The Aztecs The Peoples of America General Editors: Alan Kolata and Dean Snow This series is about the native peoples and civilizations of the Americas, from their origins in ancient times to the present day. Drawing on archaeological, historical, and anthropological evidence, each volume presents a fresh and absorbing account of a group’s culture, society, and history. Accessible and scholarly, and well illustrated with maps and photographs, the volumes of The Peoples of America will together provide a comprehensive and vivid picture of the character and variety of the societies of the American past. Already published: The Tiwanaku: A Portrait of an Andean Civilization Alan Kolata The Timucua Jerald T. Milanich The Aztecs Third Edition Michael E. Smith The Cheyenne John Moore The Iroquois Dean Snow The Moche Garth Bowden The Nasca Helaine Silverman and Donald A. Proulx The Incas Terence N. D’Altroy The Sioux Guy Gibbon Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico Arthur A. Joyce The Aztecs Third Edition Michael E. Smith This edition first published 2012 Ó 2012 Michael E. Smith Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for perm ission to reuse the copyr ight material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com / wiley -blackwell. The right of Michael E. Smith to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Smith, Michael Ernest, 1953– The Aztecs / Michael E. Smith. — 3rd ed. p. cm. — (The peoples of America) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-9497-6 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Aztecs–History. 2. Aztecs–Antiquities. 3. Aztecs–Social life and customs. 4. Mexico–Antiquities. I. Title. F1219.73.S58 2011 972—dc23 2011029132 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This book is published in the following electronic format: ePDFs 9781118257180; ePub 9781118257197; Mobi 9781118257173. Set in 10/12.5pt Sabon by Thomson Digital, Noida, India 1 2012 In memory of William T. Sanders and Thomas H. Charlton: mentors, colleagues, friends Contents List of Figures x List of Tables xiv Preface xv Guide to Pronunciation and Spelling xviii 1 The Aztecs of Mesoamerica 1 Who Were the Aztecs? 3 Mesoamerican Context 5 The Aztec Environment 7 Sources of Information 12 Ethnohistory 13 Archaeology 20 Art History 27 Aztec Studies Today 28 2 The Rise of Aztec Civilization 30 Timetables 31 Pre-Aztec Civilizations 33 The Aztlan Migrations 36 Toltecs, Chichimecs, and Aztec Identity 39 The Growth of City-States: The Early Aztec Period 40 Tenochtitlan and Empire: The Late Aztec Period 46 3 People on the Landscape 60 How Many Aztecs? 61 The Aztec Diet 65 Farming Systems 69 Rural Settlement 77 The Rural Landscape 81 viii Contents 4 Artisans and their Wares 82 Utilitarian Crafts 82 Luxury Crafts 94 Otumba: An Aztec Craft Center 103 5 The Commercial Economy 108 Marketplaces 109 Money 116 Material Evidence for Aztec Commerce 119 A Complex Economy 124 6 Family and Social Class 127 Growing up Aztec 128 Adult Life and Social Roles 131 Social Classes 134 Commoners 135 Nobles and their Palaces 143 7 City-State and Empire 152 City-States 153 Relations Among City-States 159 The Empire of the Triple Alliance 163 Imperial Strategies and Control 165 Mexica Propaganda and the Limits of Empire 177 8 Cities and Urban Planning 179 City-State Capitals 180 Provincial Cities and Towns 184 Tenochtitlan 189 9 Creation, Death, and the Gods 197 Myths of Creation 198 Aztec Religion: Historical Background 201 The Gods 204 Death, Burial, and the Afterlife 211 10 Temples and Ceremonies 217 Priests 217 Human Blood Offerings 219 The Templo Mayor 225 Contents ix Public Ceremonies 235 Private Rituals 239 11 Science, Writing, and Calendars 244 Writing 244 Calendars and Astronomy 249 Technology 259 Medicine 260 12 Art, Music, and Literature 263 Art 263 Literature and Poetry 271 Music and Dance 274 13 Final Glory, Conquest, and Legacy 278 The Final Century: 1428–1519 279 Conquest by Spain 282 The Nahuas under Spanish Rule 290 Continuity and Change 296 The Aztec Legacy: Modern Nahua Indian Culture 298 The Aztec Past and the Mexican Present 300 A Wider Perspective 303 Notes 305 Glossary of Nahuatl Terms 337 References 339 Index 385 Figures 1.1 Artist’s reconstruction of the Templo Mayor 2 1.2 Map of Mesoamerica 5 1.3 A Mesoamerican tropical forest 7 1.4 The island capital Tenochtitlan in Aztec times 8 1.5 Map of Aztec sites in central Mexico 9 1.6 Typical central Mexican countryside 11 1.7 Page from an Aztec ritual almanac, the Codex Borgia 16 1.8 A rural Aztec site 22 1.9 A small temple platform at the site TA-8 in the Teotihuacan Valley 22 1.10 Archaeologists collecting surface artifacts 24 1.11 Excavation of an elite residence at Yautepec 25 1.12 “Mexican antiquities which exist in the National Museum of Mexico, 1857” 27 2.1 Archaeological and native historical chronologies 32 2.2 Air photo of the ruins of Classic-period Teotihuacan 34 2.3 Air photo of the ruins of the central ceremonial district of Tula 36 2.4 Aztec ethnic groups leaving their homeland of Aztlan 37 2.5 Scene in the Mapa Quinatzin showing Chichimecs and toltecs 40 2.6 An Early Aztec twin-stair pyramid at Teopanzolco 42 2.7 A large Early Aztec pyramid at Tenayuca 43 2.8 Construction stages of the Early Aztec pyramid at Tenayuca 44 2.9 Genealogy of the Mexica kings 47 2.10 Cycles of expansion of the Triple Alliance Empire 53 2.11 Page from the Tira de Tepechpan 54 2.12 Stone monolith with image of the deity Tlaltecuhtli 57 2.13 Excavation and cleaning of the Tlaltecuhtli monument 58 Figures xi 3.1 Schematic map of population growth in the Valley of Mexico 64 3.2 Mother teaching her 13-year-old daughter to make tortillas 66 3.3 Traditional maize granary (cuexcomatl)70 3.4 Aztec agricultural terraces at Cerro Texcotzinco 71 3.5 Aztec embankment built to contain the new channel of the Cuauhtitlan River 73 3.6 Modern chinampa fields in Xochimilco, ca. 1905 74 3.7 Maps of Cuexcomate and Capilco 79 4.1 Obsidian blade-core and four prismatic blades 84 4.2 Ceramic vessels from Aztec kitchens 86 4.3 Small ceramic objects from Cuexcomate and Capilco 86 4.4 Girls being taught by their mothers to spin and weave cotton 89 4.5 Ceramic cotton-spinning tools from Capilco 90 4.6 A maguey plant at the Aztec city of Otumba 91 4.7 Bronze tools from Aztec houses in Yautepec 93 4.8 Ceremonial featherwork shield 97 4.9 Master craftsmen instructing their sons in their crafts 98 4.10 Gold necklace and pendants made by lost-wax casting 100 4.11 Obsidian ear spools 101 4.12 Mosaic mask of stone with turquoise, shell, and coral inlay 102 4.13 Map of Otumba showing areas of craft production 104 4.14 Technological sequence for the manufacture of obsidian jewelry 106 5.1 Modern Maya woman selling vegetables in the marketplace 109 5.2 An Aztec market 112 5.3 Pochteca merchants 115 5.4 Cacao pods 117 5.5 Cacao beans in a gourd 118 5.6 Sherds from imported Aztec III Black-on-Orange ceramic plates 122 5.7 Cholula Polychrome ceramic tripod plate 123 5.8 Imported Valley of Mexico ceramic sherds 124 6.1 Aztec childbirth customs 129 6.2 Aztec wedding ceremony 132 6.3 Wall foundations and floor of a peasant house at Capilco 137 6.4 Modern adobe peasant house in Tetlama 137 6.5 Excavation of an urban commoner house at Calixtlahuaca 140 6.6 Recently excavated commoner house at Xaltocan 141 6.7 Burial of a commoner woman at Xaltocan 142 6.8 Artist’s reconstruction of the Cuexcomate palace 144 xii Figures 6.9 Genealogy of the inhabitants of the palace of Molotecatl tecuhtli 146 6.10 Royal palace of Calixtlahuaca 147 6.11 Polished red goblet used to drink cacao 150 7.1 Tax roll from the province of Tlapa 157 7.2 Map of city-state territories in southeastern Valley of Mexico 160 7.3 Soldiers carrying maquahuitl