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Kinship and Seasonal Migration Among the Aymara of Southern Peru: Human Adaptation to Energy Scarcity

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Kinship and Seasonal Migration Among the Aymara of Southern Peru: Human Adaptation to Energy Scarcity KINSHIP AND SEASONAL MIGRATION AMONG THE AYMARA OF SOUTHERN PERU: HUMAN ADAPTATION TO ENERGY SCARCITY By JANE LOU COLLINS A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE COUNCIL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 1981 Copyright 1981 by Jane Lou Collins To my parents Annabelle June Collins and Robert Harris Collins , ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people have helped me in the various stages of the project preparation, field research, and the writing of this work. Funding for the period of field research was provided by an Inter-American Foundation Learning Fellowship for Social Change. Three months of support for write- up was also provided by Inter-American Foundation. Faculty and staff of the Universidad Nacional Tecnica del Altiplano (National Technical University of the Altiplano) in Puno, Peru, gave institutional support to this project in Peru. Their letters to government agencies and local officials, their lively interest in the research, and their suggestions and orientations were greatly appreciated. In particular, Professor Vfctor Bustinza, Director of Research, and Professors Oscar Chaquilla, Eleodoro Chahuares, and Rodolfo Machicao contributed greatly to the success of my field experience. Professor Machicao provided invaluable introductions to persons in the area of field research and v^;as kind enough to open his home there to my husband and myself during our stay. Four Peruvian research assistants aided in the gathering of data. John Wilfredo Apaza, a former student of agronomy at the UNTA, spent a great deal of time visiting communities of Sarata with my husband and myself and helped in the gathering of production data for the region. His untimely death in 1980 saddened us deeply and deprived Peru of a very bright, capable, and enthusiastic young scholar. Juan Lira Condori iv a student of sociology at the Universidad Nacional de San Agusttn (National University of St. Augustine) in Arequipa helped greatly in the gathering of data on consumption and meal patterns, and through discussions of his own research I learned a great deal about the history of the haciendas and the present-day SAIS (Sociedad Agrfcola de Interes Social--Agrarian Social Interest Society) in the eastern part of the district of Sarata. Eva Mercado Vargas helped to transcribe some very difficult parts of festivals and to translate them from Aymara to Spanish, as did Yolanda Lopez Callo. Ms. Lopez was also extremely helpful in orienting me to the district and to her own home community. She is currently working as an instructor of the Aymara language at the Univer- sity of Florida. Professors Alejandro Camino, Carlos Aramburu of the Pontificia Universidad Catolica, and Hector Martfnez of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos provided assistance and suggestions in Lima. Cor- respondence with Professor Thierry Saignes helped me clear up important questions about the history of the northeastern shore of Lake Titicaca. The companionship and suggestions of North American researchers Peter White, Benjamin Orlove, Katherine Julien, Phil Blair, and Lucy Briggs were greatly appreciated. In the district of Sarata innumerable persons made an effort to integrate my husband and myself into their fiestas, their exchange net- works, and many other aspects of their lives, and made our stay a ful- filling personal experience as well as a successful period of research. In particular, the support of Lucio Ticona Col Iquehuanca, Gregoria Sarabia, Lucia Lopez de Lima, Abdon Ticona Mamani , Juan Ticona Colquehuanca, Santiago Calli Apaza, and Javier Mamani Mamani must be acknowledged. The Hermanas de San Jose in Sarata and Father Domingo Llanque in Juli also provided much hospitality and good advice. I am grateful to the members of my doctoral committee: Professors Charles Wagley, f1. J. Hardman, Anthony Oliver-Smith, Maxine Margolis, and John Alexander for their advice and support. I am especially grateful to Doctor M. J. Hardman for first awakening my interest in the Aymara language and people and for providing me with much of the training in field methods upon which my research relied. Doctor Charles Wagley provided guidance, encouragement and support throughout all stages of my research without which the realization of this work would have been much more difficult. Finally, I would like to thank my husband, Michael Painter, whose doctoral research in Peru was carried out at the same time as my own. His continual encouragement, excellent advice, and good humor throughout our graduate studies and research have not only made this work possible, but made it a truly enjoyable time in our lives. VI TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv ABSTRACT ix CHAPTER ONE SEASONAL MIGRATION IN AN ANDEAN CONTEXT: DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY 1 Introduction 1 Highland Aymara in the Tropical Forest 9 Land Tenure, Energy Deficiency, and Seasonal Migration 17 Historical Contact with the Ceja de Selva 23 The Pre-Hispanic Roots 23 The Search for Gold and the Escape from Forced Labor 28 Missions, Quinine, and Rubber 31 The Twentieth Century 35 The Altiplano Setting 39 The political environment 39 Social stratification 47 Language and ethnicity 48 TWO SEASONAL MIGRATION AND HUMAN ADAPTATION: THEORETICAL ISSUES 51 Human Adaptation 51 Introduction 51 Genetic and Physiological Adaptation 52 Natural selection 52 Acclimatization 54 Cultural Adaptation 55 The evolution of a capacity for culture .... 55 The identification of cultural adaptations 58 The functioning of cultural adaptations .... 62 Adaptation on the Southern Peruvian Altiplano ... 67 Stresses and responses 67 Seasonal migration and adaptation to high altitude 71 vi1 CHAPTER Page The Role of Energy in Human Adaptation 73 Energy in natural selection 73 Energy as a limiting factor 76 Population Movement and Human Adaptation 77 Adaptive Movement in Complex Societies 77 Temporary Migration 80 Seasonal Migration 82 THREE THE ALTIPLANO RESOURCE BASE AND PATTERNS OF SUBSISTENCE 87 Primary Productivity and Production 87 Geographical and Climatic Factors 87 Natural Life Zones 93 The lakeside zone 96 The intermediate zone 106 The herding zone 109 Productivity of the Zones 112 Consumption 118 Preservation of Foods 118 Food Sources and Exchange 119 Meal Composition and Patterns 122 Seasonal Variation in the Diet 126 Food Beliefs 130 Evaluation of the Altiplano Diet 131 Food Distribution within the Household 138 Energy Expenditure 139 The Division of Labor 139 Exchanges of Labor 146 Annual and Regional Variation in Energy Expenditure 148 A Summary of Subsistence in Sarata 150 FOUR SEASONAL MIGRATION AND ENERGY DEFICIENCY 160 Introduction 160 The Flow of Energy through Altiplano Households .... 163 Description 163 Analysis 182 Reproduction, Crisis Survival, and the Role of Seasonal Migration 196 FIVE THE CULTURAL FRAMEWORK FOR MIGRATORY ACTIVITY: AYMARA KINSHIP AND COMMUNITY 201 The Role of Kinship 201 Descent and the Structure of Consanguineal Kinship 203 vm CHAPTER Page The Nuclear Family Household 222 Marriage and Affines 228 Compadrazgo 239 The Community and the Marka 245 SIX KINSHIP AND COMMUNITY IN THE MIGRATORY PROCESS 249 Experiences of Kinship and Migration in One Sarata Community 249 Mauricio Mayta Condori and Justina Condori Apaza 251 Prospera Chaiiia Molli and Paulino Mayta Paxsi 254 Nicolas Mayta Paxsi and Feleca Paxsi Ticona 257 Daniel a Mayta Condori 259 Santiago Mayta Mamani 259 Migration and the Development Cycle of the Household 260 The Household in Historical Patterns of Migration ... 266 The Kinship Support System 271 SEVEN CONCLUSIONS 291 Theoretical Implications 291 Policy Implications 300 APPENDIX ONE THE AYMARA PHONEMIC ALPHABET 305 TWO NOTES TO TABLE 4-1 306 THREE NOTES TO TABLE 4-2 311 FOUR NOTES TO TABLE 4-3 315 FIVE DYNAMO PROGRAM FOR MODEL OF LAKESIDE ZONE (ALL VALUES x lO'^ KCAL) 319 SIX DYNAMO PROGRAM FOR MODEL OF INTERMEDIATE ZONE (ALL VALUES x 10^ KCAL) 322 SEVEN DYNAMO PROGRAM FOR MODEL OF HERDING ZONE (ALL VALUES x 106 KCAL) 325 REFERENCES 328 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 346 Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Council of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy KINSHIP AND SEASONAL MIGRATION AMONG THE AYMARA OF SOUTHERN PERU: HUMAN ADAPTATION TO ENERGY SCARCITY By Jane Lou Collins December 1981 Chairman: Charles Wagley Major Department: Anthropology The people of the southern Peruvian highlands have adapted to a condition of energy scarcity through seasonal migration to lowland areas. In the district of Sarata (a fictitious name for a real district on the northeastern shore of Lake Titicaca) people spend three to seven months of every year growing coffee in the Tambopata Valley of the eastern Andes. This migratory pattern, which is hundreds of years old, provides the context for an investigation of human adaptive processes. The present study presents models of the flow of energy through high-altitude households and shows that energy is a limiting factor for the population. There are two periods when energy subsidies from lowland regions become crucial to the continued survival of highland households. These are the periods of peak growth and reproduction experienced by households early in their developmental cycles, and times of sharply lowered productivity caused by environmental crises such as drought or killing frosts. Seasonal migration provides the subsidies which house- holds rely on during these periods. Seasonal migration in Sarata is organized
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