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Soccer & Society Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713636451 Football Hooliganism in the Netherlands: Patterns of Continuity and Change Ramón Spaaij
Online Publication Date: 01 April 2007 To cite this Article: Spaaij, Ramón (2007) 'Football Hooliganism in the Netherlands: Patterns of Continuity and Change', Soccer & Society, 8:2, 316 - 334 To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/14660970701224566 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14660970701224566
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Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article maybe used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 DOI: 10.1080/14660970701224566 ISSN 1466–0970(print)/ISSN 1743–9590(online)©2007 Taylor&Francis to: [email protected] Ramón Spaaij,AmsterdamSchoolfor SocialScienceResearch(ASSR),UniversityofAmsterdam.Correspondence journals suchas ganism,[3] andscholarsfrom avarietyofcountrieshavepublishedrelevantpapers in volumes havecertainlyadvancedcomparativeresearchinto footballcultureandhooli- ism appearstohavegainedmomentuminthelate1990s andearly2000s.Someedited this tendency.[2]Theinternationalizationofacademic research onfootballhooligan- and somenon-Englishresearchpublicationsonfootball fanbehaviour,partlychanged starting inthelate1980sandearly1990swithanumber ofinternationalconferences terms.[1] Thedevelopmenttowardsamoreinternationalized researchcommunity, existed atendencytoavoidcross-culturalcomparisons exceptinthemostgeneralof ical approachesrepresentanumberofopposingacademic factions.Therehaslong disciplines andlocalities.Thedistinctive,mostlyEnglish, theoreticalandmethodolog- The academicdiscoursesonfootballhooliganismhaveattracted scholarsfromvarious Introduction adventure andexcitementthepsycho-socialpleasuresassociatedwithhooliganviolence. should beunderstoodintermsoftheattractionshooliganlifestyletoyoungmenseeking hooliganism haschangedratherthandisappeared.Thepersistenceofthephenomenon ogeneous socialcompositionofhooligangroups.ThesepatternsindicatethatDutchfootball coordination; alternativestophysicalviolence;violencedirectedatthepoliceandheter- the partialdisplacementofhooliganconfrontations;increasinglevelsplanningand able thaninthepast.Withinthisdevelopment,fivedominantpatternsaredistinguished: that contemporaryfootballhooliganismintheNetherlandsismorecomplexandlesssurvey- ganism intheNetherlands.Usingbothqualitativeandquantitativedata,authorshows This articleanalyzestheemergence,developmentanddominantfeaturesoffootballhooli- Taylor andFrancisLtdFSAS_A_222376.sgm10.1080/14660970701224566SoccerSociety1466-0970(print)/1743-9590(online)OriginalArticle2007&8 2/3000000April/June 2007Ramó[email protected] Ramón Spaaij Continuity andChange Netherlands: Patternsof Football Hooliganisminthe Vol. 8,No.2/3,April/July2007,pp.316–334 Soccer &Society Soccer andSociety , the International ReviewfortheSociology ofSport
and Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 2000, battles’ ofDutchhooligansasacauseforinternationalconcern.Inthebuild-uptoEuro in theNetherlands.Foreignjournalistsandscholarsregularlyreferto‘organized of the‘manyopinions,fewfacts’rhetoricis,arguably,casefootballhooliganism and LatinAmerica,butalsoforsomeWesternEuropeancountries.Astrikingexample outside Britainremainrelativelyscarce.ThisiscertainlytrueforpartsofEasternEurope ison, historicalandsociologicalaccountsofthelevelformsfootballhooliganism the supporters. Dutchfanshave introducedvariouselementsofthisfootballcultureinto British terraceculturehas historically beenamajorinfluenceforDutchfootball The EmergenceofFootball HooliganismintheNetherlands supporters, includingwhatIhavedefinedasfootballhooliganism. misleading sincetheygrouptogetherdistinctivetypes of offencescausedbyfootball continue tousetheterm Dutch NationalFootballIntelligenceUnit)andother governmentinstitutions crimes’ or‘hooliganism’.[9]TheCentraalInformatiepunt Voetbalvandalisme(CIV; more regularlyreferredtobyacademicsandjournalists as ‘footballviolence’, fighting andverbalabuse.[8]Fromthemid-1990s,these typesofbehaviourhavebeen ogy, using‘vandalism’asanumbrellatermforactivities asdiversemissilethrowing, football supporters.[7]Mostacademicstudiesofthetime adoptedasimilarterminol- onwards duetoinitialofficialandmediafocusonthetrain wreckingexploitsofDutch became commonamongpoliticians,mediaandacademicsfromthemid-1970s type ofbehaviouris oppositional fangroupisnecessary.Itimportanttonotethatthenativetermforthis other-directed: forviolentrivalriestodevelopandpersist,theexistenceofatleastone groups, principallywithopposingfangroups.[6]Footballhooliganismisessentially at footballmatches.Itisdefinedasthecompetitiveviolenceofsociallyorganizedfan hooliganism intheNetherlands. ganism. Finally,Ibrieflyexaminesomecentralfeaturesofthepersistencefootball third section,IanalysetherecentpatternsanddevelopmentsinDutchfootballhooli- I thenturntothedevelopmentoffootballhooliganismin1980sand1990s.In gence offootballhooliganismintheNetherlandsandprocessnationaldiffusion. Netherlands. Thepaperisdividedintofourparts.firstpartexaminestheemer- patterns ofcontinuityanddiscontinuityintheevolutionfootballhooliganism basis ofqualitativeaswellavailablequantitativedata.Itrytoshowthemajor the emergence,developmentanddominantcharacteristicsofphenomenonon social organizationandsourcesoffootballhooliganism.InthisessayIexamine the contemporarydebateonfootballfanbehaviour,inparticulartodiscussionsof fear OrangedisorderwillwrecktheEuro2000tournament.’[5] but intheNetherlandsithasgotworse…AftergunbattlesRotterdam,Dutchpolice Football hooliganismisviewedinthispaperasaspecificformofspectatorviolence The caseofDutchfootballhooliganismisconsiderabletheoreticalrelevanceto Sociology ofSportJournal The Guardian
reported that,‘HooliganismhasdeclinedinBritainrecentyears, voetbalvandalisme voetbalvandalisme .[4] Despitethesesignsofgrowingcross-culturalcompar-
(football vandalism).Theuseofthisterm . Theselabelsare,tovaryingdegrees,all Soccer &Society 317 Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 ‘the dayDutchfootballlostits innocence’.[14]Apartfromshockingtheauthoritiesand Netherlands’ firstgenuineexperience withfootballhooliganismandhasbeendubbed of theground.Over200people wereinjured.Theincidentiswidelyregardedasthe Hotspur, on29May1974,visiting supportersattackedhomefansinadjacentsections on Dutchterritory.During the UEFACupfinalbetweenFeyenoordandTottenham supporters wereresponsibleforthefirstwidelyreportedincident offootballhooliganism formation of(themediatedimageof)spectatorviolence inDutchfootball.English The behaviourofEnglishsupportersonDutchsoilplayed animportantpartinthetrans- of violencewhenchallengedbytheirrivals. without planningviolentconfrontation,buttheyusually didnotrefrainfromtheuse relatively spontaneousandunorganized.Thefangroupsattendedfootballmatches early networkofinter-grouprivalries.Theincidentsprovokedbythesideswere respond totheseaggressionsinsimilarways,settingmotionthedevelopmentofan behaviour. TheviolenceprovokedbyFCUtrechtfansencouragedrivalsidesto 1970s. FCUtrecht’sBunnikzijdeobtainedsomedegreeofnotorietyforitsviolent violence atfootballmatchesbecameincreasinglydetachedfromthematchitself.[12] the emergenceofsidesandtheirincreasinglyviolentinter-grouprivalries.Spectator decision ordefeat.[11]Thispatterngraduallychangedinthemid-1970sasaresultof dents wereusuallytriggeredbyeventsonthepitch,suchasacontroversialrefereeing referee. Spectatordisorderlinesswasonlyoccasionallydirectedatrivalsupporters.Inci- tator violenceusuallytooktheformofmissilethrowingorassaultsonplayers uncommon, spontaneousoutburstsofspectatorviolence.[10]Earlyincidentsspec- fighting hasoccurred,butthisdoesnotseemtohaveinvolvedmorethan ball hooliganism.ThroughoutthehistoryofDutchprofessionalfootballsomeinter-fan to havebeencomparativelylowandtherearenoindicationsofanearlytraditionfoot- violence atprofessionalfootballmatchesintheNetherlandsbefore1970sappears the levelandformsofspectatorviolenceinDutchfootball.The (chants) andvisual(displayofflagsscarves)support. territory oftheyoungfansattemptingtocreateapassionateatmospherethroughvocal sections behindoneofthegoals.Theseareasweresoontransformedintoexclusive twenties whocongregatedinspecificareasoftheground,usuallycheaper tion. Thesidespredominantlyconsistedofyoungsupportersintheirteensandearly British youthendsandemergedasaresultofsimilarprocessinternaldifferentia- (North Side)andUtrecht(Bunnikzijde).Thesesideshadmuchincommonwiththe in country’sfourmaincities:Amsterdam(F-Side),Rotterdam(VakS),TheHague In the1970s,Dutchfootballgroundswitnessedemergenceofso-called‘sides’,first their ownstylesofsupport,suchassongs,chantsandthedisplayscarvesflags. 318 Some sideswerealreadythecauseofsomeofficialandpublicconcernbyearly The emergenceofthesidesmarkedbeginninganimportantdiscontinuityin frightened andfascinatedme.[13] ‘you’re goingtogetyourheadkickedin’.Thatwasunheard ofbackthen.Itboth seen dozensofUtrechtfanswavingbicyclechainsabovetheir headssaying,like, would firmupforawaytravelbecauseyouknewabouttheirreputation. Imean,had In thosedays[theearly1970s]youwouldn’tgooutlookingfor trouble.Ratheryou R. Spaaij Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 second halfofthe1980s.The Heyseldisaster(1985)heightenedfearsoverthepotential Football hooliganismbecame aprominentsubjectontheDutchpoliticalagendain The DevelopmentofFootball Hooliganisminthe1980sand1990s jointly foughttheircommonrivals(rivalsides)inthename oftheircluborcity. ‘Bedouin syndrome’(theenemyofmyisfriend, etcetera).[19]Theynow days andrecreatedalongthelinesoffootballaffiliation,mirroring inmanyrespectsthe or favouriteteam.[18]Localinter-grouprivalriesweretemporarily suspendedatmatch football contextasthedifferentgroupsbegantojointlyoccupy theterracesoftheirlocal villages. Fromthemid-1970s,theseinter-grouprivalries werepartlydisplacedtothe ing initiallytookplacebetweenyouthsfromdifferentcity districtsandfromdifferent a continuationoffightsbetweenrival(youth)groupsin other contexts.[17]Suchfight- the twoteamsin1980.[16] observed themisbehaviourofFeyenoordhooligansduringafriendlymatchbetween of BelgianClubBruges,forexample,createdtheirEastSideafterhavingpersonally influences, begantoimportcertainelementsoftheDutchhooliganscene.Youngfans also hadanimpactonsomeBelgianandGermansupporters,who,paralleltoBritish attacked bymembersofthefourmainsides.Thereputationspioneeringsides process ofimitationbecameparticularlyvisibleafteryounghomesupporterswere sides andimitatedthebehaviouralpatternsofpioneeringsides.Inmanycases,this national diffusion.Fangroupsthroughoutthecountrybegantoorganizethemselvesin something whichothersidesconsideredanincomprehensibleact. club’s relegationtotheFirstDivision,DenHaagfanssetfiretheirownstadium, lished asimilarreputationforproducinghome-madebombs.In1982,followingthe chasing Ajaxfanswithbicyclechains.FCDenHaagandFeyenoordhooligansestab- tic footballriot,on24October1976,showedFCUtrechtsupporterschallengingand noticed byjournalistscondemningtheir‘mindless’violence.Thefirstteleviseddomes- by theincreasingpropensitytoviolence.Thebehaviourofsideswasincreasingly young fansweredrawntothesidesbytheiratmosphereinsidegroundratherthan that onlyasectionofthesideswereactivelyinvolvedinviolentincidents.Many groups byinvadingtheirhometerritoriesandfightingthem.Itisimportanttonote competitive violencewhichrevolvedaroundestablishingtheirhegemonyoverrival were involvedinthevastmajorityofincidents.Theyprovokedanupwardspiral the infamoushooligangroupsofManchesterUnitedandLeedsUnited.[15] the F-Sidewhoattendedannualpre-seasontournamentinAmsterdam,witnessing viewed withenthusiasmandanticipation.Thiswascertainlythecaseformembersof rience theatmosphereofEnglishfootball.VisitsBritishclubstoNetherlandswere clubs travelledtocitiessuchasLondon,ManchesterandLiverpoolpersonallyexpe- terrace cultureand,inparticular,footballhooliganism.SupportersofseveralDutch the widerpublic,incidentstimulatedinterestofmanyyoungsupportersinBritish The emergenceoffootballhooliganismintheNetherlands shouldbeunderstoodas The behaviourofthefoursidesandrelatedmediaattentionsetoffaprocess In theearlystageoffootballhooliganisminNetherlands,fourmainsides Soccer &Society 319 Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 eradicate footballhooliganism, butratherchangeditsdominantforms.Opportunities introduction ofanidentitycard schemeandcompulsorytravelarrangements).[26] continuing emphasisonthe containmentoffootballsupporters(forexample,the customer-oriented approach tothemanagementoffootballsitsuneasilywith organizations.[25] Itisimportanttonote,however,that theshifttowardsamore closed-circuit television(CCTV)andbegantoinvestin theimprovementofsteward end ofthe1990s.Clubsalsoimprovedtheirticketingprocedures andcontrols,installed UEFA regulations,tograduallyconvertthefootballgrounds toall-seaterstadiabythe 1989, theDutchFootballAssociation(KNVB)agreedwith theclubs,inaccordancewith and emphasizestheimprovementofcustomerservices andfans’experiences.[24]In Dutch footballfeaturestherecognitionthatsecurityand safetyaretwoseparateissues Similar todevelopmentsinBritain,thepost-Hillsborough approachtomanaging grounds intheearly1990sadvancedcompliancewithpost-Hillsborough requirements. tion. Morerecently,therenovation,rebuildingorrelocation ofseveralDutchfootball inside footballgroundsandclubsinvestedinthedevelopmentofasecurityorganiza- ment oflargernumberspoliceofficersat‘highrisk’matches.Fenceswereerected concentrated mainlyonthesegregationofhomeandawaysupportersdeploy- (perceived) growingthreatoffootballhooliganism.Earlycontainmentstrategies was ‘fasttakingoverasEurope’smosttroubledfootballingnation’.[23] widely reportedbynationalandinternationalmedia.TheBBCconcludedthatHolland away sectionandall500visitingfansweresearchedattheexit.[22]Theincidentwas home fansufferedanarterialhaemorrhage.Riotpoliceimmediatelyclearedtheentire bomb containedfireworksandsmallbullets,injuringfourteenAjaxsupporters.One Feyenoord hooligansthrewhome-madebombsintoahomesectionoftheground.The match betweenAjaxandFeyenoordinAmsterdam,on22October1989,two field duringaEuropeanCupmatchbetweenAjaxandAustriaWien.Duringleague In September1989,anAjaxfanwasarrestedafterthrowingironbarontotheplaying suspended afteraDutchfanthrewbombontothepitch,injuringCyprus’goalkeeper. supporters. AninternationalfixturebetweenHollandandCyprusinOctober1987was Zuiderpark stadiuminTheHaguefollowingattacksbyhomefansonvisitingAjax to dowithfootball’.[21]InMarch1987,riotpoliceclearedthehometerraceof network NOSdescribedthedisorderas‘degradingscenesthathaveabsolutelynothing home fanwasrepeatedlybroadcastonnationaltelevision.TheDutchtelevision hospital fortreatmentofstabwounds.ThestabbingoneEnglishsupporterbya than 50supportersweretreatedforminorinjuriesandthreeEnglishfanstakento the seriousfightingbetweenopposingsupportersonterracesofDeKuip.More Feyenoord andTottenhamHotspur,on2November1983,broughttopeople’shomes some inter-grouprivalries.LivetelevisionbroadcastingofaUEFACupmatchbetween the continuingnationaldiffusionofhooligansubcultureandradicalization cally, thelevelandseriousnessoffootballhooliganismincreasedsubstantiallydueto Convention onSpectatorViolenceandMisbehaviouratSportsEvents.[20]Domesti- lethality offootballhooliganismandresultedintheintroductionEuropean 320 The repressiveandtechno-preventative containmentstrategiesdidnotsomuch The Dutchauthoritiesintroducedseveralsecuritymeasuresinreactiontothe R. Spaaij Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 Football hooliganism,intheir opinion,shouldnotbeaboutkillingpeople. noord hooligans,withthebenefit ofhindsightmosthooligansdeeplyregrettheevent. Although theconfrontation at Beverwijkwasgenerallyperceivedasa‘victory’forFeye- Ajax hooliganswereimprisoned orbannedforuptofouryearstheirpartintheriot. beaten withvariousobjects. Intheaftermathofincident,45Feyenoordandeight larger groupofFeyenoordhooligans.A35-year-oldAjax hooligandiedafterbeing A minutelatertheyfoughttheirrivalsonceagain,butwere eventuallyforcedbackbya confrontation lastedonlytwentytothirtysecondsbefore theAjaxhooligansretreated. noord hooligansabandonedtheircarsrushingtowards theirrivals.Thefirst gans spottedagroupof100to150Ajaxfansindistant field.ThehundredsofFeye- where andwhen.OntheirwaytoAlkmaar,ontheA9highway, theFeyenoordhooli- attack bytheAjaxhooliganswasexpected,noneof Feyenoordfansknewexactly at AZinAlkmaar,whileAjaxplayedWaalwijkagainst RKC.Althougharevenge 1997. Onthisoccasion,therehadbeennopriorarrangements. Feyenoordplayedaway at thesceneandforcedFeyenoordhooliganstoreturntheircars. observing thelarger,heavily-armedgroupofFeyenoordhooligans.Thepolicearrived planned confrontationneverreallymaterialized.TheAjaxhooligansretreatedafter maintained frequentphonecontactintheweekleadinguptoevent.Thepre- ganism. FeyenoordandAjaxhooliganspre-arrangedafightneartheA10highway February 1997constitutedanewelementinthedevelopmentofDutchfootballhooli- confrontation culminatedin1997.Theencounterbetweenthetwogroupson16 attack.[28] ThedeterminationofFeyenoordandAjaxhooligansinseekingviolent environment insearchoftheAjaxhooligans,whohadretreatedafterinitial and vandalizedthecanteenbarwithobjectssuchasironbars.Theyroamed canteen withstones.TheFeyenoordhooligansimmediatelybegantochasetheirrivals ing hooligansofFeyenoordandFCUtrecht.Theysmashedthewindowsstudio attacked atelevisionstudiosecondsbeforethestartoftalkshow place atseverallocations.On21May1995,forexample,agroupof60Ajaxhooligans the 1990s.Spontaneousandpre-plannedencountersbetweentwogroupstook accounted formuchofthepoliticalandpublicconcernoverfootballfanbehaviourin escalated intoafull-scaleriot.Fourfanswereinjuredbypolicebullets. Rotterdam. ThecelebrationofFeyenoord’snationalchampionship,on25April1999, and FeyenoordfoughtbeforeduringtheCupFinalbetweenAjaxPSVin with stones.Sevenpoliceofficerswereinjured.On17May1998,hooligansofAjax,PSV and Feyenoord,on26October1996,rivalhooliganspeltedeachotherthepolice centre forcingpoliceofficerstofirewarningshots.AfteramatchbetweenFCUtrecht 16 May1996,FeyenoordandPSVhooligansconfrontedeachotherinRotterdam’scity painfully clearthatfootballhooliganismhadnotbeenreducedtoanyrealdegree.On and lootingofshopsgasstations.[27]Inthesecondhalf1990sitbecame stations. Containmentstrategiesalsofailedtopreventtheoccasionaltrainvandalism displacing theirfightingtolocationsoutsidethestadia,suchascitycentresandtrain for fightinginsidegroundsdiminished,buthooligansrespondedtothesechangesby The intendedconfrontationfinallycameintobeinga month later,on23March The radicalizationoftheviolentrivalrybetweenFeyenoordandAjaxhooligans Soccer &Society Lief &Leed
featur- 321 Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 to esnNo.ofarrests Source national team arrested andforeign supporters atEuropean Cup matches inHolland. *I 2003/04 2002/03 2001/02 2000/01 Season Tab incidents.[31] significantly perseason,partlyduetothelargenumber ofarrestsatcertainsingle than theactualproblemstheseclubsarefacedwith.Finally,arrestratesfluctuate Moreover, thearrestratesmayreflectmorepolicingstrategiesathigh-profilematches Feyenoord, AjaxandPSV.Itisthuslogicalthatmorearrestsaremadeattheseclubs. Den Haag,thelistedclubsareamongthosedrawinglargestcrowds,particularly total). Itisdifficulttodrawconclusionsfromthesefigures.WiththeexceptionofADO number ofarrestsatprofessionalfootballmatchesintheNetherlands(36clubs The sevenclubslistedinTable2accountforbetween54and69percentofthetotal account foracomparativelyhighpercentageofthetotalamountarrestsperseason. spectator disorderliness(thatis,footballhooliganism).[30] of offencesand,therefore,tellusnothingaboutthedevelopment violence. Furthermore,thelistedarrestratesdonotdistinguishbetweendifferenttypes changes inregistrationcapacityratherthanthe‘real’levelofspectator cult todeterminetheprecisemeaningsofthisincreasesinceitmaybeindicative 1988/89 seasontherewere1,021arrests;inthe1989/90atotalof950).Itisdiffi- when theCIVfirstbegantoregisternumberofarrestsatfootballmatches(in 2000/01 season.Recentarrestratesarealsosignificantlyhigherthaninthelate1980s, erlands havenotchangedmuchoverthelastthreeseasons,butarehigherthanin decline. Table1showsthatthearrestratesatprofessionalfootballmatchesinNeth- CIV seemtoconfirmtheideathatspectator‘violence’atfootballmatchesisnoton in theNetherlandshasfarfromdisappeared.Thequantitativedatacompiledby The violentincidentsinthesecondhalfof1990ssuggestthatfootballhooliganism and QuantitativeClues The CurrentShapesofFootballHooliganismintheNetherlands:SomeQualitative 322 2003/04* A closerexaminationofthearrestratesperclubrevealsthatasmallnumberclubs ncluding league, cup, European Cup matches. and friendly Excluding theDutch arrests at matches of le 1 : want tofightandhumiliatetheopponent,that’sall.[29] fight becausesomeonedied.Itwasnevermyintentiontokillhim,youknow.Youjust choice: wehadtoshowupinordernotloseface.Lookingback,Ideeplyregretthe I hadaverybadfeelingaboutwhatwasgoingtohappen.Butbasicallyyouno Data provided by CIV. R. Spaaij Nu mber of arrests atprofessional arrests fo mber of otball matches intheNetherlands, 2000/01 specific forms 1617 1558 1840 1107
of Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 than inthe1970sand1980s.[33]Withinthisdevelopment, fivedominantpatternscan hooliganism intheNetherlandsismorecomplexandless surveyableandpredictable in amorequalitativemanner.Recentstudieshaveclaimed thatcontemporaryfootball of thispaperIexaminethecurrentshapesfootballhooliganism intheNetherlands example, fighting;vandalism;missilethrowing). offences andfailtodistinguishbetweenqualitativelydistinctivetypesofviolence(for football hooliganismsincetheregisteredincidentsincludebothphysicalandverbal This broaddefinitionfrustratesamoresophisticatedanalysisofthedevelopment (Table 3).TheCIVdefinesanincidentas lands, 2000/01to 2003/04* 030 98 96 117 - No.ofregisteredincidents Source *T 2003/04 2002/03 2001/02 2000/01 Season Tab 1062 47 158 81 72 942 226 331 88 25 120 157 147 1275 147 159 103 63 53 66%(1617) 115 246 602 497 60%(1558) 97 Season 46 63 69%(1840) 161 29 347 Source 90 54%(1107) *C 79 % of(totalno.arrests) 134 Total ADO DenHaag Vitesse NEC PSV FC Utrecht Ajax Feyenoord Club Tab Due totheseriouslimitationsofstatisticaldatapresentedabove,inremainder A thirdtypeofstatisticscompiledbytheCIVisnumberregistered‘incidents’ le 3 le 2 he CIVonlyregisters ‘incidents’ since the2001/02season. lubs with the highest number of theirfansarrested (onaverage). number of thehighest lubs with personnel (e.g.stewards).[32] or; (e)violentbehaviourbysupportersdirectedatthepoliceandclubsecurity damage or;(c)committingpublicviolence(d)makingdiscriminatoryremarks of supportersaimsatthefollowing:(a)seekingaconfrontationor;(b)causing an eventrequiringadditionalpolicedeploymentwherebythebehaviourofagroup : : Data provided by CIV. Data provided by CIVandelaborated by theauthor. N N umber of arrests perclub,umber of 2000/01to 2003/04* umber of registered incidentsatprofessional footballmatchesumber of intheNether- 00 10 20 03/04 02/03 01/02 00/01 Soccer &Society 323 Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 particular thedanceevents andravesorganizedthroughoutthecountry.Rival Groningen andBelgianGerminal Beerschotsupporters.[40] in August1999.InJanuary 2002, NAChooliganswereattackedbyanallianceofFC supporters foughtajointcombination ofClubBrugesandADODenHaaghooligans season friendlies,occasionallyinvolvingtemporaryinter-group alliances.FCTwente early 2000s,hooligangroupsincreasinglyconfrontedeach otheratpre-seasonormid- ness inandaroundfootballgroundsisonlyanappearance’.[39] Inthelate1990sand to suggestthat‘theriskofasecondBeverwijkisgrowing rapidly’ and‘therelativequiet- that thistypeofbehaviouriscurrentlyontheincrease.[38] Onenewspaperwentasfar intention ofprovokingdisorder.Policeofficersandjournalists haverecentlysuggested the match,orbyturningupatmatcheswhichdonotinvolve theirteamwiththesole arrangements byarrivinginthecitywhereawaymatch isplayedthenightbefore either spontaneouslyorpre-planned.Hooliganssometimes defycompulsorytravel pervasive officialcontrolsandconfronttheirrivalsatunexpected timesandlocations, ing awayfromthegrounds.Hooligangroupsmaygotogreatlengthscircumvent policies havehadtheunintendedconsequenceof(partially)displacinginter-fanfight- and assaultsonstewards. Small-scale disorderinsidefootballgroundsisrelativelycommon,includingvandalism such examplestoarguethe‘comebackofhooliganisminsidefootballgrounds’.[37] and GlasgowRangers,resultingin40arrests.[36]Journalistshaveoccasionallyused 2002, severalsmallerfightsoccurredduringtheUEFACupmatchbetweenFeyenoord between hooligansandthepolice.Atotalof122fanswerearrested.[35]On28February Utrecht inMarch2002wasovershadowedbyfightingbetweenrivalhooligansand visiting supportersinsidetheground.AcupmatchbetweenAjaxReservesandFC United wasmarredbyaviolentconfrontationbetweenFeyenoordhooligansand November 1997,aChampionsLeaguematchbetweenFeyenoordandManchester Occasionally, seriousfightingtakesplaceinsideDutchfootballgrounds.On5 point that: grounds has,however,notbeencompletelyeradicated.Adanghasmadetheimportant became relativelyrarefromthe1980sonwards.Spectatorviolenceinandaround Large-scale confrontationsbetweenrivalfangroupsinsideDutchfootballgrounds Partial DisplacementofHooliganConfrontations physical violence;and(e)theheterogeneoussocialcompositionofhooligangroups. levels ofplanningandcoordination;(c)violenceagainstthepolice;(d)alternativesto be distinguished:(a)thepartialdisplacementofhooliganconfrontations;(b)increasing 324 Another sourceofpotential conflictbetweenrivalhooligansisthenightlife,in Instead ofreducingthelevelandseriousnessfootballhooliganism,containment fences. Moreover,theyhavebeensearchedbeforeenteringtheground.[34] than outside,becauseinsidethestadiumopposingsupportersarealwaysseparatedby the groundvisolenceisoftenlessthreateningandrisky(apartfromuseofbombs) Violence orthedamagethatresultsfromitoutsidegroundsisvalueddifferently.Inside R. Spaaij Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 tend toidentifywiththegroup arelikelytobepresent,whereasotherswillnot.[48] der ismore-or-less‘expected’ (forexample,athigh-profilematches):(young)fanswho accordingly. Thesedynamics featureaprocessofself-selection,especiallywhendisor- core butwhoidentifywith the‘group’underspecificcircumstancesandbehave less identifiablesub-groups are joinedbyindividualswhodonotbelongtothehard conflict betweenthedifferentsub-groups.Duringlarge-scale disorder,thesemore-or- anticipation ofviolentconfrontation.[47]Thereregularly existssomedegreeof of smaller,autonomouslyoperatingsub-groupsorindividuals thatmaymergein cohesion ofthelargerhooligangroupsappearstobelimited. Theyconsistofavariety spaces (i.e.footballgrounds,routestostadia,railwaystations, citydistricts).Thesocial inter-group contactsestablishedovertheyearsandfamiliarity withcertainurban common interests(i.e.infighting),opportunitiesfor rapidresourcemobilization, gan confrontationsdonotresultfromformalstructures butfromacombinationof tion withinhooligans’ownranksand,occasionally,with rivalhooligangroups.Hooli- hooliganism doesgenerallynotexceedbasicformsofcoordination andsynchroniza- organization weredismissedbythejudges.[46]Thesocialoffootball alleged Ajaxhooliganshadasimilaroutcome;allchargesofmembershipcriminal sustained thattheeventshad‘anorganizedcharacter’.[45]Arecentcourtcaseagainst incidentally cooperatingpersonsorgroupsofpeople.Ontheotherhand,judges result ofastructuredcriminalorganizationratherthaninitiativesindividualsor evidence tosustaintheprosecution’sclaimsthatdisorderatBeverwijkwas have allfailed.TheDutchSupremeCourtconcludedthattherewasinsufficient structures.[44] Attemptstoconvicthooligansasmembersofa‘criminalorganization’ Netherlands shouldnotbeunderstoodassignsofformalorganizationorhierarchical hooligans, butmayalsobedirectedatthepoliceorsecuritypersonnel.[43] groups dispersetoavoidapprehension.Suchassaultsdonotnecessarilyinvolverival often taketheformof‘hitandrun’fights;briefbutseriousdisorderafterwhichboth tion, time,format),despitefearsofbeingtappedbytheauthorities.Suchconfrontations more effectivecoordinationofpre-arrangedconfrontations(prioragreementonaloca- hooligan groupsmaintaininstrumental‘liaisons’withrivalgroups,whichallowfora mobile phonesand,toalesserextent,Internetarrangeconfrontations.SeveralDutch become morecoordinatedandpurposefulintheiractivities.Hooligansmakeuseof As partoftheirattemptstocircumventpolicecontrols,Dutchhooligangroupshave Increasing LevelsofPlanningandCoordination treated inhospitalforconcussion.[42] and managersoftheFeyenoordReservesafteramatchinAmsterdam.Oneplayerwas Recently, on15April2004,dozensofAjaxhooligansintimidatedandattackedplayers teams, mainlyduetotheabsenceofpervasivesecuritymeasuresatthesematches. Ajax hooliganshastwicebeencontestedatmatchesbetweenthetwoclubs’reserve Dance Valleyin2004.[41]Finally,thedeep-seatedhostilitybetweenFeyenoordand hooligans haveoccasionallyconfrontedeachotheratsuchvenues,forexample The increasinglevelsofplanningandcoordinationfootballhooliganisminthe Soccer &Society 325 Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 prestige ororganizationalskills. informal leadersor‘regulators’usuallyderivetheirpositionfromseniority, There isnoevidenceofformalleadershipwithinDutchhooligangroups.Influential 326 threatening orviolentdimensions. Examplesofthelatterareblockingrailway categories maybesimilarly involved intheprotests,whichoccasionallytakeonmore typal distinctionbetweenhard-core (non-violent)supportersandhooliganssinceboth the incidentoninternet.[54] Thesetypesof‘fanactivism’haveblurredtheideal- members bydisplayingaphoto ofonetheriotpoliceofficersallegedlyinvolved in Utrecht’s officialsupporters’clubprotestedagainst the aggressivepolicingofits accusation wassustainedbytheCommissionforPolice Complaints.[53]In2004,FC portionate useofviolenceandtheinflictioninjuryon anumberofvisitingfans.The lodged anofficialcomplaintagainsttheAmsterdamriot policein2002forthedispro- networks toprotestagainstdisproportionatepolicingstrategies. Feyenoordsupporters Moreover, hard-coresupportersandhooligansalikehave usedtheirexperienceand networks andskillstoappealbanningorders,ticketpricing ortravelarrangements. attempt todisruptorcircumventundesiredsecuritymeasures usingtheirbureaucratic upcoming eventsandpotentialconfrontations.Experienced hooligansalsoconsciously authorities totakedraconicsecuritymeasuresbyspreading falseinformationon the sameexcitementorfunasphysicalviolence.[52]Hooliganssometimesforce to utilizecertainalternativesphysicalconfrontationswhich,attimes,maygenerate violence atfootballgroundsaremorelimitedthaninthepast.Theyregularlyattempt Experienced hooligansareawareofthefactthatopportunitiesforcollective Alternatives toPhysicalViolence issue andenforcecertainbehaviouralcodesorcreateatemporaryunitofushers. als fordeceasedhooligans.Onsuchoccasionshooligansmaycooperatewiththepolice, organizational skillsarealsoperceptibleintheorganizationofdancepartiesandfuner- nating temporarybehaviouralcodes(forexample,verballyorthroughleaflets).Their obtaining ticketsforspecificsectionsofthegrounds,travelarrangementsordissemi- hooligan groupsfocuspredominantlyonlogisticandorganizationaltasks,suchas that themorematuredhooligans.[51]Moregenerally,certain‘regulators’within actual fightingormissilethrowing.Thelattercategoryisthereforemoreoftenarrested background whileyoungerhooligansmoreeagerto‘prove’themselvesengageinthe violence andpolicingstrategies.[50]Duringconfrontationstheyoftenremaininthe have developedapracticalunderstandingoftheopportunitystructuresforfootball Rather thanbeingformallyorganized,experiencedhooligansarestreetwiseand companies too.[49] prestige thanyoungerones.That’slogical,isn’tit?Imean,that’showitworksin chical structureisintermsofseniority.Long-standinghooligansusuallyhavemore time it’sothers.Youcannotpickanyoneastheleaderofgroup.Theonlyhierar- mentions that,buttheyaredifferentpeople.Sometimesit’sonepersonandtheother certain activities,whosay‘wegothereatthistime’.Thereisalwayssomeonefirst There isnoformalhierarchyoranything.Ofcoursetherearepeoplewhocoordinate R. Spaaij Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 at alocallevel.The as aconsequenceofthefanprojectsandintelligence-ledpolicingstrategiescarriedout vision andtheInternet.Conflictsbetweenhooliganspolicehavealsoemerged of theincidentpolicedisplayedphotographssuspectedFeyenoordfansontele- officers andpeltedthemwithstonesbottles,injuring42officers.Intheaftermath in Rotterdam,on17April2005.HundredsofFeyenoordsupportersattackedriotpolice incident ofattacksonthepolicetookplaceafteramatchbetweenFeyenoordandAjax Amsterdam Arenafollowingawayfans’vandalisingofseats.Themostwidelyreported supporters forcedbackriotpoliceafterthelatterhadchargedawaysectionof an awaymatchatAjaxon29February2004.Earlierthatmonth,ADODenHaag police officersandriot ingly substitutedbyriotpolice.[57]Morerecently,hooliganshaveoccasionallyattacked hooligans tobeonthedeclineand,avoidfurtherendangerment,theywereincreas- interactions withhooligangroups.Regularpoliceofficersperceivedtheirinfluenceon large scale.Intheearly1990spolicefirstobservedaprocessofpolarizationintheir Violent behaviourdirectedatthepolicetakesondifferentformsrangingfromsmallto the policeasalegitimateopponent,partofviolentinter-grouprivalries.[56] when thelatterisattemptingtoseparatewarringparties.Somehooligangroupsview Hooligans donotmerelyfighteachotherbutmayalsoconfrontthepolice,especially Violence DirectedatPolice actors participatingintheplay hoorden zijengelenzingen throughout thecountrytopreventbroadcastingofAjaxdocumentary tracks byFCUtrechtsupportersinMarch2002,thethreatsdirectedatcinemas participation infootballhooliganism, asituationwhichisquitedifferentfromthe Dutch situation‘thereisa relationship betweenindividualdownwardmobilityand ized bytheirrelativelylowlevels ofeducation.[60]VanderBrughasarguedthatinthe suburbs begantoattendfootball matches.[59]Thefootballhooliganswerecharacter- country’s maincitieslargenumbers ofworking-classyouthfromdifferentdistrictsand tices andstyles,wereincreasinglyinfluencedbyBritish youthsubcultures.Inthe changes. Youthbegantoemergeasadistinctsocialcategory withitsownculturalprac- Netherlands, intheearly1970s,shouldbelocatedwithin thecontextofpost-warsocial features bothcontinuitiesandchanges.Theemergence of footballhooliganisminthe The historicaldevelopmentofthesocialcomposition ofDutchhooligangroups The HeterogeneousSocialCompositionofHooliganGroups intheNetherlands in theprojectshavebeenvictimsofintimidationand physicalviolence.[58] relations betweenhooligansandthepolice.Onsomeoccasions policeofficersinvolved Netherlands. Asecondaryconsequenceoftheprojecthasbeenpolarization police districtsandwillsoonbeimplementedatallprofessionalfootballclubsinthe tors knownhooligansinandoutsidethefootballcontext,hasbeenintroducedseveral Hooligans inBeeld
in December2000and,March2001,theintimidationof en masse Hooligans
(Hooligans inView)project,whichcloselymoni- . FCUtrechthooligansfoughttheriotpoliceafter which,consequently,wassuspended.[55] Soccer &Society Daar 327 Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 formations. Whereasthelatter areportrayedas‘rough,hard-corecriminals’,theSparta constructed inrelationto Feyenoord hooligansandcertainotherDutchhooligan masculine identitybased on physicalprowess,theircollectiveidentityisalso gans canbecharacterizedas ‘middle-class’.AlthoughSpartahooliganscelebrateahard office employee.Onlyoneof thegroup’scoremembersisabuilder.[65]Mosthooli- teaching inprimaryorsecondaryschoolstohealthcare professionalsandaprinting- some havealreadycompletedtheiruniversitydegree.Full-time occupationsvaryfrom counterparts atFeyenoord.ManySpartahooligansare enrolled inuniversities,while centrally intheiractivities. ‘Sissy’ behaviourisviewedwithdisdain.Thequestfor riskandexcitementfeatures physical prowess,risktakingandtheabilityto‘lookafter yourself’aredominantvalues. used tointimidateotheryoungmenineverydaylife.Within theirfriendshipgroups life. Theirreputationforphysicalprowessprovidesthem prestigeamongpeersandis nightlife) inwhichaggressionandthethreatuseof violencearepartofeveryday gans growupinasocialenvironment(family,school,neighbourhood,footballclub, related tothedisruptionoffamiliesordrugalcoholabuse.Severalyounghooli- from engagingindelinquencyandhooliganism.Parentalneglectisseveralcases with teachersandfellowstudents.Theirparentsoftendolittletopreventtheirsons a relativelylowlevelofeducation.Theytendtodislikeschoolandexperienceproblems their lives.Theyoungerhooliganseitherworkorarestillinschool.Manyofthemhave their involvementintheclubconstitutesamajorsourceofexcitementandidentity networks. Theirinvolvementinfootballhooliganismaswellas,formanyhooligans, upward socialmobility,theyarenotbeyondtheirculturalrootsandmalefriendships bouncers, andsoon.Althoughcertainolderhooliganshaveexperiencedadegreeof hooligans areskilledmanualworkersemployedasbuilders,dockworkers,carpenters, long-term unemployedandthevastmajorityearnamoderateincome.Manyolder class compositionhasbecomesomewhatmoreheterogeneous.Veryfewhooligansare of Feyenoordhooligansgrewupinworking-classareas,butrecentyearsthegroup’s gans attwoDutchfootballclubs:FeyenoordandSpartaRotterdam.[64]Themajority important variations.[63] hooligans intheNetherlandshasbecomemoreheterogeneous,thoughthereare There isevidencetosuggestthat,inrecentyears,thesocialcompositionoffootball Hazekamp contend: of hooligans.IntheirearlyanalysistheZ-sideatFCGroningen,Veugelersand in theNetherlandsthereweresignsofsignificantvariationssocialbackgrounds highly relatedtosocialclass’.[61]Atthisrelativelyearlystageoffootballhooliganism pattern inBritain,wheretheexplanatoryfactorsaremuchmorecollectivisticand 328 The socialbackgroundsofSpartahooligansdiffersubstantially fromthoseoftheir I willillustratethispointbyabriefexaminationofthesocialbackgroundshooli- the districtgroupsusuallylivewiththeirparents,haveapaidjoborareatschool.[62] and havemoreexperienceswithcorrectionalinstitutionsprisons.Youthsfrom often havelowereducationallevelsorquittheirstudies,aremoreunemployed and thevariousdistrictgroups…They[membersofinner-citygroup]more There areanumberofdifferencesbetweenthesocialpositioninner-citygroup R. Spaaij Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 hooliganism iscommonlyregardedasatemporarylifestyle.Asonehooliganputit: hooligans viewthemselvesasamoresophisticated,fashionable‘fightingcrew’and usage ofharddrugs(cocaine, speed,ecstasy)amongyounghooligans.Theirbehaviour members aremostlyyoung males between15and23yearsold.Thereisgenerallyhigh groups oroperateautonomously (withtheirownnamesandsymbology).Their football clubs.Theseyouth groups areeitherintegratedintotheestablishedhooligan the late1990sandearly2000s newhooliganyouthgroupsemergedatseveralDutch (for example,drugtrade;merchandising).Attheother endoftheagecontinuum,in have certaineconomicinterestsforcontinuingtheirinvolvement inhooligangroups groups. Besidesbeing‘addicted’tothe‘buzz’offootball violence, someolderhooligans policing strategiesaswelltoestablishinstrumentalor affective‘relations’withother develop apracticalknowledgeoftheopportunitystructures forfootballviolenceand ing up’forhigh-profilematches.Theirmaturityandexperience hasenabledthemto involved infootballhooliganism,whileothersarepart-time participantsmainly‘turn- old) havebeenpartoftheirgroupssincethelate1980sor before.Somearestillcentrally changing agerangeofDutchfootballhooligans.Several older hooligans(30to45years understanding ofthepersistencephenomenon. Thefirstcharacteristicisthe this finalsectionIbrieflyexaminetwointer-relatedfeaturesthatmayenhanceour hooligan thenightpriortoamatchbetweentwoteams.Bywayofconclusion,in Enschede in1991,whereaFCTwentesupporterwasstabbedtodeathbyFeyenoord related deathshavebeenreported;oneduringtheBeverwijkriotin1997,and hooliganism isoftenover-estimated.Overthelastthreedecadesonlytwofootball- stressing itspersistentnature,IshouldmentionthatthelethalityofDutchfootball football hooliganismintheNetherlandshaschangedratherthandisappeared.Though The dominantdevelopmentsandcharacteristicsidentifiedinthispapersuggestthat Football HooliganismintheNetherlands:SomeConcludingRemarks in, organizingandfantasizingaboutfootball-relatedviolence.[67] of violenceineverydaylife,butarehookedtotheadrenalinrushtheygetfromengaging environment conducivetoaggressionortheuseofviolence.Infact,theyreject claim neithertoperceivethemselvesas‘workingclass’,norhavebeenraisedinan BSc orMA).Thevastmajority(around80percent)oftheself-declaredhooligans conclusions. Sixoutoftenstudyatauniversitylevelorhavedegree(BA, Fanatics conductedbyoneofmystudents,JeroenKorthals,reachedverysimilar with rivalhooligansbefore,duringorafterfootballmatches. ated withfootballhooliganism.Theytakeprideinengagingviolentconfrontation An ethnographicstudyofcoremembersFCHaarlem’shooligangroupFCH Sparta hooligansclaimtobe‘addicted’thepleasurableemotionalarousalassoci- they’re 35.Icertainlywon’t.haveothersgoalsinlife,youknow.[66] values inlife,aneducation.Theywillprobablystillbedoingtheirbusinesswhen is completelydifferent.Wecomefromstablefamilies,quitewell-off,havecertain no education,bothparentsondrugs,broughtupinacultureofviolence.Ourgroup “Feyenoord hooliganshaveverydifferentbackgrounds.Imean,manyofthem Soccer &Society 329 Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 Notes ball fans,emphasizinginstead thehardmasculinitycelebratedbyfootballhooligans. football ‘fanzines’.SomeDutchfanzinescontestthecultural propertiesof‘regular’foot- messageboard. Similarmodesofreproductionandinteraction canbefoundinsome subject offootballhooliganism,suchaspressreports, real-timevideoclipsanda emerged. Websitessuchaswww.hardcorehooligan.nloffer arangeofmaterialonthe simulation offootballhooliganism–inprint,film,video gamesandclothing–has pants’.[71] Playingintothisdemand,atransnationalmarket inthereproductionor (real ormediated)remains‘highlydesirabletolargenumbers ofprospectivepartici- experiencing the‘buzz’inandaroundfootballgrounds, butthehooliganexperience perform whenoneisafraid.[70] Courage, inthissense,isnottheabsenceoffearbutrathersufficientdisciplineto ganism isnotonlyintimatelyconnectedtoanticipation,butalso(overcoming)fear. ‘show’ orrunsaway,becausepolicedisrupttheirplans.The‘buzz’offootballhooli- confrontations nevermaterialize,forinstancebecauseonegroup(orboth)failsto not escalateintoseriouscollectiveviolenceandthevastmajorityofpre-arranged occurs, onemightask:whydoesitnotoccurmoreoften?Mostspontaneousfightsdo tively fewpeopleareseriouslyinjured.Insteadofaskingwhyfootballhooliganism fantasize aboutupcomingevents.Inreality,mostfightsarequitebriefandcompara- war scenarioinwhich‘allhellbreaksloose’.Theyregularlyevaluatepreviousclashesor anticipation of‘disorder’and‘chaos’.Hooligansroutinelydescribetheir‘battles’asa intense emotionalstatesofthehooliganexperiencearecloselyrelatedtohooligans’ description ofthehooligangroupatFeyenoord).Thepleasuresderivedfrom ball clubslocatedinareaswithstrongworking-classtraditionsandlegacies(seemy class –eventhoughthismaycertainlybethecaseinspecificsituations,suchasatfoot- of footballviolenceshouldnotbeunderstoodasmerelyanepiphenomenonsocial hooliganism doesnotappealexclusivelytoyoungworking-classmales.Theseductions rush whenconfrontingtheiropponents.[69]IntheDutchcase,‘buzz’offootball Accounts ofhooligansrevealhowtheyexperienceanoverpowering‘buzz’oradrenalin are thepsycho-socialpleasuresitsparticipantsderivefromhooliganexperience. manifest themselvesthroughverbalwarfare(threats;abuse;bragging)ontheInternet. Many self-declaredyounghooligansarenotphysicallyviolentbutratherattemptto and internationalhooliganconfrontationsarechronicledonspecialwebsites. net playsacentralroleassiteforsocializationand‘cyberhooliganism’.[68]National hooligan experience(privatevideofootage,books,documentaries,clothing).TheInter- closely relatedtothemediaattentionandentertainmentindustrysurrounding tifying withorengaginginfootballhooliganismappearstobeafashionablewayoflife conduct’, forexamplebyattackingnon-hooligans.Formanyyoungsupporters,iden- is viewedbymanyolderhooligansasviolating,insomeways,theunwritten‘codesof 330 1 Moorhouse, ‘FootballHooligans: OldBottle,NewWines?’,490. [1] Police measuresagainstfootballhooliganismhavereduced theopportunitiesfor The secondfeaturethatprovidesinsightintothepersistenceoffootballhooliganism R. Spaaij Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 2]KNVB, [25] [14] InterviewwithFeyenoordsupporter,February2005. [13] 3]CIV, [31] Forananalysisoftheflawsstatisticaldata onfootball-relatedarrests,see:Spaaij,‘Het [30] InterviewwithFeyenoordsupporter,November 2001. [29] VanGageldonk, [28] VanderBrug,‘FootballHooliganism’,177. [27] 2]Thisdilemmacannotbeelaboratedonhere toafullextentduelackofspace.Theissueis [26] 1]Pieloor,vandeMeerandBakker, [15] 2]Tummers, [24] [23] [22] [21] VanderBrug, [12] VanderBrug,‘FootballHooliganismintheNetherlands’p.176. [11] Miermans, [10] 3]CIV, [32] 2]CouncilofEurope, [20] Harrison,‘Soccer’sTribalWars’,604. [19] CustersandHamersma,‘DeGenesevanhetFenomeenHooliganismeinNederland’,23; [18] Stokvis,‘VoetbalvandalismeinNederland’. [17] VerleyenanddeSmet, [16] 3]Adang, [34] COT, [33] 3]CIV, [36] [35] 3]CIV, [38] See,forexample, [37] 8 Siekmann(ed.), [8] Forexample,inthefirstofficialinquiryintomatter,Hartsuiker, [7] Foranelaborateconceptualization,seeSpaaij,‘ThePreventionofFootballHooliganism’; [6] [5] Forexample:Pilz,‘SocialFactorsInfluencingSportandViolence’;Andersson,‘Swedish [4] ArmstrongandGiulianotti(eds), [3] 9 Adang,‘VanVoetbalvandalismenaarVoetbalcriminaliteit?’;FerwerdaandGelissen,‘Voetbal- [9] 2 Notably:O’Brien(ed.), [2] Rotterdams Dagblad groep VandalismedoorVoetbalsupporters cf. Giulianotti,‘ADifferentKindofCarnival’. The Guardian Football Hooliganism,1900–1939’;SpaaijandViñas,‘Passion,PoliticsViolence’. (eds), (eds), Forza Juve”’. Tifosi Danesi’;Horak,‘ThingsChange’;Bromberger,HayotandMariottini,‘“Allezl’O.M., Giulianotti, ‘Scotland’sTartanArmyinItaly’;Peitersen,‘Roligan.UnModod’Esseredei criminaliteit. VeroverenHooliganshetPubliekeDomein?’;vanGageldonk, Succes vandeBritseVoetbalwet’,4-5;Spaaij,‘Hooligans,Politieen Informatie’,139–43. discussed tosomelengthinBormans,‘ BBC News NOS Nieuws NOS Nieuws Events andinparticularFootballMatches Hepworth (eds), Köster, ‘WeerTrekkenWijTenStrijde’,71. Korpsbericht PolitieAmsterdam-Amstelland 23 February2005. Jaarverslag Seizoen2003–2004 Jaarverslag Seizoen2002–2003 Jaarverslag Seizoen2001–2002 Jaarverslag Seizoen2003–2004 Voetbal enGeweld Fighting Fans Fear andLoathinginWorldFootball Hooligans, Autonomen,Agenten Handboek Veiligheid , 22October1989. Architectuur aandeZijlijn. Voetbal inNederland , 22October1989. , 2November1983. , 2May1999. Voetbalvandalisme Voetbalvandalisme Hand in BN DeStem Football, ViolenceandSocialIdentity . , 20April2002,43. European ConventiononSpectatorViolenceandMisbehaviouratSports Hooligans, , 31. European ConferenceonFootballViolence ; HeijsandMengerink, , 2April2002; , 94–7; . , 223. 16. F-Side isNietMakkelijk! Football CulturesandIdentities , 36–41. , 11. , 46. ; vanderBrug, ; Eindhovens Dagblad ; COT, NOS Nieuws Feyenoord Bedankt!’. , 32. . . , 2April2002. ; Dunning,Murphy,WaddingtonandAstrinakis De Gelderlander De AmsterdamArena, Voetbalvandalism , 21May1995. Stewarding inNederland ; Roversi,‘FootballViolenceinItaly’; , 26February2005; , 22. , 2April2002. ; ArmstrongandGiulianotti 8. ; Giulianotti,Bonneyand . Soccer &Society Rapport vandeProject- Hand inHand. . De Gelderlander 331 , Downloaded By: [Spaaij, Ramón] At: 03:59 25 September 2007 Andersson, T.‘SwedishFootball Hooliganism1900–1939.’ Adang, O.M.J. Adang, O.M.J.‘VanVoetbalvandalismenaarVoetbalcriminaliteit?’ References [39] 332 Adang, O.M.J.‘CollectiefGeweld tussenVoetbal–“Supporters”:Organisatie,Groepsprocessen En [53] VanderTorreandSpaaij, [52] Interviewswithseniorpoliceofficersandsecurityofficers,January2001toNovember2004. [51] VanderTorreandSpaaij, [50] InterviewwithFeyenoordsupporter,October2004. [49] 4]Adang,‘CollectiefGeweldtussenVoetbal–“Supporters”’,180;vanderTorreandSpaaij, [48] 4]COT, [47] Rechtbank’sGravenhage,6July2006. [46] HogeRaad,10July2001. [45] Adang,‘CollectiefGeweldtussenVoetbal–“Supporters”’,180. [44] VanderTorreandSpaaij,‘Harde-kernHooligans’,31. [43] Armstrong, G.andR.Giulianotti, eds. [41] Armstrong, G.andR.Giulianotti, eds. [40] 5]CIV, [57] FerwerdaandGelissen,‘Voetbalcriminaliteit’,92–3. [56] Spaaij,‘Hooligans’,6. [55] [54] 4]AuditteamVoetbalvandalisme, [42] 5]CIV, [58] 6]VanderTorreandSpaaij, [68] Personalinterview,July2003. [67] Thesedataweregatheredin2003and2004maythereforebesomewhatdated. [66] TheanalysisisbasedonmyfieldworkamongDutchhooliganformationsbetween2000and [65] See,forexample,Spaaij,‘Hooligans’;VanderTorreand [64] 7]Giulianotti, [71] Collins,‘GewelddadigConflictenSociale Organisatie’,189–90. [70] Giulianotti, [69] 6]VeugelersandHazekamp, [62] VanderBrug,‘FootballHooliganism’,179–80. [61] VanderBrugandMeijs, [60] Stokvis,‘Voetbalvandalisme’,181. [59] 6]FerwerdaandGelissen,‘Voetbalcriminaliteit’,87;deHaan,Nijboer,BielemanMeijer, [63] R. Spaaij no. 11(1997):26–30. BN DeStem Sociale Identiteit.’ den Rijn:Samsom,1998. Rotterdams Dagblad Rotterdamse’ Hooligans De Volkskrant 79–96. Trouw RTV Utrecht 2005. Seeforexample:Spaaji,‘UnderstandingFootballHooliganism’. Spaaij, ‘ThePreventionofFootballHooliganism’. Nederlandse Voetbal Nieuwe AanwasVoetbalsupporters, Jaarverslag Seizoen1990–1991 Jaarverslag Seizoen2003–2004 Openbare Orde, , 3August1999;
Hooligans, Autonomen,Agenten.GeweldEnPolitieoptredeninRelsituaties. , 1March2005. Football: ASociologyoftheGlobalGame Football: ASociologyoftheGlobalGame , 28September2004. , 23August2004; TijdschriftvoorCriminologie46, , 11November2003;Jagan,‘Informatieop“Tien”’,65–6. . 125. , 44. Drentse Courant Effect-evaluatie ProjectVoetbalvandalismeenJeugdbeleid Rotterdamse’ Hooligans Rotterdamse’ Hooligans Rotterdamse’ Hooligans Inside Z-side, Audit JongAjax FearandLoathinginWorldFootball. FootballCulturesandIdentities. Haagsche Courant
. , 4;interviewswithseniorpoliceofficers,October2004. 10; Spaaij(ed.), , 8January2002. 22. . , 75–7. , 27. , 77;Hulsteijn,‘VoetballenophetInternet’. , 2March2005. no.2(2002):172–181. , 53. , 52–3. Supportersgedrag enHooliganismeinhet
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