ 3,000 millions." Social and other impacts. The Chernobyl Certainly, a major social problem lies in the Conference found that social, economic, institu- significant psychological symptoms detected tional and political impacts were also important among the population, such as anxiety, depres- consequences of the Chernobyl accident. A sion and various psychosomatic disorders attrib- background paper prepared jointly by officials utable to mental distress. It has been found that of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine described the it is extremely difficult to discern whether these catastrophe in terms of economic and social dis- effects are attributable solely to the Chernobyl ruption. (See box on page 9). Large economic accident or to economic hardships and other losses attributed to the accident were reported in social problems in the region: the levels of these this official document and also in the national disorders in the areas concerned seem to be sur- statements delivered at the Chernobyl prisingly high whether people were directly Conference. For the period 1986-91. the total affected by the accident or not. (See graph on direct losses and outlays in the former USSR page 9). In a separate report. Dr. Britt-Marie were stated as exceeding 23.000 million rou- Drottz-Sjoeberg et al. look at social and psycho- bles. The expenditures were accounted for — logical effects in more detail. (Page 27). inter alia — by: losses of capital assets and in Nuclear safety issues. For the public as well production: population resettlement, including as for the responsible authorities, the Chernobyl construction of dwellings and other facilities; accident prompts the question: Are Chernobyl- forest protection, water conservation, and soil type reactors now safe? Experts say that the pos- decontamination and treatment: and. various sibility of a repeat of the accident has virtually

12 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 FEATURES

Nuclear safety

n International Forum on Chernobyl's Nuclear • void reactivity effect has been reduced; ASafety Aspects was held in Vienna from 1 to 3 • the efficiency of the scram system has been April 1996 under the sponsorship of the IAEA and increased; the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs. The • the operational organization has strengthened. Forum results were reported at the Chernobyl Conference. Issues beyond the scope of this first stage of upgradings still require more detailed attention Some highlights follow: entailing varying requirements corresponding to the different generations of RBMK reactors. Causes of the Accident: The available detailed information is sufficient to identify the causes of The Sarcophagus. Broad agreement was reached the accident and to take effective measures to pre- that there is a risk of partial or total collapse of the vent the repetition of such an event. It was con- sarcophagus during its design lifetime (approxi- firmed that: mately 30 years). While even in the worst case of a complete collapse widespread effects would not be • there were significant deficiencies in the design expected, the stabilization of the sarcophagus is a of the reactor — in particular of its shutdown sys- high priority safety issue. tem — and operating procedures were severely vio- lated at the time of the accident; The sarcophagus is currently safe from the point of • there was a lack of safety culture in the organi- view of criticality. However, configurations of fuel zations responsible for operation and for control: masses exist inside it which could reach a critical important safety weaknesses had been recognized state when in contact with water. Although this long before the accident occurred but were not potential criticality could not lead to large off-site remedied. releases, water entering the sarcophagus is a further significant safety issue. Safety of RBMKs. Between 1987 and 1991, a first stage of safety upgrading was performed on all Potential safety implications of the proximity of the RBMK units of the Chernobyl type, which sarcophagus to the remaining operating unit of addressed the most serious problems identified, as Chernobyl need further investigation. follows:

been ruled out because of safety improvements public at large, decision-makers and political that have been made at plants of this type. Other leaders with authoritative information about safety improvement issues at the remaining these consequences. This ought to put an end to Chernobyl units and reactors of the same much of the misinformation that has arisen over RBMK type require attention. In addition, there the consequences of the accident. is the separate issue of the safety of the remain- The radiation levels that can still be detected ing debris at Chernobyl, most of which is con- in most affected areas are sufficiently low as to tained within the structure known as the sar- permit normal economic and social activity to cophagus. All these issues were discussed thor- be resumed. The health effects have not turned oughly at an international forum, One Decade out to be as catastrophic as some feared and oth- After Chernobyl: Nuclear Safety Aspects, which ers reported. But a number of radiation effects preceded the Chernobyl Conference and was did occur and more are expected to occur and reported on at the Conference. (See box above). should be dealt with. Moreover, the socio-eco- More details about the forum and its conclu- nomic impacts are very serious. sions are presented by Mr. L. Lederman in a fol- All efforts should now be concentrated on lowing report. {Page 44). using our better understanding of the conse- Outlook. The scientific assessments of the quences to help those who have truly been consequences of the Chernobyl accident have affected and are still in need of help. ~] now been discussed and corroborated ten years later by a wide and representative international gathering of experts. The results provide the

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 13 FEATURES

One decade after Chernobyl: The basis for decisions

A major international conference sums up the scientific understanding of the Chernobyl accident's major consequences

Highlights of A Ithough much has been learned about the well as many non-professional personnel. All results l\ tragic Chernobyl accident of 26 April 1986 these people became known by the Russian term over the past 10 years, important issues remain likvidator. About 200,000 "liquidators" worked to be resolved. In efforts to set the factual frame- in the Chernobyl region between 1986-87, when work for the international community's ongoing radiation exposures were the highest. They were assistance, the IAEA, European Commission among some 600,000 to 800,000 persons who (EC), and World Health Organization (WHO) were registered as involved in activities relating jointly convened a major international confer- to alleviating the consequences of the accident. ence in April 1996 to sum up the scientific This includes persons who participated in the understanding of the accident's consequences. clean-up after the accident (including cleaning (See box.) At its conclusion, the Conference up around the reactor, construction of the sar- issued a Summary of Results which was formu- cophagus, decontamination, road building, and lated on the basis of Conference reports and destruction and burial of contaminated build- keynote presentations; background papers pre- ings, forests and equipment), as well as many pared by expert panels and Conference discus- other general personnel who worked in the ter- sions of them; and the conclusions of each tech- ritories designated as "contaminated" and who nical session. The Joint Secretariat of the generally received low doses. Conference recommended that the Summary be Between 27 April and mid-August 1986, used as the basis for decisions concerning about 116,000 inhabitants were evacuated from future work and collaboration with the aim of their homes in the region around the Chernobyl alleviating the consequences of the Chernobyl plant, the intention being to protect them from accident. Featured here are selected highlights radiation exposure. A so-called "exclusion from the Summary of the Conference Results.* zone" was established, which included territories with the highest dose rates, to which public access was prohibited. This exclusion was con- Initial response to the accident tinued in the independent successor countries of Belarus and Ukraine after the dissolution of the Emergency measures had to be taken to bring the release of radioactive material under control, to deal with the debris from the reactor, and subsequently to construct a confinement structure, the so-called "sarcophagus", which was completed in November 1986, to contain the remains of the reactor core. The response to the accident was carried out by a large number of ad hoc workers, including operators of the plant, emergency volunteers such as fire-fighters and military personnel, as

*The full summary is included in the Proceedings of the Conference being published by the IAEA.

14 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 FEATURES

The far-reaching dimensions of the Chernobyl accident go far beyond its radiological effects, though they frequently receive the most attention. Many of the problems still facing people in the villages and towns most heavily affected by the accident are related to other factors, and they require further study and greater resources to solve.

Facing page: The fence surrounding the restricted 30-km zone. This page, clockwise from top left: Medical doctors checking children in Ukraine; a farm inside the 30-km zone, where some people who were evacuated have chosen to return to their homes; villagers in Belarus learning how to measure radiation levels in homes; aerial view of the Chernobyl plant, with the sarcophagus at right; farmers receiving information about radiation assessments. (Credits: MouchkirvlAEA: Pavlicek'IAEA. Government of Belarus: Eric Voice)

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 15 FEATURES

Soviet Union. The exclusion zone covers in total measured were estimated at 16,500 km2, 4600 4300 km2. km2, and 8100 km2, respectively.

Releases and deposition of radioactive Radiation doses material The 200,000 persons who participated in The total activity of all the radioactive mate- 1986-87 in the "liquidation" of the conse- rial released in the accident is today estimated to quences of the accident received average doses have been around 12 x 10'8 Bq, including some of the order of 100 mSv.** Around 10% of them 6-7 x 1018 Bq due to noble gases.* About 3% to received doses of the order of 250 mSv; a few 4% of the used fuel in the reactor at the time of per cent received doses greater than 500 mSv; the accident as well as up to 100% of noble while perhaps several tens of the people who gases and 20% to 60% of the volatile radionu- responded initially to the accident received clides were released. This current estimate of potentially lethal doses of a few thousands of radioactivity is higher than the estimate of 1986. millisieverts. The 1986 estimate was made by authorities of The 116,000 people evacuated from the the former USSR on the basis of summing the exclusion zone in 1986 were already exposed to activity of the material deposited within the radiation. Fewer than 10% had received doses of countries of the former USSR. However, this more than 50 mSv and fewer than 5% had reassessment of the source term does not alter received doses of more than 100 nnSv. the estimations of individual doses. The radioiodines released delivered radia- The radionuclide composition of the materi- tion doses to the thyroid gland.*** Iodine was al released in the accident was complex. The absorbed into the bloodstream, generally by radioactive isotopes of iodine and caesium are ingestion in foodstuffs, mainly contaminated of the greatest radiological significance: the milk, and also by inhalation from the initial iodines, with their short radioactive half-lives, radioactive cloud, and accumulated in the thy- had the greater radiological impact in the short roid gland. Doses to the thyroid were anticipat- term; the caesiums, with half-lives of the order ed to be particularly high compared with those of tens of years, have the greater radiological to other body organs, especially for children. impact in the long term. The estimates for the The long-term doses to the populations in activity of the amounts of the key radionuclides various countries of the northern hemisphere as released are as follows: iodine-131: -1.3 - 1.8 x a result of the accident, including average doses 1018 Bq; caesium-134: -0.05 x 10'" Bq; cae- in various countries, have been assessed by the sium-137: -0.09 x 10"1 Bq. These values corre- United Nations Scientific Committee on the spond to about 50% to 60% of the iodine-131 in Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). the reactor core at the time of the accident and UNSCEAR estimated that individual doses out- about 20% to 40% of the two radiocaesiums. side the former USSR as a result of the accident Deposition of material. Material released to were as follows: the highest national average the atmosphere was widely dispersed and even- first year dose was 0.8 mSv; the highest tually deposited onto the surface of the earth. It European regional average committed dose over was measurable over practically the entire northern hemisphere. **The quantity radiation dose is a measure of the energy Most of the material was deposited in the absorbed by tissues per unit tissue mass, weighted by the region around the plant site, with wide varia- effectiveness of the radiation type and the radiosensitivity of the various tissues in the body. Its unit is the sievert (Sv), tions in deposition density. The areas of the sur- with a subunit of millisieverts (mSv), or thousandths of a rounding territories of Belarus, the Russian sievert. For perspective, the global annual average radiation Federation, and Ukraine in which activity levels dose due to natural background radiation is 2.4 mSv, with of caesium-137 in excess of 185 kBq/m2 were considerable geographic variation. Hence over a standard lifetime of 70 years, an individual accrues an average dose of 2.4 mSv x 70 = 170mSv due to natural background radiation. The amount of a given radionuclide is expressed in terms of the quantity "activity", which corresponds to the number ***Doses to specific organs are usually expressed in grays of spontaneous nuclear transformations releasing radiation (Gy). For the type of radiation of concern here, a dose of 1 per unit time. Its unit is the reciprocal second (s-'i, termed Gy to the thyroid corresponds to a (weighted) equivalent becquerel. thyroid dose of 1 Sv.

16 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 FEATURES

The International Conference One Decade After Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of the Accident by Malcolm Crick

rom 8-12 April 1996 Fat the Vienna Inter- national Centre, the IAEA, European Com- mission (EC), and the World Health Organi- zation (WHO) jointly sponsored an Interna- tional Conference to recapitulate the scientific understanding of the major social, health, and environmental consequences of the Chernobyl accident. The Conference was organized in co- operation with the UN through its Department of Humanitarian Affairs (UNDHA), the UN Educational, Germany's Environmental Minister, Dr. Merkel, who served as Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the UN Conference President, confers with a colleague at the heavily attended International Chernobyl Conference in Vienna. Environment Programme (UNEP), the UN Scientific (Credit: PavlicekJIAEA) Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the UN, and the United States on the results of major bilateral post-Chernobyl Organization for the Economic Co-operation and Development assistance projects. through its Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA). The technical symposium featured eight separate topical ses- Some 800 scientists and government officials in fields of sions on a range of social, health, and environmental subjects. nuclear energy, radiation safety, and health care attended the Topics included clinically observed health effects; thyroid effects; meeting, as well as more than 200 representatives of the media. longer term health effects; other health-related effects including Participants included high-level governmental representatives psychological effects, stress and anxiety; consequences for the from the accident's three most heavily affected countries — environment; the social, economic, institutional and political Belarus, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine — and delegates impact; nuclear safety remedial measures; the consequences in per- from almost 90 States and intergovernmental organizations. spective, and a prognosis for the future. For each session. The Conference President was Dr. Angela Merkel, Minister Background Papers had been prepared in advance by committees for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety of of senior experts, including experts from Belarus, Russia, and Germany, assisted by a Bureau of senior scientists. An Advisory Ukraine, nominated by the Advisory Committee. At each Topical Committee of senior experts from Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine Session, the Rapporteur introduced the relevant Background Paper monitored the Conference's organization and development. and any related scientific papers presented at a Poster Session. A The Conference featured a range of sessions at which experts following open discussion proved extremely stimulating and lively. reviewed the findings of work carried out to date, including the The conclusions of each session were reported to the Bureau of the outcome of two major international conferences, one hosted in President and summarized at the Final Session of the Technical November 1995 by WHO and the other in March 1996 under EC Symposium. In addition to the plenary discussions, some 181 indi- auspices in Minsk. It also considered the outcome of an vidual scientific posters were displayed as well as 12 technical IAEA/UNDHA International Forum on Nuclear Safety Aspects exhibits of key projects. On the last day, a rather provocative panel held in Vienna the week before the Conference. Opening address- discussion took place with representatives of the media, science es were made by IAEA Director General Hans Blix: WHO and government, which further explored the public's perception of Director General Hiroshi Nakajima: H.Tent, EC Director General the Chernobyl accident consequences and tried to address why it for Science, Research and Development; and M. Griffiths, differed from that of experts. UNHDA Director. The Conference further featured national Conference proceedings, including a Summary of Results. statements by Alyaksandr Lukashenko. President of Belarus: A. are being published by the IAEA. Information also is available Shoigu. Minister for Emergencies. Russia; andYevgeni Marchuk. through the IAEA's World Atom Internet Services at Prime Minister of Ukraine. http:" www.iaea.or.iitiworldcitom'thisweek/previewicheniohxl. In a Briefing Seminar, seven keynote presentations were given by representatives of UNESCO: UNSCEAR: FAO: Mr. Crick, a staff member of the IAEA Department of Nuclear Safety, OECD/NEA and of organizations in Germany. Japan, and the served as Scientific Secretary of the Conference.

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 17 FEATURES

the 70 years to 2056 was estimated to be 1.2 At present, the more severely affected mSv. In the International Chernobyl Project, it patients suffer from multiple ailments, including was estimated that the highest committed doses effects of mental stress, and are in need of up-to- for the 70 years from 1986 to 2056 for people date treatment and preventive measures against living in the most contaminated territories were secondary effects. Health care should be of the order of 160 mSv. Recent, more detailed, ensured for these patients, and their state of studies have produced similar results. health should be monitored over the forthcoming two to three decades. Among the disease patterns encountered, it will be important to dis- Health effects tinguish between those that are attributable to radiation exposure and those due to confound- Clinically observed effects. A total of 237 ing factors intrinsic to the populations affected occupationally exposed individuals were sug- by the accident. gested to be suffering from clinical syndromes Thyroid effects. A highly significant attributable to radiation exposure and were increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer admitted to hospital. Acute radiation syndrome among those persons in the affected areas who (ARS) was diagnosed in 134 cases. Of these 134 were children in 1986 is the only clear evidence patients. 28 died as a consequence of radiation to date of a public health impact of radiation injuries, all within the first three months. Two exposure caused by the Chernobyl accident. (In more persons had died at Unit 4 from injuries 1991, the report on the International Chernobyl unrelated to radiation (and one additional death Project had stated that "it is expected that there was thought to have been due to a coronary will be a radiogenic excess of thyroid cancer thrombosis). cases in the decades to come. This risk relates to Gastrointestinal damage was a serious con- thyroid doses received in the first months after cern, causing early and lethal changes in intesti- the accident..." *.) This increase in incidence nal function among 11 patients who had received has been observed in Belarus and to a lesser doses greater than 10 Gy. The deaths of 26 of the extent in Ukraine and in the Russian Federation. 28 patients who died were associated with skin The number of reported cases up to the end of lesions that affected over 50% of the total body 1995 is about 800 in children under 15 years old surface area. After the acute phase, 14 additional at the time of diagnosis; more than 400 of these patients have died over the past ten years; how- cases were in Belarus. In most cases the diag- ever, their deaths do not correlate with the origi- noses have been confirmed by international nal severity of ARS and are therefore not neces- experts. sarily — and in some cases are certainly not — The increase has been observed in children directly attributable to radiation exposure. who were born before or within six months of There is little doubt that the patients received the accident. The incidence of thyroid cancer in the best possible treatment in line with the state children born more than six months after the of knowledge at the time, in the most experi- accident drops dramatically to the low levels enced centre available. However, the therapy of expected in unexposed populations. Moreover, bone marrow transplantation recommended at most of the cases of thyroid cancer are concen- the time was of little benefit. With today's trated in areas thought to have been contaminat- knowledge, this is readily understandable in ed by radioiodines as a result of the accident. view of the inherent immunological risks of the Thus both temporal and geographical distribu- procedure, the heterogeneous exposure charac- tions clearly indicate a relationship of the teristics and the other complicating injuries due increase in thyroid cancer to radiation exposure. to radiation, such as unmanageable gastroin- Furthermore, since the thyroid gland concen- testinal damage or skin lesions. Bone marrow trates iodine, one or more radioactive isotopes damage can best be managed in future by the of iodine are presumed to be the causative prompt administration of haemopoietic growth agents of the increase in incidence of thyroid factors. The most optimal combination and dose cancer in children. scheduling for these still need to be determined, Analyses of exposure by age confirmed the however. For other radiation damage also, new hypothesis that very young children were at the diagnostic tools have become available which greatest risk. It is now considered that the may contribute to a more accurate prognosis and increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer in more individually tailored treatment. those exposed as young children may persist.

18 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 FEATURES

This could increase the prevalence of thyroid Leukaemia, a rare disease, is a major con- cancer in the affected group in the future, requir- cern after radiation exposure. Few fatalities ing adequate resources for dealing with it. due to radiation induced leukaemia would the- In the present case, the minimum latency oretically be expected according to predictive period between exposure and diagnosis of thy- models (based on data from the survivors of roid cancer seems to be about four years. This the Japanese atomic bombing and others). The latency period is somewhat shorter than expect- total expected excess fatalities due to ed on the basis of previous experience related to leukaemia would be of the order of 470 among the 7.1 million residents of "contaminated" ter- acute exposure to external radiation. ritories and "strict control zones", which would To date, only three children in the cohort of be impossible to distinguish from the sponta- diagnosed cases have died of thyroid cancer. neous incidence of about 25,000 fatalities. The These post-Chernobyl papillary thyroid cancers total expected figure among the 200,000 liq- in children, in spite of their aggressiveness, uidators (who worked in 1986-87) would be of appear to respond favorably to standard thera- the order of 200 fatalities against a sponta- peutic procedures if appropriately applied; how- neous number of 800 deaths due to leukaemia. ever, only short term follow-up data are avail- According to current models, about 150 of able as yet. There is thus a need for complete these 200 excess leukaemia deaths among the and continuing follow-up of the affected chil- liquidators would have been expected to have dren in order to establish the optimal therapy. occurred in the first ten years after exposure, Life-long administration of L-thyroxine to chil- for which the spontaneous incidence is 40. In dren is mandatory after thyroidectomy. summary, to date, no consistent attributable The extent of the future incidence of thyroid increase has been detected either in the rate of cancers as a result of the Chernobyl accident is leukaemia or in the incidence of any malignan- very difficult to predict. There remain uncer- cies other than thyroid carcinomas. tainties in dose estimates and, although it is not Among the 7.1 million residents of "contam- certain that the present increase in the incidence inated territories" and "strict control zones", the will be sustained in the future, it will most prob- number of fatal cancers due to the accident is ably persist for several decades. If the current calculated, using the predictive models, to be of high relative risk is sustained, there would be a the order of 6600 over the next 85 years, against large increase over the coming decades in the a spontaneous number of 870,000 deaths due to incidence of thyroid carcinoma in adults who cancer. Future increases over the natural incidence of all cancers, except for thyroid cancer, received high radiation doses as children. or hereditary effects among the public would be In the event of any future accident, recog- difficult to discern, even with large and well- nized measures should be taken under strictly designed long-term epidemiological studies, as defined conditions to protect populations at risk had already been stated in the report on the from exposure of the thyroid to radioiodine, International Chernobyl Project. such as prevention of the consumption of conta- Increases in the frequency of a number of minated food and iodine prophylaxis through non-specific detrimental health effects other the distribution of pharmacological doses of sta- than cancer among exposed populations, and ble iodine. The populations living around the particularly among liquidators, have been Chernobyl plant have historically been subject reported. It is difficult to interpret these find- to iodine deficiency, and remedy of this defi- ings because exposed populations undergo a ciency through the consumption of iodized salt much more intensive and active follow-up of in food is in any case recommended. their state of health than does the general pop- Longer term health effects. Apart from the ulation. Any such increases, if real, might also confirmed increase in the incidence of thyroid reflect effects of stress and anxiety. cancer in young people, there have been some Existing population-based cancer and mor- reports of increases in the incidence of specific tality registries should be improved or, where malignancies in some populations living in contaminated territories and in liquidators. These répons are not consistent, however, and the reported increases could reflect differences in the follow-up of exposed populations and *See The International Chernobyl Project: Technical Report, Assessment of Radiological Consequences and increased ascertainment following the Chernobyl Evaluation of Protective Measures, Part F: Health Impact, accident; they may require further investigation. Section 3.11.3. p. 389, published by the IAEA (1991).

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 19 FEATURES

appropriate, such registries should be set up. In knowledge of the health effects of radiation addition, specific studies to investigate the and radiation protection; and to develop, inte- reported increases and also the predicted grate and sustain existing networks of local increases, particularly in leukaemia among liq- authorities, specialists and researchers in the uidators, should be carried out. This should be social and psychological field. done using carefully designed protocols applied uniformly to analyze, and possibly to distinguish the effects of, confounding factors. Psychological consequences. Several Environmental consequences important studies and programmes have been conducted over the past ten years to determine Concerning direct consequences for animals social and psychological effects of the and plants, lethal radiation doses were reached Chernobyl accident. These have confirmed in some radiosensitive local ecosystems, earlier findings (including those of the notably for coniferous trees and for some small International Chernobyl Project) that there are mammals within 10 km of the reactor site, in the significant psychological health disorders and first few weeks after the accident. By the symptoms among the populations affected by autumn of 1986 dose rates had fallen by a factor the Chernobyl accident, such as anxiety, of 100. By 1989 the natural environment in depression and various psychosomatic disor- these localities had begun to recover. No sus- ders attributable to mental distress. It is tained severe impacts on populations or ecosys- extremely difficult to distinguish the psycho- tems have been observed. The possibility of logical effects of the Chernobyl accident from effects of economic hardship and the dissolu- long-term genetic effects and their significance tion of the USSR. remains to be studied. The psychological effects of the Chernobyl For humans, the significance of the environ- accident resulted from the lack of public infor- mental contamination depends on the pathways mation, particularly immediately after the acci- for their exposure. The main pathways are by dent, the stress and trauma of relocation, the external irradiation from radioactive material breaking of social ties, and the fear that any deposited on the ground and by internal irradia- radiation exposure is damaging and could tion due to the contamination of foodstuffs. In damage people's health and their children's the first few weeks after the accident, health in the future. It is understandable that radioiodines were the radionuclides of the great- people who were not told the truth for several est radiological importance. Since 1987, most of years after the accident continue to be skepti- the radiation dose received has been due to cae- cal of official statements and to believe that ill- sium- 134 and caesium-137, with a minor contri- nesses of all kinds that now seem more preva- bution from strontium-90, while plutonium-239 lent must be due to radiation. The distress has made a minimal contribution to dose. caused by this misperception of radiation risks Several items of the normal diet were conta- is extremely harmful to people. minated by radioactive materials. Early after the The lack of consensus about the accident's accident, key foodstuffs such as milk and green consequences and the politicized way in which vegetables had contamination levels in excess of they have been dealt with has led to psycho- what is today considered acceptable by the logical effects among the populations that are WHO/FAO Codex Alimentarius Commission, extensive, serious and long lasting. Severe set as maximum permitted contamination levels effects include feelings of helplessness and for foodstuffs moving in international trade. despair, leading to social withdrawal and loss (These levels are now globally established by of hope for the future. The effects are being the International Basic Safety Standards for prolonged by the protracted debate over radiation risks, countermeasures and general social Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for policy, and also by the occurrence of thyroid the Safety of Radiation Sources.) There are cancers attributed to the early exposures. some questions about the effectiveness of the control measures that were taken in the early There is an urgent need to foster trust in the stages following the accident. personal ability to change one's life for the better; to encourage small-scale and communal Countermeasures are relatively inefficient in projects to improve matters locally and to sup- reducing external exposures but can be very port organizations promoting rehabilitation of efficient in reducing the uptake of radioactive the populations concerned; to increase public material. In the long term, the appropriate appli-

20 IAEA BULLETIN. 3/1996 FEATURES cation of agricultural countermeasures can The control measures imposed by the reduce the uptake of caesium into food. The authorities to limit radiation exposure in "con- effectiveness of countermeasures depends on taminated" territories have limited industrial local conditions such as soil type. For example, and agricultural activities. Moreover, the atti- in some localities where the amount of caesium tude of the general population towards prod- deposited ön the ground was relatively small, ucts from "contaminated" areas makes it diffi- the transfer to milk could nevertheless be high. cult for produce to be sold or exported, leading In general, no food produced by collective farms to reductions in local incomes. now exceeds the WHO/FAO Codex Alimentar- Restrictions on people's customary activi- ius levels, although some foods produced by pri- ties make everyday life difficult and distress- vate farmers do exceed these levels. ing. Major rehabilitative actions have been undertaken over the past years. However, it is The semi-natural environment, i.e. with necessary to provide the public with more and characteristics intermediate between those of better information on the measures taken to managed agricultural land and those of natural limit the consequences of the accident, on pre- environments, may have a predominant influ- sent radiation levels and on radionuclide con- ence on the levels of future doses to the human centrations measured in foodstuffs. population. The transfer factor for radionuclides The social and economic conditions of peo- from soil to the milk of cows grazing on mead- ple living and working in "contaminated" terri- ows varies by a factor of several hundred, tories are heavily dependent on public subsidies. depending on the type of soil. Some food prod- If the compensation system in force were to be ucts derived from animals that graze in semi- reconsidered, some funds could be redirected to natural pastures, forests and mountain areas, new industrial and agricultural projects. and wild foods (such as game, berries and The consequences of the Chernobyl acci- mushrooms), will continue to show levels of dent and the measures taken in response, exac- caesium-137 that exceed the Codex Alimentarais erbated by the political, economic and social levels — in some cases greatly — overthe next changes of the past few years, have led to a decades and are likely to be a major source of worsening in the quality of life and of public internal doses in the future. health as well as to unfavorable effects on Local dose rates of radioactive material social activity. The situation was further com- buried at the Chernobyl site can be consider- plicated in the years after the accident by able. Furthermore, for orderly management of incomplete and inaccurate public information the provisional depositories of radioactive on the accident's consequences and on mea- residues from the accident, the potential conta- sures for their alleviation. mination of the local groundwater in the long term should be considered. Nuclear safety and the sarcophagus

Social, economic, institutional, and The main cause of the Chernobyl accident political impact lay in the coincidence of severe deficiencies in the design of the reactor and of the shutdown Between 1990 and the end of 1995, deci- system, and the violation of procedures. The sions were taken by the authorities to further lack of "safety culture" in the responsible orga- resettle people in Ukraine (about 53,000 per- nizations of the Soviet Union resulted in an sons), Belarus (about 107,000 persons), and the inability to remedy such design weaknesses, Russian Federation (about 50,000 persons). even though they had been known before the Evacuation and resettlement has created several accident. serious social problems, linked to the difficulties In addition to those features of direct rele- and hardships of adjusting to the new living vance to the causes of the accident, the original conditions. design of plants with RBMK reactors (Soviet Demographic indicators in "contaminated" light water cooled, graphite moderated reactors) regions have worsened: the birth rate has had further deficiencies. In particular, the origi- decreased, and the work force is migrating from nal design of the first generation of RBMK reac- "contaminated" areas to "uncontaminated" tors falls short of present safety objectives. areas, creating shortages of labour and profes- Remaining deficiencies, such as the partial con- sional staff. tainment, require further attention.

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 21 FEATURES

In accordance with a dynamic approach to not a reason for neglecting the need for safety safety, all nuclear power plants that do not meet measures and backfits during the remaining an internationally acceptable level of safety time of operation. need appropriate upgrading or should be shut The sarcophagus. The sarcophagus that was down. In September 1991, the IAEA constructed around the destroyed reactor Conference on The Safety of Nuclear Power: presently contains about 200 tones of irradiated Strategy for the Future expressed a consensus and fresh nuclear fuel, mixed with other mate- that the safety standards of older operating rials in various forms, mainly as dust. The total plants should be reasonably compliant with cur- activity of this material is estimated to be 700 x rent safety objectives. Active commitment to 10^ Bq of long-lived radionuclides. The sar- this objective remains of prime importance for cophagus has met the objectives set for the pur- ensuring an acceptable level of safety for poses of protection over the past 10 years. In the nuclear installations and for enhancing public long term, however, its stability and the quality confidence in nuclear energy. of its confinement are in doubt. A collapse of the A significant number of remedial measures structure could lead to a release of radioactive to enhance nuclear safety have been taken over dust and the exposure to radiation of the person- the past decade at existing plants with RBMK nel employed at the site. However, even in a reactors: technical and organizational measures worst case, widespread effects (beyond 30 km were taken immediately after the Chernobyl away) would not be expected. accident, as well as safety upgrades performed It has been found that the sarcophagus is between 1987 and 1991 which essentially reme- currently safe from the point of view of the died the design deficiencies that contributed to occurrence of a criticality. It cannot be com- the accident. Progress has also been achieved in pletely excluded that there exist configurations areas such as plant management, training of per- of fuel masses inside the sarcophagus that could sonnel, non-destructive testing and safety analy- reach a critical state when in contact with water. sis. As a result, a repetition of the same accident However, even if such a condition were to lead scenario seems no longer practically possible. to elevated radiation levels inside the sarcopha- However, the possibility of other accidents lead- gus, large off-site releases would not be expect- ing to substantial releases cannot be excluded. ed. The possible impact of such a state on site For all RBMK plants, there are plans for fur- personnel needs to be clarified. ther safety improvements to remedy those Opinions differ widely about the signifi- design deficiencies of RBMK reactors that are cance of the risk of an accident in Chernobyl not directly related to the Chernobyl accident. Unit 3 caused by a collapse of the sarcophagus. The implementation of these plans is lagging More detailed investigations of this issue are behind what is needed because the countries required. concerned lack the necessary resources. The safety of the remaining units and the Expedited implementation of what has been stability of the sarcophagus are not the only agreed to be necessary and has already been major issues still to be resolved at the Chernobyl planned is a top priority for the national nuclear site. Further concerns relate to the potential for programmes as well as for international co- contamination, in particular to the radioactive operation: necessary safety improvements must material buried at the site. These issues are be carried out independently from consideration interrelated and an integrated approach is of early decommissioning of the plants; more required to resolve them. The proposed con- resources must be made available for enhancing struction of a second shelter over the sarcopha- the safety of the RBMK plants that are current- gus should be part of such an approach. The ly operated; the status of national regulatory actions financed by the EC in this area have con- authorities and their support organizations must tributed to achieving an integrated approach. be strengthened. This approach now needs to be generalized, and Similar backfits as for other RBMK units the knowhow of the competent organizations of were also performed at the Chernobyl plant. the former USSR should be more effectively However, safety concerns with RBMK units are integrated. Research and development of an not only related to the generic design deficien- adequate design are necessary in order to ensure cies, but also to the quality of equipment. that the sarcophagus is ecologically safe. The decision of the Ukrainian authorities to A cost-effective procedure requires that suit- close down the remaining units at Chernobyl is able steps be taken, in accordance with the

22 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 FEATURES

progress of studies and the financial circum- important open questions with regard to the stances. The first measure should be the stabi- human health effects of radiation. It is necessary lization of the existing sarcophagus. This would to continue to support research into the biologi- significantly reduce the risk of its collapse and cal effects of radiation. would provide the time required for the careful Different factors, such as economic hard- planning of further measures (such as a second ship, are having a marked effect on the health of shelter). the population in general, including the various groups exposed as a result of the accident. The statistics for the exposed populations are being Perspective and prognosis examined in the light of the clear general increase in morbidity and mortality in the coun- Full rehabilitation of the exclusion zone is tries of the former Soviet Union so as to pre- not currently possible owing to: the existence of clude the misinterpretation of these trends as "hot spots" of contamination near residential being due to the accident. areas; the possibility of local radioactive conta- The public perception of the present and mination of groundwater; the hazard associated future impact of the accident may have been with the possible collapse of the sarcophagus; exacerbated by the difficult socioeconomic cir- and severe restrictions imposed on diet and cumstances in the USSR at the time, by the lifestyle. countermeasures that the authorities took to Any estimates of the total number of fatal minimize the accident's impact, and by the pub- and non-fatal cancers attributable to the accident lic's impression of the risks from the continuing should be interpreted with caution in view of the levels of radioactive contamination. uncertainties associated with the assumptions Past experience of accidents unrelated to on which they must be based. Such projections radiation has shown that the psychological do, however, provide a perspective on the mag- impact may persist for a long period. In fact, ten nitude of the long-term impact and help in iden- years after the Chernobyl accident, the evolution tifying areas needing special attention, both now of symptoms has not ended. It can be expected (such as the incidence of leukaemia among the that the importance of this effect will decrease liquidators and of thyroid cancer among chil- with time. However, the continuing debate over dren living in "contaminated" areas) and in the radiation risks and countermeasures, combined future. with the fact that effects of the early exposures There is a major discrepancy between the are now being seen (i.e. the significant rise in number of thyroid cancers appearing in those thyroid cancers among children), may prolong who were children at the time of the accident the symptoms. In evaluating the psychological and the predicted number of such cancers on the impact, account should be taken of the psycho- basis of standard thyroid dosimetry and current logical effects of the breakup of the USSR, and risk projection models. This difference may be any forecast should take into account the eco- the result of several factors unique to the acci- nomic, political and sociological circumstances dent which are not typically incorporated into of the three countries. The symptoms such as standard models. It is important to clarify these anxiety associated with mental stress may be issues as well as to continue the programs for among the major legacies of the accident. the detection of thyroid tumors. In view of the low risk associated with the The increase in the incidence of thyroid can- present radiation levels in most of the "contam- cer will most probably persist for several inated" areas, the benefits of future efforts to decades. While it is not possible to predict with reduce doses still further to the public would be certainty on the basis of current data, the esti- outweighed by the negative economic, social mated number of thyroid cancers to be expected and psychological impacts. It is important to among those who were children in 1986 is of the develop a strategy that takes into account both order of a few thousand. The number of fatali- the real radiological risk and the economic, ties should be much lower than this, if cancer is social and psychological disbenefits in order to diagnosed in the early stage and if appropriate yield the greatest net benefit in human terms. In treatment is given. These people should continue addition, measures to mitigate the psychological to be closely monitored throughout their lives. impact should be considered. H Despite the extensive scientific and medical knowledge of radiation effects, there remain

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 23 SPECIAL REPORTS

Post-Chernobyl scientific perspectives:

Reports on topics addressed at technical sessions of the International Conference convened in Vienna 10 years after the Chernobyl accident

ENVIRONMENTAL Broad agreement has been reached among vari- CONSEQUENCES ous estimates concerning the initial environmental release due to the accident. Most of the material released was short half-lived radionu- Report by Ms. Mona Dreicer, United States, clides. Releases to the environment of some who served as Rapporteur, and Academician radiologically important radionuclides (iodine- Rudolf Alexakhin, Institute of Agricultural 131, caesium-134, and caesium-137) are esti- Radiology and Agroecology, Obninsk, Russian mated now at a factor of two to three higher Federation, who served as Vice Chairman, than in 1986, namely 2 exa-becquerel (EBq), 50 Topical Session 5: "Consequences for the peta-becquerel (PBq) and 90 PBq, respectively. environment". However, the reassessment of the source term has had no impact on the assessment of individ- question often posed by the public and ual doses, which were based on the environ- decision-makers is: "What is the expert mental or whole body measurements made in Aview of the environmental damage that the affected areas. The total amount of radioac- resulted from the Chernobyl accident, and what tive material still present in the environment can be expected in the future?" after 10 years has decayed to about 80 PBq of Deriving a single answer is difficult: there long-lived radionuclides, principally caesium- were large variations in the levels of environmen- 137 and strontium-90, or about 1% of the total tal contamination, a lack of a common unit of amount released. (See table, next page.) measure with which to present the varied envi- Overall patterns of contamination by these ronmental consequences, and a broad range of long-lived radionuclides have remained essen- possible interpretations of the consequences. tially unchanged over the last 10 years, with rel- Traditionally in radiation protection, the natural atively little secondary transport of material. environment is considered to be protected if the Hot fuel particles released from the reactor are human population is protected. So in most cases, one of the factors of this accident that differen- the consequences are viewed solely in terms of tiate it from weapons fallout material. Close to impact on humans. It is for this reason that the the reactor, these particles are beginning to dis- most effective methods of restricting the natural integrate and further study is needed to under- course of the transfer of radionuclides in the envi- stand their final distribution in the environment. ronment (by so-called countermeasures) have Direct effects on plants and animals. The been aggressively studied during the last 10 years. highest doses immediately after the accident Besides providing important information for the were received by plants and animals within a development of radiation protection policy for the radius of 30 kilometers from the reactor. areas affected by the accident, advances have Contamination levels typically reached several been made in basic radio-ecological research. tens of mega-becquerel (MBq) per m2 (thou- Presented here is a brief summary of recent sands of Ci/km2) in some localities and external estimates of the initial releases to the environ- doses would correspondingly have been of the ment as a result of the Chernobyl accident, the order of several tens of gray (Gy) to vegetation observed impacts from increased levels of radi- and small animals in the first month from the ation on plants and animals near the site, and the short-lived radionuclides. By the autumn of transport of radionuclides in the environment. 1986, the dose rate at the soil surface dropped Recent estimates of radioactive releases. by a factor of 100 of the initial value.

24 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS

Social, health, & environmental effects

Residual radioactive material in the global environment as a result of the Chernobyl accident in April 1986

Significant Released in Remaining in Remaining in radionuclide 1986 (PBq*) 1996 (PBq) 2056 (PBq)

1-131 200-1700 0 0 Sr-90 8 6 1 5 Cs-134 44-48 1 6 0 Cs-137 74-85 68 17 Pu-238 0 03 0 03 0 02 Pu-239 0 03 0 03 0 03 Pu-240 0 044 0 044 0 03 Pu-241 59 36 02 Am-241 " 0 005 0 08 02

lPBq = 10" Bq Estimate of release decay corrected to 26 April 1986, the day of the accident **The activity of amencium-241 in 1996 has increased since 1986 as it is a daughter product ofplutomum-241 (half-life 14 years) This increase has to be considered in any radiological prognosis, however, the doses from amencium-241 will not exceed the present doses from other radionuclides

Above. A chestnut tree in bloom inside the 30-km exclusion zone. Right: Where forests were cut down after the accident, new trees are regenerating near the Chernobyl plant, which is on the horizon (Credit Eric Voice) Direct radiation injury to plants and animals was reported only in local areas within the 30- km exclusion zone. Different organisms in the natural environment were exposed to high doses, and the lethal doses for some radiosensitive ecosystems were reached. These lethal effects were seen in the coniferous forests in the nearest areas and for some small mammals. Severe direct effects of high radiation doses were observed in some individual animals, but were not necessarily significant in changing the likely that they will recover fully. Chronic dose overall health of the population. For example, rates in some areas within the 30-km exclusion cows grazing contaminated pastures near the zone may have reduced the fertility of animals reactor in the early phase after the accident of some species but it appears that other affect- received thyroid doses in the range of hundreds of ed animal populations have already recovered. Gy, resulting in atrophy and total necrosis of the The significance of the observed changes in the thyroid. For other ecosystems, individual plants, long-term health of the specific populations is and animals, no lethal effects were observed. difficult to determine at this time. In most cases, the plant and animal popula- There were media reports of severe birth tions affected by radiation returned to normal in defects in agricultural animals outside the 30- a few years. An example of this can be seen in a km zone in 1988-89, however, the frequency of 3000-hectare region around the plant by these reported defects was shown to be similar 1988-89 the damaged conifers had recovered in highly contaminated and non-contaminated their reproductive functions, and today it seems regions of Ukraine, leading to the conclusion

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 25 SPECIAL REPORTS

that the defects were not due to increased radia- Ukraine, and Russia, as well as in Nordic coun- tion dose. There have been no further reports of tries and the United Kingdom. The caesium-137 severe effects observed in farm animals. in these areas will remain available to be trans- There have been some reports of damage to ferred into food products for a longer time peri- mitochondrial chromosomes that have been od than in agricultural environments. passed on to subsequent offspring in high dose Since 1986, in the agricultural environment, rate areas, but other evidence supports general effective application of countermeasures result- recovery from the radiation damage. Today, ing in significant reductions of caesium and there is no general consensus on potential long- strontium into food has been demonstrated. The term hereditary impacts on plants and animals level of contamination, type of soil, soil mois- where the doses were very high. ture, and crop type are important influencing After 10 years, the major contributors to the factors. For example, depending on the type of low-dose chronic radiation are the remaining soil, the transfer factor between pasture and caesium radionuclides. The external dose in milk varies by several hundred, clearly illustrat- some isolated spots can still be of the order of 1 ing that the proper application of these actions mGy per day; however, even in the 30-km zone, are very site specific. Relatively simple, inex- the natural environment seems to be recovering. pensive and successful agricultural countermea- Owing to the relocation of people from the 30- sures include: deep ploughing of surface conta- km zone, there have been some changes in the minated soils; addition of fertilizers or other numbers and variety of animal and plant com- chemicals to agricultural lands; change in crop munities, but these changes have resulted from type; changing feeding regimes and slaughter- disuse of the land, not from radiation effects. ing times of cattle; the use of impregnated Some natural populations have thrived as a "Prussian Blue" salt licks and boli to reduce the result of the lack of human interference. No evi- transfer of caesium to cattle; and relocation of dence has been found that any plant or animal animals to uncontaminated pastures. (See relat- species have been permanently eliminated from ed article in this edition, page 38.) the most contaminated areas, except where Aquatic ecosystems have been shown to be clean-up activities involving soil removal have tolerant of the radioactive contamination that drastically altered the ecosystem. gradually concentrates in the sediments. Even Contamination in the environment. In the in the cooling pond of the Chernobyl power semi-natural environment, the key factors con- plant, only certain populations were affected, trolling the migration of radionuclides from top- and no long-term direct radiation effects have soil into plants in meadow ecosystems are the been documented. The amount of radioactive clay and organic content of the soil and soil material that found its way into freshwater moisture. In general, the current migration rate is aquatic systems was small compared to the total slow and steady and is expected to continue over amount deposited. The surface water activity the coming decades, even as the level of radioac- levels fell dramatically within one month of the tive material in the soil declines. The transfer of accident. The public's perception notwithstand- strontium-90 is faster than for caesium-137, but ing, current contamination levels in reservoirs the influence of the different types of soil is sim- are well below the criteria that indicate a degra- ilar. This rate of transfer is an important consid- dation in water quality. Fish, however, may eration in the decisions regarding the long-term accumulate radionuclides and countermeasures use of meadows as cow pastures. may be necessary in some places (even in coun- Today, nearly all the contamination in forest tries far away, such as Sweden). ecosystems is found in the topsoil. The radio- Conclusions. It can be concluded that at caesium in trees is concentrated in the new high radiation levels the natural environment growth rings owing to the transfer from the soil showed short-term impacts in some high dose through the roots. This is not a significant prob- rate areas but existence of significant long-term lem but will increase the caesium-137 concen- impacts remains to be seen; and that effective tration in wood. No cost-effective countermea- countermeasures can be taken to reduce the sure to reduce this transfer has been found. transfer of contamination from the environment Game animals that graze in semi-natural to the human population but these are highly pastures, forests or mountainous areas, and wild site specific and must be evaluated in terms of foods consumed by people, such as berries and practicality. If agricultural countermeasures are mushrooms, will continue to show elevated cae- appropriately implemented, the main source of sium-137 levels over the next decades. These future doses will be due to the gathering of food foods may still be contaminated above the strict and recreational activities in natural and semi- nationally adopted limits in areas of Belarus, natural ecosystems. •

26 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS

SOCIAL/PSYCHOLOGICAIj EFFECTS . J

Report by Ms. Britt-Marie Drottz-Sjöberg, Centre for Risk Research, Sweden, who served as Chairperson, Topical Session 4, entitled "Other health-related effects: Psychological consequences, stress, anxiety", and by G.M. Rumyantseva, Serbsky Center of Social and Forensic Psychiatry, Moscow; A.I. Nyagu, Institute of Radiation Medicine, Kiev, Ukraine; and L.A. Ageeva, Institute of Sociology, Minsk, Belarus.*

oint Study Project-2 — a collaboration between researchers from Europe and the JCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and financed by the European Commission — was initiated in 1991-92 and concluded in 1995. One facet of research focused on Chernobyl's social and psychological effects. Several investigations were designed to describe public reactions to the Chernobyl accident among directly affected people, i.e. people living in areas with different levels of contamination and people who had been resettled due to the accident. Such groups were compared to control groups living in radiologically non- affected areas. Interviews and survey studies focused on psychological reactions, including stress, experiences of personal mastery, common sentiments, and perceptions of risk related to various kinds of hazards. They also covered, for example, measures of trust in information sources, self-rated knowledge of radiation, perceived degree of radioactive contamination of the home area, and standards of living. A total of 5000 individuals were involved in the investigations. Previous studies had shown that psychological problems associated with the Chernobyl accident were not decreasing with time. People experienced exposure to real risks, and resettled people often provided the highest risk ratings. Responses to a question about the ability to protect oneself from radioactive contamination were overall discouraging. People indicated an

*This summary is based on "The influence of social and psychological factors in the management of contaminated territories", by Ms. Drottz-Sjöberg, G.M. Rumyantseva; P.T. Allen, Robens Institute, University of Surrey, UK; H.V. Arkhangelskaya, Institute of Radiation Hygiene, St. Petersburg, Russia; A.I. Nyagu; L.A. Ageeva; and V. Prilipko, Inside the 30-km zone, some lifelong residents near Chernobyl have returned to the Institute of Radiation Medicine, Kiev, Ukraine. The paper was homes from which they were evacuated after the accident in 1986. Others who were presented at the Minsk Conference, 18-22 March 1996, on relocated have not returned, leaving their former cottages, farms, and orchards "The Radiological Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident". abandoned. (Credit: Eric Voice)

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 27 SPECIAL REPORTS

interest, however, in improving their knowledge to have altered the psychological outlook, as well of radiation and radioactive contamination. as reduced the stress. The policy was implement- Worries were focused on health risks due to ed in a staged manner, being mainly voluntary, radioactive contamination, but there was also spread over time, accompanied by significant considerable concern about hardships of every- financial benefits, and facilitating the mainte- day life. Worries about everyday life increased nance of social networks. Regarding organized stress. In the contaminated areas, factors specif- health care, it may be that preparedness for ic to radiation also had effects — for example, immediate and large-scale medical screening is a self-attributed radiation knowledge had an necessity after a radiological accident, but the effect in reducing stress. medium-term strategy could include other Similarly, the extent to which people options moving away from mandatory rules, e.g. believed they could affect the amount of dose services for counselling or for measuring person- they received also reduced stress. The result fur- al dose or food products. The long-term manage- thermore indicated that people who tended to ment of health risk could be tailored to needs of believe that things are determined by fate were affected and vulnerable groups. somewhat more likely to have a higher dose Similarly it seems that financial support and compared to others. People who had resettled compensation strategies become very important voluntarily and found the relocation justified in the immediate and medium-term perspective, indicated the lowest level of distress. Those who but that the beneficial effects may be threatened resettled involuntarily and who did not find the in the longer term if they create dependency relocation justified reacted the strongest. Trust rather than enhance self-sufficiency. One lesson in various information sources was overall low, of relocation which is seldom addressed con- but foreign experts gained a higher rating than cerns information and support to the communi- domestic experts, and health promotion bodies ties which accommodate new members. were more trusted than various political bodies. Although relocated people may be provided People who paid more attention to media also with newly constructed housing they will never- gave higher ratings of everyday worry. An analy- theless have an impact on the local community. sis of selected Russian, Ukrainian, and Well-being could be increased in the communi- Belarussian newspapers at various points in time ties if long-term risk management includes a showed as a common feature that a great majori- review of common resources and helps accom- ty of the articles were written by journalists. modate common needs. Material written by experts, specialists, and The results of the investigations must be authorities was much less frequently published, related to the changes introduced by the policy but appeared to some extent in 1986 and then of perestroïka and glasnost, and the intensified again from 1989-90 onwards. Another common social uncertainty which occurred during the feature was that newspaper materials in 1986 and mid-1980s and early 1990s. The Chernobyl 1987 tended to have a soothing emotional con- accident divides a more than 70-year-old social tent. Emotionally strained materials appeared system from a new time. Its significance will more frequently around 1990 and onwards. The therefore remain salient in people's minds for a appearance of strained material around 1990 has long time. Peoples' reactions to a radiological been interpreted as reflecting the uncertain polit- accident may have lasting emotional, social, ical climate at the time of the USSR's dissolu- and economic effects on a community or soci- tion, and the election campaigns. ety. If these reactions become better understood, The study also demonstrated different reac- the knowledge facilitates improved risk man- tions to the accident and different needs among agement, effective risk mitigation, optimal use the population, with changes over time. The dif- of financial resources, and relief from unneces- ferences seem to be increasing between directly sary suffering. Our empirical studies contribute affected population groups and others. In the new information and knowledge due to the mas- short- and medium-time perspective, similar sive scale of investigations and detailed analy- needs for information, behavioural recommenda- ses of specific groups. Control groups have tions, and health care seem to appear. been involved to adjust for overall major social For the long term, however, our results point and political changes. The project has also to the importance of preparedness for the emer- shown the feasibility of investigating citizens' gence of new needs generated by the counter- personal experiences for facilitating specific measures themselves, e.g. relocation. The current needs and future planning. The research results suggest that voluntariness or personal further has gained knowledge because of inter- choice are associated with less psychological national co-operation and the personal distress. In Russia, relocation strategies appear exchange of experience and information. •

28 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS

ARS and skin damage in Chernobyl patients

25 iJ 50-100% f 20 1310-50% Report by Gerard Wagemaker, Erasmus .0) University, European Commission, who served 1.15 01-10% as Rapporteur, Topical Session 1: "Clinically "5 observed effects" and by Angelina K. Guskova, 55 10 Institute of Biophysics, Moscow, Russia, who 5 z served as Session Vice-Chairwoman, and Vladimir G. Bebeshko, Scientific Center of 0 IV Radiation Medicine, Kiev, Ukraine; and Nina Grade of ARS M. Griffiths, ISPN, Fontenay aux Roses, France, both members of the Session's Expert Committee.*

hen radiation doses to the tissues of a mammalian organism are large Wenough, there may be a partial or complete loss of function. In extreme cases, there may be complete tissue death. If the tissue is vital, it may result in death. There have been many accidents with radiation sources that have caused serious local injury, sometimes calling for the amputation of limbs. Among the victims of the Chernobyl accident were people who were accidentally exposed to high doses of radiation. Such high- dose exposures — which acutely and severely affect blood cell production, resistance against infections, and intestinal functions — may result in severe damage to the skin. The complex of disease symptoms from such exposures The Chernobyl accident resulted in a total A patient with skin lesions being exam- is known as "acute radiation syndrome", or number of 237 individuals who were suspected ed at the Institute of ARS. Its most common symptoms are initially of suffering from ARS. The diagnosis was. con- Biophysics in nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea and, later on, firmed in 134. Of these, 41 had mild (grade I) Moscow within the framework of an EU- bleeding and generalized infections with high ARS; all survived; one additional case is still supported project. fever, often caused by micro-organisms that are disputed. Fifty patients had grade II ARS, of (Credit Wagemaker'EC) normally not harmful. If untreated, ARS is whom one died. Twenty-two patients had grade lethal, even following radiation doses which are III ARS, of whom seven died. Of the 21 patients not necessarily incompatible with survival of most severely affected, who suffered from grade the human organism and are regularly used in IV ARS, all died except one. Among this group, clinical medicine to treat some forms of cancer. gastrointestinal damage was the most severe In an accident situation, the radiation damage is problem in patients who received doses greater frequently even more complicated by other than 10 Gy and resulted in early and lethal injury, such as thermal burns. changes in intestinal function. Deaths in 26 patients in the first three months after the exposure were associated with skin lesions involving *The authors are indebted to material supplied by over 50% of the total body surface area. In gen- Alexander A. Baranov, State Research Center. Institute of Biophysics, Moscow. Russia: John W. Hopewell. The eral, there appeared to be a relation between Research Institute. Oxford University. United Kingdom; ARS and the skin area damaged, indicating that Ralf U. Peter, Department of Dermatology. Ludwig- almost all severely affected patients had com- Maximilians-University. Munich, Germany; and T.M. bined injury. (See graph.) Fliedner. Department of Clinical Physiology and The Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident Occupational Medicine. University of Ulm. Germany. Research has been partly supported by Nuclear Fission led to exposure with high amounts of beta irra- Safety contracts of the Commission of the European diation (both contamination and incorporation), Communities. causing a clinical pattern of involvement which

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 29 SPECIAL REPORTS

was different from the experience at Hiroshima although it is difficult to exclude an impact from and Nagasaki. From the onset, a striking feature the accident. In fact, five of these 14 patients did was the large number of patients suffering from not suffer from ARS in the first place and may radiation-induced damage of the skin and have received only very low doses of radiation. mucous membranes, especially of the upper The remaining patients who have suffered digestive and respiratory tract, due to contami- ARS are in general in an acceptable health con- nation by beta and gamma-emitting isotopes, dition and are being monitored regularly. There such as caesium-137, caesium-134, and stron- is good evidence that the quality of life of the tium-90. Skin lesions and/or oropharyngeal surviving patients may be amenable to improve- mucositis were a major contribution to the death ment. At least the more severely affected of patients who died as an immediate conse- patients suffer presently from multiple diseases quence of the accident. and are in need of up-to-date treatment and sec- Patients surviving ARS have all been sub- ondary prevention; also their mental health jected to a traumatic experience with extensive might be suboptimal. Therefore, more has to be physical injury and long convalescence periods. done in the future to distinguish in the encoun- Some will bear the marks of their trauma for the tered disease patterns those that are attributable rest of their lives, both in the psychological and to the radiation exposure and those that are due somatic sense, just as victims of other severe to confounding factors intrinsic to the popula- accidents have done. Although the extreme tion. The follow-up of these patients needs to be bone marrow suppression may have been assured for the forthcoming two to three resolved in a couple of months, full reconstitu- decades, preferably co-ordinated by a single tion of immune functions may take at least half center of high clinical and research competence. a year and may well not normalize within years The Chernobyl cases have taught us that after exposure. This does not necessarily mean much needed (and still needs) to be improved in that these patients have a functionally impaired the clinical management of ARS in accident sit- immune system. uations generally complicated by radiation In patients with severe skin injury compli- injury to the skin and injuries that are not radia- cated by surgery and ill-healing wounds, the tion related. There is little doubt that ARS long recovery period may cause chronic stress. patients, and those with severe skin injury, have It may also be expected that biochemical stress received the best possible treatment in line with indices in these patients score high. In males, the state of knowledge at the time in the most reproductive recovery may be very slow and in experienced center available. the higher dose ranges, impaired fertility may The therapy of bone marrow transplantation be a lasting effect. Several components of the recommended at the time was of little benefit eye are rather sensitive to radiation, and patients for the most severely affected patients. From in particular may develop cataracts, starting today's knowledge this is understandable. In any years after exposure. Following high radiation future accident, it is inconceivable that bone doses, cardiovascular and late gastrointestinal marrow transplantation as applied in the most problems may cause considerable discomfort. severe cases of the Chernobyl accident will be After the accident's acute phase, 14 of the used. New agents have become available, in 237 patients have died over the last decade. particular a group of cytokines collectively Their deaths do not relate to the original severi- known as hemopoietic growth factors, which ty of ARS and are, in most cases, probably not have the capacity to stimulate recovery of the directly attributable to the radiation exposure, blood and immune system. Bone marrow damage can in future cases best be managed by rapid administration of hemopoietic growth factors, even though the most optimal combination and dose scheduling still needs to be worked out. However, advances in the transplantation of blood stem cells and tissue typing make it very likely that transplantation will still be considered as a life-saving supportive measure, especially in cases where A physician from Japan bone marrow damage is too severe to expect an examines a child in a village near the Chernobyl effective response to the newer therapeutics. plant during the 1990 Also for other radiation damage, new diagnostic International Chernobyl tools may contribute to a more accurate progno- Project. (Credit: Mettler/USA) sis and more tailored treatment. D

30 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS

420 mGy, while doses reported in the recent Nuclear Energy Agency appraisal show that the average dose of children aged 0-7 assessed in Report by Prof. E.D. Williams, Cambridge Gomel oblast was about 1 Gy, with over 9% University, UK, who served as the Scientific having doses in the range of 10-40 Gy. Secretary, Prof. A. Pinchera, University of In the first four years after the accident, the Pisa, Italy, who served as Chairman, of numbers of childhood thyroid cancers occurring Topical Session 2: "Thyroid effects", and Prof. in Belarus were in single figures, while in 1990, D. Becker, Cornell Medical Center, USA, 29 cases were diagnosed, rising to 79 in 1993 Prof. E.P. Demidchik, State Medical Institute, and 82 in 1994. At the time of medical opera- Belarus, Prof. S. Nagataki, Nagasaki tion, about half of the cases showed direct inva- University School of Medicine, Japan, and sion of surrounding tissues, while two-thirds Prof. N.D. Tronko, Institute of Endocrinology showed lymph node métastases. Only four cases and Metabolism, Ukraine, all members of the have been seen in children born after 1986, Session's Expert Committee. although it must be remembered that they were he population in the area around no more than eight years old in 1994. Chernobyl, particularly southern Belarus At the Endocrine Institute in Kiev, Ukraine, Tand northern Ukraine, was exposed to eight to 11 cases of childhood thyroid cancer high levels of fallout from the Chernobyl acci- were diagnosed annually during the first four dent including large amounts of radioactive years after the accident. But the figure rose to 26 iodine. As the thyroid gland concentrates in 1990 and to 43 in 1993, with 39 in 1994. Of iodine, it was exposed to higher levels of radia- these cases, 60% showed soft tissue invasion at tion than other body tissues. The radioactive surgery, and lymph node métastases were present isotope of iodine, iodine-131, has been exten- in 60% of cases. Only one of the 114 confirmed sively and safely used in the treatment of thyro- cases seen at the Institute was in a child born after toxicosis. Thus, the report of increased numbers 1986. In Russia, only one child with thyroid can- of thyroid carcinoma in children in areas cer was recorded in Bryansk oblast between exposed to fallout from Chernobyl was surpris- 1986-89, while between 1990-94 inclusive 23 ing to some, both because of the previous lack cases of thyroid carcinoma were reported in chil- of thyroid carcinoma in patients treated with dren under the age of 15 at diagnosis. radioactive iodine, and because of the very short A recent survey of the histological diagnosis time (four years) between exposure and the start of the thyroid cancers from Belarus found 98% of the increase. agreement in 134 cases studied jointly by staff This report considers the size of the increase of the Pathology Institute in Belarus and the in thyroid carcinoma after taking into account the Department of Histopathology in Cambridge. evidence that the increase is related to exposure to In the whole series of 298 cases seen in the fallout from Chernobyl, the isotope or isotopes Institute of Pathology in Belarus between 1990- responsible, and the likely future effects. 94, a total of 98% were papillary carcinomas, The Chernobyl accident was the first time 1.3% were follicular carcinomas, and 0.3% such a large population was exposed to high medullary carcinomas. levels of radioactive fallout. The amounts of The findings in the cases from Ukraine were radioactive material released were huge, and remarkably similar to those from Belarus. Of one of the main constituents was iodine-131. the 122 cases of thyroid cancer diagnosed in Very short-lived isotopes of iodine were also children under the age of 15 at the Institute of released. Direct data on the uptake of the very Endocrinology in Kiev between 1990-94 inclu- short-lived isotopes of iodine are not available; sive, 114 cases have been studied jointly in Kiev measurements of iodine-131 uptake were made and Cambridge, and the diagnosis agreed in after the time of peak uptake. over 97% of them. Of the cancers with agreed The estimated absorbed doses to the thyroid diagnosis, 94% were papillary in type, 2% were from iodine-131 in different settlements, which medullary, and 4% follicular carcinomas. are not necessarily representative of the whole Material from ten cases of childhood thyroid district, ranged from 790-2400 mGy for infants, cancer in children from contaminated areas of and 190-370 mGy for adults. Exposure to Bryansk, Kaluga, or Tula oblasts of Russia have short-lived isotopes of iodine increases this fig- been studied by pathologists from the RAMS in ure by an unknown amount, and the early esti- Obninsk and Cambridge. No tumour was pre- mates of thyroid dose may need recalculation. sent in the material available for study in one Some studies suggest that the average dose in case, the remaining nine cases were all papillary Gomel oblast for children aged 0-7 was about carcinomas, including one papillary microcarci-

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 31 SPECIAL REPORTS

noma. Overall these results confirm diagnoses ing age at exposure. This increased sensitivity of thyroid malignancy made in the CIS. They of very young children to the effects of fallout also show that while the same types of child- on the thyroid is consistent with observations hood thyroid cancer are seen in the exposed of the increased sensitivity of young children areas as are found in an unexpected popula- to the carcinogenic effect of X-radiation on the tion, types other than papillary carcinoma form thyroid. The reduction in the chance of devel- only a very small proportion of the cases in the oping thyroid tumours with increasing age exposed areas. requires more observations for accurate quan- tification but there is a considerable difference The results of molecular biological studies between newborns and 10 year olds. The show a close link between the type of oncogene observations also require extension into the involved and the pathological type of tumour adolescent age group. The reduction in sensi- found, so that the increased frequency of thyroid tivity with increasing age is also consistent carcinoma in children in areas around Chernobyl with the lack of any carcinogenic effect of is an increase in a particular type of thyroid iodine-131 treatment in adults with thyrotoxi- tumour, papillary carcinoma, associated in many cosis, although other factors are also likely to cases with rearrangement in a particular onco- be relevant. gene, ret. No increase has been shown in activation of the other types of oncogenes known to be Several thyroid-related effects of radiation associated with thyroid carcinogenesis which other than cancer are known to occur, of were studied, the three ras genes, TSHr and p53. which the most obvious is the development of hypothyroidism after exposure to large In Belarus, the Gomel oblast, which bor- amounts of either external or internal radia- ders Ukraine close to Chernobyl, received the tion. A study supported by the Sasakawa highest exposure to fallout. During 1990-94, a Foundation found that both nodularity and total of 172 cases occurred in children from hypothyroidism were more frequent in Gomel, Gomel, with a current population of 0.37 mil- the area with the greatest exposure to fallout, lion children, compared to 143 cases in the rest while other conditions not related to radiation of Belarus, where 1.96 million children live. occurred at a broadly similar frequency in all The crude rates for childhood thyroid cancer in five areas studied. This suggests that radiation Gomel during 1990-94 are therefore 92 per may be linked to a high frequency of nodular- million children per year, and for the rest of ity and hypothyroidism in Gomel. Belarus 14.6 per million children per year. The evidence presented shows clearly that Similarly in Ukraine, the northern oblasts there has been a major increase in histologi- bordering Belarus received a much higher cally confirmed thyroid cancers in children in exposure than the remainder of Ukraine. A Belarus and Ukraine since the Chernobyl acci- total of 112 cases occurred during 1990-94 in dent. A smaller increase has probably the six contaminated oblasts, with a population occurred in the Bryansk Oblast in Russia, but of 2 million children, and 65 cases in the rest firm population-based evidence on the inci- of the Ukraine with a population of 8.8 million dence of confirmed cases of childhood thyroid children. The crude rates for the northern cancer is needed. The diagnosis of thyroid oblasts of Ukraine are 10.6 per million chil- cancer has been confirmed in well over 90% dren per year, and for the rest of the Ukraine of over 250 cases in both Belarus and Ukraine 1.5 per million children per year. in an international co-operative study. The rates in Belarus and Ukraine before The evidence that the increase in thyroid can- Chernobyl, and the rate in England and Wales cer is related to isotopes of iodide present in fall- in a 30-year study, are all about 0.5 per million out is strong but indirect. So far, no firm evidence children per year. We can therefore conclude is available of any major increase in any malig- that there has been a very large increase in nancy other than thyroid cancer in the population incidence of childhood thyroid carcinoma in exposed to high levels of fallout. Increases in the the areas around Chernobyl and that this is incidence in a range of tumours have been report- correlated to the exposure to fallout. ed, the scale of the increase is very much less When the cases of childhood thyroid carci- than in the thyroid; the size of the reported noma occurring in Belarus are divided into increase is in the range which may make it diffi- cohorts based on the age at exposure to the cult to separate a true exposure-related increase Chernobyl accident, the ratio of observed to from an effect of better reporting and increased expected number bf cases was greatest in the ascertainment. children who were youngest at the time of It is clear that no other tumour has shown Chernobyl, and dropped rapidly with increas- an increase in frequency comparable to that

32 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 INSIDE TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION International Atomic Energy Agency

September 1996 Vol. 2, No. 3 CONTENTS: Nuclear technology cleans Nuclear technology 1 coal emissions Restoring agriculture 1 Fresh air is a luxury around Getting a handle on 4 Poland's northern industrial city of Szczecin, near the port of Improving the environment. .5 Gdansk. Heavy use of low grade coal for power generation pollutes Looking into the 6 the atmosphere with large quantities of sulphur dioxide In brief 7 (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOX). As a direct consequence, the Tracking pollution .8 surrounding forests are damaged and the incidence of many respiratory system diseases is alarmingly high.

When fossil fuels (especially coal Restoring and oil) are burned, "acid rain" is produced as SO2 aerosols become agriculture in sulphuric acid and NOx aerosols change into nitric acid by contaminated photochemical conversion in the atmosphere. Not only does acid Thousands of jobs in Poland depend zones rain destroy vegetation and on clean use of domestic coal. buildings, the gases are also (Credit: PAP/CAF R.Koszowski) Life today in many ways believed to contribute to "global appears normal in rural areas of warming." Most nations around pass and implement laws limiting Belarus and Ukraine affected by the world are now committed to national SO2 emissions. the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear containing them, and recent global accident. But appearance masks treaties require all countries to continued page 3 a serious difference: there remains virtually no market for products of these farming areas. continues to shun foodstuffs from of rapeseed and convert its oil into The crops and foodstuffs do contaminated areas. industrial lubricants (greases, oils contain radionuclides, but often at and other products). Belarus levels well below the conserv- IAEA technical co-operation scientists have found that some ative limits set by the Codex projects in Belarus and Ukraine rape varieties store radioactive Alimentarius of the United are seeking to address this nuclides from the soil — caesium Nation's Food and Agriculture problem by offering cropping and strontium (Csl37 and Sr90) Organization (FAO) and the World alternatives and introducing new are the ones of concern now — in Health Organization (WHO). technologies. In Belarus, the Nonetheless, public perception concept is to promote production continued next page Restoring agriculture (from page 1) the stalk and seed coat, not in the significantly because seed. Rapeseed oil can be easily the number of dairy processed to make biofuels. cows in the region Belarus has refineries and has declined and milk therefore the technology and from the affected know-how to do this. areas has varying amounts of IAEA's TC project began in 1995 radionuclides. The by assisting its principal project takes a counterpart, the Belarus Research two-pronged approach: Institute for Soil Science and determining the Agrochemistry (BRISSA), to radionudide content of identify rapeseed varieties that milk from all sources could provide high seed yields in that supply the plant, that area, and optimal cultivation so that the agriculture conditions and practices. These ministry can identify are crucial factors because while the farms producing 200,000 ha are suitable for contaminated milk rapeseed, only 40,000 ha can be and initiate improved sown each year to comply with a on-farm practices; five-year crop rotation regime. and, at the plant itself, monitoring the Several key issues must be level of contaminants Contaminated milk produced on Ukrainian farms addressed: What can be done with in milk and other may soon be made safe using a new process. the stalks? Can they be buried, or products during bulk (Credit: E. Voice) must they be incinerated? Can the processing. protein-rich seed coat be treated to make animal feed and replace The project is providing effectiveness. Field tests in some of the expensive food laboratory equipment to the plant Ukraine were an astounding concentrate that is now imported? and training personnel in using success. Levels of radioactive Can rapeseed be widely grown as instruments to detect and caesium-137 were reduced by 95% a sort of natural 'vacuum cleaner', accurately measure caesium-137 making the milk safe to drink. The just to collect radionuclides from and strontium-90 in incoming US Government is prepared to the soil? milk and outgoing products. The invest US$1.5 million in a pilot milk plant director AnatDliiy plant at Ovruch. Over the next few years, the Kushnirchuk is optimistic that Belarus authorities, with technical dairy farming would increase in Magnetic separation would enable assistance from the IAEA, will be the contaminated areas if, in the Ovruch plant to process milk working on these issues. The first addition to on-farm help, products in bulk, and expand stage is to develop a pilot plant to contaminated milk could also be production to fruit juices and baby process rapeseed oil and produce processed in the factory to make foods as well. There are some 1.5 lubricants. Already, some greases radionuclide-free products. million small children who would produced on a laboratory scale benefit from this local production have been tested at the Technical The technology to do the latter of milk and foods. Safe baby food University in Vienna. This may be at hand: magnetic is now 'imported' from other areas development could lead to scaling separation. It was recently and costs savings on up the industrialization process. invented by scientists in Bristol, transportation alone would be The required financial support is England, to remove radionuclides sizeable. expected, mostly through the from contaminated water at European Union. nuclear sites. The patent is now Only when these contaminated owned and marketed by a lands regain some economic value An important IAEA restoration company called Selentec in and produce saleable products effort in Ukraine focuses on milk Atlanta, Georgia. It has been tried will the economic dilemma of and milk products from a factory and tested and "works very well rural areas begin to be addressed. in Ovruch, an historic northern for water... takes everything out", Rapeseed and milk products offer town 100 kilometres west of an expert told Inside TC. A large a promising new beginning to Chernobyl, which once processed scale test for milk clean up was farm communities that have been 550 tons of milk a day. Since the carried out in the US and very hard hit over the decade accident, production has dipped confirmed the technology's since the accident. Nuclear technology (from page 1)

One way is to switch from coal to EBDS was developed some 20 plans to install cleaning systems in other primary energy sources such years ago, principally in Germany some 60 power plants has recently as hydropower, natural gas or and Japan. It is novel only in that it contracted with a Japanese nuclear. But for Poland these are has not been used on an industrial company to fit a power plant with not currently options: It has no scale, except in demonstration EBDS. Further down the road are viable hydro source; it cannot plants in Germany, Japan and the India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the afford to pay hard currency to United States. By the time it came Republic of Korea, Singapore and import natural gas from Russia; out of the laboratory and became Thailand. In Latin America, Brazil, and its nuclear power programme available for industrial scale use in Chile and Mexico already have is postponed indefinitely. For the the mid-80s, utilities in these pilot projects and are closely foreseeable future, Poland must heavily regulated countries had watching progress in Szczecin. rely on its huge reserves of brown already fitted most older coal-fired coal (estimated at over 14 billion power plants with other proven The Polish Government is tons). Indeed, the livelihoods of scrubbing techniques, or had investing 60% of the $20 million hundreds of thousands depend on committed to installing more needed to set up the EBDS system, the industry. efficient boilers that would produce and all the personnel and less emissions. operation costs. The remaining The key question is how to ensure that new industrial production is Studies carried out not as environmentally damaging in Germany, Japan, as in the past and that gas USA, as well as in emissions are in line with EU Poland - where an standards. Polish legislation enacted earlier Agency in the early 1990s requires utilities technical co- to progressively reduce SO2 operation project emissions, beginning in 1997. helped set up a pilot Technologies are readily available EBDS plant near for removing either SO2 or NOX Warsaw in 1988 - from the flue gases of individual have shown that the coal fired power plants before they technique is 25-30% are emitted into the atmosphere, less costly to install but to date there was none that and to operate than could extract both in one single- conventional systems. stage process. When NOX removal Many developing countries are investigating the also becomes EBDS technology demonstrated in Szczecin. A coal-fired power plant in compulsory, the (Credit: M. Samiei/IAEA) Szczecin is now the site of a four- advantages of EBDS year IAEA technical co-operation will be greater. The Model Project to demonstrate, on value of the agricultural by- 40% is shared between Japan, the an industrial scale, a 'novel1 product and the relatively much Republic of Korea and the IAEA. technology that can do just that. smaller waste disposal problem Sweden and the US may also Electron beam dry scrubbing make it additionally attractive. contribute. The project plant is (EBDS) works by recycling the flue scheduled to be fully operational gases through a chamber, before There is a strong interest in EBDS by the end of 1998. Hopefully, it they escape from the chimney, and across the energy sector in Poland, will show Poland a way to attain exposing them to low-energy among its neighbours and in European emission standards electron radiation from an developing countries that are without having to compromise accelerator. As a result the toxic industrialising fast and have large industrial growth and SO2 and NOX are transformed to coal reserves. Ukraine has an demonstrate to the energy sector a other chemical forms. By adding ongoing programme and the cost efficient and environment ammonia to the chamber, the Agency has just launched a new friendly technology. Currently resulting by-product, a dry powder, technical co-operation project to industrial restructuring and can be used as fertiliser. Other assess the option in Bulgaria. privatisation are influencing the cleaning systems do not have this energy sector and, at the end of beneficial effect and produce a lot Poland has opened the doors to the day, the economics and of waste. Although it is a radiation the Szczecin plant, allowing the efficacy of EBDS itself may also process, no radioactivity is IAEA to bring visitors from other decide its future in Poland and in produced in the operation and countries who are keen to see it many other developing countries. there is no residual radiation. operating. Of these, China which Getting a handle on water pollution

Protecting water resources from delta into the Mediterranean. This Its waters served as the breeding harmful and costly chemical, upcoming Global Environment grounds for a vast array of fish, a biological and radiological Facility project (GEF) will cost vital source of protein for the six pollution is a high priority on the over US$ 11 million and will countries sharing its shores global environmental agenda. In demonstrate the value of (Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, collaboration with several national engineered wetlands as a cost- Turkey and the Ukraine). Hundreds and multilateral agencies, the effective, ecologically sound of thousands of eager summertime IAEA has been carrying out method for trapping sediments vacationers flocked to its beaches specialized scientific studies that and pollutants from municipal, to relax, swim, and cool off. are proving critical in plans to industrial and agricultural sources. prevent irreversible damage to But today, the Black Sea Egypt's Lake Manzala and ranks as one of the world's Europe's Black Sea. most heavily polluted water bodies, with its life- Lake Manzala is a 50 km long supporting capabilities coastal lagoon in Egypt's Nile very seriously impaired. Delta, located Northwest of Cairo Across the area, beaches and bordered on its eastern side are regularly cordoned off by the Suez Canal and the city of due to unsanitary Port Said. The lake is a depository conditions. Commercial for large quantities of untreated fishing has all but city sewage and contaminants, disappeared, and the which ultimately flow into the tourism sector is in Mediterranean. Left uncontrolled, Sampling of weeds to determine organic crisis this pollution threatens the health contaminants in Lake Manzala. and livelihood of millions of (Credit: M. Horvat/IAEA/MEL) Governments of the six inhabitants across a densely adjacent countries have populated region. In many other locations around launched concerted actions aimed the world, MEL is using isotope at stemming pollution. A pre-project study, funded by based analytical techniques in to Responding to this strong regional UNDP, to measure contamination understand both freshwater and commitment, international aid in Lake Manzala was carried out marine pollution problems. These organizations have became with the active participation of techniques are very helpful in involved. In 1993, the GEF started the IAEA Marine Environment identifying contaminants, whether a series of large-scale projects Laboratory (MEL) in Monaco. radioactive or not, tracing their aimed at saving the Black Sea, This initiative, undertaken jointly complex pathways in the however none of these sought to with scientists from Egypt's environment and investigating directly address radioactive National Research Centre in their biological effects. pollution, a major concern, or to Cairo, involved a wide sampling apply radiochemical tracer of water, sediment, and fish in They are now being extensively techniques, which the Agency's major areas of contamination. employed in assembling MEL has several decades of MEL's participation centred on information on pollution of the experience. Following an inter- analyzing chemical contaminants Black Sea. Its extended river agency meeting between GEF, such as chlorinated and network, or catchment area, UNEP, the World Bank and others, petroleum hydrocarbons and comprises some 300 rivers, the IAEA was invited to add its trace elements, a task that has extending as far as Munich to the expertise. required specialized equipment west, Minsk to the north, and and expertise. Ankara to the south. Some of MEL is now collaborating with Europe's largest tributaries, such as local Black Sea scientific Findings from the data collected the Danube, Dniester and Dnieper, institutions including Turkey's enabled a comprehensive flow into the Black Sea. The larger Cekmece Nuclear Research and environmental impact assessment geographical area is home to an Training Centre, Ukraine's of the lake. Moreover the study some 160 million people. Institute of Biology of the has made a critical contribution Southern Seas at Sevastopol, toward development of an Little more than 30 years ago, the Romania's Environmental Radio- artificial wetland that would Black Sea harboured a teeming activity Laboratory and Bulgaria's prevent pollutants from Cairo animal and plant life, which from seeping through the Nile included dolphins and monk seals. continued page 7 IAEA: Improving the environment

Some 25 years from now about 60% ations and techniques of the world's population will live involve a variety of in urban areas. Meanwhile the size applications, from studies of many cities — particularly in using isotopes as tracers for developing countries — is selected pollutants to expanding beyond the capacity of adaptation of electron infrastructure to sustainably accelerators for cleaning flue support it. Environmental problems gases from fossil-fueled including water and air pollution, power plants. As described sanitation, ozone depletion are in the last edition of INSIDE having serious human health TC, the IAEA is also an consequences for many of the new important technical resource "mega-cities" such as Mexico City, for national programmes in where air pollution contributes to water management, geo- 12,000 deaths per year, and thermal energy production Bangkok, where high lead exposure and environmental manage- from car emissions has been found ment including the to reduce the average IQ of children. mitigation of marine pollution. MEL scientists taking samples in the This edition of INSIDE TC explains Persian Gulf. (Credit: MEL) how IAEA is building new Guarding the oceans: partnerships with governments and international organizations to Uncontrolled human activities are turning coastal areas into dumps assess and plan environmental putting great strains on the marine void of any underwater life and mitigation, and apply nuclear environment in many regions of threatening the livelihood of techniques to help solve environ- the world. Cities such as Cairo, Sao people and the ecology of the sea. mental pollution problems in a Paulo, and Jakarta spew tons of Knowledge about pollutants as sustainable manner. These investig- pollution into the ocean every day well as their interaction with natural marine processes provide the basis for making informed Selected isotopie tools in hydrological and environmental studies decisions for effectively managing international waters and Isotope Chemical Application preventing a further degeneration systems form of the marine environment. Only with such understanding can the 3 H H2O Indication of recent recharge; infiltration rates right choices be made. 3He/3H in the unsaturated zone; transport mechanisms: 85Kr fissure flow, matrix exchange; delineation of The IAEA Marine Environment protection zones. Laboratory (MEL) helps Member States to address the problems of ! H/'H H2O Identification of recharge areas; interconnection polluted oceans and coastal zones. 18O/"O with surface waters; aquifer leakage; saliniza- Numerous analytical techniques tion mechanisms; recycling of irrigation water; are used to investigate radio- identification of paleowaters. nuclide contamination, sedimen- tation, chemical concentrations "C/1!C HCC% Identification of paleowaters; groundwater dyna- and dispersion of waters among "C/12C mics; validation of groundwater flow models. others. MEL's training programme both in-house and in the 15N/"N NO3 Identification of pollution sources; and field aims at increasing Member 18O/16O NH-4 of microbial dentrification. States capacity to understand, monitor and protect the marine N2 environment. The laboratory is : i3 i2 also an international centre for c/ c CH4 Identification of methane sources. 2H/'H analytical quality control services for radioactive and non- *S/32S SOj Pollution processes in groundwater, acidification; radioactive marine pollutants. sources of H2S, salinity; acid mine drainage; groundwater flow in geothermal systems. Looking into the Greenhouse

Isotopie techniques have long proved valuable in studying groundwater and improving water resource management. More recently, they have been applied to investigating "global warming" and climate changes.

Spanning more than 6 million km2, the Amazon Basin contains roughly half of the world's tropical forest. This gigantic evaporative basin accommodates roughly 80,000 plant species and possibly 30 million animal species, mostly insects. The Amazon River contributes 20 percent of the world's river Data collected on precipitation may provide clues for a long-term solution discharge into oceans. But to global warming. (Credit:}. Marshall/IAEA) accelerating deforestation is seriously threatening this unique ecosystem and, with it, the global contribution of recycled water agricultural production and environmental balance. makes the water cycle sensitive to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) deforestation, which on such a synthesized in various industrial The IAEA has been working to large scale will change the regional processes — could cause understand this phenomenon for water balance through reduction temperature and rainfall patterns more than a decade. In 1985, the of the evapotranspiration flux to to shift and natural ecosystems to Agency launched a project the atmosphere. This causes more be destroyed. supporting environmental water to run off to the rivers and research in Brazil. The multi- local temperatures to rise. Results So far, it appears that man-induced disciplinary, isotope-aided studies from today's climate models changes on the climate are fewer of the effects of changing land use suggest, moreover, that a complete than those occuring naturally. on the ecology and climate of the and rapid destruction of the Nevertheless, climate change Brazilian Amazon combined the Amazon forest would be remains a serious long-term efforts of some 80 scientists from irreversible, having serious concern because any alteration in several Brazilian institutes. The consequences not only for the local the radiative balance of the Agency supplied laboratory but also for the global climate. atmosphere will lead to changes equipment and provided expert in evaporation and precipitation. missions to co-ordinate and The Amazon Basin studies are but To understand the complex advise local counterparts, 23 of one example of the widening processes regulating the global whom were granted training scientific concern that large-scale ecosystem, an integrated research abroad. The initiative received human activities — such as approach needs to be taken five years' funding from Sweden deforestation and energy involving analysis of both present and support from other research production — may significantly and past climate changes. Here organizations outside Brazil. The alter the world's climate in the again, environmental isotopes are joint FAO/IAEA Division and the near future. Global warming due powerful investigative tools. Isotope Hydrology Section of the to the steadily increasing Agency's Division of Physical and concentrations of the so called The IAEA-initiated Global Chemical Sciences provided "greenhouse" gases (GHGs) is one Network for Isotopes in technical back-up. part of that impact. Naturally Precipitation (GNIP) became occurring GHGs, primarily water operational in 1961 when a world Concluding their work in 1993, vapour and carbon dioxide (CO2), wide survey of the isotope the Amazon Basin studies are vital in regulating the composition of monthly preci- validated a regional isotope temperature of the earth and its pitation began in collaboration model of the transport of water, atmosphere. However, excess with the World Meteorological revealing that 50 percent of the emissions — mainly of CO2 from Organization (WMO). The Basin's precipitation consists of the combustion of fossil fuels, recycled water. This high methane (CH4) produced from continued next page In Brief: Updates of stories and news events Partnership with supervision to obtain advanced Sterile flies released Uppsala University degrees and return home to train others in the application of throughout Zanzibar develops nuclear techniques for scientific An eradication trend continues to and economic development. be documented through field data The IAEA is a Board member of recording "zero wild fly capture" the International Science This IAEA sponsored training over the last several weeks. The Programme (ISP) of the Uppsala activity is specially targeted at female tsetse colony size at Tanga, University in Sweden, which LDC's, and a dozen candidates Tanzania has grown to 635,000 promotes research capacity in from Ethiopia, Namibia, Senegal, enabling a production of over developing countries through the Sudan and Zaire have already 80,000 sterile males per week. The exchange of scientists and post- been selected. The IAEA is also project management team has graduate education in physical securing Uppsala's active decided to expand aerial releases of and chemical sciences among collaboration for the implement- sterile males from the southern part others. The Agency is making ation of TC projects in fields of of the island to cover its entirety arrangements with Uppsala mutual interest such as (see Cattle Killer meets its match, University to strengthen co- environmental monitoring and INSIDE TC, March 19%). operation in two areas. treatment of industrial waste water. During a field visit by the Director General in early May, a Zanzibari To benefit from their so called Interested undergraduate herdsman stated that his cattle "sandwich programme", Agency students in related disciplines were healthier and stronger since fellows receive training both in- should contact their national the wild tsetse fly population had country, in Sweden and in other Atomic Energy Commission for been reduced. nordic countries under ISP further information.

Looking into (from page 6) Getting a handle (from page 4) primary aim was to collect budget of $28.1 million. Over 100 National Institute of Meteorology systematic global isotope data scientists from developing and Hydrology. Technical co- (oxygen-18, deuterium and member states have been trained operation is helping build local tritium) to characterize the spatial in related disciplines through scientific capacity and quality and temporal variability of isotope workshops and training courses control, with the goal of concentrations in precipitation. during the period. Support assembling reliable and The data gathered has been used continues to be provided through representative baseline data, and extensively in hydrological coordinated research prog- ultimately enabling recipient investigations within the scope of rammes (CRPs) that support institutions to undertake water resources inventories, national environmental invest- pollution monitoring activities on planning and development. igations. For instance, Argentina is their own. participating in a CRP to The network started with around reconstruct paleoclimatic and Within two to three years, the four 100 meteorological stations palaeoenvironmental conditions countries currently participating collecting data from more than 60 during the last glacial cycle (20,000 in the project will be able to countries and territories. Some years ago), in cooperation with 13 analyze marine samples for all the years later, the total number of other countries. Argentina's lead significant radionuclides, and to stations in operation reached 220. scientist on the project is Dr. apply radiotracer techniques to The network's database has also Hector Osvaldo Panarello of the study the behaviour of non- proved indispensable in palaeo- National Atomic Energy radioactive pollutants. For the climatology, and provides Commission, who participated in first time, they will have in their important input for verifying and Agency training courses in Latin own hands the tools to assess the improving atmospheric America during 1991 and 1993. ecological destiny of the once circulation models. Initial results from the project are bountiful Black Sea. With such quite significant as they reveal a knowledge in hand, the burden In support of these global temperature difference between shifts to the region's decision- investigations, the Agency has Holocene and the Last Glacial makers, business enterprises and provided training and equipment Maximum of about 5 degree the wider public to translate this in isotope applications through 13 Celsius. These results have scientific knowledge into positive important implications for the technical cooperation projects environmental action. modeling of global climate. during the last 10 years at a total Tracking pollution in the River Plate

Montevideo is justifiably proud of Through project-provided training, its urban beaches which lie, in know-how and technology — long stretches, along the including gamma counters, a Uruguayan capital's frontage on gamma detection system and an the River Plate. But pride has been automatic multi-sample analyser, invaded by concern in recent and devices for water sampling at years as routinely taken samples various depths — DINATEN and began to show coliform bacteria in the municipal authority have excess of 3,000 per 100 millilitres. improved their environmental This level of bacterium indicates monitoring capabilities. the presence of sewage, but its exact source was unknown. Other IAEA technical co- operation projects have been The River Plate is an unusual planned to help in a systematic river. It would be a sea if its water manner. While the initial project was clear and salty. In fact it is a Pollution threatens Uruguay's focused on water flow patterns, a giant basin formed by the outflow beaches. (Credit: J. Marshall/IAEA) second, now being completed, of two great rivers, Parana and used isotopes and fluorescent Uruguay. Shaped like an inverted Plate, several kilometres away tracers at various points of the funnel it flows in a northwest- and at a depth of about 10 metres. basin and ocean side of the city, to southeast direction, between Sewage is discharged at a study the movement of sediment. Argentina and Uruguay, into the pressure calculated to disperse it A new project, expected to start in Atlantic Ocean. Where the brown so that bacteria die-off is achieved. 1997 will analyse the contaminant river meets the blue ocean it is load of sediment in and around more than 100 kilometres wide. Tracking the movements of the bay and the 'age' of the sewage and other pollution in this contaminants so that the planners Nor are the pollution problems of vast expanse is a herculean high know what has been deposited the River Plate limited to organic tech task. An IAEA technical co- there in the past 30-40 years. matter. The vast basin is operation project that began in Expert services and training will brimming with industrial wastes 1991 used isotopie techniques to be provided to prepare the very from hundreds of small tanneries establish that sewage from far out special field equipment such as around Montevideo Bay and in the river could flow back dredges with detectors, and to do effluent from Uruguay's premier infrequently to the beaches when the tracer injections and measurements. The technique to port. The once popular beach specific riverflow, tides, winds date sediment using environ- resort of Carasco has been closed and ocean currents combined. But mental lead-210 will be applied for many years because of high it has also confirmed, happily, that for the first time in the basin. pollution. Most of Montevideo's the outflow system is functioning 1.5 million people live quite close well. Project-generated data on to the river and the basin is the river dynamics are being used Step by step the scientific heavily used for fishing and as inputs in city plans by the evidence generated through recreation. But resources and data Uruguayan Ministries of isotopie techniques is providing to address growing environmental environment, health, and industry the foundation for the Uruguayan problems are limited and much as well as the Montevideo authorities to formulate sound remains unknown. Municipal Authority. They are environmental policies and take now working in partnership with effective remedial action. It is a Montevideo has been constructing the directorate of nuclear long-term process requiring a a modern sewage system for technology (DINATEN), which is solid developmental partnership- many years but it remains the IAEA's counterpart to monitor one that the IAEA has committed incomplete. A lot of raw sewage is pollution and plan remedial action. itself to in Uruguay and in many deposited into two small rivers, other developing Member States. Pantanoso and Miguelete, which pollute Montevideo Bay and the River Plate. The main part of the INSIDE Technical Co-operation is produced for the IAEA by present engineered disposal Maximedia. The stories may be freely reproduced. For more system uses a well-tried information contact: IAEA TC Programme Co-ordination Section, technology called an "outfall" that P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria. Tel: +43 1 2060 26005; Fax: +43 pipes sewage from a coastal 1 2060 29633; e-mail: [email protected] 8 station and discharges it in the SPECIAL REPORTS seen in the thyroid. This makes it highly likely that exposure to radioactive isotopes of HEALTH EFFECTS iodine is responsible for the thyroid cancer increase. Radioistopes of iodine are known to have been present in high levels in the fallout; Report by Dr. Fred A. Mettler, University of they are very greatly concentrated in the thy- New Mexico, United States, who served as roid gland, so that the radiation exposure in Chairman of Topical Session 1: "Clinically the gland is many times that of other tissues. observed effects". This report reviews the Absolute proof of the causal relationship health hazards as investigated by the between exposure to radioiodine and the International Chernobyl Project, which was development of thyroid cancer is not avail- conducted in 1990. able, but the circumstantial evidence is very strong, and no other plausible explanation for he International Chernobyl Project (ICP) the increase is available. was conducted during 1990 about four It is not possible to predict with certainty Tand a half years after the accident. The whether the relative high risk for the develop- health effects portion of the project represented ment of thyroid cancer will remain at its pre- the combined effort of about 100 physicians and sent figure; more than five years of observa- scientists from 12 countries. The project was dif- tion are needed. It is possible that follicular ficult due to the very large area of heavy contam- carcinomas have a longer latent period than ination that extended for hundreds of kilometres papillary carcinomas, and that they may from the reactor site. Ultimately, the project was increase in incidence in later years. Evidence designed using an age-matched cohort compari- from external radiation suggests that the rela- son from nearby uncontaminated settlements. tive risk increases up to 20 years after expo- The ICP was specifically designed to study sure, then declines. But an increased risk is issues related to persons still living on highly still present at 40 years ^after exposure and it contaminated territories. These persons were would be prudent to make this assumption continuing to receive radiation exposure and when considering the likely future rates of there were pressing issues related to interven- occurrence of thyroid carcinomas in the tion and potential dose reduction. It was well exposed population. known that there were hundreds of thousands of If the future risk is estimated on the basis emergency workers who had been exposed, but of present trends in the exposed areas using a in 1990 there was no possibility for dose reduc- relative risk model, then the incidence of tion in these groups. Both the International Red those exposed as children in Gomel will be Cross and the World Health Organization had about 200 times that of the United Kingdom. sent health assessment teams to the area in There are many uncertainties, and an exact 1988-89. These were relatively small projects, prediction of the expected numbers of thyroid but reached essentially the same conclusions as carcinomas in the future is not possible. the ICP did. However, it would be prudent for advance There have been a number of publications planning of screening and health care to con- relative to the ICP, including brief summaries sider that a large increase is a possible out- and overviews. The Technical Report is more come. than 500 pages. Its extensive scientific explana- Thyroid carcinoma in adults is in most tion, limited availability, and price have cases a tumour of relatively low malignancy, undoubtedly deterred many people from actual- causing death in only a minority of cases. It is ly reading it. Summaries are the most common- rather more aggressive in very young children, ly available literature on this project and it is and a long follow-up period is needed. The these that have been read by the public and number seen in Belarus and Ukraine consti- media. Persons with a serious interest in this tutes a major challenge, both for treatment and subject, however, should obtain and read the for our understanding of the relationship Technical Report that was approved by the pro- between exposure to fallout from a nuclear ject's International Advisory Committee.* accident and the subsequent development of It is important to examine the specific find- malignancy. ings of the ICP health effects group and see how The increased susceptibility of very young they have held up in light of an additional five children to the subsequent development of thyroid carcinoma needs further study, but it *The International Chernobyl Project: Technical Report, may be possible to target screening to the STI/PUB/885, (ISBN 92-0-129191-4) published by the cohorts most at risk. • IAEA, Vienna (1991).

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 33 SPECIAL REPORTS

years of research which was presented at the increase, there still are some persons who feel International Chernobyl Conference in April that there has been an effect. 1996. Psychological investigations of the ICP The health effects group collected extensive showed that up to 90% of persons living in con- data on a number of concerns expressed by taminated settlements thought they had, or local physicians. A few examples of issues that might have, an illness due to radiation exposure. we were able to address and bring to closure are Interesting enough, in clean settlements the given here. While there were children with comparable percentage was 75%. The psycho- anaemia, there was not a difference between logical issues were summarized in the Technical clean and contaminated settlements. Lead poi- Report by stating that, "The psychological soning was a concern of many parents as a problems related to Chernobyl are major. Most result of potential emission of materials dumped of the people have genuine concerns and are not on the destroyed reactor. Children in all villages acting in an irrational fashion, given their cir- had blood lead levels which were generally cumstances." These findings have since been lower than those normally found in Western corroborated by many scientific groups and the Europe and the United States. These and a num- many speakers at the 1996 Chernobyl ber of other ICP findings have since been cor- Conference concluded that this remains the roborated by other groups. major health effect today. With regard to immune issues, it was clear Obviously there were (and still are) con- in 1990 that overall lymphocyte levels were not cerns about thyroid problems. This related pri- affected. In the ICP Technical Report, it was marily to thyroid enlargement, nodules, and stated that "the independent medical team cancer. In 1990, about 3% of children were remains unable to state absolutely that there are found by palpation to have enlarged thyroids not some subtle immunological changes in the and 0.5% had nodules. But there was no statis- population; however, if there are such changes tical difference between clean and contaminated they appear to be of little clinical importance." areas. Papers presented in the last five years and While some papers about immunological proffered to the 1996 Chernobyl Conference abnormalities were proffered to the Chernobyl indicate little consensus about whether there is Conference in April 1996, these were at signifi- now an increase in thyroid nodules. cant variance with each other, both in terms of A major portion of the ICP was directed their findings and the time course. While there toward estimation of future health effects, par- have been claims in the media of "Chernobyl ticularly leukaemia and cancer. A 1990 review AIDS", there were no papers nor was there a of health data showed that cancer had been general consensus at the Conference to support increasing each year, both before and after the this concept. accident. The rate of increase appeared to be The ICP concluded in 1990 that there were stable. The incidence of cancer has continued to significant non-radiation related health disor- increase at about the same rate in the last five ders in both control and contaminated settle- years but the major cause of recent reduction in ments. Between 10% to 15% of persons exam- lifespan has not been due to cancer. ined were in need of prompt medical treatment. Thyroid cancer was a major concern in Hypertension and dental care were pointed out 1990. In the Technical Report (page 510), we to be major public health problems. This has stated that "available data reviewed did not pro- been supported by subsequent work of other vide an adequate basis for determining whether groups. In the last five years, the average life- there had been an increase in leukaemia or thy- span in most of the former Soviet Union has roid cancers as a consequence of the accident. decreased due to non-radiation related health The data were not detailed enough to exclude problems such as stroke, heart disease, acci- the possibility of an increase in the incidence of dents, suicide, and alcoholism. some tumour types." The ICP health effects teams spent the The health effects group also was asked to majority of their effort on children. Up to 1990, estimate future and lifetime health effects. Since fetal malformation data did not show evidence we did not know the exact doses for each of the of a significant radiation related increase. thousands of contaminated settlements nor the Comments and papers presented at the 1996 number of persons in each, the ICP gave an Chernobyl Conference about this emotional example of a representative settlement and what issue indicated that while most scientific groups the expected consequences might be. We used a feel that there has been no radiation-related hypothetical settlement of 10,000 persons with

34 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS

a dose from external radiation of 0.1 Sv over 70 Medical doctors on the ICP health team years. In such a typical village, we predicted examined hundreds that thyroid cancers would almost double, that of children living in towns of Belarus, there would be about a 40% increase in Russia, and Ukraine. leukaemia, and about a 3% increase in all can- More than 100 physicians and sci- cer deaths over 70 years. The ICP Technical entists from 12 Report stated that "most of the thyroid cancers countries took part would be expected to occur in children because in the 1990 project. (Credit: Mettler/USA) of their larger absorbed thyroid dose, longer' lifespan, and increased sensitivity relative to adults" and that "with the large release of radioiodine during the accident, it is expected that there will be a radiogenic excess of thyroid cancer cases in the decades to come. This risk relates to thyroid doses received in the first months after the accident." The ICP also indicated that "reported estimates of thyroid dose in children are such that there may be a statistically detectable increase in the incidence of thyroid tumours in the In summary, the International Chernobyl Project represented an historic event. It was an future" and that "certain high risk groups (such unprecedented international effort with co-oper- as children with high absorbed thyroid doses) ation between scientists, physicians, and just will need specific medical programs based on plain people. The health effects group findings their potential risks." We did point out that helped focus attention to areas of importance. with limited resources, it would be too costly The subtitle of the 1996 Chernobyl Conference and impractical to follow all persons who were was "Summing Up the Consequences of the exposed and that the concept of WHO to con- Accident". There is the implication that the centrate on combined international studies for issue is finished. It is clear from the atomic high-risk populations should be endorsed. This bomb survivor data that any final summary of recommendation has not come to pass and consequences from large radiation exposures of there remain multiple competing scientific a population will take at least five decades and investigations that cover identical issues, par- not just one decade to complete. Effects in chil- ticularly related to thyroid cancer and dren and psychological issues will remain at the leukaemia. forefront. D

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 35 SPECIAL REPORTS

may reflect the effect of increased surveillance of the liquidators and under-registration of cases in the population in countries where systematic centralized cancer registration was limited at the time of the Chernobyl accident. Nò Report by E. Coráis, International Agency for consistent increase has been reported to date. Research on Cancer, France, who served However, the present reports concern only a as Scientific Secretary of Topical Session 3: two-year period and the ability to detect such an "Longer-term effects," Prof. A.E. Okeanov, increase is much reduced. Centre for Medical Technology, Belarus, who Increases in thyroid cancer among those served as the Session's Vice-Chairman, and by exposed as children were observed in the more V.K. Ivanov, Medical Radiological Research Centre, Russian Federation, and A. heavily contaminated regions of Belarus, Prisyazhniuk, Scientific Centre for Radiation Ukraine, and Russia, at rates much higher than Medicine, Ukraine, who both served on the predicted from previous studies.These increases Session's Expert Committee.* may reflect either particular sensitivity of the population, due to host or environmental factors; or under-estimation of doses to the thyroid; f the experience of the survivors of the Japan or a higher carcinogenic potential of very short- atomic bombing and of other exposed popu- lived iodine isotopes. Increases in thyroid can- Ilations is applicable, the major expected cer are now also reported among liquidators and radiological impact of the Chernobyl accident . the general population; for reasons mentioned will be deaths from cancer. The total lifetime above, these must, however, be verified before numbers of excess cancer deaths will be great- attributing them to the Chernobyl accident. est among the "liquidators" (emergency and There is a tendency to attribute fluctuations recovery workers employed in 1986-87) and and/or increases in cancer rates over time to the among the residents of "contaminated" territo- Chernobyl accident. It should, however, be ries. Any estimate of this excess is very unclear noted that increases in the incidence of several because of uncertainties in individual doses and neoplasms have been observed in some coun- in the exact magnitude of effects of low-dose tries in the last decades, prior to the accident. A protracted radiation exposure. Currently, how- general increase in mortality has been reported ever, our best estimates are: some 2000 extra in recent years in many regions of the former cancer deaths lifetime among almost 200,000 USSR which does not appear to be related to liquidators from 1986 and 1987; and 4600 deaths radiation levels. This must be taken into account among some 6.8 million residents of contami- when interpreting the results of studies. nated territories. Increases of this magnitude Increases in the frequency of a number of would be extremely difficult to detect epidemi- non-specific detrimental health effects other ologically against an expected background than cancer among exposed populations, partic- number of 41,500 and 800,000 cancer deaths, ularly among liquidators, have been reported. It respectively, among the two groups. is difficult to interpret these findings because On the basis of the data from other popula- exposed populations undergo a much more tions exposed to radiation, the major radiologi- intensive and active health follow-up than the cal impact expected to date (i.e. within the first general population. ten years after the accident) is leukaemia. The Based on results of animal experiments, it is increase is mainly expected among liquidators; possible that in addition to cancers, a small indeed, if the experience of the atomic bomb increase in hereditary disorders may occur fol- survivors is applicable, the increase in this pop- lowing radiation exposure. On the basis of these ulation should be detectable epidemiologically. data, the predicted occurrence of genetic effects Increases in leukaemia among liquidators have induced by radiation from the accident would been reported, but they are not consistent. They be very low, ranging from 0 to 0.03% of all live are, moreover, difficult to interpret: the cases births and from less than 0.1% to 0.4% of all have not all been verified yet and the increases genetic disorders among the live births to the exposed population. When considering predictions of the likely * The authors are indebted to L. Anspaugh, Lawrence health effects of radiation from the Chernobyl Livermore National Lab, United States, a member of the accident, it is important to recognize that the Expert Committee, and to consultants K.Mabuchi, Radiation Effects Research Foundation, Japan, and I. current estimates of doses to exposed popula- Lichtarev, Department of Scientific Centre for Radiation tions are uncertain; in particular, doses received Medicine, Ukraine. early after the accident are not well known. The

36 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS exposures received by populations due to the cohort and case control studies are generally Chernobyl accident are, moreover, different (in much more powerful than descriptive studies type and pattern) from those of the survivors of for investigating dose relationships. To be infor- the atomic bombing of Japan. Predictions mative, however, studies of the consequences of derived from studies of those populations are the Chernobyl accident must fulfill several therefore uncertain. Although an increase in important criteria: they must cover very large thyroid cancer in children as a result of the numbers of exposed subjects; the follow-up Chernobyl accident was envisaged, the extent of must be complete and non-selective; and pre- the increase was not foreseen. Only ten years cise and accurate individual dose estimates (or have passed since the accident, and on the basis markers of exposure) must be available. In par- of epidemiological studies of other populations, ticular, the feasibility and the quality of epi- any increases in the incidence of cancers other demiological studies largely depend on the exis- than leukaemia are usually not visible until at tence and the quality of basic population-based least ten years after exposure. Therefore it is registers, and on the feasibility of linking infor- essential that monitoring the health of the pop- mation on a single individual from different ulation be continued to assess the public health data sources. impact of the accident, even if an increase in In conclusion, ten years after the Chernobyl cancers caused by radiation from Chernobyl accident, there is, apart from the dramatic increase (except leukaemia among liquidators and thy- in thyroid cancer in those exposed as children, no roid cancer) may be difficult to detect. evidence of a major public health impact to date of Epidemiological studies of selected popula- radiation exposure as a result of the Chernobyl tions and diseases are also needed in order to accident in the three most affected countries. No study observed or predicted effects; careful major increase in all cancer incidence or mortality studies may in particular provide important has been observed that could be attributed to the information on the effect of exposure rate and accident. In particular, no major increase has been exposure type in the low to medium dose range detected in rates of leukaemia — even among liq- Press briefing at the and on factors which may modify radiation uidators — one of the major concerns after radia- International Chernobyl effects. As such, they may have important con- tion exposure. This is generally consistent with Conference, where the sequences for the radiation protection of predictions based on studies of other radiation- accident's health effects patients and of the general population in the commanded close atten- exposed populations, in particular the survivors of tion. event of any future accidental exposure. Both the atomic bombings in Japan. O ¡Credit: Pavlicek/IAEA)

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 37 SPECIAL REPORTS

of neighbouring countries. In addition Codex standards will be applied by the World Trade Organization. The levels are based on a number of conser- vative assumptions in order to be confident that Report by John I. Richards, Head of the there will be essentially no effect over a lifetime FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology of exposure. Hence, if alternative food is not Laboratory at the IAEA's Seibersdorf available, higher values would be acceptable in Laboratories, who was a designated FAO par- the short term. On the other hand, lower levels ticipant at the International Chernobyl may be appropriate, for example if external Conference, and Raymond J. Hance, Head of radiation makes a high contribution to the total the Agrochemicals and Residues Section of the dose. Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Against this background it can be seen Techniques in Food and Agriculture. that an important purpose of agricultural countermeasures is to maximize the quan- ne of the lessons of Chernobyl is that tity of food produced which passes interven- farming is vulnerable to the effects of a tion criteria. Onuclear accident hundreds, even thousands, of miles away from the site. Therefore plans are needed for countermeasures that can Agricultural countermeasures reduce contamination of agricultural produce, regardless of whether or not a country has its The Joint FAO/IAEA programme on nuclear own nuclear programme. The primary aims of techniques in food and agriculture has such plans should be to minimize radioactive approached agricultural countermeasures in contamination of crops and animal products and three ways. The first was to bring together as return the land to productive use as far as, and much as possible of the information and experi- as soon as, possible. These aims must balance ence acquired after the Chernobyl accident in the costs to governments with the benefits to order to prepare guidelines for agricultural human health, and the disruption to daily life countermeasures. The second was to assist with the well-being of communities. The plans affected Member States to develop and imple- need to specify radiation levels for foods and ment particular countermeasures. The third was feedstuffs at which intervention is necessary to support work to generate data that can be and to include a range of countermeasures to be used to refine existing countermeasures or taken to protect agriculture under a range of develop new ones. possible post-accident situations. Guidelines for Agricultural Countermea- Criteria for setting intervention levels have sures Following an Accidental Release of been established internationally. In general, Radionuclides (IAEA Technical Reports food legislation prohibits unsafe levels of cont- Series No. 363,1994). The Chernobyl accident amination and does not distinguish between stimulated considerable scientific research and contaminants whether they are pesticide much practical experience was obtained by those residues, heavy metals, mycotoxins, pathogenic dealing with its consequences. This document, microorganisms, or radionuclides. At low levels prepared by nearly 40 scientists from 19 coun- of contamination, where the risk to health is low tries, summarizes the information generated. It or difficult to eliminate altogether, contaminant aims to give general advice on the development levels are set which allow for foods to be sold, of emergency response plans. The main ele- bought, and consumed. The limits must be ments are a general strategy for the introduction unambiguous so that they can be easily under- of agricultural countermeasures, a review of stood by all concerned in administering them. available countermeasures for use in decision- The FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius making, and guidance for the preparation of Commission has developed international stan- specific national guidelines. (A Russian transla- dards for radionuclide contamination to be tion of the document is available as IAEA TEC- applied to food moving in international trade. DOC-745.) (See table.) Many countries have adopted these The effectiveness of measures taken to pro- in their national legislation, not least because tect the agricultural sector (people, land, crops internationally recognized intervention levels and livestock) from the effect of a nuclear acci- help to maintain credibility, confidence, and dent depends on plans prepared in advance. The trust in national authorities and prevent anom- Guidelines outline a strategy for the develop- alies that might otherwise occur along borders ment of such emergency plans which should not

38 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS

In southern Belarus, where areas were affected by radioactive fallout from the Chernobyl accident, small farmholders are applying countermeasures to reduce levels of contamination in milk, meat, and other products. They are being assisted through projects supported by the Norwegian government and the FAO/IAEA programme. Shown here is a typical small farm in the region; equipment for mixing "Prussian Blue"compounds and for making boli which are used to reduce radiocaesium levels in cows; and scientists monitoring the body gamma radiation of livestock given Prussian Blue. (Credit: Richards/IAEA)

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 39 SPECIAL REPORTS

by social factors and infrastructure of the Guideline levels for radionuclides in foods following region, so it is important that the database for accidental nuclear contamination for use in international trade decision-making includes this information too. The Guidelines then go on to consider particular agricultural countermeasures with some Dose per unit Representative Level assessment of their efficacy. Such countermea- intake factor radionuclides (Bq/kg) sures address long-term health effects in the human population; the more immediate impact Foods destined for general consumption of radiation exposure on plant and animal life is 10"6 Amencium-241, Plutonium-239 10 not directly considered. 10-7 Strontium-90 100 Some measures can be taken before and dur- 10"8 lodine-131, Caesium-134, Caesium-137 1000 ing deposition of radioactive fallout, such as housing animals and covering feed/food stores. Milk and infant foods Given adequate warning, it may be possible to 10-5 Amencium-241, Plutonium-239 1 harvest a crop (grass, grain, cash crop) before lodine-131, Strontium-90 10-7 100 deposition occurs. Caesium-134, Caesium-137 1000 10"8 Countermeasures applied dunng the first few weeks after deposition are concerned particularly with reducing exposure from short- Notes These levels are designed lo be applied only io radionuclides contaminating food moving lived radionuclides such as iodine-131. Thus, in international trade following an accident and not to naturally occurring radionuchdes which crops may be harvested and stored, or harvest- have always been present in the diet The Codex Ahmentanus Guideline Levels remain applica- ing may be delayed, to allow for radioactive ble for one year following a nuclear accident By an accident is meant a situation where the uncontrolled release of radionuclides to the environment results in the contamination of food decay before consumption. Similarly, milk con- offered in international trade taminated with iodine-131 can be converted to storable products (e.g. milk powder, cheese). Once radioactive contamination is distnb- uted through the biosphere, a wider range of countermeasures needs to come into play which only specify entena for taking prompt short- takes into consideration the transfer of the rele- term action but also entena for longer term vant radionuclides from soils into the food action which will do much to sustain public chain. For example, since mineral uptake by confidence in the competence and integrity of plants is related to the total available and rela- the authonties tive abundance of their different ions, the appli- • The Guidelines recognize two distinct phas- cation of high levels of potassium fertilizer can es in which to consider countermeasures. In the reduce radiocaesium uptake; and liming, by planning and preparation of responses to an increasing calcium levels can reduce accident, possible protective actions should be radiostrontium uptake. Sometimes it is possi- assessed in a general way in relation to a range ble to use alternative crops or vaneties that of credible accident scenarios. From this, the accumulate lower levels of radionuclides than first criteria for action to be used immediately those normally grown in a region — for exam- and for a short time after an accident can be ple, cereals in place of leafy vegetables and pas- developed. These plans require a database ture Another possibility is to grow crops such which includes information about the transfer of as sugar-beet or oilseed rape where the edible the radioisotopes of caesium and strontium product is processed and contamination reduced. between local soil, water, plants, animals, and In order to maintain some form of agriculture fish. These are the isotopes most likely to cause wherever possible, the production of non-food more than transient problems to agnculture. In crops such as flax and cotton for fibre, oilseed addition, data on soils, weather patterns, local for lubricants or biofuel, and ornamental plants dietary preferences, and some feasible counter- must be considered. Finally, burying the measures with estimates of their costs should be contaminated surface of the land by deep included A network of laboratories for radionu- ploughing can be an effective procedure for chde analysis must also be identified. large farms provided the proper ploughs are The second phase begins some time after a available real accident has happened when specific infor- Contamination of animal products can mation on its nature and likely consequences is be reduced most effectively by limiting their intake available. Specific protective measures can then of radionuclides or reducing their absorb- be considered. However, in many cases the tion. Feeding uncontaminated stored feedstuffs choice of countermeasures will be constrained is an example of the first category while the use

40 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS

Level of pasture 'Intake/day Meat Milk contamination (kBq) Caesium-137 level Caesium-137 level Caesium-137 level Caesium-137 level (Bq/kg) equilibrium following boli equilibrium following boli (Bq/kg) (Bq/kg) (Bq/kg) (Bq/kg)

250 17.5 280 90 112 34 500 36 700 234 280 94 1,000 70 1,400 450 550 186 1,500 105 2,100 700 840 280 2,000 140 2,800 920 1,120 374 3,000 210 4,200 1,400 1,680 560 5,000 350 7,000 3,000 2,800 920 10,000 700 14,000 4,600 5,600 1,860

The table illustrates the relationship between levels of pasture contamination and caesium-137 levels in meat and milk, and the effect on meat and milk levels of administering boli.

»Assumes daily intake of 70 kg fresh herbage/animal.

of Prussian Blue (discussed in more detail later) is a significant reduction in radiocaesium contam- Effects of counter- an example of the latter. In the case of meat-pro- ination of milk and meat produced on State and measures on cae- ducing animals, feeding uncontaminated feed may collective farms. However, many of the counter- sium-137 levels in only be necessary close to the time of slaughter measures were difficult to apply by small-scale milk and meat since the biological half-life of radiocaesium, for farmers for economic reasons. In 1990 up to example, is of the order of two to four weeks 50,000 dairy cows were still producing milk depending on the species. Ideally this should be that exceeded temporary permissible levels, or supplemented by monitoring live animals in the TPLs, (111 Bq/L in Belarus; 370 Bq/L in slaughterhouse or at the farm to identify those Ukraine and Russia). Therefore, an alternative that require a further period of feeding with approach was required which was simple, effec- uncontaminated feed. With game animals, tive, and cheap. changing the hunting season may be effective A project sponsored by the Norwegian where the animals have seasonal feeding habits. Government developed a countermeasure to For example, mushrooms and lichens, which lower the levels of radiocaesium in both domes- can be highly contaminated, are frequently most ticated and game ruminants using a mixture of abundant in the autumn, so animals should not compounds known as "Prussian Blue" (PB). be hunted during this period. Executed through the United Nations, the pro- These are merely examples of countermea- ject involved the Norwegian Agricultural sures; there are many more possibilities. University and Radiation Hygiene Institute, the However, decisions on whether to apply counter- Ukrainian Research Institute of Agricultural measures and which ones are appropriate require Radiology in Kiev, the Belarussian Branch of information about the nature and extent of the All-Union Institute of Agricultural radioactive contamination. As a considerable Radiology in Obninsk, and Queen's University, infrastructure is necessary to produce an effective Belfast. The IAEA's Seibersdorf Laboratories, response, a large section of the Guidelines is con- the Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear cerned with organizational structures. Finally, the Techniques in Food and Agriculture, and the document briefly reviews the responses of select- IAEA's Division of Nuclear Safety provided co- ed countries to the Chernobyl accident. ordination, expert services, equipment, and materials to the major counterpart institutes in three countries for conducting trials in the worst Assistance with countermeasures in affected villages. contaminated areas Successful trials were conducted in 1990-92 involving over 3,000 cows in 21 settlements in The application of many different counter- Belarus, 10,000 cows in 54 settlements in the measures in Belarus, Ukraine, and western Ukraine, and an unspecified number of cattle in Russia following the Chernobyl accident led to villages in Russia. Thereafter, each State's

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 41 SPECIAL REPORTS

greatly welcomed by farmers and government Benefit Comment alike. While successful countermeasures have been Individual dose reduction Overall reduction of about 60% (proba- applied on state and collective farms and food- bly more than 80% in areas where the stuffs with acceptably low radionuclide content uptake factor from soil to grass is particularly high) are now grown on previously contaminated land, public acceptance of "clean" foods coming from Collective dose Perhaps a few hundred man Sv; rela- these areas is still a problem. The Belarussian tively small because of the extremely and Ukrainian authorities are thus anxious to use low TPLs being used in the CIS. this land in other ways. Through its joint pro- Nevertheless it is cost effective gramme with Food and Agricultural Additional milk production An additional 50 million litres of milk per Organisation, the IAEA's Technical Co-operation annum would meet TPLs without the Department is currently supporting a project in need for distribution of "clean" feed and Belarus to investigate the potential of oil seed milk. crops (primarily rapeseed) as an alternative crop. Clean feed needed for milk production The time needed for "clean feeding" Initial research indicates that oil produced from could be reduced by 40-50 days, result- certain varieties of rapeseed on land with radio- ing in a reduction by a factor of 5 of the caesium levels of 15-40 Ci/km2 is devoid of the area of "clean" pasture needed. radionuclide (and radiostrontium); the contamination is restricted to the straw and residual oil Social/psychological Some 50,000 farmers could return to traditional farming practices with a cor- seed meal. The Belarus authorities sowed about responding increase in their sense of 20,000 hectares of contaminated land with rape- well-being and improvement in their seed in 1995 and intend refining the oil into lubri- quality of life. Many farmers destined for cants which currently have to be imported. translocation would no longer have to move house. Should the project be successful, the land area sown will be expanded two- to threefold for Compensation The number of individuals receiving lubricant production. compensation for exceeding an annual IAEA assistance is also being given to criterion could be reduced by approxi- Ukraine to improve the skills and facilities for mately 50%. the measurement, control, and consequently the reduction of radionuclides in foodstuffs. The programme is based on the Ovruch Milk Summary of bene- Minister of Agriculture authorized the wide- Canning Integrated Works which processes fits of using spread use of PB in livestock for reducing the 200-500 tons of milk per day, much of it from Prussian Blue content of caesium-137 in milk and meat. farms within the Chernobyl contaminated zone. compounds The term "Prussian Blue" refers to a number The United States government is currently proof ferric hexacyano ferrates; ammonium ferric viding additional resources to assess a commer- cyanoferrate (or AFCF) is perhaps the most cial magnetic separation system for decontami- commonly used caesium-binding compound. nating liquid milk. Given as a bolus into the rumen, in compound- Generation of data. Belarus is receiving ed concentrate feed, in salt licks, or simply assistance through the IAEA Technical Co- sprinkled on the diet, AFCF reacts with con- operation programme to obtain more data on the sumed radiocaesium in the intestine to form a occurrence and migration of radionuclides in complex that is eliminated in the dung instead soils, forests, and water bodies. These will be of passing into the animal's blood stream. The used in forecasts of the likelihood of success PB bound radiocaesium in dung is only slowly and of the time required for the restoration of available to plants. Depending on the dose and contaminated regions to normal economic type of PB compound given, radiocaesium activity. reductions of two to eight times can be achieved in milk and meat from cattle grazing contaminated fodder. This significantly reduces the Applying lessons learned internal dose to the human consumer and is often enough to allow village communities to Values for the transfer of radionuclides remain in contaminated areas. As a result, the between different components of the biosphere need to translocate whole communities, with its and experience in dealing with the conse- attendant traumas, has been curtailed and huge quences of a nuclear accident are largely con- costs have been averted. Not surprisingly, the fined to temperate regions, primarily in Europe. benefits of employing PB compounds have been However, there are nuclear power stations in

42 IAEA BULLETIN. 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS

some parts of the world that could conceivably A range of agricultural countermeasures is In Belarus, an IAEA-supported technical co-oper- affect tropical countries in the event of an acci- currently available to reduce the impact of ation project is investi- dent. Therefore, a Co-ordinated Research radiocaesium contamination in the food chain. gating the use of rapeseed (in background) as Programme (CRP) involving the IAEA Division The same cannot be said for radiostrontium an alternative rotation of Radiation and Waste Safety and the Joint contamination. Considerable laboratory and crop on some contaminated lands. FAO/IAEA Division is in progress to measure field research and development are required to (Credit Richards/IAEA) transfer factors for radiocaesium and improve the situation. For example, a number of radiostrontium from soil to major tropical crops materials have been proposed for selectively and also from water to tropical fish. These data absorbing/adsorbing strontium in foodstuffs but will be of value for both planning countermea- none can yet be recommended unequivocally sures and for establishing permissible levels of because data are inadequate. Alternative radionuclides in industrial effluents in the trop- approaches, such as filters and magnetic sepa- ics. There are also plans to establish a further rators for liquid food products, are currently CRP which will examine the efficacy in tropical available commercially although they have not conditions of countermeasures that have proved been evaluated critically under the conditions effective in Europe. prevailing in the contaminated regions. In devising and applying agricultural coun- To conclude, the Chernobyl accident high- termeasures, more consideration should be lighted the need for each country to develop a given to the management of the whole contam- set of agricultural countermeasures ready for inated environment, especially forests and water immediate application in the event of a nuclear bodies because of the interactions between them accident. Lessons have been learned on the use- and agricultural land. There is a need to devel- fulness of many countermeasures and the infra- op secondary reference levels (so-called structures needed to implement them. Work "operational intervention levels") for animal remains to be done to ensure that these lessons feeds and pasture. This requires additional are applied. This is particularly important for data on transfer factors or at least re-examina- tropical environments as most of our experience tion of existing knowledge. has been obtained in temperate climates. O

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 43 SPECIAL REPORTS

• lack of safety culture in the responsible NUCLEAR- SAFETV-- organizations leading to the inability to reme- ASPECTS •'•• .••••;.• dy important weaknesses, even though they had been known long before the accident; • an insufficiently reasoned and examined test programme with respect to technical safe- Report by Luis Lederman, Acting Head of the ty; Safety Assessment Section in the IAEA • violation of operating procedures; Department of Nuclear Safety, who served as • operation and operating equipment impos- Scientific Secretary of Topical Session 7: ing undue requirements on the responsible "Nuclear safety remedial measures". staff; • insufficient protection against accidents beyond the design basis. rom 1-3 April 1996 an International Forum F"One Decade After Chernobyl: Nuclear Safety Aspects" was convened at the IAEA in The safety of RBMKs Vienna, Austria. It was organized by the IAEA in co-operation with the UN Department of There is broad agreement that the original Humanitarian Affairs (UNDHA). The objec- design of the RBMK core and shutdown sys- tive was to review the remedial measures taken tem had severe deficiencies. This holds for all since the Chernobyl accident to improve the generations of RBMK plants. Between 1987 safety of RBMK reactors and the Chernobyl and 1991, a first stage of safety upgrading was containment structure (sarcophagus). The performed for all RBMK units addressing the results were presented at the International most serious problems in this area. Conference on Chernobyl held in the follow- The void reactivity effect has been reduced ing week. by installing 80-90 additional absorbers and This article features excerpts of the conclu- by increasing the operative reactivity margin sions of the Safety Forum related to the safety up to 43-45 manual control rods, and by of Chernobyl-type reactors (RBMKs) and to increasing the fuel enrichment to 2.4%. conditions at the site of the Chernobyl plant The efficiency of the scram system has itself. been increased by elimination of water columns; increasing the number of bottom control rods driven in the core together with Causes of the accident the upper rods after trip signals; the speed of rod insertion; a new fast-acting shutdown sys- The events which led to the accident in Unit tem; and additional signals for the control and 4 of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant on 26 safety system. April 1986 have been investigated by many Organization and operation has been teams of scientists over the past ten years. strengthened by more frequent computation Although there are still some gaps in knowledge and display of the operative reactivity margin; relating to details of some phenomena involved and improved operating rules and procedures. in the accident, the knowledge acquired is suffi- Progress has also been achieved in further cient to identify the causes and to take effective areas, such as installation of remote shutdown measures to prevent a repetition of such an stations, non-destructive testing and training event. of personnel (simulator). The realization of From today's viewpoint the main causes of these measures varies from plant to plant. the accident can be summarized as follows: There remain issues beyond the scope of • severe deficiencies in the reactor's physi- the first stage of upgrading which require fur- cal design and in the design of the shutdown ther attention. These needs largely depend on facilities; the different stages of RBMK development. • high positive void effect during opera- There is no doubt that significant improve- tional conditions with high burn-up; ments were achieved regarding the safety • positive scram effect under conditions of deficiencies relevant for the Chernobyl acci- the reactor before the accident; dent. For other safety issues, safety upgrading • failure to incorporate the operating reac- is under way or planned. The realization of tivity margin (ORM) into reactor protection; this second stage of upgrading continues to

44 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS

encounter major financial difficulties. That partial confinement. It is evident that they will Aerial view of the Chernobyl nuclear power may be characterized as an important if not the lead to significant improvements even if they plant. The sarcophagus main current problem for RBMK safety. will not always reproduce the technical solu- (foreground) encases the Remaining problems of RBMKs. The tions implemented in the new RBMK plants. unit destroyed in the accident. analysis performed so far shows that, from a Where "classical" approaches are difficult to (Credit: Mouchkin/IAEA) technical point of view, the known safety defi- implement, they often rely on "compensating ciencies of second and third generation RBMKs solutions". could be overcome in a way broadly consistent with the defense-in-depth concept. Many of the steps to be taken have been already defined and Particular problems at Chernobyl internationally agreed. The practicability of backfitting first gener- Most of the above considerations on RBMK ation RBMKs raises further questions in addi- safety also hold for the Chernobyl plant. tion to the issues relevant for the second and Nevertheless, the situation at Chernobyl is a third generations of the plant. There have been particular one as there exists a range of site spe- significant doubts in Western countries about cific problems. These problems concern both the feasibility and the cost effectiveness of the safety of the remaining units and the acci- backfits. However, from today's perspective it dent consequences. must be recognized that the existing upgrading Although there are plans to shut down the programmes address most safety concerns. Chernobyl reactors in the near future, pro- They include the backfitting of essential safety grammes for upgrading them, that have been features such as control and protection sys- agreed internationally, should be implemented tems, emergency core cooling systems, and to ensure safety during their remaining lifetime.

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 45 SPECIAL REPORTS

Overview of international activities on RBMK safety

n response to a request initiated by the former fire protection, and the preparation of a Safety I Soviet Union, the IAEA started a programme on Analysis Report. the safety of RBMKs in 1992.* It aims at consoli- Assistance to the Leningrad RBMK relates to a dating results of various national, bilateral, and mul- safety improvement programme with provision of tilateral activities and to establish international con- equipment like that for Ignaiina. sensus on required safety improvements and related The NSA Chernobyl Project focuses on short- priorities. It assists both regulatory and operating term safety improvements to Unit 3 including organizations and provides a basis for technical and in-service inspection, neutron flux instrumentation, financial decisions. and the hydrogen monitoring system. A wide range of activities are covered, and since Funding is also being provided for decommis- 1992, a number of reviews and assessments have sioning facilities, namely a low- and intermediate- been conducted. Smolensk-3 and Ignalina-2 have level liquid radwaste treatment plant and a spent served as RBMK reference plants during the pro- fuel storage facility. gramme's first phase. Bilateral programmes. Sweden and Lithuania. European Commission. An international RBMK This programme includes support to the regulatory consortium on the "Safety of Design Solutions and body VATESI, co-operation between the Swedish Operation of Nuclear Power Plants with RBMK Nuclear Industry and Ignaiina plant, and various Reactors" was established in 1991 under the aus- technical projects. Main areas where assistance is pices of the European Commission. Eight Western being provided relate to the legal framework (review countries (Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, of the Lithuanian Energy Law), development of the Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom) and the three regulatory system, material inspection, manage- countries operating RBMKs (Lithuania, the Russian ment, and organization, and a PSA level-1 study (of Federation, and Ukraine) have participated in the the Barselina plant). consortium. The following topical areas were stud- Main technical projects cover areas such as fire ied: systems engineering and accident progression, protection, enhancement of the relief capacity from control and protection systems, core physics, exter- the reactor cavity, enhancement of the ALS system, nal events, engineering quality, operating experi- storage capacity of spent fuel, waste compaction, ence, human factors, regulatory interface and prob- improvement of the plant's physical protection, and abilistic safety assessment (PSA). upgrading the communications system. More than 300 recommendations for safety Russia and Canada, France, Germany, Japan, improvements have been made. Many of these had Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, UK, USA. Bilateral been previously recognized by designers and opera- programmes with Russia include those related to: tors and already acted upon while others are impor- development of symptom-based emergency operat- tant new recommendations. ing procedures (USA); fire protection; fuel channel sealing plugs; instrumentation and control improve- World Association of Nuclear Operators ments; in-service inspection; leak detection system (WANO). In 1992 an International User's Group for (Japan); metallurgical analysis; probabilistic safety Soviet-Built Reactors identified common require- assessment; quality assurance; thermal hydraulic ments to improve RBMK safety. They include mea- and neutronic codes. sures already implemented or fully developed for implementation and those yet to be implemented. Outlook. It is generally agreed that the results from international assistance have increased confidence European Bank for Reconstruction and that the major shortcomings and the required safety Development (EBRD). By the end of 1995, four- improvements of RBMK reactors have been identi- teen countries and the European Union had pledged fied. to the 245 MECU Nuclear Safety Account (NSA). The plant-specific status of implementation of Assistance to the Ignaiina plant includes in-ser- safety improvements varies considerably. Therefore vice inspection equipment, a full-scope simulator, a major effort is still required to complete plant-specific safety analyses and to implement the required safety improvements. *An overview of this Programme was published in the IAEA Bulletin, Volume 38. No. 1 (March 1996).

46 IAEA BULLETIN. 3/1996 SPECIAL REPORTS

For the consequences of the accident, con- destroyed reactor to the adjoining operating cerns focus on the sarcophagus built around Unit 3. The risks are generally assumed to be the destroyed reactor, on the radioactive mate- low; however, the issue needs further investi- rial contained inside the sarcophagus, and on gation. (Note: Opinions differ widely about the radioactive material buried on the site. the significance of the risk of an accident in The sarcophagus. The possible instability Chernobyl Unit 3 caused by a collapse of the of the sarcophagus is a significant problem. The sarcophagus. More detailed investigations of concern is mostly related to the fact that essen- this issue are required.) tial supports of the main construction had to be built by remote control without fixings such as welding and bolt connections. As a conse- Other site-specific problems quence, there is considerable uncertainty regarding the resistance to potential internal Further site-specific problems relate to the and external impacts. This relates above all to contamination, in particular to the radioactive the withstanding of loads due to external bur- material buried at the site. The type and extent den or impact, such as loads due to wind, of the contamination are well known by mea- snow, or earthquake, for example. There is surements. Although the local dose rate is con- broad agreement that the risk of a partial or siderably high, most areas are accessible. The total collapse during the initially projected provisional depositories of highly radioactive design lifetime of the sarcophagus of about 30 material, such as nuclear fuel ejected out of the years is not negligible if no countermeasures reactor during the accident, however, represent are taken. an obstacle for construction and reconstruction Even in the worst case of a complete col- measures. Furthermore, radioactive substances lapse, widespread effects are not to be expect- get into the groundwater there. At present the ed. Nevertheless, the stabilization of the sar- contamination is still low. In the long term there cophagus is an issue of high priority. is, however, a considerable risk, and an orderly Water entering the sarcophagus is another disposal of the provisional depositories is significant safety issue. The presence of water absolutely required. stimulates the disintegration of fuel masses into dust and degradation of building structures by corrosion, and can increase the reac- Step-by-step site restoration tivity of fuel masses. Regarding the risk of groundwater contamination, the existence of Given the scale of the problems to be solved water in the sarcophagus bears some risk in at Chernobyl, it is evident that major long-term the long term. However, this risk is assumed efforts are needed. The stability of the sarcoph- to be much smaller than that from contact of agus must be ensured, the destroyed reactor per- water with the radioactive material buried in manently secured, the wastes disposed of, and the ground outside the sarcophagus. the site reconstructed. This will require substan- Possibilities of recriticality have been tial resources. widely investigated. It has been found that the There is a broad agreement that these prob- sarcophagus is currently safe from a criticali- lems call for an integrated approach divided ty point of view. Nevertheless, it cannot com- into suitable steps. This approach should be pletely be excluded that there exist configura- based on realistic targets which take into tions of fuel masses inside the sarcophagus account the radiological conditions at the site which could reach a critical state when in con- and appropriate safety and waste disposal prior- tact with water. However, even if this could ities. It should begin with a stabilization of the lead to significant radiation fields inside the existing sarcophagus. That stabilization could sarcophagus, neither large off-site releases nor significantly reduce the risk of a collapse of the mechanical effects would have to be appre- shelter and provide time for a careful reflection hended in such an event. The impact on the and planning of further measures, such as the operating personnel of the other units should construction of a new encasement and waste also be clarified. management. This would include the recovery Another specific issue for the Chernobyl or partial recovery of fuel masses inside the sar- plant is the possible implications for safety of cophagus, and the disposal of radioactive mate- the proximity of the sarcophagus and the rial buried on the site. ~3

IAEA BULLETIN. 3/1996 47 INTERNATIONAL DATAFILE

status around In operation Under construction the world No of units Total net MWe No. of units Total net MWe Argentina 2 935 1 692 Armenia 1 376 Belgium 7 5 631 Brazil 1 626 1 1245 Bulgaria 6 3 538 Canada 21 14 907 China 3 2 167 Czech Republic 4 1 648 2 1 824 Finland 4 2310 France 56 58 493 4 5810 Germany 20 22 017 Hungary 4 1 729 India 10 1 695 4 808 Iran 2 2 146 Japan 51 39 893 3 3 757 Kazakhstan 1 70 Korea, Rep. of 11 9 120 5 3 870 Lithuania 2 2 370 Mexico 2 1 308 Netherlands 2 504 Pakistan 1 125 1 300 Romania 2 1 300 Russian Federation 29 19 843 4 3 375 South Africa 2 1 842 Slovak Republic 4 1 632 4 1 552 Slovenia 1 632 Spain 9 7 124 Sweden 12 10 002 Switzerland 5 3 050 United Kingdom 35 12 908 Ukraine 16 13 629 5 4 750 Noies to table: During United States 109 98 784 1 1 165 1995, two reactors were shutdown (including Bruce- 2 in Canada which could World total* 437 344 422 39 32 594 restart in the futurel ' The total includesTaiwan, China where six reactors totalling 4884 MWe are in operaton.

Nuclear share of electricity Lithuania 85.6% generation in France 76.1% Belgium 55.5% selected Sweden 46.6% countries Bulgaria 46.4% Slovak Republic 44.1% Hungary 42.3% Switzerland .ir 39.9% Slovenia 39.5% Ukraine 37.8% Rep. of Korea 36.1% Spain 34.1% Japan 33.4% Finland 29.9% Note: Percentages and data above are Germany 29.1% as of December 1995; they are subject United Kingdom 25%* to change. Other countries generating a United States 22.5% share of their electricity from nuclear Czech Republic 20.1% power are Armenia, Brazil, Pakistan. Canada 17.3% and Kazakhstan Additionally the share Argentina 11 OVO of nuclear generation was 28.79% in Russia 11 ftO/- South Africa 6.5% Taiwan, China. Mexico 6% Netherlands 4.9%* * IAEA estimates. India 1.9% China 1.2%

48 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 .INTERNATIONAL NEWSBRIEFS.

The 40th regular session of the IAEA Gen- East: and the Agency's programme and 40th regular eral Conference is set to open 16 September budget for 1997. session of IAEA 1996 at the Austria Center in Vienna. At In conjunction with the Conference, a General sessions throughout the week, high-level number of events are being organized. They Conference governmental delegations from the Agency's include a special scientific programme fea- 124 Member States will take decisions on turing three subjects — the advanced nuclear matters affecting the IAEA's policies, pro- fuel cycle, new concepts for the future; IAEA grammes, and budget. information management for Member States, The provisional agenda includes items re- the development of information technology; lated to strengthening international co-opera- and trends in research reactor applications. tion in nuclear, radiation, and waste safety; Additionally, a briefing session is being or- strengthening of the IAEA's technical co-op- ganized on the IAEA's safeguards develop- eration activities; strengthening the effec- ment programme. Also scheduled is the tra- tiveness and efficiency of the safeguards sys- ditional meeting of senior officials on nuclear tem; measures against illicit trafficking in safety, which will include coverage of the nuclear materials and other radioactive outcome of the International Chernobyl Con- sources; extensive use of isotope hydrology ference convened by the IAEA and other or- for water resources management; the imple- ganizations in April this year. mentation of the safeguards agreement be- More information about the General Con- tween the IAEA and the Democratic People's ference is available from the Division of Public Republic of Korea; the implementation of Information and through the IAEA's World UN Security Council resolutions relating to Atom Internet services on the World Wide Web Iraq; an African nuclear-weapon-free zone; at http://www.iaea.or.at/worldatom. the application of safeguards in the Middle

A committee of the IAEA Board of Gover- and increased physical access, would IAEA Board of nors is scheduled to hold its second meeting strengthen the Agency's ability to detect unde- Governors in October 1996 on a draft Protocol to pro- clared nuclear material and activities. Itempha- meetings vide the IAEA with additional access to in- sized that the new measures should strike a bal- formation and locations as part of efforts to ance between the Agency's need for information strengthen the safeguards system. The Com- and access on the one hand and the State's need mittee on Strengthening the Effectiveness to protect its legitimate interests and to respect its and Improving the Efficiency of the Safe- constitutional obligations on the other. It further guards System was established by the Board emphasized that implementation of these meas- 14 June and held its first meeting 2-4 July at ures should be subject to strict rules of confiden- IAEA headquarters. Representatives from 65 tiality to be observed by the Agency, with regard States and the European Commission and the both to information received and to the entire Brazilian-Argentine Agency for Accounting process of verification. and Control of Nuclear Materials attended The Board further considered that, in order the meeting; the Committee is under the to strengthen the Agency's capability to detect chairmanship of Ambassador J. Th.H.C van in the States concerned undeclared nuclear ma- Ebbenhorst Tengbergen of the Netherlands, terial and activities in an effective manner and the current Chairman of the IAEA Board of increase the efficiency of the safeguards pro- Governors. gramme, co-operation is needed from all States. At its July meeting, the Committee had its In this connection, it welcomed the willingness first reading of the draft Protocol, which would expressed by the nuclear-weapon States to con- be an additional legal document to comprehen- sider how best to contribute to the implementa- sive safeguards agreements. The document tion of the strengthened programme under con- would define inter alia the nature of addi- sideration. tional access to information and to nuclear- Safeguards implementation in 1995. related locations for the Agency's inspectors. During 1995. the IAEA did not find any indi- In establishing the Committee, the Board cation of the diversion of nuclear material, or acknowledged that additional information, in- of the misuse of any facility, equpment. or cluding the taking of environmental samples non-nuclear material placed under safeguards.

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 49 , INTERNATIONAL NEWSBRIEFS

It therefore concluded that such items remained tion work is carried out under agreements pur- in peaceful use or were otherwise accounted suant to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of for. However, the Agency was still unable to Nuclear Weapons (NPT), which was extended verify the initial declaration made by the indefinitely in May 1995. Democratic People's Republic of Korea Other highlights of the IAEA's safeguards (DPRK). The DPRK is not in full compliance activities in 1995. The IAEA maintained, with its safeguards agreement. and still maintains, a team of inspectors in At the end of 1995, Agency safeguards Iraq and in the DPRK. In the United States, agreements were in force with 125 States (and safeguards were applied on nuclear material Taiwan, China). Sixty-six of these States (and released from the US military programme in Taiwan, China) had nuclear activities and were 1995 and voluntarily placed under Agency inspected. Safeguards were also implemented safeguards, in addition to material already in five States with bilateral or multilateral released in 1994. Also in 1995, the IAEA agreements covering specified nuclear or non- conducted verification activities on the initial nuclear material, facilities or equipment, as inventories of nuclear materials submitted by well as at designated installations in the five Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, three of nuclear-weapon States. During 1995, a total of the Newly Independent States emerging from 554 nuclear facilities and other locations con- the former Soviet Union. taining nuclear materials were inspected. A Although the IAEA's safeguards activities total of 2285 inspections were carried out re- were effective in 1995, several implementation quiring 10,167 person-days of inspection ef- difficulties have been encountered. These in- fort. cluded technical difficulties with the Agency's The IAEA employs approximately 200 surveillance equipment and also administrative field inspectors for this work, and the budget restrictions imposed by several States on the for this activity in 1995 was US $88.6 mil- designation of inspectors and on the availability lion, plus a further US $14 million of ex- of long-term multiple entry visas for inspectors. trabudgetary funds contributed by eight The Agency is taking steps to resolve these Member States. Most of the IAEA's inspec- problems.

Mururoa During July and August 1996, international very long term, using modelling techniques radiological teams of scientists collected terrestrial and taking as their starting point inter alia, the Study marine samples at the Pacific atolls of Mu- geological characteristics of the atolls, experi- ruroa and Fangataufa in the context of the ence gained at other nuclear test sites, and in- radiological study requested from the IAEA formation provided by the French authorities by the Government of France. Teams visited regarding their own series of tests. The results the atolls in relays, to collect samples includ- of this work will then be consolidated with ing plankton, fish, seawater, lagoon sedi- other parts of the study and made publicly ment, coral, soil, coconuts, and vegetation. available. The final report is expected to be The samples will be shared subsequently with published in early 1998. a grid of analytical laboratories worldwide, The study was requested by France in 1995 including the Pacific region. Results will be and announced by IAEA Director General forwarded to the IAEA in Vienna, whose own Hans Blix at the IAEA General Conference that laboratories in Seiberdorf, Austria, and in year. It is being conducted under the guidance Monaco will also be participating both in the and direction of an International Advisory sample-taking and the analytical work. Data Committee of distinguished scientists from ten from French studies already undertaken will countries, chaired by Dr. E. Gail de Planque of be available for comparative purposes in the the United States, and including ex officio rep- scientific work to determine the radiological resentatives of the South Pacific Forum, the UN situation at the atolls. This part of the overall Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic study is expected to take up to six months to Radiation, the World Health Organization, and complete. the European Commission. The Committee Separately under the study, geological spe- itself intends to visit French Polynesia at a later cialists will be examining the situation regard- date, at which time a press conference is fore- ing possible future scenarios, including the seen on the study's progress.

50 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 .INTERNATIONAL NEWSBRIEFS

Being issued in September, the IAEA's Annual ganizations, convened an international sympo- IAEA Annual Report for 1995 summarizes the most impor- sium in October 1995 on comparative assess- Report for 1995 tant achievements of the IAEA for the safe ment in support of decision-making in the elec- development of nuclear technologies and the tricity sector. The symposium focused on the verification of their peaceful uses. The past information required for deciding upon and year saw a significant degree of progress in implementing sustainable electricity policies, some important areas of the IAEA's work, with taking into account economic, social, health, efforts geared towards further improving the and environmental factors. impact and efficiency of Agency activities. Strengthening technical co-operation. Among the activities noted in the report Several initiative were undertaken in 1995 to are: strengthen the IAEA technical co-operation Strengthening of safeguards. In 1995, the programme and to make it more effective for IAEA's Board of Governors accepted the Di- sustainable development. Many of these initia- rector General's plan to implement at an early tives concentrated on improved planning. A date under existing legal authority measures Standing Advisory Group on Technical Assis- aimed at strengthening the present safeguards tance and Co-operation (SAGTAC) also was system. The measures include broader access established and met for the first time in Decem- to information, greater physical access to sites ber; it will review policy and strategy and make and locations, and the optimization of the pre- recommendations to the Agency. sent system through greater co-operation with Nuclear and radiation-based applications. States and the introduction of new safeguards The IAEA's programmes in research and devel- measurement and surveillance systems. In De- opment of nuclear-based technologies registered cember 1995, the Board also initially reviewed some notable achievements in 1995. A number other proposed measures which would require of countries reported successful applications of additional legal authority to implement. radiation-based techniques to control insect pests Illicit trafficking in nuclear materials. threatening to agriculture. New programmes also The IAEA established a special programme in were launched in fields of health care and nutri- this area in 1995 and set up a database of tion in co-operation with the World Health Or- trafficking incidents to provide factual infor- ganization. The IAEA further started a new re- mation to Member States and the public. Also search programme on the use of irradiated sewage conducted were training courses in the imple- sludge to increase soil fertility and crop yields and mentation of systems for accounting and con- help preserve the environment. In March 1995, trol of nuclear materials and in physical protec- water problems were in focus at an Agency-spon- tion methods and technology. Technical sup- sored symposium that practical applications of port further was co-ordinated for a number of the techniques being used in the management of Member States. groundwater resources. Radiological studies. Studies of the radio- Safety of radiation sources. As part of logical situation at former nuclear test sites efforts to assist countries in safely managing were conducted or initiated in 1995. The IAEA radiation sources used in industry, medicine, organized a re-examination of the site at the and other fields, the IAEA issued a computer- Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands, and also based package and documentation for use by undertook a review of an area in Kazakhstan register administrators who monitor and inven- where nuclear weapons had been tested for tory sealed radiation sources. many years. At the request of France, the Nuclear safety in Eastern Europe and the Agency further started preparations to assess former USSR. Progress was recorded in the the radiological situation in the atolls of Mu- Agency's efforts to assist countries operating ruroa and Fangataufa. specific types of nuclear power plants in these Waste safety. The IAEA Board convened regions. Since international consensus has al- an open-ended group of legal and technical ready been achieved on proposed improve- experts in 1995 for purposes of preparing a ments, the emphasis was on reviewing the draft Convention on the Safe Management of status of their implementation. Radioactive Waste. Two meeting were held The Annual Report may be obtained from during the year with good progress. the Division of Public Information. An elec- Sustainable development and nuclear en- tronic version also is available on-line through ergy. Among other activities, the IAEA, in the IAEA's World Atom Internet services at the co-operation with nine other international or- address http://iaea.or.at/worldatom.

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 51 .INTERNATIONAL NEWSBRIEFS

Update On A report on the IAEA's activities for assisting Kazakhstan the desalination complex supplies nuclear countries in need of potable water resources water to a nearby residential area. desalination will be considered by the IAEA General Con- All told, 22 countries and a number of or- ference in September 1996. The report focuses ganizations are supporting the IAEA's work- on efforts related to seawater desalination using plans for assisting States to produce potable nuclear energy. The Agency has undertaken a water economically. Over the next several number of feasibility studies and monitored years, the Agency is looking to conduct a range nuclear desalination programmes in Member of activities related to nuclear desalination. States, among them Morocco, Indonesia, Among them are a follow-up study on the North Egypt, the Republic of Korea, India, and the African feasibility study and provision of ex- Russian Federation. pert services for a review of the regional infra- IAEA activities noted in the report include structure capabilities. A next step in the tech- the finalization of a feasibility study for the nology's development would be for one or North African region and the organization of more countries to proceed with preparatory ac- several meetings in 1995 and early 1996 that tions for demonstration projects. reviewed advances in the field, the design of Also being organized is an international nuclear reactors for desalination applications, symposium on nuclear desalination in May and global experience in coupling nuclear 1997, and a Steering Committe has been estab- plants with district heat networks and desalina- lished with representatives from nine countries tion processes. About 500 reactor-years of op- and international organizations. The European erational experience from nuclear co-genera- Commission, the Global Technology Develop- tion and heat-only reactors has been accumu- ment Center, the International Desalination As- lated worldwide, mostly in the former Soviet sociation, the United Nations Industrial Devel- Union and Eastern European countries. Nu- opment Organization (UNIDO), the World clear energy for seawater desalination has been Health Organization (WHO) , and the World used at locations in Japan and in Kazakhstan. Meteorological Organization (WMO) have ex- While in Japan the desalted water is mostly pressed their willingness to support the Sympo- consumed at the nuclear power plants, in sium in various ways. YOUR LINKS ON THE INTERNET VOtCATOM

IAEA Press Releases Project updates Articles from the IAEA Agency programmes and Bulletin nuclear development Director General Scientific databases statements The IAEA Annual Report Topical overviews Reports and documents IAEA meetings Conference reports

Visit the IAEA's World Atom and TecAtom World Wide Web sites at http://www.iaea.or.at. If you want to reach us by electronic mail, the address is iaeo@iaeal .iaea.or.at. On line, the facts are yours 24 hours a day.

52 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 . NATIONAL UPDATES

Mexico: Nuclear information seminar project, met this July in Vienna with IAEA officials and technical staff to prepare strate- Mexico recently hosted a Regional Seminar gies and work plans concerning the project. on Atoms for Development organized by the It is foreseen that the Agency's support IAEA in co-operation with the country's Na- would include providing Medfly genetic sex- tional Commission of Nuclear Energy (ININ). ing technology to the mass-rearing facility in The seminar commemorated ININ's 40th anni- Chile, as well as training, specialized equip- versary and the centennial of the discovery of ment, and technical backstopping to field ac- radioactivity. It included invited journalists, tivities in Peru. Under the project, the Chil- government officials, and nuclear communica- ean mass-rearing facility would provide the tors from Mexico and other countries in the sterile flies to Peru. region, including Cuba, Ecuador, Panama, and The eradication campaign already has Venezuela. About 500 participants attended started in Tacna, the southernmost valley in sessions organized 18-20 June at ININ just Peru. Through a co-operative effort mainly outside Mexico City and at the Colegio de financed by Chile, more than 20 million sterile Ingenieros. Medflies produced in Chile's Arica facility are In an opening address, IAEA Director Gen- being shipped and released weekly in the Peru- eral Hans Blix focused on the subject of nuclear vian region. The Medfly is a costly problem for energy and sustainable development, citing Peru, whose multi-million dollar fruit produc- projects in Mexico and other countries that are tion covers more than 175,000 hectares. Esti- demonstrating the practical and potential roles mated losses attributed to the fruit fly amount of nuclear technologies that support environ- to more than US $25 million per year. Mango, mentally sound development. The Director grapes, mandarin, and other citrus are the main General also attended a special programme in- fruits for export. cluding a discussion with Mexico's President, The activities planned in Peru are part of an Mr. Ernesto Zedillo. ambitious National Fruit Fly Control and Eradi- Other speakers addressed a range of topics, cation Programme. In the coastal zones, there including nuclear energy's use for electricity is the potential to create Medfly-free areas be- generation, the safety of radiation technologies, cause of the geographical isolation of fruit-pro- applications of radioisotopes in fields of agri- ducing valleys. The country also plans to build culture, hydrology, and health care, the transfer two new mass-rearing facilities and to upgrade of technolgies through technical co-operation an older facility in Lima. They will be used to programmes, and regional aspects of nuclear produce sterile Medflies and Anastrepha fruit non-proliferation. The seminar was organized flies, which co-exist with Medflies in many under an extrabudgetary public information regions and also must be controlled. programme being funded by Japan. Romania: First nuclear plant Peru: Looking at SIT Cernavoda, the first nuclear power plant in Peru is taking a closer look at the Sterile Insect Romania, was connected to the national elec- Technique (SIT), a radiation-based technology, tricity grid in July at low power. Reports noted for an eradication campaign against the Medi- that the reactor is expected to go fully on line terranean fruit fly (Medfly) in the country. The in September, after final testing is completed. Medfly is a pest that destroys millions of dollars The plant, a 700-megawatt unit, was built in in fruit per year in infested areas. The SIT co-operation with Canada. technique relies on rearing vast numbers of Four other Candu nuclear units are planned male insects in special facilities that are steril- at the Cernavoda site. Unit-1 's capacity could ized by low doses of radiation and then released meet up to 10% of all the electricity currently into the wild where they mate without produc- being produced in Romania, which relies heav- ing offspring. ily on coal, oil, and hydropower electrical gen- In co-operation with Chile, Peru is seeking erating stations. to eradicate the Medfly in the southern regions of the country, and to prepare for an integrated Georgia: IAEA membership control campaign in other regions. Project officers from Peru and Chile, which are jointly The Republic of Georgia officially became a pursuing technical assistance for the proposed member of the IAEA earlier this year. The

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 53 . NATIONAL UPDATES

Agency was notified in late May that the Gov- lina. All told, more than 100 nuclear power ernment had deposited its instrument of accep- plants are operating in the United States. tance of the IAEA Statute. More information is available from UDÌ, a The IAEA's membership now stands at 124 database and directory publishing division of Member States. the McGraw-Hill Companies, 1200 G. Street NW, Suite 280, Washington, DC 20005-3802, Belarus: Ratifies Chemical Convention USA. Facsimile: 001-202-942-8789. Email: [email protected]. Belarus has become the 56th State to ratify Nuclear waste legislation. The United the Chemical Weapons Convention, deposit- States Senate has begun consideration of new ing the necessary legal instruments 11 July. legislation that will reform the country's cur- The Convention has been signed so far by rent waste management programme, and spe- 160 States, and will enter into force 180 days cifically address the problem of spent fuel after the deposit of the 65th instrument of storage, transportation, and disposal. ratification. The legislation would retain important pro- The Convention prohibits the development, visions of importance to the US nuclear indus- production, acquisition, retention, stockpiling, try, reports the Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI), transfer, and use of chemical weapons. It is the the industry's trade organization based in first multilateral disarmament agreement that Washington, DC. These include development provides for the total elimination of an entire of an integrated nuclear waste management category of weapons of mass destruction. Now system, including construction of a central, in- being formed, the Organization for the Prohibi- terim storage facility and a repository, and a tion of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) will have transportation network to move used fuel to responsibility for ensuring the implementation both facilities; provision of interim storage ca- of the Convention; OPCW is headquartered in pacity to meet the industry's needs through the The Hague, Netherlands. year 2019; and the resolution of funding prob- More information may be obtained from the lems in a manner that puts a ceiling on the fee Preparatory Commission for the OPCW, Laan per kilowatt-hour. van Meerdervoort 51, 2517 AE The Hague; Full details of the current US waste facsimile: 31-70-360-0944 or on the Internet at mangement programme, and about the new the address http://www.opcw.nl/ legislation being considered in the US Sen- ate, may be obtained from NEI, Suite 400, United States: Progress on nuclear 1776 Eye Street, NW, Washington, DC costs, waste legislation 20006-3709. Facsimile: 001-202-785-4113.

Production costs at nuclear power plants in the Argentina and Brazil: United States have declined again, dropping ABACC updates 5% in 1995, reports the Utility Data Institute (UDI), based in Washington, DC. For the US Updates about the work of the Brazilian-Ar- nuclear industry as a whole, production costs gentine Agency for Accounting and Control of per net megawatt-hour of electricity production Nuclear Materials are being provided in stood at $19.11 in 1995. Electricity output rose ABACC News, a periodical newsletter. 5% in 1995, to 674 million megawatt-hours, ABACC was established to administer and UDI reported. apply a common system for safeguards on all Nuclear plants at the top of UDI's per- nuclear materials found in all nuclear activities formance list were North Anna in Virginia, in Argentina and Brazil; its activities are co-or- Vogtle in Georgia, and Wolf Creek in Kan- dinated with the IAEA. The newsletter's first sas. All had operating and maintenance costs edition of 1996 notes that ABACC conducted well below $12 per megawatt-hour. 49 inspections through April 1996 in co-ordi- Production costs at US nuclear plants nation with safeguards inspections carried out have been on a steady decline over the past by the IAEA. decade after rising steeply in the 1970s to More information may be obtained from mid-1980s. In 1995, the costs among the top ABACC, Av. Rio Branco. 123 —grupo 515, 25 nuclear units ranged from $11.16 per CEP 20040-005, Rio de Janeiro. Brazil. Fac- megawatt-hour at North Anna to $17.35 at simile: 55-21 -507-1857/232-0382. the Brunswick nuclear plant in North Caro-

54 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 BRIEFLY NOTED.

NEW IAEA APPOINTMENTS. Four new work of international organizations, including appointments have been announced by the the IAEA, and of 13 countries of the Organiza- IAEA. Mr. Zygmund Domaratzki, from Can- tion for Economic Co-operation and Develop- ada, has been appointed Deputy Director Gen- ment. The latest edition also provides refer- eral, Department of Nuclear Safety, effective 1 ences of Internet sources about international August 1996. From 1992-94, he served as chair- co-operation on environment and develop- man of the Expert Group convened by the IAEA ment, including a brief guide to electronic con- for the preparation of the Convention on Nuclear ferences in the field. More information may be Safety. He succeeds Mr. Morris Rosen, Assis- obtained from the Institute, P.O. Box 326, N- tant Director General, of the United States. Ms. 1324 Lysaker, Norway. Facsimile: 47-67- Annick Camino, from France, has been ap- 111910. Email: [email protected]. pointed Director of the Division of Nuclear In- stallation Safety, Department of Nuclear Safety, WORLD ENERGY OUTLOOK. Strong eco- effective 1 July 1996; she has been at the IAEA nomic growth is expected to substantially boost since 1990. Mr. AbelJ. González, from Argen- world energy demand over the next two decades, tina, has been appointed Director of the Division reports the Energy Information Administration of Radiation and Waste Safety, Department of (EIA) of the US Department of Energy. The Nuclear Safety, effective 1 July 1996. He was largest gains in energy use are projected to occur formerly Deputy Director of the former Division in the Asian region, where energy demand is seen of Nuclear Safety. Mr. Swapan Kumar Datta, to rise by 150% to the year 2015, led by the from India, has been appointed Director of the economies of China and India. The EIA notes Division of Languages, Department of Admini- that higher standards of living in emerging stration, effective 1 September 1996; he was pre- economies are propelling increased use of energy viously Head of the IAEA English Translation for electric power generation and for personal Section. He succeeds Mr. Jean Rivals, from automobile transportation. Over the next two France. decades, electric power is projected to be the fastest-growing source of end-use energy supply ENVIRONMENTAL REFERENCE. The worldwide, the EIA reports. Nuclear power will annual review and reference on international co- keep providing a good share of that supply, operation in environmental development — the though fewer than half the countries having nu- Green Globe Yearbook — has been issued by the clear programmes are projected to expand capac- Fridtjof Nansen Institute in Norway. The Year- ity over the next 20 years. Growth is expected book includes evaluations on the Montreal Proto- mainly in developing countries, the EIA reports. col, regional seas conventions, the United Na- The projections are contained in the International tions Environment Programme, the World Health Energy Outlook 1996, and more information Organization's AIDS programme, and the inte- may be obtained from EIA, Forrestal Building, gration of environmental concerns in develop- Room 1F-048, Washington, DC 20585. ment assistance. It further features profiles on the Email: [email protected].

ANNIVERSARY AWARD. Dr. Sigvard Eklund, Director General Emeritus of the IAEA, has been presented with an honor- ary certificate by the Technical and Natu- ral Science Faculty, Upsala University. Sweden. Born in 1911 in Sweden, Dr. Eklund received his doctorate 50 years ago and the award was presented on the occa- sion of the anniversary of that achieve- ment. Dr. Eklund served as Director Gen- eral of the IAEA from 1961 -81.

IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 55 POSTS ANNOUNCED BY THEIAEA.

NUCLEAR SAFEGUARDS INSPECTOR P-4 post provides the broad interdiscipli- (RIA) and radioimmunometric assay (IRMA). (several positions) (96/SGO-4), Department nary computer/instrumentation support It requires an advanced university degree of Safeguards. These P-4 posts articipate in needed in the development section to col- (M.D., Ph.D. or equivalent) in medicine, bio- the implementation of the Agency's safe- laborate effectively with MSSPs (Mem- chemistry, chemical pathology, pharmacology guard system as safeguards inspectors sub- ber State Support Programs) in all mat- or allied discipline with ten years of research ject to the approval of the Board of Gover- ters concerning Unattended Integrated and management experience in the use of ra- nors. They require a university degree in Monitoring Systems and IAEA Inte- dionuclide based microanalytical methods for chemistry, physics, engineering or elec- grated Safeguards Instrumentation Pro- disease diagnosis. tronics/instrumentation or equivalent with gramme recommendations. It requires an Closing date: 14 October 1996. at least 10 years of relevant experience with advanced university degree in engineer- the nuclear fuel cycle, processing of nu- ing, with specialization in electronics ASSOCIATE EXPERTS/JUNIOR PRO- clear materials, material accounting or non- or computer science. FESSIONAL OFFICERS. The Government destructive analysis, preferably in plant op- Closing date: 14 October 1996. of Finland has undertaken to provide the IAEA eration conditions. with Finnish Associate Experts and Junior Pro- Closing date: 31 December 1996. UNIT HEAD (96-051), Department of Re- fessional Officers (generally qualifed persons search and Isotopes. This P-4 post is Head under 32 years of age) for technical co-opera- UNIT HEAD (96-056), Department of Re- of the Chemistry Unit of the Agency's tion activities. The assignments, made at the search and Isotopes. This P-4 post super- Laboratories at Seibersdorf. It requires a P-2 grade, are normally for a period of one year. vises the isotopie analysis unit in the Safe- Ph.D. in radiochemistry, analytical chemis- Interested candidates should directly contact guards Analytical Laboratory (SAL) in try or inorganic chemistry (or equivalent the responsible authorities in Finland. Seibersdorf, and is responsible for the per- advanced degree) with at least ten years formance of isotopie analyses of samples of practical experience in nuclear and non-nu- safeguarded nuclear materials. It requires clear modern analytical chemistry with em- a Ph.D. in chemistry, physics or equivalent phasis on trace element analysis and envi- with at least 10 years of experience in the ronmental radioactivity. Closing date: 14 READER'S NOTE: isotopie analysis of nuclear fuel material, October 1996. specifically but not exclusively, uranium, plutonium, and americium. RESEARCH REACTOR SPECIALIST (96- The IAEA Bulletin publishes short summaries Closing date: 25 October 1996. 050), Department of Research and Isotopes. of vacancy notices as a service to readers inter- This P-4 post provides assistance to devel- ested in the types of professional positions re- SECTION HEAD (96-055), Department of oping Member States in the acquisition, quired by the IAEA. They are not the official Research and Isotopes. This P-5 post assists upgrading and utilization of research reac- notices and remain subject to change. On a the Division Director in matters related to tors. It requires a Ph.D. or equivalent in frequent basis, the IAEA sends vacancy notices nuclear medicine, covering all in-vivo and nuclear engineering or reactor physics with to governmental bodies and organizations in the in-vitro applications of radionuclides in 10 years of relevant experience, and expe- Agency's Member States (typically the foreign medical diagnosis, treatment and research rience with research reactor operations and ministry and atomic energy authority), as well and also all matters related to ancillary sub- maintenance, reactor ageing issues, and re- as to United Nations offices and information jects like medical physics, instrument search reactor organizations. centres. Prospective applicants are advised to maintenance and radiopharmaceuticals. It Closing date: 14 October 1996. maintain contact with them. Applications are requires a university degree in medicine invited from suitable qualified women as well with at least 15 years comprehensive and as men. More specific information about em- recent specialized clinical experience in all UNIT HEAD (96-049), Department of Tech- ployment opportunities at the IAEA may be aspects of in-rivo and in-vitro nuclear nical Co-operation. This P-4 post adminis- obtained by writing the Division of Personnel, medicine, and familiarity with informatics ters the various components of the P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria. related to image processing (hardware and Agency's Group Fellowship and Scientific software). Closing date: 25 October 1996. Visitors Programme. It requires an ad- ON-LINE COMPUTER SERVICES. IAEA vanced university degree or equivalent in vacancy notices for professional positions, as nuclear science, engineering, or nuclear ap- well as sample application forms, now are SYSTEMS PROGRAMMER (96 053). De plications, and at least 10 years of experi- available through a global computerized net- partment of Nuclear Energy. This P-3 post ence in research, engineering and admini- work that can be accessed directly. Access is is responsible for the provision of systems stration in one of the above-mentioned through the Internet. The vacancy notices can programming support for the LAN environ- fields including 4 years of management ex- be accessed through the IAEA's World Atom ment, LAN server and workstation opera- perience at a national and/or international services on the World Wide Web at the follow- tion systems, and for the connected network level. ing address: of the VIC (server-based global applica- Closing date: 14 October 1996. httpdlwww.iaea.or.atlworldatomlvacancies tions). It requires a university degree in Also accessible is selected background infor- computer science, related field or equiva- RADIOEV1MUNOASSAYIST (96-048), De mation about employment at the IAEA and a lent plus at least 6 years of relevant practi- partment of Research and Isotopes. This sample application form. Please note that appli- cal experience. P-4 post assists in formulating, guiding, cations for posts cannot be forwarded through Closinv date: 14 October 1996. monitoring and evaluating the Agency's the computerized network, since they must be programme for assisting Member States to received in writing by the IAEA Division of INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS ANALYST use radionuclide-based microanalytical Personnel. P.O. Box 100. A-1400 Vienna. Aus- (96-052), Department of Safeguards. This techniques such as radioimmunoassay tria.

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Induced Mutations and Molecular HOW TO ORDER IAEA SALES PUBLICATIONS Techniques for Crop Improvement, Proceedings Series, 2160 Austrian IAEA books, reports, and other publications may be purchased from the sources listed below, schillings, ISBN 92-0-102495-2 or through major local booksellers. Payment may be made in local currency or with UNESCO coupons. Environmental Impact of Radioactive Releases, Proceedings Series, 2480 Austrian schillings, ISBN 92-0-I04495-X Tomography in Nuclear Medicine, Proceedings Series, 1320 Austrian schillings, AUSTRALIA NETHERLANDS Hunter Publications, 58A Gipps Street, Martinus Nijhoff International, ISBN 92-0-101296-9 Collingwood, Victoria 3066 P.O. Box 269, NL-2501 AX The Hague Isotopes in Water Resources Management Swets and Zeitlinger b.v., 1995, Proceedings Series, Vol I, 1360 BELGIUM PO. Box 830 Austrian schillings, ISBN 92-0-105595-1, Vol. Jean de Lannoy, NL-2610SZ Lisse 2, 1520 Austrian schillings, ISBN 202, Avenue du Roi 92-0-100796-5 B-1060 Brussels Assessment of the Overall Fire Safety POLAND Arrangements at Nuclear Power Plants, CHINA Ars Polona, Foreign Trade Enterprise, IAEA Publications in Chinese. Safety Series No. 50-P-ll, 360 Austrian Krakowskie Przedmiescie 7, China Nuclear Energy Industry Corp. PL-00-068 Warsaw schillings, ISBN 92-0-100996-8 Translation Section, Radiation Protection and the Safety of P.O. Box 2103, Beijing SLOVAKIA Radiation Sources, Safety Series No. 120, Alfa Press Publishers, 160 Austrian schillings, ISBN 92-0-105295-2 CZECH REPUBLIC Hurbanovo námestie 3, SQ-815 89 Direct Methods for Measuring Artia Pegas Press Ltd., Palác Metro Bratislava Radionuclides in Man, Safety Series No Narodm tr. 25, P.O.Box 825, 114, 400 Austrian schillings, ISBN CZ-111 21 Prague 1 SPAIN 92-0-100896-1 Díaz de Santos, Lagasca 95, DENMARK E-28006 Madrid Human Reliability Analyses in Munksgaard International Publishers Ltd., Diaz de Santos, Balmes 417, Probabilistic Safety Assessment of Nuclear P.O. Box 2148 E-08022 Barcelona Power Plants, Safety Series No 50-P-10, DK-1016 Copenhagen K 360 Austrian schillings, ISBN 92-0-103395-8 The Radiological Accident at the FRANCE SWEDEN Irradiation Facility in Nesvizh, 280 Office International de Documentation et Fntzes Customer Service, Fredsgatan 2, Austrians schillings, ISBN 92-0-101396-5 Librairie, 48, rue Gay-Lussac S-106 47 Stockholm F-75240 Paris Cedex 05 Lessons Learned from Accidents at UNITED KINGDOM Industrial Irradiation Facilities, 240 HMSO Publications Centre, Austrian schillings, ISBN 92-0-102696-X GERMANY Agency Section, 51 Nine Elms Lane, UNO-Verlag, Vertnebs-und Verlags London SW8 5DR GmbH, Dag Hammarskjold-Haus, Poppelsdorfer Allee 55 Reference Books/Statistics D-53115Bonn UNITED STATES & CANADA UNIPUB HUNGARY 4611-F Assembly Drive IAEA Yearbook 1995,500 Austrian Librotrade Ltd., Book Import, Lanham, Maryland 20706-4391 schillings, ISBN 92-0-101295-0 P.O. Box 126, H-1656 Budapest USA Nuclear Power Reactors in the World, Reference Data Series No 2,140 Austrian ISRAEL schillings, ISBN 92-0-101896-7 YOZMOT Literature Ltd., Outside the USA and Canada, orders (IAEA-RDS-2/16) P.O. Box 56055. IL-61560 Tel Aviv and requests for information also can be addressed directly to: Nuclear Research Reactors in the World, ITALY International Atomic Energy Agency Reference Data Series No 3, 200 Austrian Libreria Scientifica Dott. Lucio di Biasio Sales and Promotion Unit schillings, ISBN 92-0-105195-6 "AEIOU", Via Coronelh 6 Wagramerstrasse 5, P.O. Box 100, NFCIS: The Nuclear Fuel Cycle 1-20146 Milan A-1400 Vienna, Austria Information System, 920 Austrian Telephone: +43 1 2060 (22529, 22530) schillings, ISBN 92-0-101096-6 JAPAN Facsimile: +43 1 2060 29302 Operating Experience with Nuclear Power Maruzen Company Ltd, P.O. Box 5050, Electronic mail: Stations in Member States in 1994,2400 100-31 Tokyo International S ALESPUB® ADPO1 .IAEA.OR.AT Austrian schillings, ISBN 92-0-104795-9

58 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 Fast, Reliable On-Site Verification Measurements with IMCA

When taking on-site verification measurements for Inspectors don't have to worry about setting up the safeguards, inspectors can't afford to experience MCA — setting gains or High Voltage values — in the problems with outdated MCA technology, cumber- field. Simply select the desired procedure from a some user interfaces and complicated operating menu and the system automatically downloads procedures. They need to set up quickly, take the previously defined setups and calibrations for the measurement and move on. They need to maximize exact measurement and detector in use. It's fast — accuracy and reliability while minimizing time and and the possibility of error is virtually eliminated. operational impact at the facility. Data reduction is performed using either enrich- With Canberra's IMCA (InSpector MultiChannel ment meter techniques or optionally. Canberra's Analyzer), safeguards inspectors can do just that. exclusive safeguards versions of MGA or MGAU. Built on the world's smallest, full featured MCA. the All measurement and calibration data, system setup IMCA offers portable, laboratory grade spectroscopy parameters, and performance monitoring informa- with all day operation from standard video tion, are automatically archived for subsequent lab camcorder batteries. reanalysis. Built-in QA procedures verify that everything is working correctly. Measurement procedures are built-in for uranium enrichment and plutonium isotopie measurements. Keep your inspectors moving - use the IMCA and get The IMCA supports multiple detector configurations fast, accurate, dependable results. - using Am-doped or undoped Nal detectors. CdTe For additional information on the Canberra IMCA. detectors and HPGe detectors. Temperature compensation is built in for Am-doped Nal detectors. call, write, or fax us today.

Canberra Industries Inc.. Nuclear Products Group. 800 Research Parkway. Meriden. CT 06450 USA A CANBERRA Tel: (203) 238-2351 Toll Free 1-800-243-4422 FAX (203) 235-1347 http wwwcanberra.com

With Offices In: Australia. Austria. Belgium. Canada. Central Europe. Denmark. France. Germany. Italy. Netherlands, Russia. United Kingdom. IAEA BULLETIN 1995. Authors and Contributors Vol.37, Nos. 1-4

AMENTA, J. INIS at 25: Pioneer of the FLAKUS, F.N. Radiation in perspective: PERRICOS, D. Nuclear verification in nuclear information highway, No. 3, p. 39 Improving comprehension of risks, No. 2, South Africa, No. l,p. 42 p. 7 ANDEMICAEL, B. Measure for measure: POVINEC, P. Marine scientists on the Nuclear fusion: Targeting safety and envi- The NPT and the road ahead, No. 3, p. 30 Arctic Seas: Documenting the radiological ronmental goals, No. 4, p. 22 record, No. 2, p. 31 BAECKMANN von, A.Nuclear verifica- HERA, C. Atoms for sustainable agricul- tion in South Africa, No. 1, p. 42 PRIEST, J. IAEA safeguards and the NPT: ture: Enriching the farmer's field, No. 2, p. Examining interconnections, No. 1, p. 2 BANNER, D.L. Global co-operation in 36 Measure for measure: The NPT and the nuclear fusion: Record of steady progress, No. 4, p. 16 HOOPER, R. IAEA safeguards in the road ahead, No. 3, p. 30 1990s: Building on experience, No. 1, p. 14 QIAN, J. Atoms for Peace: Extending the BARRETTO, P. IAEA technical co-opera- JACKSON, P. Global co-operation in benefits of nuclear technologies, No. 1, p. tion: Strengthening technology transfer, nuclear fusion: Record of steady progress, 21 No. 1, p. 3 No. 4, p. 16 RAMES, J. International law and nuclear BARTON, J. The IAEA on line: Closer KABANOV, L. Future nuclear power energy: Overview of the legal framework, links for the global nuclear community, No. plants: Harmonizing safety objectives, No. No. 3, p. 16 3, p. 44 4, p. 12 RAO, K.V. Nuclear power: Training for BAXTER, M. Marine scientists on the KOUVSHINNIKOV, B.A. Global co-oper- safety and reliability, No. 2, p. 18 Arctic Seas: Documenting the radiological record, No. 2, p. 31 ation in nuclear fusion: Record of steady ROGOV, A. Atoms for Peace: Extending progress, No. 4, p. 16 the benefits of nuclear technologies, No. 1, BERTEL, E. Electricity, health, and the envi- p. 21 ronment: The Decades project, No.2, p. 2 KUPITZ, J. Nuclear energy for seawater desalination: Updating the record, No. 2, p. Nuclear energy and the environmental ROMAN-MOREY, E. Latin America's 21 debate: The context of choices, No. 4, p.2 Treaty of Tlatelolco: Instrument for peace LINSLEY, G. The International Arctic and development, No. 1, p. 33 BLIX, H. The IAEA, United Nations, and the new global nuclear agenda, No. 3, p. 2 Seas Assessment Project: Progress report, ROSEN, M. Understanding radiation No. 2, p. 25 risks: Lessons from Paris, No. 2, p. 12 BONNE, A. Radioactive waste manage- LOPEZ-LIZANA, F. Radiation safety ser- ment: International peer reviews, No. 4, p. SHARMA, S. The IAEA and the UN fam- vices: From the laboratory to the field, No. 26 ily: Networks of nuclear co-operation, No. 3, p. 26 3, p. 10 BOOTHROYD, A.D. Nuclear power: MAKSOUDI, M. Nuclear co-operation in Keeping the option open, No. 2, p. 14 SJOEBLOM, L. The International Arctic Africa: Developing expertise and Seas Assessment Project: Progress report, BOUSSAHA, A. Nuclear co-operation in resources, No. 1, p. 37 No. 2, p. 25 Africa: Developing expertise and MAUTNER-MARKHOF, F. Nuclear resources, No. 1, p. 37 SNIHS , J.O. Radioactive waste disposal: power: Training for safety and reliability, Radiological principles and standards, No. CHITUMBO, K. Safeguards in the No. 2, p. 18 4, p. 30 European Union: The New Partnership MCGOLDRICK, F. US fissile material Approach, No. 1, p. 25 SOROKIN, A. INIS at 25: Pioneer of the initiatives: Implications for the IAEA, No. nuclear information highway, No. 3, p. 39 CLEVELAND, J. C. Nuclear fusion: l,p. 49 Targeting safety and environmental goals, THORSTENSEN, S. Safeguards in the No. 4, p. 22 NWOGUGU, E. International law and European Union: The New Partnership nuclear energy: Overview of the legal Approach, No. 1, p. 25 DAVIES, L.M. Nuclear power: Keeping framework, No. 3, p. 16 the option open, No. 2, p. 14 VAN DE VATE, J. Nuclear energy and the OPELZ, M. Measure for measure: The environmental debate: The context of DILLON, G. Nuclear verification in South NPT and the road ahead, No. 3, p. 30 choices, No. 4, p.2 Africa, No. l,p. 42 OSVATH, I. Marine scientists on the Arctic WARNECKE, E . Radioactive waste man- DOLAN, T.J. Nuclear fusion: Targeting Seas: Documenting the radiological record, agement: International peer reviews, No. 4, safety and environmental goals, No. 4, p. No. 2, p. 31 p. 26 22 Global co-operation in nuclear fusion: OUVRARD, R. Radiation safety services: WEDEKIND, L. The IAEA on line: Closer From the laboratory to the field, No. 3, p. Record of steady progress, No. 4, p. 16 links for the global nuclear community, No. 26 3, p. 44 ELBARADEI, M. International law and nuclear energy: Overview of the legal PELLAUD, B. IAEA safeguards in the framework, No. 3, p. 16 1990s: Building on experience, No. 1, p. 14

60 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 NEW Software NEWS RELEASE FREE 4-Color Brochure

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Database name Database name Database name Database name Power Reactor Information System International Information System for Nuclear Data Information System Atomic and Molecular Data (PRIS) the Agricultural Sciences and (NDIS) Information System (AMDIS) Technology (AGRIS) Type of database Type of database Type of database Factual Type of database Numerical and bibliographic Numerical and bibliographic Bibliographic Producer Producer Producer International Atomic Energy Agency Producer International Atomic Energy Agency International Atomic Energy Agency in co-operation with Food and Agriculture Organization of in co-operation with the United in co-operation with the International 29 IAEA Member States the United Nations (FAO) in States National Nuclear Data Centre Atomic and Molecular Data Centre co-operation with 172 national, at the Brookhaven National network, a group of 16 national data IAEA contact regional, and international AGRIS Laboratory, the Nuclear Data Bank centres from several countries. IAEA, Nuclear Power Engineering centres of the Nuclear Energy Agency, Section, P.O. Box 100 Organisation for Economic IAEA contact A-1400 Vienna, Austria IAEA contact Co-operation and Development in IAEA Atomic and Molecular Data Telephone (43) (1)2060 ' AGRIS Processing Unit Paris, France, and a network of 22 Unit, Nuclear Data Section Telex (1)-12645 c/o IAEA, P.O. Box 100 other nuclear data centres worldwide Electronic mail via Facsimile +4-3' 1 20607 A-1400 Vienna, Austria BITNET to: RNDS@IAEA1; Electronic mail via Telephone (43) (1)2060 IAEA contact via INTERNET to ID: BITNET/INTERNET to ID: Telex (1)-12645 IAEA Nuclear Data Section, [email protected] NES@1AEA 1 .IAEA.OR. AT Facsimile +43 1 20607 P.O. Box 100 Electronic mail via A-1400 Vienna, Austria Scope Scope BITNET/INTERNET to ID Telephone (43) (1)2060 Data on atomic, molecular, Worldwide information on power re- [email protected] Telex (1)-12645 plasma-surface interaction, and actors in operation, under construc- Facsimile +43 1 20607 material properties of interest to tion, planned or shutdown, and data Number of records on line from Electronic mail via fusion research and technology on operating experience with nu- January 1993 to date BITNET/INTERNET to ID: clear power plants in IAEA more than 130 000 RNDS@IAEA 1 .IAEA.OR. AT Coverage Member States. Includes ALADDIN formatted data Scope Scope on atomic structure and spectra Coverage Worldwide information on agricul- Numerical nuclear physics data files (energy levels, wave lengths, and Reactor status, name, location, type, tural sciences and technology, includ- describing the interaction of radiation transition probabilities); electron and supplier, turbine generator supplier, ing forestry, fisheries, and nutrition. with matter, and related heavy particle collisions with atoms, plant owner and operator, thermal bibliographic data. ions, and molecules (cross sections power, gross and net electrical Coverage and/or rate coefficients, including, in power, date of construction start, Agriculture in general; geography Data types most cases, analytic fit to the data); date of first cnticahty, date of first and history; education, extension, Evaluated neutron reaction data in sputtering of surfaces by impact of synchronization to grid, date of com- and information; administration and ENDF format; experimental nuclear main plasma constituents and self mercial operation, date of shutdown, legislation; agricultural economics; reaction data in EXFOR format, for sputtering; particle reflection from and data on reactor core charac- development and rural sociology; reactions induced by neutrons, surfaces; thermophysical and teristics and plant systems; energy pro- plant and animal science and produc- charged particles, or photons; nuclear thermomechamcal properties of duced; planned and unplanned energy tion; plant protection; post-harvest half-lives and radioactive decay data beryllium and pyrolytic graphites. losses; energy availability and unavail- technology; fisheries and aquacul- in the systems NUDAT and ENSDF; ability factors; operating ture; agricultural machinery and en- related bibliographic information Note: Off-line data and bibliographic factor, and load factor. gineering; natural resources; process- from the IAEA databases CINDA retrievals, as well as ALADDIN ing of agricultural products; human and NSR; various other types of data. software and manual, also may be nutrition; pollution; methodology. ob-tainedfrom the producer on Note: Off-line data retrievals from diskettes, magnetic tape, or hard NDIS also may be obtained from the copy. producer on magnetic tape

For access to these databases, please contact the producers. Information from these databases also may be purchased from the producer in printed form. INIS and AGRIS additionally are available on CD-ROM. INIS

The IAEA's nuclear science Database name International Nuclear Information and System (INIS) technology Type of database database on Bibliographic ON CD-ROM CD-ROM Producer International Atomic Energy Agency in co-operation with 91 IAEA Member States and 17 other 5000 JOURNALS international member organizations CD-ROM

IAEA contaci MORE THAN 1.6 MILLION RECORDS means IAEA. INIS Section. P.O. Box 100. A-1400 Vienna. Austria Telephone (+431 ) 2060 22842 • unlimited easy Facsimile (+431 ) 20607 22842 6 COMPACT DISCS access Electronic mail via • fast, dynamic BITNET/INTERNET to ID: [email protected] searching • fixed annual Number of records on line from INIS (the International Nuclear Information System) cost January ¡976 to date more than 1.6 million is a multi-disciplinary, bibliographic database • flexible down- covering all aspects of the peaceful uses of nuclear loading and Scope printing Worldwide information on the science and technology. INIS on CD-ROM combines peaceful uses of nuclear science and the worldwide coverage of the nuclear literature • desktop technology; economic and with all the advantages of compact disc technology. access environmental aspects of other energy • easy storage sources. • saving time, Coverage space and The central areas of coverage are money nuclear reactors, reactor safety. Call +44 (0)81 995 8242 TODAY! nuclear fusion, applications of radiation or isotopes in medicine. agriculture, industry, and pest for further information control, as well as related fields such as nuclear chemistry, nuclear and details of your local distributor physics, and materials science. Special emphasis is placed on the environmental, economic, and or write to health effects of nuclear energy, as well as. from 1992. the economic SilverPlatter Information Ltd. ® and environmental aspects of 10 Barley Mow Passage, Chiswick, London non-nuclear energy sources. Legal and social aspects associated with W4 4PH, U.K. nuclear energy also are covered. Tel: 0800 262 096 +44 (0)81 995 8242 Fax:+44 (0)81 995 5159

IAEA BULLETIN. 3/1996 63 IAEA IAEA UPCOMING CO-ORDINATED RESEARCH PROGRAMMES -SYMPOSIA & SEMINARS

OCTOBER 1996 Intercomparison for individual monitoring of external exposure from photon radiation 16th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference To promote the implementation of the operational quantities for individual monitoring of Montreal, Canada (7-11 October) external exposure from photon radiation. Symposium on Reviewing the Safety of Existing Nuclear Power Plants Validation of thin-layer Chromatographie screening methods for pesticide residue Vienna, Austria (8-11 October) analysis To validate relatively cheap procedures based on thin-layer chromatography that can be NOVEMBER 1996 used to screen food and environmental samples for pesticide residues to identify those that must be analyzed by more elaborate nuclear and related techniques. Symposium on Harmonization of Health-Related Environmental Meas- Specialized software utilities for gamma-ray spectrometry urements Using Nuclear Analytical To develop and make available to Member States modern algorithms, routines, pro- Techniques grammes and libraries dealing with current topics in gamma-ray spectral analysis. These . Hyderabad, India algorithms will improve the analyses in areas such as expert systems, spectra generation, 4 -7 November) data libraries, detector efficiency calibration, quality assurance, quality control, high- Seminar on the Use of Isotope Techniques activity sources and coincidence corrections. ' in Marine Environmental Studies Dose determination with plane-parallel ionization chambers in therapeutic elec- Athens, Greece tron and photon beams (11 -22 November) To investigate the accuracy of the data and procedures included in the new code of practice. In addition, differences with existing recommendations will be quantified to APRIL 1997 analyze the possible impact in patient dosimetry. Symposium on Diagnosis and Control of Livestock Diseases Using Nuclear and Compilation and evaluation of photonuclear data for applications Related Techniques: Towards Disease To develop a data file of evaluated photonuclear reaction cross sections. The list of Control in the 21st Century nuclei should include natural elements and isotopes of importance in biological, structural Vienna, Austria (7-11 April) and shielding materials, as well as actinides, fission products and a few others. International Symposium on Applications Assuring structural integrity of reactor pressure vessel of Isotope Techniques in Studying Past To facilitate the international exchange of information, provide practical guidance in the and Current Environmental Changes in field of monitoring reactor pressure vessels and to develop and assess a uniform the Hydrosphere and the Atmoshpere procedure of testing specimens for the assessment of RPV structural integrity. Vienna, Austria (14 -18 April*) Development of radiological basis for the transport safety requirements for low •tentative date specific activity materials and surface contaminated objects Seminar on Current Status of Radiotherapy To assist the Agency in developing transport safety requirements. This CRP will provide in the World a basis for classifying low level radioactive materials (such as low level waste) and for New York, USA (17-19 April) modelling potential releases in the event of transport accidents. Development of methodologies for optimization of surveillance testing and main- MAY 1997 tenance of safety related equipment at nuclear power plants Seminar on Nuclear Techniques for Op- To provide an exchange of experience in investigating and analyzing different strategies timizing the Use of Nutrients and Water to improve and optimize maintenance and surveillance testing focusing on nuclear power for Plant Productivity and Environmental plant safety, and to stimulate the exchange of methodologies and techniques to carry Preservation out such optimization processes. Piracicaba, Brazil (12-16 May) Symposium on Desalination of Sea- water with Nuclear Energy Taejon, Republic of Korea (26-30 May)

JUNE 1997 Symposium on Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Reactor Strategies — Adjusting to New These are selected listings, subject to change More Realities complete information about IAEA meetings can be Vienna, Austria (2 - 6 June) obtained from the IAEA Conference Services Section at the Agency's headquarters in Vienna, or by referring to SEPTEMBER 1997 the IAEA quarterly publication Meetings on Atomic Symposium on Radiation Technology Energy (see the Keep Abreast section for ordering information) More detailed information about the IAEA's in Conservation of the Environment co-ordinated research programmes may be obtained Venue to be determined from the Research Contracts Administration Section at f15 -19 September) IAEA headquarters The programmes are designed to facilitate global co-operation on scientific and technical OCTOBER 1997 subjects in various fields, ranging from radiation applications in medicine, agriculture, and industry to Symposium on International Safeguards nuclear power technology and safety Vienna, Austria (13 -17 October)

64 IAEA BULLETIN, 3/1996 96-02399 IAEA IAEA BULLETIN MEMBER STATES 1957 Published quarterly by the Division of 1958 1969 Afghanistan Belgium Malaysia Public Information of the International Albania Cambodia Niger Atomic Energy Agency, P.O. Box 100, Argentina Ecuador Zambia A-1400 Vienna, Austria. Australia Finland Tel: (43-1) 2060-21270 Austria Iran. Islamic Republic of 1970 Belarus Luxembourg Ireland Facsimile: (43-1) 20607 Brazil Mexico 1972 E-mail: [email protected] Bulgaria Philippines Bangladesh Canada Sudan Cuba 1973 Denmark 1959 Mongolia Dominican Republic Iraq DIRECTOR GENERAL: Df Hans BliX 1974 Egypt DEPUTY DIRECTORS GENERAL: 1960 Mauritius Mr David Waller, Mr Bruno Pellaud, El Salvador Ethiopia Chile 1976 Mr Victor Mourogov, Mr Sueo Machi, France Colombia Ghana Qatar Mr Jihui Qian, Mr Morris Rosen (acting) Germany Greece Senegal United Arab Emirates DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF PUBLIC INFORMATION: United Republic of Tanzania Guatemala 1961 Mr David Kyd Haiti Lebanon 1977 Holy See Mali Nicaragua Hungary CHIEF EDITOR: Mr Lothar H. Wedekind Zaire EDITORIAL ASSISTANTS: Iceland 1983 India Mr Rodolfo Quevenco, Ms Juanita Perez, 1962 Namibia Indonesia Liberia Ms Brenda Blann Israel Saudi Arabia 1984 LAYOUT/DESIGN: Ms Hannelore Wilczek Italy China Japan CONTRIBUTORS TO DEPARTMENTS: 1963 Korea, Republic of Algeria 1986 Ms S. Dallalah, Ms L. Diebold, Monaco Bolivia Zimbabwe Ms A.B. de Reynaud, Ms R. Spiegelberg Morocco C6te d'lvoire PRODUCTION SUPPORT: Myanmar Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 1991 Netherlands Latvia Mr P. Witzig, Mr R. Kelleher, Syrian Arab Republic New Zealand Uruguay Lithuania Ms U. Szer, Mr W. Kreutzer, Norway Mr G. Demal, Mr A. Adler, Pakistan 1964 1992 Paraguay Croatia Mr R. Luttenfeldner, Mr F. Prochaska, Cameroon Peru Gabon Estonia Mr P. Patak, Mr L. Nimetzki Poland Kuwait Slovenia Portugal Nigeria Language Editions Romania 1993 Russian Federation 1965 TRANSLATION SUPPORT: Mr J. Rivals Armenia South Africa Costa Rica Czech Republic FRENCH EDITION: Mr S. Drege, translation; Spain Cyprus Slovakia Ms V. Laugier-Yamashita, copyediting Sri Lanka Jamaica SPANISH EDITION: Equipo de Servicios de Sweden Kenya 1994 Switzerland Madagascar Former Yugoslav Republic Traductores e Interpretes (ESTI), Havana, Thailand 1966 of Macedonia Cuba, translation; Mr L. Herrero, editing Tunisia Kazakhstan CHINESE EDITION: China Nuclear Energy Turkey Jordan Marshall Islands Industry Corporation Translation Service, Ukraine Panama Uzbekistan United Kingdom 1967 Yemen Beijing, translation, printing, distribution. of Great Britain Sierra Leone and Northern Ireland Singapore 1995 The IAEA Bulletin is distributed without United States of America Uganda Bosnia and Herzegovina charge to a limited number of readers with Venezuela Viet Nam 1968 1996 an interest in the IAEA and the peaceful uses Yugoslavia Liechtenstein Georgia of nuclear energy. Written requests should be addressed to the Editor. Extracts from Eighteen ratifications were required to bring the IAEA's Statute into force. By 29 July 1957, the States in bold face IAEA material contained in the IAEA Bulletin had ratified the Statute. may be freely used elsewhere provided Year denotes year of membership Names of the States are not necessarily their historical designations. acknowledgement of their source is made. If For States in italic, membership has been approved by the IAEA General Conference and will take effect once the the attribution indicates that the author of an required legal instruments have been deposited article is not a member of the IAEA staff, per- mission to republish other than for the purpose of review must be sought from the author or originating organization.

Views expressed in any signed article or in advertisements appearing in the IAEA Bulletin do not necessarily represent The International Atomic Energy Agency, which came into those of the International Atomic Energy being on 29 July 1957, is an independent intergovern- Agency and the IAEA accepts no respon- mental organization within the United Nations System. sibility for them. Headquartered in Vienna, Austria, the Agency has more than 100 Member States who together work to carry out Advertising the main objectives of IAEA's Statute: To accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health, Advertising correspondence should be and prosperity throughout the world and to ensure so far addressed to the IAEA Division of as it is able that assistance provided by it, or at its request Publications, Sales and Promotion Unit, or under its supervision or control, is not used in such a P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria. way as to funher any military purpose-

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