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Violent and Antisocial Behaviours at Football Events and Factors Associated with These Behaviours Violent and Antisocial Behaviours at Football Events and Factors Associated with these Behaviours A rapid evidence assessment Lucy Strang, Garrett Baker, Jack Pollard, Joanna Hofman For more information on this publication, visit www.rand.org/t/RR2580 Published by the RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif., and Cambridge, UK © Copyright 2018 RAND Corporation R® is a registered trademark. RAND Europe is a not-for-profit research organisation that helps to improve policy and decision making through research and analysis. RAND’s publications do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its research clients and sponsors. Limited Print and Electronic Distribution Rights This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law. This representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for noncommercial use only. Unauthorized posting of this publication online is prohibited. Permission is given to duplicate this document for personal use only, as long as it is unaltered and complete. Permission is required from RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of its research documents for commercial use. For information on reprint and linking permissions, please visit www.rand.org/pubs/permissions. Support RAND Make a tax-deductible charitable contribution at www.rand.org/giving/contribute www.rand.org www.randeurope.org III Preface This report presents the findings of a study on the public interest through research and the types of violent and antisocial behaviour analysis. This report has been peer reviewed that may take place at football matches, and the in accordance with RAND’s quality assurance factors that are associated with such behaviour. standards. The report has been prepared for Qatar For more information about RAND Europe or University, to inform that country’s preparations this document, please contact: towards hosting the 2022 FIFA World Cup, but Christian van Stolk is intended to be of interest and relevance to RAND Europe practitioners, policy-makers, academics and Westbrook Centre people interested in the field of sport spectator Milton Road safety in general. Cambridge CB4 1YG RAND Europe is an independent not-for- United Kingdom profit policy research organisation that aims Tel. +44 1223 353 329 to improve policy and decision making in [email protected] i Summary Football is the world’s most popular sport, picture about the depth and breadth of the with millions of fans annually watching evidence regarding violent and antisocial professional football on their television or at behaviour at football matches. public viewing places such as fan zones, or This report observes the key antisocial and attending matches in person. The vast majority violent behaviours that may be witnessed of football matches pass without antisocial in relation to football events, such as verbal or violent behaviour occurring and many fans abuse, destruction of property, acts of have never witnessed such incidents first- vandalism and assault, while also noting that hand. However, negative behaviour at football football environments can foster positive matches is still a widely recognised and much- behaviours and social dynamics. In addition, publicised issue that has garnered international it is important to acknowledge that definitions media attention for decades. Despite this of antisocial behaviour are to some degree widespread attention, violent and antisocial subjective and contextual. behaviour at football matches remains an issue that needs to be better understood. The report then presents findings from the literature review on the factors which may drive To this end, RAND Europe was commissioned violent and antisocial behaviour in football by Qatar University to provide a critical fans. These include: assessment of previous research into these issues. This took the form of a rapid • The influence of alcohol, which the evidence review that was built on rigorous and evidence suggests may be a contributing systematic methodological approaches, the factor to such behaviour, although the parameters of which were tightly defined to causal relationship between alcohol and allow for the examination of available evidence hooliganism is unclear. within existing time constraints. This review • Internal and external or relational addresses the following research questions: psychological factors, such as rushes of 1. What violent and antisocial behaviour takes adrenaline and a sense of meaning gained place at football matches? through these behaviours, and capacity to self-regulate emotions. 2. What factors are associated with such behaviour? • Sporting rivalries, which have been shown to increase aggression in fans. In addition to answering these research questions, we also hope to produce a clearer ii Violent and Antisocial Behaviours at Football Events and Factors Associated with these Behaviours • Socio-political factors, such as violent or antisocial behaviour by fans at unemployment, repression by state agents football events. Rather, multiple factors are and ethnic-nationality tensions. often in play simultaneously. • Spatial factors, particularly given that large Our review found that the quality of the numbers of football fans may travel to a identified literature varied significantly, and the football tournament host city without the research team rated only a handful of studies intention of attending a match, but rather as being very high quality. In addition, we do will congregate in public spaces and fan not have enough studies that are longitudinal zones. in nature to allow us to make any inferences about trends over time regarding antisocial and • Situational and atmosphere-related factors violent behaviour. There are clearly numerous including the day of the week on which the avenues for future research in the field that match is held, the match venue, the kick-off might address the evidence gaps identified time, crowd size and the size of support in this report. In particular, more rigorous and groups in attendance. reliable analysis of the factors driving violent • Reaction to play, for example a team’s and antisocial behaviour, including using performance on the pitch and their style of comparison groups, which give researchers play, as well as fans’ expectations of their insights into how behaviour may differ in team. different circumstances, is needed here. Of It is important to acknowledge, however, that particular relevance to this research study, while the identified studies consider specific fan behaviour at international football events factors driving fan behaviour, the available specifically requires wider and more rigorous evidence supports the notion that no single analysis, given the different characteristics of factor can be found to be responsible for international and domestic tournaments. iii Table of contents Preface III Summary i Table of contents iii List of tables iv Acknowledgements v 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Objectives 1 1.2. How the evidence review was conducted 2 1.3. Studies included in the review 2 1.4. Quality of reviewed literature 2 1.5. Structure of this report 3 2. Violent and antisocial behaviours of football fans 5 2.1. What is the available evidence on football fan behaviours? 5 2.2. Key messages 6 3. Factors behind violent and antisocial behaviour of football fans 7 3.1. What impact may alcohol and illicit drugs have on fan behaviour? 7 3.2. What impact may psychological factors have on fan behaviour? 9 3.3. What impact may sporting rivalries have on fan behaviour? 11 3.4. What impact may socio-political factors have on fan behaviour? 13 3.5. What impact may spatial factors have on fan behaviour? 14 3.6. What impact may situational and atmosphere-related factors have on fan behaviour? 16 3.7. What impact may fan reaction to play have on fan behaviour? 18 3.8. How are factors interlinked? 18 4. Discussion 21 References 23 Annex A. Methodology 27 Methods 27 Inclusion criteria 28 Search terms 28 Databases searched and numbers of studies found 28 Annex B. Data extraction template 31 iv Violent and Antisocial Behaviours at Football Events and Factors Associated with these Behaviours List of tables Table 1. Data extraction template – Part 1 31 Table 2. Data extraction template – Part 2 31 Table 3. Data extraction template – Part 3 32 v Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Professor Baruch from RAND Europe for their thoughtful Mariam AlMaadeed of Qatar University, for feedback on early drafts of the report. her support during the research process. The views presented in this report are the In addition, we would also like to thank the authors’ and remaining errors are also our own. quality-assurance reviewers Elta Smith and Ben 1 1 Introduction Football is the world’s most popular sport, the complexity of isolating unique impacts of with millions of fans annually watching social and background conditions. In addition, professional football on their television or at there are many complications to collecting public viewing spaces such as fan zones, or adequate data. attending matches in person. For example, the However, there is some emerging evidence most recent FIFA World Cup, held in 2014 in about the influence of different factors on Brazil, had a cumulative attendance of nearly violent and antisocial behaviour which may 3.5 million across the 64 matches that took be relevant to future sites hosting major place (FIFA 2014). The vast majority of football football events. Qatar will host the 2022 matches pass without antisocial or violent FIFA World Cup, and therefore it is important behaviour occurring and many fans have never for stakeholders in the event to understand witnessed such incidents first-hand. But such how and why such behaviour comes about. negative behaviour at football is still a widely Learning more about the available evidence recognised and much-publicised issue that base will allow authorities to better plan for, has garnered international media attention prevent and respond to antisocial and violent for decades – and has also been at the centre behaviour at football matches during the FIFA of a recent media firestorm. During the 2016 World Cup.
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