LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

VOICE OF THE DUAL PROLETARIAN; A MARXIST READING OF BAMA’S SANGATHI

Abhijith M.S. P.G. Scholar, Dept. of English, Newman College Thodupuzha, Idukki Dist. e-mail [email protected] Mob:8086416581

ABSTRACT Bama’s Sangathi is an autobiographical account of the lives of the dalit people, especially dalit women in Indian society. The novel shows the sidelining and torture that the dalit community face and dalit women suffer the extreme as they are further down in the social chain. The novel identifies cast system as the major reason of this social backwardness. The objective of this paper is an analysis of Bama’s Sangathi from a Marxist perspective. Karl Marx (1818-83) and his fellow thinker Friedrich Engels, made detailed studies and came to the conclusion that social relations and stratification are evolved as an outcome of economic relationship within the society. In Bama’s Sangathi also, one can easily connect the non-transparent economic distribution leading to social disparities, or in other words, connect the inevitability of maintaining social disparities to ensure a non-transparent economic distribution. The protagonist most vividly presents the current situation, its reasons and methods to improve life of a community in this novel. A closer reading will show how the approach of the protagonist is that of a Marxist.

INTRODUCTION In Sangathi, Bama the protagonist is narrating the lives of three generation of women in her community. Bama presents the experience of women who have experienced domestic and sexual violence within their family and society. Difference in the treatment of boys and girls from the point of birth, differences in rights and legal protection for men and women, attitude of husband towards wife, attitude of upper caste people, situation of women in the upper classes, role of religion and education etc are the major themes within the novel. Analysis from a Marxist perspective can trace all these to economy and ideology, of which the latter is further developed from the former. Before deconstructing the novel and reconstructing it as an example of class struggle, the idea of Marxist criticism needs to be stated. Marxist criticism is one among the most widely used and variedly interpreted methods, therefore, its applications here would be easier to grasp if the intended Marxist perspectives are stated clearly.

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(1) In the last analysis, the evolving history of humanity, of its social groupings and relations, of its institutions, and of its ways of thinking are largely determined by the changing mode of its “material production”— that is, of its overall economic organization for producing and distributing material goods. (2) Historical changes in the fundamental mode of material production effect changes in the class structure of a society, establishing in each era dominant and subordinate classes that engage in a struggle for economic, political, and social advantage. (3) Human consciousness is constituted by an ideology—that is, the beliefs, values, and ways of thinking and feeling through which human beings perceive, and by recourse to which they explain, what they take to be reality. An ideology is, in complex ways, the product of the position and interests of a particular class. In any historical era, the dominant ideology embodies, and serves to legitimize and perpetuate, the interests of the dominant economic and social class. (Abrams,147- 148 ) Bama’s Sangathi, a narration of class oppression. Before going into the detailed analysis of instances of male-female and class oppositions within the novel, a clarification in the approach is needed. The inferiority of the Paraya community and women in particular is a result of chathurvarnya system which was widely followed in Hinduism. This system divided society into castes and the Paraya’s belonged to the lowest untouchables. Here comes the veil of ideology which masks the truth of social equality to favour the upper classes. Ideology, as already defined in the beginning, is created to “legitimize and perpetuate the interests of the dominant economic and social class”. The so called upper classes need the Paraya people to remain slaves to them, so that they could be used as cheap labourers. Education and private ownership of farm lands was prohibited by religious laws to ensure that the Paraya community never realised their rights and remained voiceless slaves. The notion that they are low barbarous people with no rights born to work for the upper class, who are born with the rights to punish them, was deeply carved into the psyche of the Paraya’s. Women were further chained as they were made to believe that they are inferior to men and are born to serve men. These ideologies of caste and gender inequalities are aimed at maintaining social and economic superiority, and any questions raised against these systems of oppressions are dealt with severe humiliations and torture- manifestations of which are found throughout the novel. In Bama’s Sangathi one can see that males are irresponsible towards their families and the burden of raising one is rested entirely on the female folk. Male children are attended with special care, and are fed and taken care of while female children are fed in the end with whatever is left in the plates. “When they are infants in arms, they never let the boy babies cry. If a boy baby cries, he is instantly picked up and given milk. It is not so with the girls. Even with breast-feeding, it is the same story; a boy is breast feeding longer. With girls, they wean them quickly, making them forget the breast. If the boy catches the illness or a fever, they will run around and nurse them with the greatest care. If it’s a girl, they’ll do it half-heartedly.” (Bama, : 7). Boys are allowed to play freely while girls are instructed to do the house hold chores and take care of their siblings. Even when they play together, male dominance is asserted and stamped into the subconscious of the children. Bama quotes patti, “when we played ‘mothers and fathers’, we always had to serve the

2 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 mud ‘rice’ to the boys first. They used to pull us by the hair and hit us, saying, ‘What sort of food is this, di, without salt or anything!’ In those days, we used to accept those pretences blows, and think it was all good fun.” (Bama, : 31). Thus, from the earliest days of life, the different status of men and women are made clear and projected as the normal way of life. Women are deprived of many rights which men enjoy and are treated inferior under their laws. Even when they are accused for the same crime, women don’t have the ‘right’ to clarify their part and they get more punishment than men.( example quote) Within families, both men and women go to work, but women are supposed rise up early and prepare food, which she is supposed to eat only after she have fed her husband. She has no ‘right’ to eats first and if she does, she will be punished severely. (Example) No one has the ‘right’ to question a man beating his wife, because he have the ‘right’ to beat his wife. Bama’s mother says that “It’s as if you become a slave from the very day you are married. That’s why all the men scold their wives and keep them under control” (43). Men have the ‘right’ to demand sexual satisfaction from his wife whenever he wants it, and women-no matter how sick or tired-have no ‘right’ to stop him. It is a wife’s duty to look feed the family, she has no ‘right’ to demand that her husband should also contribute. Husbands have the ‘right’ to spend his wage as he likes. Women have no ‘right’ to sing in public or to act on a stage, no matter how talented they are. “Even then it was the men who sang and beat the rhythm. There were so many amongst us women who could sing really beautifully. But never to this day has a single one of us been allowed to sing in public. We certainly have not been invited.” (Bama, : 35). Girls have no ‘right’ to marry from outside the cast, but boys can if they wish. “A girl who has a little education and has progressed somewhat, is not allowed to seek a like-minded man, and certainly not marry anyone of her choice” (Bama, : 109) The lower cast women have no ‘right’ to take a shower in the ponds owned by upper cast men, but are molested by them. Even when Paraya girls are raped by upper class men, there is no protest from her community as the headman fears that “if we bring the upper caste people to the Panchayat, who will give us job in the farm.”(Bama, : 26). Women of the upper caste are better off than Paraya women, but they also have no ‘right’ to walk out of their house as they like. They are like birds kept in iron cages-well fed but imprisoned. Every oppression is backed by rights and privileges through certain ideas which are accepted as universal by people of the society. “The ruling ideas of each age have ever been the ideas of its ruling class”(32) says Karl Marx, in The Communist Manifesto. These ideas which give special ‘rights, or privileges for upper casts to oppress the Parayas and males to oppress females are created by these upper classes with the intention of maintaining their control over lower classes. Such an oppression is not just for the sadistic pleasure they get from enacting authority, but also to ensure that the oppressed classes does not demand a deserved share of money, either as a worker or as a wife. It gives dual suffering for women as she is humiliated as dalit, and tortured as a female. “Born as women, what good do we get? We only toil in the fields and in the home until our vaginas shrivel” (Bama, : 6-7). The role of religion as a tool of the upper class (caste) also appears in the novel. The Paraya community were actually a part of Hinduism. It was the upper class (caste) Hindus that branded the Parayas as untouchables. They made use of religion and faith to propagate their own interests and designed legal systems to ensure that control of power and wealth remained in their

3 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 hands. With the onslaught of European colonisers, Christianity also landed on Indian shores. Neither direct missionary work nor force was an option for conversion as India had a religious system predating Christianity. Hence they took up the mask of social reformation and education to attract people towards them as Gauri Viswanathan points out in Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India “In what must be described as a wryly ironic commentary on literary history, the inadequacy of the English model resulted in fresh pressure being applied to a seemingly innocuous and not yet fully formed discipline, English literature, to perform the functions of those social institutions (such as the church) that, in England, served as the chief disseminators of value, tradition, and authority. The surrogate functions that English literature acquired in India offer a powerful explanation for the more rapid institutionalization of the discipline in the Indian colony than in the country where it originated” (7). Bama’s ancestors believed that Christianity would help them to climb out of the depths of social marginalisation and they converted. They received education but they became Paraya Christians rather than Christians. Christians who belonged to other communities and even the priests treated them as sub standard people as Bama says “At church they must lick the priest’s shoes and be his slaves while he threatens them with tales of God, Heaven, and Hell” (35). This shows that not only Hinduism, but every religion-in practise- favours class disparities and support the well-off sections of the society. Religions have contributed their part in creating classes, identifying men with gods own image, giving women a secondary identity and depriving any identity for transgender. With respect to the novel, we can see that religion is the tool used to systematise the oppression faced by Parayas and religion again survives by giving false hopes of a better life to them. We can identify this with what Marx said “Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people” (378) The protagonist as a Revolt minded proletarian Bama’s, in Sangathi is not merely stating the plight of her community with a sigh, instead she is showing the anger of the subdued. The protagonist and a handful of other characters, Vellaiyamma, Sebasthiamma, Mariamma, Susaiamma, Arokkyam, Rakkamma, Kalliamma, Maikkani, Bhakkiyam and Rendupalli are revolutionary women who are aware of their situation and respond in their own ways to it. They are raising voices then and there, but they are so deeply submerged that their unorganised cries dissolve into thin air. Bama questions the attitude of upper caste people towards the Parayas, the Paraya men to their women and also the Paraya women who are willing to remain blind towards their rights. She is infuriated by the silence of the Paraya women and she feels “Whether it is right or wrong, it is better for women not to open their mouths. You just try speaking out about what you believe is right.” (Bama, : 29). She realises the need for a total reformation within her society through which her people realise their rights and starts demanding them. She demands changes to be implied from the attitude in raising children “Why can’t we be the same as boys? We aren’t allowed to talk loudly or laugh noisily; even when we sleep we can’t stretch out on our backs or lie face down on our bellies. We always have to walk with our heads bowed down, gazing at our goes. You tell us all this rubbish and keep us under your control. Even when our stomachs are screaming with hunger, we mustn’t eat first. We are allowed to eat only after the men in the family have finished and gone. What, Paatti, aren’t we also human

4 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 beings.” (Bama, : 29). She realises the importance of education from her personal experience and believes that proper education can make her people aware about their strengths- “Everywhere you look, you see blows and beatings; shame and humiliation. If we had a little schooling at least, we could live with more awareness. When they humiliate us we do get furious and frustrated....because we haven’t been to school or learnt anything, we go about like slaves all our lives, from the day we are born till the day we die. As if we are blind even though we have eyes (Bama,:118). She is aware of the freedoms that only a lower caste woman has and feels proud to say aloud that she is a Paraya and a lady- “It’s the women who have to struggle with childcare and everything else. Yet how many jobs they are able to do simultaneously, spinning about like tops! Even machines can’t do as much” (Bama, : 78)- thus she makes clear that she do not want to be elevated to the status of men or upper class, instead she demands the society to accept her identity with respect. Bama is not ready to be the sex toy of a brute. She upholds her identity as a wife with needs to be satisfied and a mother who advocates equality between her children. “Marriage must provide happiness for both. Unfortunately because of it boys are happy and girls became sad. We must give up the belief that a married life of complete service to a man is our only fate. We must change this attitude that if married life turns out to be a perpetual hell, we must still grit our teeth and endure it for a lifetime. We must bring up our girls to think in these new ways from an early age. We should educate boys and girls alike, showing no difference between them as they grow into adults.” (Bama, : 122- 123) She is as determined as Friedrich Engels, who in The Communist Manifesto proclaimed “Do you charge us with wanting to stop the exploitation of children by their parents? To this crime we plead guilty” (30). CONCLUSION Bama’s Sangathi -when analysed using Marxist criticism-is a strong and bold text of suppressed emotions converted into anger on the verge of eruption into a revolt. The protagonist is making a war cry to her people, Dalit women- the dual proletarians- to arm up and march towards the walls of paternal and bourgeois religious customs as they “have nothing to lose but their chains.They have a world to win”(Marx,53) , “Women can make and women can break” (Bama,123). WORKS CITED Bama. Sangati: Events. Trans. Lakshmi Holmstrom. New Delhi: OUP, Print. Bama. Karukku. Trans. Lakshmi Holmstrom. Chennai: Macmillan, 2000,Print. Viswanathan, Gauri. Introduction.Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India. Columbia University Press,2014, Print. Zelliot, Eleanor. From Untouchable to Dalits: Essays on the Ambedkar Movement. New Delhi: Manohar Publications, 1996,Web. Marx, Karl, Friedrich Engels, and Samuel Moore. The Communist Manifesto. London: Penguin, 2015.Web. Marx, Karl. Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2007.Web. Marx, Karl, and Joseph O’Malley J. Critique of Hegel’s ‘Philosophy of Right’ Cambridge: U, 1970.Web. M.H., Abrams, and Harpham Geoffrey. A Glossary of Literary Terms Seventh Edition. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A: Heinle & Heinle Pub, 1998.Web

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CULTURAL DICHOTOMIES, FRAGMENTED IDENTITIES AND EXISTENTIAL DILEMMAS: THE INHERITANCE OF LOSS IN JHUMPA LAHIRI’S THE NAMESAKE

Amrutha V Nair Guest Lecturer, P.G. Dept. of English, St. Dominic’s College, Kanjirapally e.mail: [email protected] Mob: 9744181789

ABSTRACT Jhumpa Lahiri exposes the conflicts between tradition and modern, deep-rootedness and rootlessness in her debut novel The Namesake.The novel Lahiri discloses the dual identities of Second generation Diaspora in terms of language, colour and culture. The paper entitled “Cultural dichotomies,fragmented identities and Existential Dilemma: The Inheritance of Loss in Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake “ is an expeditioninto the character Gogol in The Namesake who stands as a spokesperson for Lahiri,brings to light the essential dilemma of Second Generation Diaspora.It traces the journey of Nilanjana Sudeshana to Jhumpa Lahiri and Gogol to Nikhil.The Continental displacements (ancestral home in India,born in London,brought up in Rhode Island and settled in New York) enrich Lahiri’s diasporic experiences. She defies the Shakespearean dictum “what’s in a name” and analyses how does a name relate to one’s identity,culture and life. Key words: Acculturation, conflicting expectations, identity crisis, diaspora, cultural dichotomy

INTRODUCTION An in-depth study based on the biography of Jhumpa Lahiri takes Gogol out of the mask of a fictional character.The questions that Lahiri faced real-time in her life assumed the physique of Gogol in the literary medium.Like Lahiri Gogol travels from multiple homes to homelessness, deep-roots to rootlessness and numerous identities to identity crisis. In The Namesake Lahiri clearly portrays the battle between the first and second generation of diaspora. Lahiri unveils the first generation’s efforts for adaptation and acculturation and their longing for the homeland and the resultant conflicting identities generated in the younger generation. As Bhagbat Nayak says, Lahiri is an Indian by ancestry, British by birth and American by immigration 6 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

andtargets the western audience by deliberately portraying Indian American life... Onemay categorize her as an American author, as a British born author, as an immigrantauthor, and as an ABCD author (stands for American born confused “desi” which describes culturally challenged second generation Indians raised in the U.S.). ToIndian academics she has written something known as “diasporic fiction” and to theU.S. Academics “immigrant fiction” and this kind of demarcation amuses her (206). Usually, the name establishes one’s identity and adds to confidence. But in the caseof an immigrant, name is the primary thing that intensifies the feeling of dislocation and alienation.Lahiri reflectsthe cultural dichotomies that her ambiguous name constituted “I always felt so embarrassed by my name…you feel like you are causing pain to someone just by being who you are” (Anastas). Webster’s dictionary defines “namesake”as “one who is named after another or for whom another is named”.The word engenders myriad meanings in the novel The Namesake.In the Bengali custom,a child is given two names:one is a pet name to be called by family and close friends and the second one is a “good name” to be used by the rest of the society.After the birth of Gogol, Ashima, his mother sends a letter to her grandmother in India and waits for a good name, but the reply letter never arrives. Though Ashima and Ashok choose a good name Nikhil, Gogol does not want to accept it, as he finds his teachers and friends mispronounce the name.The new name also made him uncomfortable for “he is afraid to be Nikhil, someone he doesn’t know. Who doesn’t know him.” Gogol’s dual identity reminds the reader of Lahiri’s decision to opt the name Jhumpa instead of Nilanjana Sudeshana. Gogol says “as a child he does not mind his name.It seems perfectly normal”(66).But the dual identity emerged out of his origin and name, grows with him and eventually it turns to be an existential crisis for him. When his parents address him Nikhil he feels “…in that instant that he is not related to them,not their child”(106). When Gogol finds some unattractive details in the biography of his namesake, the Russian writer Nikolai Gogol, he hesitates to make the reading task given by the teacher on the particular writer. “To read the story, he believes, would mean paying tribute to his namesake, accepting it somehow”. He was drawn into the world of dilemma again and finally decides to adapt the name “Nikhil”. After some formalities in the court he denounced the name Gogol and changed to “Nikhil”, a name which he once found strange. “I’m Nikhil,” he wants to tell the people who are walking their dogs, pushing children in their strollers, throwing bread to the ducks.” (Namesake 102) The first language prevails as a medium to express one’s intimate feelings at one’s best.One becomes more eloquent while he uses first language as it always remains close to heart.The emotional detachment that an immigrant feels towards a foreign language has always been pointedout by diasporic writers.Lahiri asked a number of questions to herself when she felt the creative urge to express her ideas in literary medium. The biases, anxieties and struggles double themselves and intensify the states of homelessness and non-belongingness, if the tendency to Indianise is strong in the home.And these ambivalent status with regard to language persuaded Lahiri to declare herself “a writer without a real language”(Anastas). Language develops into another core issue in the case of Gogol as his mother becomes obstinate and persuades Gogol to

7 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 use Bengali. Lahiri thoroughly follows the immigrant psychology and portrays how does the first generation find English as a language that reminds them of their dislocation. Hence the in-between status persisted in the matter of language also. Though he can understand his mother tongue,and speak it fluently, he cannot read or write it with even modest proficiency.On his trips to India his American- accented English is a source of amusement to his relatives,and when he and Sonia speak to each other,auntsand uncles and cousins always shake their heads in disbelief and say, “I did not understand a word! (Namesake 118). Gogol’s cognitive and affective minds could only identify Bengali as alanguage imposed on him.And to him English is a language that ties him to America as he wishes.As a result emotional displacement takes place and Gogol echoes Lahiri’s words “yet one of my relatives,would always ask me, ‘Bangla bolteparo? (can you speak Bengali),’ and I would say, ‘HYAN, PARI (yes, I can)” (Anastas). “The word culture contains atension between making and being made ( Eagleton).The first generation’s attempts to inculcate the values of their homeland in the young ones and younger generation’s urge to identify themselves with the immigrant culture placedthem outsiders to both the cultures.In the novel Lahiri throws light into the pathetic plight of the younger generation who aresandwiched between two cultures and ideologies.Since his childhood Gogol sensed insecurity that haunted his mother in America.She always uttered “I’m saying, I do not want to raise Gogol alone in this country.It is not right. I want to go back” (Namesake 33). The second generation of diaspora including Lahiri and Gogol developed a fascination for the immigrant country. Gogol tries to get absorbed into the culture of America by accepting once rejected name “Nikhil” as he found “Gogol sounds ludicrous to his years, lacking dignity or gravity”(76). Though he tried to adapt the culture, food habits and life of the immigrant country, he remained as an outsider. The sense of displacements and alienation becomes more complex in the case of second generation. The first generation has got the memories of the homeland to cherish what the second generation is lacking. The conflicting expectations create a tug of war between “profound urge to belong and suspicion of belonging.” (Anastas). When Gogol finds some unattractive details in the biography of his namesake, the Russian writer Nikolai Gogol, he hesitates to make the reading task given by the teacher on the particular writer. “To read the story,he believes,would mean paying tribute to his namesake,accepting it somehow”.He was drawn into the world of dilemma again and finally decides to adapt the name “Nikhil”. After some formalities in the court he denounced the name Gogol and changed to “Nikhil”, a name which he once found strange. “I’m Nikhil,” he wants to tell the people who are walking their dogs,pushing children in their strollers, throwing bread to the ducks.” (Namesake 102) CONCLUSION The over-sentimentalism of her mother, ultimately, induces Jhumpa Lahiri to consider herself as a person not belonging to one place or culture.In the novel also, after years of stress,strain and strife Gogol matures enough to confront the identity of him as a son of an American-Indian immigrant.Lahiri and Gogol realize identity,nationality and language boundaries as superficial

8 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 parameters. Namesake refers to one who is named after another or for whom another is named and thus Lahiri purposefully entitled her book.Lahiri formulated the character Gogol when she felt the creative urge to express her diasporic experiences.The traumas that confused Gogol were the problems that Lahiri faced in her life. Gogol, very much like his creator realizes his status as an ABCD (American Born Confused Desi), who is helpless to answer the question “where are you from?” and accepts it. Jhumpa Lahiri centers her novel around names and proclaims that there lies something vital in a name. WORKS CITED Anastas, Benjamin. “Books: Inspiring Adaptation.” Men’s Vogue. (2007):n. pag.web. March .2007 Lahiri,Jhumpa. The Namesake. London: Haper Collins Publishers.2012.print Nirmal, P B.”Everything is in a name in Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake.”The South Asian Academic Research Chronicle 5.2 (2011):1-9.web.5 May 2015. Eagleton, Terry .The Idea of Culture.Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.2000.print.

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MAN AND THE NATURAL WORLD: AN ECOCRITICAL READING OF YANN MARTEL’S LIFE OF PI

Asha K. Nair Assistant Professor, Department of English M.S.M. College, Kayamkulam, Kollam Dist.

ABSTRACT The paper seeks to outline ecocriticism with particular reference to the ecological balance between the human and the animal world. It is highlighted through the reading of Yann Martel’s Life of Pi. An explication of the coexistence between the man and the natural world and how one delimits one’s self to embrace infinity is given to contextualize the study.

Yann Martel is a Spanish born Canadian author best known for the Man Booker Prize winning novel Life of Pi. He blends fact and fiction with wily charm. Alberto Manguel comments that those who would believe that the art of fiction is moribund- let them read Yann Martel with astonishment, delight and gratitude. Such is the enchanting storytelling of Martel. Life of Pi is a heart- warming, thrilling tale spiced in equal measures with spirituality, survival, the sea and shipwrecks. Martel recounts his experience of writing this novel in the beginning of the text. He wrote this work after a series of failures and was quite skeptical regarding the contents of the new book. He came across many stories but those were little more than anecdotes, short of breath and short of life. Later he arrived in the town of Pondicherry, a tiny self- governing Union Territory south of Madras, on the coast of Tamil Nadu. There he met an elderly and the story began: “I have a story that will make you believe in God. I stopped waving my hand. But I was suspicious… He went on. I took notes, the elements of the story. “You must talk to him,” he said of the main character. “I knew him very, very well. He’s a grown man now. You must ask him all the questions you want.”

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Later in Toronto… I found him, the main character… “That was a very long time ago,” he said. Yet he agreed to meet. We met many times. He showed me the yellowed newspaper clippings that made him briefly, obscurely famous. He told me his story. All the while I took notes… It was as I listened that I agreed with Mr. Adirubasamy that this was, indeed, a story to make you believe in God.” (Life of Pi x-xi) In Yann Martel’s Life of Pi (2001), the protagonist, Pi Patel, is seen to extricate himself from his familiar surroundings and launches himself into a more intimate communication with the human and the non-human, the organic and the inorganic and the material and the spiritual, in his quest for physical as well as mental survival. Ecocriticism is a critical discourse that elucidates the representation of nature and landscape in cultural texts. It aligns itself with ecological activism and social theory with the assumption that the rhetoric of cultural texts reflects and informs material practices towards the environment, while seeking to increase awareness about it. The word ecocriticism traces back to William Rueckert’s 1978 essay Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism. Cheryll Glotfelty, one of the pioneers in the field, has defined ecocriticism as the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment. It is argued that the study cannot be performed without a keen understanding of the environmental crises of modern times and thus must inform personal and political actions; it is, in a sense, a form of activism. Many critics also emphasize the interdisciplinary nature of the enquiry, which is informed by ecological science, politics, ethics, women’s studies and history among other academic fields. Nature writing often privileges wilderness as an authentic, pure form of the landscape. It is quite contrary to a corrupted human condition and man- made landscape. Here, the non- human dimension is an actual presence and not merely a façade- thus implying that human and non- human worlds are integrated. Human interest is not privileged over everything else and it holds humans accountable to the environment and actions they perform that damages the system. Here, environment is a process rather than a static condition. It values nature as authentic and pure. Ecocriticism looks closely at the human culture- nature interaction in the text. It assumes that nature and human culture are mutually influential. Life of Pi explores this mutual influence and it embodies an ecological consciousness. Piscine Molitor Patel, the adolescent protagonist in Life of Pi is seen to pass through transitions of personal identity. These gradual-though-dramatic changes in the protagonist are facilitated by dislocating experiences and perilous circumstances that forcefully demand metamorphosis in his personality. It is to be accentuated that these changes in circumstances are significantly coincidental, as these engender the transformations in the protagonist’s self that is already in turbulence. Only a self that is capable of doubt has the potential for alterations. In Life of Pi, the existential angst of the protagonist begins with the most basic characteristic, his name. He was named Piscine Molitor Patel after a renowned swimming pool in Paris, due to his father’s friendship with Francis Adirubasami, a swimming enthusiast. Once he enters the larger society his name is mocked at, and is given a ridiculous turn, by twisting it to pun with “pissing”, a slang for ‘urinating’. Even the teachers inadvertently slip into the easier-to-pronounce

11 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 usage. Pi reminisces: They could manage well enough the first syllable, the Pea, but eventually the heat was too much and they lost control of their frothy- mouthed steeds and could no longer rein them in for the climb to the second syllable, the seen. Instead they plunged hell- bent into sing, and next time round, all was lost. My hand would be up to give an answer, and I would be acknowledged with a “Yes, Pissing.” Often the teacher wouldn’t realize what he had just called me. He would look at me wearily after a moment, wondering why I wasn’t coming out with an answer… But I always heard the slur… I spent my last year at St. Joseph’s school feeling like the persecuted prophet Muhammed . . . (21). His self is tormented on account of this. But even at this early stage, he exhibits an adaptational sensibility by which he announces to the world the change of his name to Pi. As the teacher takes the attendance, Pi makes a decisive move which can be assuredly termed existentialist: I got up from my desk and hurried to the black board. Before the teacher could say a word, I picked up a piece of chalk and said as I wrote: ‘My name is Piscine Molitor Patel, Known to all as – I double underlined the first two letters of my given name – Pi Patel. For good measure I added _^_ = 3.14 and I drew a large circle, which I then sliced in two with a diameter, to evoke that basic lesson of geometry. (22-23). It is a significant moment in the course of the narrative as from this incident, Pi develops his personality and identity as a pre-teen. The essentialist social structure, of which they are a part, tends to mould the identity of the young boys – Piscine and his elder brother Ravi, through a stern regime that engenders fear and obedience. The adult world always tries to inculcate lessons in into the psyche of the children. When their father detects an undue affinity on the part of Pi for the wild creatures in the zoo, he tries to create fear rather than knowledge in the children regarding how dangerous animal behaviour could be: “I’m going to show how dangerous tigers are ,” he continued. “I want you to remember this lesson for the rest of your lives.”… He returned a few seconds later carrying a goatwith its legs tied… Babu unlocked, opened, closed and locked a cage next to the tiger’s cage… Babu placed the goat on the floor; its flanks were heaving violently, its tongue hung from its mouth, and its eyes were spinning orbs. He untied its legs… The goat started to jump… With sudden ease the trapdoor slid open. Silence fell again, except for bleating and click- click of the goat’s hooves against the floor. A streak of black and orange flowed from one cage to the next. Normally the big cats were not given food one day a week, to stimulate conditions in the wild. We found later that father had ordered that Manisha not to be fed for three days. (Life of Pi 34-35) The transcendental leanings innate to the self of Pi could be traced to a very early stage of his life. His perception of disequilibrium between his self and his environment is evident in the

12 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 implications he makes to understand the natural and the spiritual worlds outside the purview of his routine life. Unlike Ravi, Pi evinces an interest in the ‘other’ – both in the spiritual/intellectual and biological/natural realms. He is able to cross the limits of the logical framework of his social education and to assimilate the secrets of animal behavior through acute observation and empathetic attitudes. Pi’s father, Mr. Santosh Patel, decides to relocate his family to Canada as he feels threatened by the political power unleashed by the imposition of emergency by Smt. Indira Gandhi. Pi begins his journey on a Japanese cargo ship Tsimtsum. Before they reach the shores, the ship is wrecked and Pi finds himself marooned with a tiger, a zebra, a hyena and an orangutan on a life boat. One after the other he loses the vestige of his previous self and is left alone with a tiger on the boat “I was alone and orphaned, in the middle of the Pacific, hanging on to an oar, an adult tiger in front of me, sharks beneath me, a storm raging about me” (114). The disaster serves as the catalyst in his emotional growth; he must now become self sufficient. The devastating shipwreck turns Pi into an adult, able to fend for himself out in the world alone. His burgeoning need for spiritual connection deepens while at sea. Pi’s companion throughout his ordeal at sea is Richard Parker, a 450-pound Royal Bengal tiger. Captured as a cub, Parker grew up in the zoo and is accustomed to a life in captivity. He is used to zookeepers training and providing for him, so he is able to respond to cues from Pi and submit to his dominance. He capably protects himself from Richard Parker and even assumes a parental relationship with the tiger, providing him with food and keeping him in line. This success gives him confidence, making his other obstacles seem less insurmountable. Caring and providing for Richard Parker keeps Pi busy and passes the time. Without Richard Parker to challenge and distract him, Pi might have given up on life. Pi doesn’t wish to conquer the other, he merely wants to co-exist. He expands his identity into one which includes concepts outside the previous societal mores. It was not a question of him or me, but of him and me. We were, literally and figuratively, in the same boat. We would live – or we would die – together. He might be killed in an accident, or he could die shortly of natural causes, but it would be foolish to count on such an eventuality. More likely the worst would happen: the simple passage of time, in which the animal toughness would easily outlast my human fraility (164). Every moment of his life in the infinity of the sea is marked by an existentialist struggle where the self has to be reoriented into contingent plans and devices. He begins to map a strategy that will delineate his portion of the lifeboat from the territory of Richard Parker. Leaving behind his human essence, he uses his bodily secretions like an animal to demarcate his area. Once Pi established territorial limits with Richard Parker, what next needed was to initiate a kind of a working relationship with the ferocious beast. In order for their minute society to endure he had to rely on Parker for companionship. He would never be able to trust Parker fully, nor would Parker able to maintain him. But Parker did supply him with concerns beyond his own subsistence. During an especially severe period of starvation, Pi and Richard Parker both went blind. While blind, another lifeboat that carried a similarly starved and blind Frenchman drew near them. The Frenchman climbed onto Pi’s boat and immediately attacked him and planned to eat him. He didn’t know about the tiger and accidently stepped into Richard Parker’s territory. The tiger immediately attacked

13 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 him and killed him. Pi, thus was saved at the cost of his attacker’s life. Yann Martel’s Life of Pi addresses the interdependence between human and the animal world. The themes that he depicts in his novel are not limited to shallow environmentalism but to deeper understanding that non- human world is as important as human life. It affirms John Meeker’s view that, Human beings are the earth’s only literary creatures… If the creation of literature is an important characteristics of human species, it should be examined carefully and honestly to discover its influence upon human behaviour and the natural environment- to determine what role, if any, it plays in the welfare and survival of mankind and what insight it offers to human relationships with other species and with the world around us (Meeker, 4-5). CONCLUSION Piscine Molitor Patel, the adolescent protagonist in Life of Pi, unceasingly constitutes and reconstitutes a self that is not inwardly reductive but expanding constantly to engage meaningfully with the whole of the universe. A transcendental growth of the self to the infinity of consciousness where nothing is alien and where nothing is to be excluded is what Pi arrives at. WORKS CITED Martel, Yann. Life of Pi. Canada: Random House, 2001. Meeker, Joseph. The Comedy of Surreal: Studies in Literary Ecology. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1974. Riley K. Pi’s Individuality in His Personal Societies and a Post Modern World. Web. 24 June 2016.

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‘OKONKWO’AS A SELF MADE MAN WITH A TRAGIC FLAW: A READING OF CHINUA ACHEBE’S THINGS FALL APART

Nitha Maria Shaji M.Phil. Scholar, Institute of English, University of Kerala, Trivandrum e.mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Things Fall Apart is a novel authored by Chinua Achebe and tells the tale of a wealthy African man, Okonkwo, who realizes that he, is powerless when trying to protect his clan. Oedipus Rex written by the great playwright, Sophocles depicts ancient Theban, Oedipus who attempts to escape the fate given to him by and oracle. This paper tries to analyse the ‘tragic flaw’ possessed by Okonkwo by comparing him with Oedipus. Okonkwo is a tragic hero in the same way as Oedipus. The protagonist is an extraordinary individual and his destiny is not his own but is bound with the destiny of his society. Keywords: Tragedy, Tragic flaw, Tragic hero, Protagonist.

INTRODUCTION Okonkwo is the hero of Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart. His life and death are pursued against the background of the life of Ibo people before and after the European arrival in the Lower Niger. Okonkwo is both a type and species. He had an unhappy early life. He had to struggle because of his idle and cowardly father Unoka. But he was so determined that he held the stage. He became rich and famous. He turned out to be one of the greatest men in Umuofia, as his friend Obierika tells the District Commissioner at the end of the novel. Okonkwo had a miserable childhood. His father Unoka borrowed endlessly and enjoyed himself on palm- wine and music. The oracle of the Hills and the caves advised him to till his land. But it was of little avail. His wife and three little ones plodded on. When he was ten Okonkwo’s mother passed away. She was taken to Mbanta, and buried there with her kinsmen. His plight became harder still. His misery doubled when his father died in shame. Unoka’s stomach and limbs swelled; it was an abomination to Ani, the earth goddess. So he was carried to the evil forest and left there to die. When he died he rotted away above the earth. He was not buried.

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Okonkwo and his Tragic Flaw Okonkwo neither inherited a barn nor a title, nor even a young wife. In spite of these disadvantages he began his climb though it was slow and painful. He threw himself into it like one possessed. Indeed he was possessed by the fear of his father’s contemptible life and shameful death. At first Okonkwo worked for wealthy Nwakibie. He began to earn his seed yams. Then he appeared him with a pot of palm wine and a cock, to get a start of his own. The man gave him 800 seed yams. Besides Okonkwo got 400 more from his father’s friends at Isiuzo. It was a sad year for farmers in Unuofia. The weather was merciless to Okonkwo as well. But he did not sink under the load of despair. Okonkwo proved a fierce fighter every way on land and in the ring and on the plain. He formed his way to wealth. His prosperity was visible in his household. He came to occupy a large compound, with a hut of his own and three others for his three wives. His barn had long stacks of yam in it. He had goats and hens as well. Okonkwo became a master wrestler. He was hardly 18 when he beat Amalinze the cat, who for 7 years had been unbeaten from Umuofia to Mbaino. It was one of the fiercest contests ever fought. One of the spectators was Ekwefi whom he could not marry then because he could not pay the bride price. But later she ran away from her husband. Okonkwo’s fame grew like a bush fire. He was tall and huge, with bushy eyebrows and wide nose. His name spread throughout the nine villages and even beyond. It rested on himself a mighty warrior during the tribal wars. The noblest battle that he fought was against Isike. He fought like a lion. He killed five men in battle. It was largely because of his success in life and proud position in the public life of Umuofia that Okonkwo was singled out at its imperious emissary to Mbaino to settle the question of the murder of Ogbuefi Udo. Mbaino was afraid and they chose peace and reconciliation. That was how Okonkwo returned home with the 15 year old Ikemefuna who stayed with him for three years. Okonkwo’s brave hand in the slaughter of Ikemefuna unsettled him. He began to fall to pieces, slow but steady fall. On the occasion of the funeral of Ogbuefi Ezeudu, Okonkwo unwittingly killed the former’s son. For this he had to flee the land. He went into exile in Mbanta for seven years. His mother belonged to that place. She had been buried there 30 years back. Her younger brother Uchendu and his family received Okonkwo and his family and gave them a new start in life. It was during Okonkwo’s exile in Mbanta that the white missionaries brought Christianity to that part of the Lower Niger. Okonkwo was given the land to build his compound and to farm on. H e and his family worked very hard. The seven years of exile drained his enthusiasm, especially after the loss of his eldest son Nwoye to Christianity. The boy became Isaac and deserted his father. Oedipus Rex as the Ideal Tragic Hero of Aristotle In terms of the moral disposition, we can clearly see that Oedipus is a tragic hero. He is the main character in the drama. He is a mighty king with ideal traits. But he is tragic because of the tragic flaw. In the end of the drama all the good in Oedipus is lost in the struggle against the bad. In this struggle he invites the very doom which he always tried to escape from. He is ill- fated such that on the third day of his birth his parents had to throw him away. He was pitied by the shepherd and was given to the shepherd of King Polybus. He grew up in Corinth and ran away

16 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 from there on hearing the evil fate that he was destined to kill his own father and marry his mother. He didn’t know he was running into the very doom he was trying to escape from. Oedipus can be looked upon as a typical hero of classical tragedies. In Aristotle’s conception a tragic hero is a distinguished person occupying a high position, living in prosperous circumstances and falling into misfortune because of an error in judgement. Aristotle used the word ‘Hamartia’ to indicate the protagonist’s tragic weakness. According to Aristotelian percepts about tragedy, a tragic hero would be a man of noticeable qualities of behaviour, intelligent and powerful, but by no means perfect. Despite his qualities, he falls because of his mistakes. He fails like common men in one sense, and such frailty of human position is what tragedy has to make us realize. In terms of Aristotle’s theory, Oedipus is a tragic hero, as he is not perfect and has tragic flaws. His tragic flaw is excessive pride (hubris) and self- righteousness. The tragic hero commits an error and most suffer the consequences of his mistakes. He must learn from his errors in judgement. Oedipus is a great and good king. The opening scenes show Oedipus in magnificence. He is a great man with respectable moral value and personality. His quest for truth is in fact the cause of downfall. Pride is his hamartia. He is very proud and also arrogant. He has a bad temper. In his confidence upon what he knows and can do, he kills a man old enough to be his father and marries a woman old enough to be his mother. This results in his doom. He is heroic because of his struggle, pitiable because of his weakness before the destiny. He could not overcome the inevitable. Comparing Okonkwo with Oedipus to Further Explore His Tragic Flaw In Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe and Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, both Okonkwo and Oedipus fall under the category of ‘archetypal tragic men’. Okonkwo and Oedipus the two tragic heroes share many common traits. Both are arrogant to that extend when both refuse to be told they are wrong. These characters are introduced with much glory in the beginning of the text, although towards the end we see a tragic flaw. Okonkwo is introduced in the first few chapters as a self made man, who reaches his goal without assistance. Oedipus also was renowned throughout his land because he answered the riddle of Sphinx and saved the city. Both characters have done great things in past but their inherent arrogance results in their doom. They think they are indestructible as Okonkwo relives the days of his glory when he wrestled the giant cat, Amalinze. Oedipus also constantly brings up his personal achievements. Okonkwo is more responsible for his tragic failure. The fate of Oedipus is determined from birth. But narrow- mindedness leaves them both at fault for their self- destruction. Okonkwo’s and Oedipus’ arrogance resulted in their tragic end. Okonkwo remains stubborn even when Ezeudu tells him; “That boy calls you father. Do not bear a hand in his death” (Achebe 57). He is more concerned with appearing powerful to other clansmen than displaying humane emotions. Oedipus disregarded the oracle’s wise information. This proves that he is not only ignorant but also impatient as well. He has such a mindset that makes him believe that he can never be wrong and makes it harder to admit when he is wrong. Okonkwo’s inability to accept the foreign information results in his suicide. Both the heroes encounter hardships and intolerable times. But Oedipus is considered a little more better man simply because he is so naïve to his honest self. Okonkwo can hardly control his fear. He has little patience when his first wife asks him if Ikemefuna is to be brought up in his household. He 17 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 beats his third wife Ojiugo for not cooking his noon meal, and thereby breaks the peace of Ani. He is furious with Ekwefi for having cut a few leaves of a banana tree. He shoots her when she murmurs something against his old rusty gun. Okonkwo’s pride is his undoing. He cannot stand anyone slightening him. He is proud of his personal achievements. He upholds the clan’s pride as his one of the 9 masked men representing the ancestral spirits who administers justice in Umuofia. Okonkwo is broken in exile. Yet the spirit of the warrior keeps him buoyant. Nwoye’s conversion is a severe blow to him. Yet he bears it up with stoic silence and indifference. Okonkwo’s further fallen apart when he finds the white- dominated state of Umuofia. He laments the loss of his clan’s fighting spirit. His efforts prove ineffectual, and drive him to commit suicide. Though Okonkwo is buried like a dog, Umuofia remembers him as a great warrior and leader. He is a man more sinned against than sinning. The time is out of joint and he cannot set it right. Despite the novel’s introductory emphasis upon the masculine attributes and successes, the anxiety caused by the distaste for his father is very evident. “For he had no patience with unsuccessful men, he had no patience with his father” (Achebe 13). Fear and anxiety lay within the protagonist’s unconscious psyche. The main character flaw of Okonkwo in the words of Chinua Achebe “But his whole life was dominated by fear, the fear of failure and of weakness… It was not external but lay within himself. It was the fear of himself, lest he should be, found to resemble his father” (13). This fear leads to two things; one it helped him to work hard and become successful, it also causes him to suppress emotions such as gentleness and empathy. As a result of this he tends to use violence.” Okonkwo was not a man of thought, but of action” (69). This violence ultimately leads his to exile and death. When Okonkwo return to his fatherland after seven long years, he finds that the white men have changed the attitude of a once proud and warlike village. Okonkwo was deeply grieved because his people had forgotten themselves. He mourned for the clan; it was breaking up and falling apart. He knows that the spirit of his clan is dead and so is his own spirit and he hangs himself. CONCLUSION To conclude Okonkwo is not just a protagonist that Achebe presents within the hero category. In the character of Okonkwo, one can see Achebe’s artistry of blending the traits of an epic hero and tragic hero. It can be concluded that the tragic flaw in his character resulted in his ultimate ruin. A comparison with Sophocle’s Oedipus proves that he is a hero with a flaw. Ultimately, Okonkwo allows his fear to totally consume him. Okonkwo allowed his fear to take control of him. His life ends in tragedy. References 1. Achebe, Chinua. Things fall apart. New York: Anchor Books, 1994. Print. 2. Aristotle. Poetics. trans. Richard Janko. Indianapolis: Hackett Press, 1987. Print. 3. Sophocles. Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone. Chicago: Harvest Books, 2002. Print.

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STUDY OF SELECT NOVELS OF SHERMAN ALEXIE IN THE CONTEXT OF TRAUMA THEORY

T. Sunith Kumar Assistant Professor in English, Nehru Institute of Technology, Coimbatore (Research Scholar in English, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore), Tel : +91 9495449032 Email : [email protected]

Dr. A. Chandran Professor and Research Guide in English Adithya Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

ABSTRACT The Native Americans can narrate only the story of losses suffered by them over the course of history since Columbus landed in America. They lost their land, population and culture. It is a tale of losses. This historical loss has led to historical trauma marked by depression, dysfunctional parenting and unemployment. Native Americans are victims of psychological distress and poorer physical mental health. Suicide has become the second leading cause of deaths for these people. The Native people in America are having lowest income, least educational opportunities, highest poverty levels and lowest life expectancy when compared to other social groups including blacks. Keywords: Historical loss, Historical trauma, Jewish Holocaust, Soul wound, Colonial genocide marginalization, Nihilism, Unresolved grief, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD).

INTRODUCTION Sherman Alexie is one of the most renowned Native American novelists who was born on October 7, 1966 on the Spokane Indian Reservation in Wellpinit, Washington. He was greatly influenced by the Native American Renaissance in literature which began in America after the publication of N. Scott Momaday’s magnum opus, House Made of Dawn. Alexie’s literary pursuit is not limited to a particular genre; he began his literary career with the publication of a collection of poems called The Business Of Fancy dancing in 1991. The film, Smoke Signals, premiered at the 1998 Sundance Film Festival was based on this work. Alexie’s first collection of short stories,

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The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven was published in 1993. This was awarded both a PEN/Hemingway Award for Best First Book of Fiction and a Lila Wallace- Reader’s Digest Writers’ Award. The first published novel of Alexie is Reservation Blues and it was awarded Granta’s Best of Young American Novelists. His second novel Indian Killer, narrating the historical trauma experienced by a young Native American was published in 1996. Another novel Flight was published in 2007. Here the protagonist, Zits, immerses himself in violence as retaliation to the injustices committed by the white people against the native people. But, this novel ends in hope and redemption. The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian is a semi-autobiographical novel which won the National Book Award. This is the first Young Adult Novel written by Alexie wherein the themes of reconciliation and hope are explored against the backdrop of wide chasm between the American Indians and the whites. Huge number of Indians died during the religious journey after the enactment of Indian Removal Act of 1830. They were fatally infected by deadly diseases like cholera and were subjected to starvation while travelling thousands of miles from one end of the continent to the other. The Cherolees’s march is known as the “Trail of Tears”. “Removal was a tragedy as thousands of people were forced to leave behind their homes, livestock, crops and places that had spiritual significance for them”(Tom Holm, J. Diane Pearson, Ben Chavis). The trauma caused to the Native American people can not be understood without understanding the sufferings that they suffered while leaving their ancestral land. These kinds of relocations set another stage in American Indian Holocaust which in turn added to the historical trauma that had already begun in the case of Native Americans. This trauma leads the Native people to develop various personal reactions like alcoholism, drug addiction, and suicidal tendencies and so on. The paradox of these tragical developments is that these are not recorded or mentioned in history text books. The noted historian David E.Stannard in his book American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World He further states that the massacre of the Indians of the Americas was, “far and away, the most massive act of genocide in the history of the world”(10). He further refers to Andrew Jackson who even after he became the seventh U.S President “still was recommending that American troops specifically seek out and systematically kill Indian women and children who were in hiding, in order to complete their extermination” (121). Between the initial Spanish attack on Hispaniola in the 1490s and the massacre of U.S.Army of Sioux Indians at Wounded Knee in the 1890s the population of North and South America declined by 100 million people. There was the annihilation of 95% of Native population in North and South America due to infliction of barbarous atrocities and spread of pestilence like plague, and small pox on the original people of the new world. Stannard further drew the similarities between the American Holocaust and Nazi Holocaust(268). It was David Stannard who first used the phrase “American holocaust” (151). Authors like Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart were very sad that the world did not properly acknowledge the American Indian holocaust which, according to them, was the systematic genocide perpetrated on the Native Americans(Brave Heart-Jordan & De Bruyn,1995;

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Stannard.1992). It was Mary Brave New Heart and De Bruyn who first used the phrase ‘historical trauma’ after studying the literature on Jewish holocaust survivors and their descendants. The concept of historical trauma is “collective and multilayered rather than being solely centred on an individual…”(Goodkind. Hess, Gorman & Parker, 2012.p.1012). It has been historically proved that most of the unnatural deaths among American Indians are from alcoholism. This proves that these people are highly sensitive and vulnerable to alcohol. It is to be understood thoroughly that whenever a tribal community suffers marginalization leading its members to alienation then its members start consuming alcohol in a heavy manner. Here, the white hegemony over the original population of the land was the most important cause for the Natives becoming slaves to alcohol. Indians resort to alcohol consumption because it numbs the pain of trauma and disenfranchised grief not at all taken care of by the dominant culture. It has been historically proved that most of the unnatural deaths among American Indians are from alcoholism. This proves that these people are highly sensitive and vulnerable to alcohol. It is to be understood thoroughly that whenever a tribal community suffers marginalization leading its members to alienation then its members start consuming alcohol in a heavy manner. Here, the white hegemony over the original population of the land was the most important cause for the Natives becoming slaves to alcohol. The intentional killing and exposure of Native Americans to European diseases took heavy tolls of their population. Majority of them succumbed to diseases because they lacked resistance to such diseases. While exposure to many of these diseases was unintentional it is documented that many a time these diseases were purposefully introduced to Native communities in America such as the instances when Lord Jeffrey Amherst facilitating use of blankets to the Native people after infecting it with small pox virus (Plous, 2003). Together with the loss of the land the other gravest suffering that the Native people of America had to suffer was the loss of population. Since the enactment of Indian Removal Act of 1930, tens of thousands of Native Americans were relocated to different areas. By 1876 the U.S. Government had obtained majority of Native American land and the Native people were forced to live either in the reservations or in urban areas. This led to decline in the socio-economic status of the American Indians making them to depend largely on the goods provided by the U.S.Government. This relocation resulted in heavy death toll of Native Americans and breakdown of their family life. This situation reflected the agenda of the U.S.Government. The main motive behind this action was to establish the dominance of European-American culture at the cost of the Native culture. They were forbidden to practice their religions or speak their languages. This paved the way for the loss of their ethnic identity. Together with the adoption of Native children to boarding schools gave a big jolt to the traditional American Indian family structure which resulted in devastating traumas to these families. The historical losses that the Native Americans suffered were the loss of land, people, family, and culture. The severe cataclysmic trauma suffered by sections of ethnic community effects an intergenerational transmit of the trauma symptoms. This is got reflected in the Native Americans as depression, anxiety, anger, low self-esteem, and incidents of suicide. There are several phases

21 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 for the trauma undergone by the Native Americans through out historical periods like intermittent wars, invasions, and consequent subjugation under colonialism. Major depression disorder (MDD) and post-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD) generally affect the physical health of those who suffer from trauma. Another method by which trauma gets transmitted is by means of children identifying with trauma suffered by their parents. The trauma experience goes on getting transmitted from generation to generation. Discussion The literature of the Native Americans represents the culture with which they were born and brought up, their beliefs, their outlook and the views of the world around them, and moreover their colonial sufferings since the arrival of Columbus. Through their stories they weave their own myth wedded to their ancestral land which lies culturally and historically intertwined in their subconscious mind. Through his novels Sherman Alexie tries to present the stress caused to Native Americans by trauma inflicted during hundreds of years of colonialism. While Indian Killer and Flight cleverly links the past and the present sufferings of the American Indians Flight comes out with an option for healing the legacy of trauma witnessed during colonialism. However, the elements of anger and frustration as seen from the beginning of this novel exhibit some parallel to Alexie’s earlier works like Reservation Blues and Indian Killer. Flight and The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian play an important role in acknowledging the trauma of the Native Americans and in providing inspiration to Indians in healing the spiritual wound caused by historical trauma. Through these works Alexie gives world wide coverage to the sufferings of Native Americans. Among the many Native American narratives on trauma Flight and The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian occupy unique places. In Indian Killer the protagonist John Smith is traumatized as a result of his adoption into a white family. Novels like Indian Killer, Flight and The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian play an important role in validating the trauma suffered by the Native Americans and in providing inspiration to them in healing the pain of spiritual loss. Through these works Alexie gives world wide coverage to the sufferings of Native Americans. Among the many Native American trauma narratives Indian Killer, Flight and The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian occupy unique places. In Indian Killer the protagonist John Smith is traumatized as a result of his adoption into a white family (Margaret Homans. Adoption Narratives, Trauma, and Origins). In the light of the studies made by Marie Yellow Horse Brave Heart it can be seen that the protagonists in Alexie’s novels are victims of multi-generational legacies of trauma. Paulo Friere in his seminal study, The Pedagogy of the Grief observes that the oppressed gradually starts to love the oppressor(Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed). In The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian we see the loss of life of the dear ones of Arnold which causes trauma for Arnold. But, he withstands and never succumbs to alcohol because his is the journey on the path of progress. Alexie’s later works like Flight and The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian can be studied in relation to the proposals of writers like James Baldwin and Cornell West for healing the soul wound inflicted by the American Indian holocaust. Alexie’s new perspective has some parallels with the cultural traumas as handled

22 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 by these writers in the context of Afro-American literature. Alexie’s later works like Flight and The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian can be studied in relation to the proposals of writers like James Baldwin and Cornell West for healing the soul wound inflicted by the American Indian holocaust. Alexie’s new perspective has some parallels with the cultural traumas as handled by these writers in the context of Afro-American literature. James Baldwin‘s essay The Fire Next Time shows the widespread discontent over the racial relations in America. Cornel West in his Race Matters states that frustration and even nihilism results from extreme kind of oppression. In his essay, ”Nihilism in Black America”, included in Race Matters, Cornel West explains that nihilism is the “the lived experience of coping with a life of horrifying meaningless, hopelessness, and (most important) lovelessness”(14). West feels the presence of “…nihilistic threat to its very existence. This threat is not simply a matter of relative economic deprivation and political powerlessness — though economic well-being and political clout are requisites for meaningful Black progress. It is primarily a question of speaking to the profound sense of psychological depression, personal worthlessness, and social despair so widespread in Black America” (12-13). As per Cornel West nihilism is the result of “soul disease” and he offers a prescription to relieve it. Nihilism results from American Indian historical trauma. The solution is through community ethics involving cross-racial kinship (Race matters, 12-13). Nihilism can not be cured or overcome by arguments or analysis. The soul disease can be overcome by the affirmation of one’s worth which can be aided by others through the expression of love and care. Psychoanalytical theories help in explaining the cultural trauma and stress experienced by the Native Americans in the post-Columbian period. Cultural trauma is triggered by memories of colonial genocide and the current problems of subjugation and discrimination. According to Carl Jung excruciating experiences happened during the historical period of a society are handed down from generation to generation. Likewise, the historical trauma experienced by Native Americans is projected at various intervals of times in the form of violent incidents, alcoholism, and suicides. The trauma gets connected to language and expression resulting in literary representations. The literary works of Native American writers in comparing Native American renaissance can be treated in a sense as by-products of trauma. David Kinchin and Weisberg RB, Bruce SE, Machan JT, et al found out a relation between Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD) and physiological functioning. Thus, it can be argued that in the context of Native Americans having suffered historical traumas they would be at a greater risk of experiencing physical and emotional effects from such traumas. There are chances that Native Americans reflect upon the historical traumas suffered through many generations when faced by some emotional stimuli. This can be proved right in the light of Carl Jung’s psychoanalytical theories. According to Jung various events happened in historical periods are stored in the racial memory of individuals. The historical losses followed by traumatic experiences and stress might have been recorded in the germ plasm of Native Americans to pass on to successive generations. Critics like Hurt Kali Tal and Cathy Caruth are of the opinion that traumatic experiences

23 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 divide identity, sense of self and one’s consciousness. According to Sandor Ferenczi’s psychoanalytic theories and abused victim tries to identify with the aggressor by precisely becoming what the attacker needs her to be. He finds out that ‘traumatic aloneness’ or ‘emotional abandonment’ as a key element of trauma as this is what enforces the traumatic responses of disassociation with the aggressor. This leads to structuring of the relationship of the victim and the aggressor through unconscious collusions which are nothing but mutually coordinated defensive identifications designed to help both participants feel secure (Ferenczi).The contemporary psychological distress in indigenous communities has been attributed to historical trauma. The concept of historical trauma and soul wound are used in mental health literature in the 1990s. The trauma inflicted on the Native Americans is quite different from that suffered by the blacks in that the former lost their land and culture after the influx of European settlers. While the blacks were also immigrants with the difference that they were the camp followers of the whites.”What was done to indigenous people in the Americas had all the characteristics of genocide…”(Wesley-Equimaux and Smolewski 2004:7). Duran and Duran identified “post-traumatic stress disorder as a consequence of the devastating effects of genocide perpetrated by the U.S.Government”. It may be remembered that Whitbeck et al speaks about “more than 400 years of genocide, ‘ethnic cleansing’ and forced acculturation…”. Brave Heart and De Bruyn observe,” Like the transfer of trauma to descendants from Holocaust survivors, the genocide of American Indians reverberates across generations…” They speak about the “policies of genocide and ethnocide…” As per Benjamin Madley and Gray H. Whaley genocide against indigenous people occur during the European settlement of North America. The genocide happened during the European dispossession of indigenous peoples throughout the history of North America. He observes that genocide was only one among several acts of colonial dispossession. As per United Nations Genocide Convention the concept of genocide is not limited to mass murder but to forced cultural assimilation. The related forms of genocide are “crimes against humanity”, “human rights violations”, ethnic cleansing”, “colonization”, “forced assimilation and so forth. It is the crime of all crimes. CONCLUSION The sense of loss of Native Americans resulted in historical trauma. This remains among Native Americans as painful legacy in the form of sufferings with reservation as a minisculeof colonialism and the attended problems of violence, alcoholism, drug abuse, suicide etc., The critic Nancy Van Styvendale holds the opinion that trauma is crucial to the field of Native literatures (Van Styvendale, Web.). In line with Nancy Van Styvendale’s arguments, it can be seen that domestic colonialism over North Americans persists with systemic oppression of them. Flight and The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian are explorations of the multiple traumas of ongoing colonialism. Flight and The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian convey undoubtedly that colonialism for Native Americans is an ongoing process. Both these works, also, demarcate the onset of violence in American history in relation to colonialism. According to Alexie sufferings and trauma are being fundamental to the experience of being a Native American. Alexie told Ase Nygren that the identity of Native people cannot be separated from their pain. At some point their identity becomes synonymous with their pain. Alexie gives hint that it is their pain

24 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 which become the yardstick to measure their identity. Alexie said that he has specifically designed the characters to undergo suffering; the characters are continually suffering from pain. John Smith in Indian Killer never gets redemption or healing. The whole identity of the characters approximates to suffering only. The mere thoughts about Indians or mention of the word Indian evokes the memory of the word suffering only. Their identity is none other than suffering. For Alexie the first measure of any Indian is pain. Ase Nygren says that Alexie’s stories are narration of trauma. WORKS CITED Alexie, Sherman, and Ellen Forney.The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-time Indian. New York:Little Brown, 2007. Print. —. Flight . New York: Black Cat, 2007. Print. —. Indian Killer . New York: Grove P, 2006. Print. Baldwin, James. The Fire Next Time. New York: Vintage International, 1962.Print. Brave Heart, Maria Yellow Horse, and DeBruyn. “The American Indian Holocaust: Healing Historical Unresolved Grief.” n. p., n. d.60-82.PDF File. [Unpublished paper received by Lisa Poupart from authors.] Brown-Rice, Kathleen. Examining the Theory of Historical Trauma Among Native Americans. Kathy,Caruth. Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History. Baltimore and London: the John Hopkins UP. Ferenczi, S. The Clinical Diary of Sándor Ferenczi. In: J. Dupont (ed.) Translated by M. Balint and N.Z. Jackson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988. Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the oppressed. [New York]: Herder and Herder, 1970. Goodkind, J. R., Hess, J. M., Gorman, B., & Parker, D. P. (2012). “We’re still in a struggle”: Diné resilience, survival, historical trauma, and healing. Qualitative Health Research, 22(8), 1019–1036. doi:10.1177/1049732312450324 Holm Tom, J. Diane Pearson, Ben Chavis. “Peoplehood: A Model for the Extension of Sovereignty in American Indian Studies”. n.d. Web. 14 October 2016. Homans, Margaret. “Adoption Narratives, Trauma, and Origins,” Narrative 14:1. 2006:4–26. Jung, C. G. Instinct and the Unconscious. Article first published online: 13 APR 201. Kinchin, David. 2005. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: The Invisible Injury. Oxfordshire UK: Success Unlimited. Madley, Benjamin. 2016. An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Plous, Scott. The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1993. Print. Stannard, David.American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World. New York : Oxford University Press, 1992.Print. Tal, Kali. World of Hurt: Reading the Literatures of Trauma. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 1996. Print. Van Styvendale, Nancy. “The Trans/Historicity of Trauma in JeanetteArmstrong’s Slash and Sherman Alexie’s Indian Killer ”, n.d. Web. 01 December 2015. Weisberg RB, Bruce SE, Machan JT, et al. Non-psychiatric medical illnesses in primary care patients with trauma histories and posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr Serv. 2002;53:848–854. West, Cornel. Race Matters. Boston : Beacon Press, 1993. Print. 25 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

COUNTERING THE HEGEMONY: RECONSTRUCTING MARGINS IN THE GLASS PALACE AND THE HUNGRY TIDE BY AMITAV GHOSH

Fathima Nilofer Assain Former FDP Faculty- Dept of English, Farook College-Kozhikode. Email: [email protected] Mob: 9447338827

ABSTRACT In the post-colonial view, concept of subalternity has incepted from the concept of the Self and the Other. Self constructed these binaries and hierarchies to mute the Other. These are the constructions of the self to establish and preserve its hegemony over the Other as well as to silent the Other. The self tries to dominate the Other and tries to sideline the Other from the mainstream of life and they are treated as marginalised. This particular genesis of the subaltern has emerged as a critical concept of extreme importance in post-colonial theory and literature. Most of the Indian English fiction reflects subaltern themes like marginalization, oppression, silencing etc... To name one among many, Amitav Ghosh is one such writer who has been widely acclaimed for his writings in which he expresses his concern for the downtrodden people of the Indian society. His novels not only show his sympathetic attitude towards the subaltern but also discuss the problem of alienation, migration and existential crisis in the life of the unprivileged class of the society. By selecting two of his novels; The Hungry Tide and The Glass Palace, the paper aims at highlighting and analysing Amitav’s perspective on subalternity. In these novels Amitav Ghosh has realistically delineated not only the pathetic and difficult condition of the subaltern but also the evil faces of poverty, homelessness, exploitation and subjugation. The paper explores in these novels the implications that Amitav Ghosh has provided subalterns centre the stage by making them the pivotal character of his fiction so that they can raise their voice against the oppressive forces of the society

INTRODUCTION “Nationalism can only ever be a crucial political agenda against oppression. All longing to the contrary, it cannot provide the absolute guarantee of identity” - Gayatri Spivak Amitav Ghosh has taken the theme of his fiction from the history, real events of life. The story of the common man, who have been the sufferers to the maximum of these historical upheavals or political crisis have been taken as a subject of the fiction. These characters from the marginalized sphere are in the main lead of his stories. By providing the centrality to the marginalized characters,

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Ghosh also answers the dilemma of the post colonial intelligentsia regarding the ability of the subaltern to speak. He assumes the role of a narrative for himself who doesn’t become the representative; but allows the representations of the subaltern group by the same group by providing them stage. He in his fictions tried to provide the space for or re-instates the unrecorded, subaltern, silenced, othered, voiceless or those who are overlooked by history and who are absorbed by the powerful. He negotiates the challenge of recovering and representing the story subalterns in an integrated manner. With his skill, he tried to amalgamate this subject and raised the issues related to them. He employs two methods to incorporate the discourse of subaltern writings. Firstly in his writings, both fiction and nonfiction the character of this marginalized group has occupied the central stage. Secondly, the stories and issues are construed as a representation of the issues of the subaltern class. Before analyzing his novels from this perspective, it is important to undergo the concept of subalternity and the views of different thinkers. In the post-colonial view, concept of subalternity has incepted from the concept of self and other. Self-constructed these binaries to mute the other. These are the constructions of the self to establish and preserve its hegemony over the Other as well as to silent the Other. The term Other is highly complex and relative that changes its significance in accordance wit the context. The self tries to dominate the Other and tries to sideline the Other from the mainstream of life and they are treated as marginalized. Their contribution is nil in respect to the growth of the society. Edward Said, a prominent scholar of postcolonialism, identifies a European cultural tradition of Orientalism. Said in his book Orientalism mentioned the theory of identifying the East as Other and Inferior to the West. Said emphasizes construction of binary division between the Orient and the Occident. He mentioned that West as self is considered to be the supreme the main source of knowledge and learning, while East as Other is represented as a place of ignorance, superstition and illiteracy. The Orient exists as static, ignorant and cut off from the progress of western history. They do not have even the capability to represent themselves and hence west as being superior take the responsibility of presenting orients, Other in the form of literary text. These Others are basically the marginalized group who are considered being the suppressed and muting for years. The term subalternity, highlight the quandary of those who are allotted ‘sub’ or ‘secondary’ space in the hu8man society. Subaltern is the term that refers to the inferior rank or person from the below strata of society. Antonio Gramsci first used the word subaltern in the essay ‘On the Margins of History’ that can be associated with the people of those group in the society who are subject to the hegemony of the ruling classes. Subaltern classess may include people who have denied access to hegemonic power come under this category like farmers, workers or woman. Gramsci claims that the history of the subaltern classess is as complex as the history of the dominant classes, although the history of the latter is usually accepted as official history. The history of subaltern group is generally fragmented and episodic, since they are always subject to the activities of the ruling class, even when they rebel. They have less access to the authorities of social, cultural, and political institutions as they have no power to represent. Thus the term subaltern can be used as an umbrella term for all those who are marginalized and underprivileged and deprived off the voice to speak. The term

27 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 subaltern refers to the suppressed group that belongs to the lower strata of life, or the woman, who have been intimidated for many years. Subalterns can be meant as overlooked, neglected, disregarded, and treated with concern and indifference. Amitav Ghosh’s writing truly exhibits the manifestation and implications of the term ‘subaltern’ in contemporary writings. The issue of subaltern in his works is to be studied in two manners: first the concept of subaltern as an pretentious exercise, kind of parallel exercise that existed during colonial period but never taken note of, as meant by Subaltern Study Group. Ghosh in his works talks about the alternative histories and practices of people. Secondly subaltern as an approach that represent marginalized as they have the ability to speak and empowers them to represent the marginalized people and their issues. The distinguished critic of subaltern is Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak whose pivotal line is fully pertinent “Can the Subaltern Speak?” suggests that silence is the critical characteristic of subaltern identity. Amitav Ghosh’s works strongly confirm to the notion that the subaltern can speak in contrast to Spivak’s concept of ‘subaltern cannot speak’ if given a proper chance and with an appropriate employment of the discourse. Ghosh purposefully brings subaltern characters into stories and focuses on personal histories of these individuals. The marginalized characters help us perceive life, events and issues from their point of view. This paper focuses on Amitav Ghosh’s two selected works The Hungry Tide and The Glass Palace. It has been mentioned that in The Hungry Tide Amitav sketches the out-caste Dalit refugees from Bangladesh in Sunderban forests. The Hungry Tide registers a response to the social and political concern of the marginal sections of the society. The novel unfolds the events at Morichjapi in 1979 and the subaltern consciousness which demarcates the post partition movement of persons from East Bengal to West Bengal. Sushil Sarkar mentioned that the refugees who belong to the subaltern classes were forced to seek out a dwelling elsewhere. Morichjhapi incident took place when these refugees were fighting for the survival. They were forced to flee after the water and food supplies were cut off to the island. The Morichjhapi incidents and silence and silence towards it enthused Nirmal, a revolutionary, to write everything so that history can get known through the Kanai. This incident is brutally repressed by the government forces and aftermath Kusum is killed. Nirmal as a Marxist believed in rapprochement across class barriers that can bring subaltern people, the Other and the elite, the self together. Morichjhapi incident, a brutal violence against subaltern can be attributed to the indiscernibility of the low caste and class identity. The massacre, the tiger killing Kusum’s father and Fokir’s vulnerability to the state official are instances in the novel that depicted the subaltern as well as the marginalized people’s predicament. Homi Bhaba’s emphasized the importance of relation of social power while defining subaltern groups. According to his notion about subalternity the pressure of these oppressed minority groups was vital to the self-definition of the majority group. Subaltern social group were also in a position to subvert the authority of those who had hegemonic power. This can be well exemplified by Kusum in The Hungry Tide. Kusum gives vision to Nirmal to see the entire movement of Morichjhapi to feel the agony, pain or sufferings caused to these refugees. This upheaval is from below or the subalterns which is being evinced by voiceless nobodies who want to be heard. For

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Nirmal, the cry of the refugees becomes a representative of all such subaltern communities without home. It becomes a cry for ‘not just themselves, but on behalf of bewildered humankind. Who, indeed, are we? Where do we belong? (254) The Glass Palace is the story of the three generations consisting in it several characters whose positions in the society keep on changing with the change of time and space. The King Thebaw, in The Glass Palace talks about the incomprehensible shift of power and margins in the society. The king status of ruler to exile itself is again an example of how people in centre can shift to the margins; the royal family is reduced to the status of subalterns. Raj Kumar’s position is also shifted from subjugated and subaltern to the centre of power. The several other characters like Dolly, Mo Chao, Arjun, Kishan Singh in the Glass Palace mirror the locus of the author’s interesting subaltern individuals. Amitav Ghosh ponders on the force and nature of power of British Empire that was changing fates of thousands across the subcontinent. What vast, what incompressible power, to move people in such numbers from one place to another- emperors, kings, farmers, dockworkers, soldiers, coolies, policemen. Why? Why this furious movement- people taken from one place to another, to pull rickshaws, to sit blind in exile?(43-44) This novel also unexplored another aspect of Indian history. The history of Indian Army under British Rule is completely over sighted in the discussion of the colonial pat in terms of what it meant for those who had joined British Army. In the novel, Arjun, Hardy these are the character class and agency changes in accordance with time and space. The time span of the novel makes space for monstrous manifestations of exploitation from the time of colonialism to the period of neocolonialism. It is ironical that soldiers like Arjun as subalterns (subordinate officer) in the British Indian Army were fighting neither to defend nor to extend the territory of India. They were simply facilitating the British policy of colonial expansion. It is through the character of Arjun that Amitav Ghosh raises the issue of identity, subalternity, colonialism and belongingness, most vocally. Ghosh points out the fact that Indians were also responsible for such exploitation of people and place. What is so fascinating about The Glass Palace as a novel with its sweeping historical canvas is that, the Orient or the colonized or the subaltern is given a voice of its own. The Glass Palace contemplates about the effects of history on the lives of individuals from a subordinated perspective. It also foregrounds the lives of socially, politically, economically and historically insignificant characters. Ghosh purposefully brings subaltern characters into stories and focuses on personal histories of these individuals. The marginalized characters help us perceive life, events and issues from their point of view. The themes evoked in his works are in tune with the concerns of subaltern theory. BK Sharma delineated this in his book, ‘influenced by his association with the subaltern studies, Ghosh with his rigorous mode of empirical research recovered the characters of the masters, possessing hegemonic power and of their slaves, sighing and crying under the burden of op pression, be it for their caste hierarchy or for the British power or for their gender status’.

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CONCLUSION To sum up, his depiction of the term subaltern generates following points; the investigation of notion of origin, to trace their customs and identities to their native location, an absorbing play of center and margins, enmeshing of cultural identities, complexity of the very play and shift of nucleus, a demonstration of the fact the subaltern can speak for themselves can be spoken about either through making them speak their stories or by creating stories on and around them in his writings. Thus, his writings are a demonstration of connotations and manifestations of the term subaltern in contemporary writings. REFERENCES Khair, Tabish. Amitav Ghosh: A criticalCompanion. Delhi: Permanent Black. 2005. Ghosh, Amitav: The Glass Palace. Delhi: Ravi Dayal, 2000. Ghosh, Amitav. The Hungry Tide. Delhi: Ravi Dayal, 2004. Hawley, John C. Amitav Ghosh. New Delhi, India: Foundation Books. 2005 Sharma, B.K. The Fiction of Amitav Ghosh: A Post Colonial Perspective. New Delhi: Sarup Book Publishers Pvt Ltd.2011. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. In Other Worlds:Essays in Cultural Politics. Routledge, 1987.

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A STUDY OF RACISM WITH REFERENCE TO TONI MARRISON NOVELS

Usman C. A. Lecture in English Unique Accademy Nilambur, Malppuram Dist. Kerala Mob. 9539539158

ABSTRACT Whatever be the yardstick be used to measure Racisum, we can definitely say that it was an old version of Terrorism we face and feel around us. Right from the middle ages itself, there had been conflict between various ethnics groups. When white people, especially in America, Began to Humiliate and under estimated black people it launch the terrible dichotomy of humans. Racisum has hardly hit the black in general and African American women in particulars. In his works Toni Marrison deeply analyses the theme of Racism.

A Racisum exit when one ethic group or historical collectivity dominates, excludes or seeks to eliminate another on the basis of difference that it’s believes are hereditary and unalterable. An ideological basis for explicit racism came to a unique fusion in the west during the modern period. No clear and unequivocal of racism has been found in other culture or in Europe before the middle ages. The identification of Jews with the devil and witchcraft in the popular mind of the 13th and 14th centuries was perhaps the first sign of a racist view of the world. Official sanction for such converted to Christianity and their decedents become the victims of a pattern of discrimination and exclusion Period of the renaissance and reformation was also the time when Europeans were coming into increasing contact with people of darker pigmentation in Africa, Asia and the Americas and were making judgment about them. The official rationale enslaving Africans was that were heathens, slave traders and slave owners sometimes interpreted a passage in the book of genesis as their justification . Ham, they maintain, committed a sin against his father Noah that condemned his supposedly black descendents to be “ servants that unto servants” Virginia decreed in 1667 that converted slaves could be kept in bondage not because they are actual heathens ,the justification for black servitude was changed from religious status to something approaching race. Beginning in the late 17th century , laws were also passed in English North America forbidding the marriages between whites and blacks and discriminating against the mixed offspring of informal liaisons.

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Without clearly saying so, such laws implied that blacks were unalterably alien and inferior. During the Enlightenment, a secular or scientific theory of race moved the subject away from the bible, with its insistence on the essential unity of the human race. Eighteenth century ethnologists began to think of human beings as part of the natural world and subdivided them into three to five races, usually considered as varieties of a single human species. In the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth centuries, however an increasing no of writers, especially those committed to the defense of slavery, maintained that the race constituted separate species only from the white world, but also from their own men. These women have faced the problem of race, class and gender which have pushed them towards a margin. Racism signifies the dramatic conditions under which African Americans live in white America. These are system of societal and psychological oppression that have adversely affected their lives of blacks in general and African American women in particular. Black community had to face atrocities like racism and exploitation. However, back women were more oppressed physically and mentally and their cause of grievances were greater. The women in America is expected to be beautiful in an ornamental way, she did not work for a living and was chaste, pious and married. The black woman was an obsolete antitheist of this image. She was not ornamental and according to the aesthetics of the country, she was not beautiful. More over most of these women had to work for a living. Racism began in America when white masters brought the African slaves in chains and them laborers to work on plantation farms to fill their coffers. Racism as beliefs, practices and institutions that negatively discriminate against people based on their perceived or ascribed race. Sometimes the term is used to describe the belief that race is the primary determinant of human capacities, or a more general attitude that individuals should be treated differently according to their race. The basic myth of racism is that white skin brings with it cultural superiority. The whites are perceived as more intelligent and virtuous than the blacks. Blackness is associated with skin, dirt and cultural inferiority. Morrison is an expert lecturer, educator, editor, essay writer, literary critic and short story writer but it is her work as a novelist that makes her such a significant member of the Black American canon. The aesthetic beauty of her writing, coupled with its political power has guaranteed Toni Morrison win the 1993 Nobel Prize for Literature. In her Nobel price lecture, she said, “Tell us, what it is to be a woman so that we may know what it is to be- a man. What moves at the margin, what is to have, no form in this place? To be a drift from the one you knew, what it is to live at the edge of town that cannot bear your company?” The growth of nationalism, especially romantic cultural nationalism encouraged the growth of a culture-coded variant of racist thought, especially in Germany. Beginning in the late 1980s and early 1890s, the coiners of the term anti-Semitism made explicit what some cultural nationalists had previously implicit. That to be Jewish in Germany was not simply to adhere to a set of religious beliefs or cultural practices but meant belonging to a race that was the antithesis of the race to which the true Germans belong. The climax of Western imperialism in the late nineteenth century “Scramble of Africa”

32 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 and parts of Asia and the Pacific represented an assertion of the competitive ethnic nationalism that existed among European nations. It also contributed to a claim allegedly based on science that Europeans had the right to rule over the Africans and Asians. Toni Morrison is among the pioneers of those contemporary black writers who have redefined the African American writing in more ways than once. The Bluest Eye portrays the tragic condition of the black in racist America, it examines how the ideologies perpetuated by the dominant group and adapted the marginal groups influenced the identity of black women bombarded by the image of white beauty, Morrison’s character lose themselves to self hatred and their only aim in life is to be white. They try to erase their heritage and eventually Pecola Breedlove, the protagonist who yearns for blue eyes, has no recourse except madness. The bluest eyes told from the perspective of nine year old Claudia Macteer, a young black girl in Lorain, Ohio in the 1940s The Macteer take in another young girl Pecola whose father Cholly has burned down their home, leaving the family “outdoor-. A violent and abusive husband and father Cholly rapes Pecola soon after she returns home. Pecola visits a Holy man, Soaphead Church and wishes for the “bluest eyes”. These, she believe will grant her the redemption of white beauty. In Pecola’s eventual mental breakdown and the death of her body, Claudia sees a condemnation of the society which she lives. The novel traces the environment that produces this crisis. Morrison’s examination of lives of different characters which forms this black community presents the black experience on a Midwest town —a microcosm for the experience of black in America. Morision considers racism as the African-American’s primary obstacle. Racism pushes the central character in the Bluest eyes towards the fringes of existence. The novel focuses on infra-racial as well as inter-racial problems. The black Community wants to confirm to White standards of beauty. They desperately want to be accepted by the whites and this internalized racism as the root cause of the central conflict in the novel. According to K.Sumana, Morrison believes that the concept of physical beauty as a virtue is one of the most pernicious and destructive 1997-8). The Bluest eye makes one of the most powerful attacks on the relationship between white standards of female beauty and the mental psychological oppression of black women. The all pervasive white standard of beauty adopted by so many characters in the Bluest Eye leads to cruelty and destruction. Internal racism which batters the self image of the African American female takes its toll on the most vulnerable victim ‘The African female child. Morrison shows intra racial violence can lead to dehumanization of an entire race and destroy the female child completely. The community’s self hatred makes them look down upon, so as to enhance their constantly threatened sense of worth. The novel shows how Pecola perishes in a community that is plagued by self hatred. The book is divided into four sections-autumn, winter, spring and summer. By beginning the novel with autumn Morrison suggest that the world of the black community in Lorain is topsy- turvy. These seasonal divisions help in telling Morrison’s story of the wrapped psyche of an adolescent female living in a racist society. Toni Morrison show an extreme example to the black community and to the world, how

33 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 societies racist and false beliefs on beauty and self worth can do so serious harm if believed and taken to heart. Character to show these repercussions that Pecola Breedlove, passive and impressive able little girl who backing self esteem and parental guidance, buys into it all hook line and Sinker and believe herself to be one of the blackest herself to be one of the blackest ugliest girl ever. Morisson uses Pecola and the character in Pecola’s life to explore the dangers involved in the black community and all communities alike to buy into the idea that white and only white is beautiful .These social standards produced by the media and the white people views at the time where idiotic and biased, yet were fairly universal in America at that time. These social standards were unnecessarily hurting people, and Morrison wanted to slow the suffering that can arise from buying into those beliefs. Morrison tells us that she got the creative inspiration for the Bluest Eyes from a classmate she had at elementary school. The girl wished for blue eyes and Morrison saw that in wishing for blue eyes, she was wishing for a different identity other than black. She was unhappy with whom she was and it made Morrison think about beauty and how this girl had come to feel inferior. She wanted to dig into the inner working of how someone could come to believe that their race of people were not beautiful or only beautiful if they resembled whites, because only whites were beautiful. She wanted to get down to the reasons why people could buy into a lie that they are not beautiful if they are not whites to get to the reasons why people would play a role in oppressing themselves. The story is centered around a little girl named Pecola Breedlove, who comes from a poor, troubled home. She and her family are unhappy and they stem to regard themselves as ugly. Pecola’s mother treats her own faim poorly while being an excellent servant to a white family and he father. Cholly is a violent angry drunk. All of the Breed Loves are considered ugly and they have all grown to accept themselves as plain ugly people. Toni Morrison’s next entity Tar Baby is about contentions and conflict based on learned biases and prejudices. These biases exist on race level, gender level and class level. The central conflict is within the main character Jadine. This conflict as Andrew W.A Lavalle suggested is conflict of the race traitor. He often uses the colour black to describe nature and the elements of natural world. At the beginning of the novel Son swims in the black ocean beneath the black sky. The swamp where Jadine nearly gets stuck at its centre a pit of black atr. Similarly. Jadine complaints about the fear the darkness of night in Eloe, a manifestation of how overwhelmed and out place she feels there. Those characters like Son and Therese, who are most comfortable with the natural world, often association between a comfort with natural and a comfort with blackness to a logical extreme. Black themselves ,they completely navigate the island’ wild hills in the darkness of their blindness. Tar baby is also a name like “nigger” that White people call black children, black girls, As I recall…at one time, a tar pit was a holy Place, at least an important place ,because, tar was used to build things ….it held, Together things like mose’s little boat and the pyramids. For the tar baby came to Mean the black women who can hold things together. Miss Morrison uncovers all the stereotypical racial fear felt by the whites and black alike. “Prejudice exist between the white and black people in the house; between the black people of the house; the black people and the local populace. Sydney and Ondine Childs the cook butler in the

34 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 house of Valerian Street, feel superior to the local black populace. Sydney remarks twice on how he is” A genuine Philadelphia Negro mentioned in the book of that name” (284). Part of then this feeling of superiority might be class related. The Child’s are very proud of their position in the street house-they are industrious and hard working. The Dominique black are the “same women” or horseman depersonalized figures. This is the most apparent in their ignorance of their helps name they dub Gideon, Therese and Alma Estee” Yadman and the Marys” . The white people of the house feel superior and peter threatened by the blacks. Margaret is prejudiced white women a veritable stereotype. She has argued that: When Son is discovered in her bedroom closet she goes in to near hysterics . Margaret feels no compunction at calling or thinking of Son as a :nigger in the woodpile” , a “ gorilla” or a “boy” .Because he was a black man in her closet she thinks he intended to rape her, has masturbated on her clothes and shoes, and goes as far as thinking: Here the main contention of the novel Jadine has rejected her heritage and culture. She knows herself to be “ inauthentic” and hollow when she sees the women in yellow with the “ tar coloured skin”….. The women recognizes Jadine’s authenticity and spits t her, in spite Jadine who alternatively calls herself Jade appreciates Picasso over itumba masks.” Ave Maria” over gospel music. As Karin Luisa Badt says” Jadine has so willingly embraced white culture that she has become Literally its cover model”. Gideon warns Son against the possibility that Jadine might be” out of reach”. CONCLUSION Racism is very bad and terrible as well. Racism began in American .when white masters brought the African slaves to work under them. Seventeenth century onwards racism began to gather potential and “humane” of the blacks. thought her works Toni Morrison probes into the various shades of Racism. Morrison is an expert lecturer, educatior, editor, essay writer but it is her work as a novelist that makes her a significant member of the black American canon. REFERENCE Beaulieu, Elizabeth ann ,ed. Toni morrisson Encyclopedia Davia, Cyntha a “self society, and myth in toni morrison’s fiction “ Walther,malin La von” out of sight ;Toni morrison’s Revision of beauty Ducas, George ,ed Black Dialogue; Topic in Afro-American History

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QUEST FOR IDENTITY IN ANITA DESAI’S NOVEL VOICES IN THE CITY

R. Rooban Raja Sekhar Assistant Professor, Department of English Nanjil Catholic College, Kaliyakkavilai - 629153, India e-mail: [email protected] Tel.: 9597969772

ABSTRACT The women novelists of the Indo-Anglican fiction appeared in the literary scene fairly as late as 1874 and significantly enough to choose English as their medium of expression. Desai is one such a writer with the most self- conscious artist in the realm of Indian Writers in English. She presents her characters in conflict with their mind. Her novels are introspective in nature and the language of fiction is the language of the interior. In her fiction she has sensibility adhered to the Lekshman Rekha culture and created her own distinctive imaginative world. In the novel Voices in the City, the characters are identified with the theme quest for life to show how they suffer from self-destructive decision, marital disharmony and fashionable life. Nirode, as the protagonist of the novel, keeps on experimenting with life, as a result he remains a rootless misfit, although endowed with remarkable talents. Monisha, the married sister of Nirode, holds a successful married life at the beginning and tries to get rid of him later constitutes her quest. Amla’s attitude towards life is marked with youthful excitement and wonders which differs from Monisha and Nirode both her relationship with Dharma and his feeble nature makes her to get rid of him and his thought. All these incidents made me to think of writing this paper with the treatment of three characters like Nirode, Monisha and Amla who struggle in and out thought the novel by means of Quest for Identity. Key words: Indo-Anglican fiction, quest for life, Disharmony and fashionable life

Novel Presents a view of life through incidents, characters, motives and reveals the way in which the author looks upon the world. It explores the ordinary and common place in all its complexities. It is an effective medium which portrays human thoughts and actions. Anita Desai is indisputably one of the most powerful contemporary novelists in English, among novelists of considerable merits. Desai has enriched the tradition of the Indian novel in English. Her innovations go on to make her “a disturbing and demanding presence in Indo-Anglican fiction” (3). The novels of Anita Desai are documented with Indian setting, Indian culture and Indian background. She may be said to be the spokesmen of our culture. She transports authentically the uncertainties, complexities and paradoxes of Indian culture.

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Quest for Identity is the most possible theme in the novel Voices in the City. Quest can be defined as an adventurous journey undergone by the main character or protagonist of a story. The protagonist usually meets with and overcomes a series of obstacles, returning in the end with the benefits of knowledge and experience. In mythology and literature, quest is a journey towards a goal, serves a plot device and a symbol. “Quests appear in the folklore of every nation” (4) and also figure prominently in non- national cultures. Analysis can interpret many stories as a quest in which the main character is seeking something that he desires (5). Voices in the City is Desai’s second novel, which portrays a vast, variegated and multicolored city of Calcutta, with its poverty and garish opulence, its pungent smells and decaying magnificence and its oppressive air of destructiveness. Voices in the City is a story of trio namely, Amla, Nirode and Monisha and their different ways of life in Calcutta. The novel is divided into four sections. The first three are named after a trio of young adult siblings from a big village. They are separated for different reasons and they have moved to Calcutta. They struggle a lot. However their quest for life is revealed through their search for identity and struggle for survival and freedom. Voice in the city, attempting on a more ambitious scale, falls short of the task of integrating the different levels and qualities of awareness, with Calcutta, as the central experience. Anita Desai’s world is one of great aesthetic despair, of hands reacting out and missing meaning; and her Calcutta is populated by characters moving about in pressurized suits of spiritual aloneness. A world without love but floating in dreams of it; without communion, but hoping for it. In a world of fugitives, the person who reaches out and touches another’s hand will appear to have taken the opposite direction; such a world is here. It is a serious world, worth very serious attention, amounting to moral concern. Structurally the novel is divided into four sections: I Nirode, II Monisha, III Amla and IV mother. One of the major problems in the novel is unsatisfied and unsettled life of the characters, which lead them to have quest for better life. Nirode is the chief protagonist of Voices in the City. A Kafkaesque figure, he is the “self” that is ever alone despite its continuous search for connection. There is an obsessive repetitive quality in his terror of happiness and suffering and his existential “angst” of the abyss of the self. It is pointed out that Nirode’s experiments with failures are an indication of a “quest for life”. Nirode, the “congenital failure” goes astray while searching for his glorified self. He cannot become a torch- bearer of a true revolutionary spirit. Nirode abuses his intellect in the name of freedom and goes to seed. “He is caught in a kind of intellectual vice… There is something hollow, something phony about his protestations and diatribes”. Nirode’s basic needs have been frustrated, he keeps himself away from his essential nature; his value system is damaged. He does not strive for freedom in the manner of a healthy individual, but tries to adopt the strategy of withdrawal so as to escape conflicts. Nirode is an angry young man, who is bright, intelligent and sensitive, apt to be rather rough and aggressive and at times cruel in his behavior. He deserves to rise like a “paper kite with a candle lit inside it”. He started editing a poetry magazine of his own, but gave it up the time it gave promise of a bright future, both financial as well as literary. Nirode had the intensity, but what lacked was the unwavering spirit of “either a pilgrim or a crusader”. Nirode’s pursuit of higher life and value than the common man will aspire for. Common man work for success and happiness but Nirode relinquishes both. Nirode envies his brother Arun who is going abroad to

37 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 study as he is getting out of “this dark pandemonium” (1). He feels life is very unfair to him and in the “darkness of unfairness” he envisages Arun’s future as an “undimming brightness” (1). In contrast to Arun’s ineffable brightness, Nirode’s lot is, only “shadows, silence and stillness” (1). After bidding farewell to Arun, Nirode broods over his unfortunate boyhood: only if he had been a promising lad, he would have sailed to England for higher studies instead of Arun. Here lies his quest for life even though he lies in shadows and stillness like a pessimist. It might have been he, he knew that, he had not, as a child, an emotional and disorderly schoolboy, fallen from his horse and declared to his father, through tears, that he hated horses, sports and would never ride again….. If Arun had not ridden like a prince, captained the cricket team and won top honors in all examinations. If his father, while dictating his will to an obese solicitor, had not weighted these distinctions before laying aside a sum of money for the education of one of his two sons. When comparing his sisters, he is a sensitive-abnormally sensitive- to the sights and the smell of the city. The muddy stench of the river reminds him of “the stench of that office-going has the stench of hair freshly and sweetly oiled, of shoes newly-blacked, and then that office odor of thick, white glue, and soiled paper” (1). He is frequently filled with “revulsion”, “distaste”, “horror”, frequently “overpowered by it” to fly from it like a clumsy paper kite. Nirode seems to suffer from a sort of claustrophobia- he would like to fly “through an immensity of air”. Nirode stands for individualism as well as idealism without any compromise in his personal life-style- a trait that implies him to give up his job with the local newspaper Patrika and compels him to start a new magazine called The Voice. But unfortunately it fails to reach the people because Nirode as the editor, the fund raiser, publisher, promoter and salesman of The Voice, is the only person committed to. None of his friends take it seriously, for Nirode is too much of an individualist to succeed in publishing a journal. A book is a different matter. As Sonny, one of his friends tells Nirode quite honestly that: “I can’t see you as an editor – editors are so orderly, so vastly organizational. But now that you have the time, a book…” (1). Due to his sudden failure in The Voice, Nirode opts his second chance to write a play. He thinks life “is unfair - and how faint and senseless it sounded” (1). Nirode’s frustration and failure in life moves ahead when thinking about Calcutta. The city has “a glory” history and its surrounding marshes emanate corruption confounding public life. Nirode feels that that it is the city of Kali, goddess of death. He feels suffocated and threatened in and by the city. One all sides the city pressed down, alight, aglow, and stirring with its own marsh-bred, monster life that, like an ogre, kept one eye open through sleep and waking…the city was as much atmosphere as odor, as much a haunting ghost of the past as a frenzied passage towards early death (2). Nirode is sometimes mortally scared of Calcutta, afraid of the dark of Calcutta. The David-Nirode relationship is perhaps one of the best realized and most satisfying relationships in the novel. Whenever Nirode feels the need to make a confession or share a confidence he invariably turns to David for sympathy, understanding and even love. This would certainly ease his pressure when thinking about his unhappy life. Apart from his personal quest, Nirode is unduly obsessed

38 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 with mother’s relations with Major Chadha. Nirode subconsciously wants his mother to confirm to the traditional norms of a widow’s behavior, but cannot spell it out assertively. His mother’s all of independence and continued friendship with Major Chadha repulses him and almost in a revengeful mood he spurns her help and prefers to live a meaningless, petty and confused life. As a man of incessant failure, Nirode tries to draw his mother’s attention towards him in order to heal his wounded heart. But in case of his mother, her aim is not to console the heart of her son and daughter. Rather, she continues her happy relationship with Major Chadha. However despite all these happenings, a drastic change happens. A searching realization drowns upon him. He comes to the conclusions that wisdom lies not in avoiding the expense but in making the journey worth the expense. Having realized this, he takes matters into his hands and begins to identify with the sufferings of others. Apart from Nirode’s unhappy life, Monisha is our next victim who is chained with typical Indian relationship called husband and wife. Monisha belongs to the upper class society. She is too silent for the family and the world distrusts her silence. Monisha wants to be herself and not to compromise. She if afraid of involvement and has lived her life, ‘without a touch of love, or hate or warmth’. In fact she is afraid of love. She feels that she is different from other women around her. Enclosed in a locked container, she remains as observer of life standing apart. Monisha, the sister of Nirode, married to Jiban who is a well-to-do middle class family. Monisha is lady with an intellectual bent mind but Jiban is practical down to earth man and is essentially mediocre. He is also a ‘boring nonentity’ a ‘blind moralist’ a ‘rotund, minute-minded and limited official’. Monisha and Jiban have married having nothing in common in each other’s personality. Perhaps Alma is right when she poignantly asks, “Why did they marry” (1). Monisha’s artistic temperament and sensitivity is treated with a tolerant disinterest by her husband and in-laws. Like a sensitive woman Monisha feels desperately lonely and lost “the lost princess of a fairy-tale, doomed to destruction”. Married to a pathetically wooden and insensitive husband, she known no intimacies, no communion, no mutual understanding, no real sharing of the partnership. She remarks, “Jiban remains sitting with us, but Jiban is never with us at all” (1). Monisha feels trapped behind the barred windows of Jiban’s narrow-minded family. She feels there is a need for immeasurable sadness as most of the Bengali woman live “like female birds in a cage…always behind bars, those terrifying black bars that shut us, in the old houses, in the old city” (1). However Monisha finds that Nirode is the only other medium for communicating her feeling and ideas. Neither her husband nor her in-law tries to sympathize with Monisha. She quests for her mother’s love and her brother’s sympathetic company, having tragically failed to win either the affection of her mother-in-law or the affable companionship of her husband. Monisha’s meetings with her brother are watches keenly by all the family members killing whatever joy she could experience through them. She can’t go out of the house without a chaperon and even a visit to the rooftop is occasionally possible in the company of her relatives. Monisha visits the zoo, where she finds joy in the dance of milk-white peacock’s tip-toe “strumming their fanned feathers like many stringed harps” (1). She is pained when she looks at the empty pouch of the kangaroo. This is a remarkable incident which gives as a glimpse into Monisha’s “silent, secretive self”. While the reference to peacock’s dance proves Monisha’s ability to enjoy the fascinating

39 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 spectacle. The sight of the kangaroo’s “empty pouch” refers to Monisha’s awareness of her barrenness, which is not merely physical but even emotional. Monisha leads a passionless life and seems to be psychically and sexually frigid, but still whenever she hears Jiban’s family discussing her blocked fallopian tubes, she is filled with sorrow and regards her insides critically. Monisha’s suffering and quest come sharply through ….cage of doves….wounded and bleeding, but scurrying about their cages, pecking up grain, while over them fly blithe budgerigars like animated splinters of rainbow. These stay on the ground, restless, in flux and bleeding…How can they live, eat, work, sing and bleeding through life? (1). Monisha then identifies herself with the tiger: “His eyes are like the glass eyes of a stuffed trophy on the wall for he is dead already” (2). Monisha’a eyes are too lifeless and expressionless like those of the tiger as she lives in the cage of homes living a death-like existence. She leads a life which she describes as “traceless, meaningless, uninvolves- does this not amount to non- existence?” (1). Sisters-in-law lay across her bed discussing her ovaries and tubes, her “releases moist with blood”, leaving her no time to read which she very much wanted to. Even though Monisha begins her life as a normal housewife, her husband Jiban, her mother- in-law and her relatives never allow Monisha to settle down. This breaks her expectation as a happy housewife. And when she is been tortured both mentally and physically, she halts her quest. When her quest for life fails, Monisha chooses between “death and mean existence”. She seeks escape but as she had neither a vocation to chanceries her emotions nor faith in religion and love to sustain her, she turns to death as a release from her external as well as inner prison. After being trained as a commercial artist in Bombay, Amla arrives in order to take up a job in an advertising firm. The city, to her, is a monster which has laid its hands upon Monisha, ‘scared and altered her till she bore only the faintest resemblance to the quiet and uncaring elder sister (1). Though she is a modern woman, she realizes that she is too far away from the character of Nirode and Monisha. Her attachment to Dharma gives a new meaning to her lone life. In Dharma’s painting, she reckons her self-identity. Dharma’s paintings, modeled on and inspired by Amla represent in a surrealistic style the psychological pulls and pressures of human life itself. Her inner emptiness and her disgust for the ugly and conspiring metropolis find its aesthetic identification in the painting of Dharma. The time spent in Dharma’s house makes her “ a flowering Amla, translucent with joy and overflowing with a sense of love and reward” (1). Even if her sun, Dharma, is aged, she believes he is still radiant and can fill her with brightness and joy so that when the ‘night’ of Calcutta torments her, she can face it fearlessly. Amla’s quest is to be loved to be treated as someone very special and important. Dharma fulfils her emotional need though he cannot promise to give her tangibility and permanence. Having overcome her quest and fear, newly strengthened with love and joy. Amla is thrilled to see the bright flowers of cheery-red, white and pink in the still old garden of Aunt Lila and writes to her mother, “Now one feels winter close by, the city has turns sweeter, so much sweeter and fresher and younger, mother, one can breathe again” (1). Amla feels that her relationship with Dharma has an air of unreality right from the beginning. She feels very often that the studio is a theatre and that

40 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 she and Dharma are playing a sober yet dangerous game. She longs to free herself of this strange yet captivating world of Dharma. In an attempt to clear away from the disturbing mystery surrounding him and his art, Amla sees herself in imagination: “enter it and turn everything about her, in the calm picture, Upside down, set it on fire and greet the flames with wild arms” (1). Dharma does not need either a wife or a daughter or a lover. He cannot offer Amla any tangible permanent relationship, is revealed through his sketching of her in small sections that are “scattered through many pages scared with harsh charcoal or dissected into even finer sections” [1]. Amla’s quest differ from her brother and sister. Initially Amla believes that Dharma is a healthy companion foe her. Later, when realizing his true color, her quest for healthy relationship with Dharma fails and thus flourishes a better way of looking at life. Above all Monisha’s death helps Amla decide firmly what she wants from life.- “she would go through life with her feet primly shod, involving herself with her drawings and safe people like Bose” (1) The final section of the novel deals with mother Otima. She is very correctly defined by their father as a “butterfly that sat vibrating on a huge flower”(1). Otima is capable of love; she is not a cold unfeeling tyrant. She once expresses anguish at living in an earthly paradise which turns out to be only “a fool’s abode” (1), as her children are away from her undergoing unhappy experience. In quest for the pursuit of pleasures she had totally forgotten her husband. Monisha’s death has totally disillusions and never again she would stray into the realm of life. She would remain alone, dignified and supreme. It is ironical that she should take this decision when Nirode has mentally reconciled with her and is ready to receive her with overflowing love. Anita Desai has made the people inhabiting the novel speak in character. Most of the characters in the novel are flat, they do not develop or change. Voices in the City is a novelist’s selective interpretation of the whole of actuality, the urban consciousness of Calcutta. Anita Desai eminently succeeds in dramatizing not only the individual human relationships against the backdrop of a cosmopolitan consciousness but also the growth of individual consciousness from a cynical sense of loss of identity to the mystical relation of the meaning of existence as well as of his own destiny. CONCLUSION In the novel “Voices in the City”, we could see “Quest For Identity” as a possible theme which have been employed by Desai to show the protagonists behaving in a particular manner. By using this basic theme as a foundation to her work, she tries to assess the need for an individual to have communication, understanding, forgiveness and mutual acceptance and through them to discover one’s own identity. The discovery will bring an end to all the miseries which confront them to their lack of common bond, they are being left out and feeling lost and their sense of futility and despair. WORKS CITED Anita Desai, “Voices In the City”, Hind Pocket Books, Delhi (1968). Anita Desai, “Voices In the City”, New Delhi: Orient Paper backs (2007). Krishna Rao, The Indo- Anglican Novel and the Changing Tradition, Mysore (1972). Josepha Sherman, “Once upon a Galaxy”, August House, Inc. Publishers, Atlanta (1994). Robert McKee, “Story: Substance, Structure, Style and the Principle of Screenwriting”, Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., New York (1997).

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NEW SENSIBILITY AND THOUGHTS IN THE WRITINGS OF NEW AGE INDIAN WOMEN WRITERS

Hima. S Guest Lecturer (English) Kerala Kalamandalam,Cheruthuruthy, Thrissur Dist. Kerala e.mail: [email protected]

Dr. Sanil Raj J. Assistant Professor and Research Guide(University of Calicut) Dept. of English, St. Thomas College, Thrissur

ABSTRACT The role of women in literature has been changing according to the roles they play in society. This paper is an analysis of present image of women in contemporary Indian English fiction in Women’s writing. Twentieth century women writers express the experience of their own identity in what and how they write. Anita Nair and Jaishree Misra are leading literary figures of present Indian scenario. Both these writers depict the transformation of ideal role of women to a rebellious one. The emergence of new type of women who break away all seclusions that prohibit her to achieve what she desires.

INTRODUCTION The images of women in fiction have undergone a drastic change during the last four decades. Women find literature the most expressive form of art which is true to their experience. Thus Women’s Writing has become a separate category, which articulates the gender specific concerns of women. Feminism if taken in wider perspective includes whatever is vital about women in life and literature. So the ultimate aim of Women’s Literature is to create a new awareness and a suitable way for self expression, to raise voice of protest against the injustice and inequalities in the treatment of women. They seek to influence public opinion in order to change women’s situation. Women’s Literature is confessional, subjective and may be partly autobiographical. The

42 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 identity of women portrayed in their works is formed out of pain and suffering on account male domination and indifference. Their collective identity is reflected in their works. The twentieth century women’s writing is a powerful medium of modernism and feminism. Now it is the generation of women writers who are educated and independent. The novels reflect the present age women who have realized that they are not helpless and dependent. They feel that a woman is an equal component in society just like a man. The women of modern era have become a direct earner of money and are not confined to household works. These facts are weaved in the works of modern Indian Women Writers. They depict the life of a woman from childhood to complete womanhood. Literature and female identity are inseparable. The battle between the sexes, the search for identity is favourite themes in literature. The modern age with rapid progress in the field of education women are alienated from feminity. They are discontent with their role as housewives. In the present socio- cultural setup they feel deeply frustrated by their restricted and regimented lives. The lack of privacy and drabness of a monotonous family life have impeded the free growth of feminine self. The real problem of women today is the problem of identity. She have to fulfill and assert herself as woman, not simply as a career woman. Now a day’s women have enough courage to exhibit their individuality at various levels. Though their voices are made dumb, they have made it audible in recent years. They are ready to undertake challenging journey to self- discovery. Indian Women after marriage, face many untold miseries and sorrows. Drunkenness, drug addiction, illegal relations, unemployment physical and mental torture, and verbal abuse are the most common problems. No matter what happens they never leave their husbands, they don’t even think of betraying their husbands and eloping with someone else. Indian wives give much importance to their tradition, culture and relation. They undergo all types of suffering in order to preserve it. The New Woman novelists who are independent and emancipated have given more depth to their writings. Today’s novels reflect the protest and outburst of the suppressed feelings of women which have never been expressed. They find that their routine lives are out of joint. They feel that, they could be and do whatever they wanted to do with same freedom as men. The change in women’s attitude is pictured with a greater awareness in the novels of women writers. The educated women have mixed up with people and have imbibed new ideas and thoughts. They come up against men who follow the traditional ideas and expect the women to follow them. These writers challenge the old ways and choose a new path. The conflict between tradition and modernity and between family norms and individual freedom leads to suffering. This conflict and suffering forms major themes in their writings. Anita Nair and Jaishree Misra are popular female writers of contemporary India. They depict the present condition of women in society, with wit and humour. Story telling is an art and she does it exceptionally well. Both writers go deep into human psyche and allow the reader to enjoy a wonderful journey by presenting absorbing stories that have colourful and unique characters. They share experiences that are drawn from day-to-day life and often enable the readers to suspect the character to be one of their neighbour’s or of a friend. They present a new type of women who are powerful enough to throw off the shackles of tradition and culture to their own tales of love and adventure. The novels Mistress and Afterwards are better examples for this. Their writings reflect a new type of women, who echoes a new awareness about fulfilment of

43 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 identity without compromising tradition and culture. Women’s emancipation in India is a sublime concept. In a nation where extremely fragmented and traumatised women’s pains remain untold a change is needed. In a world where thousands of women live as victims Jaishree Misra’s women offer a new path. Ancient Promise is about a woman’s painful journey of self-discovery. It is the transformation of the young and vulnerable Janu into a more determined stronger and empowered woman who is capable of taking decisions about her own life. “My marriage ended today”. With this stark statement Misra begins her novel. “. Ancient Promise is about a woman’s painful journey of self-discovery. It is about Janaki (Janu), a Keralite brought up in Delhi . being confused, unsure and unwilling to hurt her parents Janu agreed to the proposal and married Suresh, who accepted her for these reasons: she had to be pretty, she had to be young so that she can adjust, she must be able to speak English so that he can take her to Bombay to extened his business. Suresh Maraar, heir to the Maraar fortunes is seen as a prize catch for an ordinary middle class family like Janu’s. The pressure from her extended family is subtle when the mighty Maraar clan approves of her so easily: “What are they going to think? They could even retract their offer by tomorrow!”. “Be grateful for what you’re getting”. “They don’t even want a dowry…It’s nothing less than arrogance to say no to people like that’ (61). Janu’s feeble protests are brushed aside. She is forced to sacrifice her love for Arjun because she says she is ‘tired of fighting off my family”. Ridden with guilt for the pain she has caused her parents by crossing the boundary they had set, and daring to fall in love, she looked upon her marriage to Suresh as a kind of compensation-”to ensure that I began to pay off some of the debt that has accrued against my name somewhere’(68). Suresh has nothing in common with her but agrees to the ‘alliance’ because she fits into his specifications of being pretty, young enough to ‘adjust’, and able to speak English so that he could take her to Bombay in the hoped-for expansion of his motel business. “Nothing else was too important”(96). Later she realises that “it was getting clear that it was the Maraars I had married not Suresh.”(87) Marriage was not according to her expectations loneliness, emptiness and dissatisfaction was the result. To gain some respect and consideration from in laws and from her husband and hoping motherhood would change her pathetic state she gave birth to a child. All her efforts were thwarted because the child was mentally handicapped. But her intense attachment with the baby turned out to be her best protector and a means for emancipation. After the birth of her daughter with special needs she realized that she can no longer live trapped in a cold marriage with a spineless husband and a dominating mother in law. She continues her education. Janu plans to leave India, to US to continue her studies and find special needs school for her daughter, Riya. Meanwhile she met her old love Arjun during her visit to Delhi. She decides to get a divorce. She, Arjun and Riya leaves to London and she joins a university in London to continue her studies in special education. She decides to end her marriage, but Suresh disagrees to it. Later she has to leave to England without Riya. Arjun and Janu relive their love life in London. She realizes that her life will be incomplete without Riya she returns to India, Suresh reconciles to divorce and hands over Riya to her. The novel ends with a hope of beginning of a new life. It is a Cinderella kind of

44 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 transformation of the young and vulnerable Janu into a more determined stronger and empowered woman who is capable of taking decisions about her own life. Through Janu, Misra asserts the right of every person to his or her happiness and the right to create the means to achieve it. Janu not only creates her own happiness but also through her education opens up for her daughter as well as we can see that the author also criticises the marriage system. Janu is told that their marriage would ensure that she would have more people to love and be loved by. But ironically the promise of love and be loved is not kept and she is forced to lead a lonely and loveless life. The inevitable fate is always used as a weapon of oppression. By agreeing themselves to their condition and by enduring the treatment meted out to them, they not only perpetuate patriarchy but also inflict it on women. Janu’s character is carefully crafted with deep insight into her psyche, she is vulnerable and strong. When she gives birth to a daughter who turns out to be mentally challenged, life in the Maraar household turns from bad to worse to unbearable. The novel endeavours the depths of isolation and desperation that Janu is forced to face with the birth of a mentally retarded daughter. Her intense attachment to the baby forms her best protection and her sole means of salvation. Coldness of her husband’s family and his indifference to her and their daughter’s needs, Janu starts to rebel against the snobbish conventions of the family. “I grabbed at the realization with a weary but dizzy, almost overwhelming sense of liberation. I was free. I neither had to struggle for their approval anymore nor put Riya through the same hopeless loop”. Bound by age long social customs formulated by men, it takes a courageous woman to stand up and fight for her rights and happiness. And that is what Janu finally does. In the words of Misra ,”It was quite important for me to show that she (Janu) was by now a woman in charge of her own destiny.” Jaishree Misra’s Ancient Promise, full of keen psychological observations, it is a sensitive account of a woman’s effort to transform her life and live life on her own terms by breaking out of things, held her down from seeking her own destiny and happiness in life. Family is vital regardless of the restrictions it imposes on individual freedom and the subordination of women, by upholding the values of patriarchy. The novel reveals an intense awareness of woman’s need for freedom and independence. Most of the Indian women living in an orthodox and conservative family feel inhibited to raise their voice against aggressive dominance of the male person of the society and rigid code of conduct imposed on them. The last two decades have witnessed phenomenal success in feminist writings of Indian English literature. Today is the generation of those women writers who have money and are mostly western educated. Their novels consist of the latest burning issues related with women as well as those issues that exist in the society since long. Their novels reflect that the present age women have realized that she is not helpless and is not dependent. They feel that a woman is an equal competent just like a man. Today, a woman has also become a direct money earner and she is not only confined to household works. The women of modern era think on different lines and that is what is depicted in the novels of the Indian women authors. These facts are incorporated by the women writers. Indian women writers explores the feminine subjectivity and applies the theme that ranges from childhood to complete womanhood. Of all the contemporary Indian English novelists, Anita Nair is, the most perceptive explorer of Malayalee women.

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Most of her works deal with Malayalee society, family, culture and regions. Their works are deeply rooted in the soil of Kerala. The novels of Anita Nair especially Ladies’ Coupe and Mistress explore the role of woman in a Kerala Society. Both these works depicts the growing consciousness and a new awareness among educated and thinking woman who are strong enough to throw away all the barriers that hinder them to freedom. Her works present the social-cultural problems of women in tradition bound society. They are realistic description of efforts of women for establishing identity in their society. Anita Nair’s Ladies Coupe and Mistress are about the possibilities of exploring changes within oneself. They want to free themselves from the traditional concerns and cherish a spontaneous urge towards life. One can trace the struggle of a woman protagonist to seek a meaningful definition of life. She strongly puts forth the private truth about what woman want. Her women feel their emotions strongly, yet retain a constant value judgment, about themselves as well as, about other relationships they have to live through. Though they belong to different stratum of society, they do possess an inner independence to experiment with their life. In the process, life yields self knowledge which imparts them the strength of accepting that a woman desire to succeed like an individual is not incompatible with her desire for love or small pleasures of domesticity. However Anita Nair is excellent in depicting the inner furies of women and their rising tone for emancipation and empowerment. One can say Nair’s Ladies Coupe’ and Mistress explore the fake moral rebel against the tradition bound old mode of life Ladies Coupé is the story of Akhilandeshwari, Akhila - forty-five and single, an income- tax clerk, and a woman who has never been permitted to live her own life. She has always been a provider – as a daughter, as a sister and as an aunt. Once she gets herself a one-way ticket to Kanyakumari; surprisingly alone for the first time in her life, she determines to liberate herself of all that her customary Tamil Brahmin life has bound her to. In this journey she tries to find out an answer to the basic question which has been in pursuit throughout her life – ‘Can a woman stay single and be happy, or does a woman need a man to feel complete?’. Akhila is born in a middle class Brahmin family; she is unmarried but at the age of 45 she become conscious of “Dreaming for escape and space. Hungry for life and experience” (Ladies Coupe’ 2). So she decides to go on a long trip by train in search of such an unrivalled question which obsessed her throughout her life “Can a woman live by herself” (Ladies Coupe’ 21). Akhila receives a seat in ‘Ladies coupe, a compartment in a train specially for the ladies passengers. In that Coupe there are five other passengers. Akhila asks them about the condition of women in Indian society. They all tell their story to each other as they all are the strangers and never going to meet again. Furthermore they all are the victims of Indian male dominated society. When Akhila’s father died she was only nineteen years old and in that age, she got a job of clerk in the income tax department. Nineteen is the age group when most of the young girls are romantic about their bright perspective in future life but Akhila had to take the entire burden of her family on her shoulders without any complaint. She is the eldest and only earning member in her family even then she is supposed to take the permission of her younger brother if she wants to go out, just because of the fact that he is a man and she, a woman. Here Anita Nair presents a concept of Patriarchy, in which a woman is required to remain dependent upon man. She tries to affirm that women are

46 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 only biologically different from men but it doesn’t mean that a woman should be subjugated and demoralized only on the basis of this difference Akhila is a woman who is surrounded by duties: sometimes to her mother, sometimes to her sister, sometimes to her brother. She is expected to be an obedient daughter, an affectionate sister and everything but not an individual. Her dreams, desires are sacrificed when in conflict with the comforts of family. It is in rare occasions that she listens to her inner self and seems a rebel. This journey is symbolically a journey to realise her inner self. Akhila’s mother is not worried about her daughter’s desires as she is a traditional woman. She has her own theories and principles as she always teaches Akhila how a good wife should serve her husband. First of all, no good wife could serve two masters- the masters being her father and her husband. A good wife learnt to put her husband’s interests before anyone else’s, even her father’s. A good wife listened to her husband and did as he said. ‘There is no such thing as an equal to marriage,’ Amma said. ‘It is best to accept that the wife is inferior to husband. That way there can be no strife, no disharmony. ( Ladies Coupe’ 14) Akhila had a love affair with Hari, a north Indian young man. It was a diminutive love affair though they made physical love several times. Akhila suddenly broke this relationship. She says, “Hari this is goodbye I will never see you again” (Ladies Coupe’ 153). Because he was younger than her and she was also anxious what people and society would think if this love affair would be disclosed? She is so agonized that she mentions “Every time I look at someone watching us, I can see the question in their minds: what is he doing with an older woman? That bothers me very much, Hari. It bothers me very much that we are not suited so she decides to remain single.”(Ladies Coupe’ 159). In the concluding part of the novel Akhila changed to a revolutionary woman with full of strength. The dilemma that she goes through at every point of her life comes to an end. She learns that there was a time when a woman needed a man for protection but now she needs a man for companionship, a partner who would share her ups and downs. This realization makes Akhila get back in touch with the guy she fell in love with, someone whom she could not accept for the fear of the society. She learns from everyone’s experience and as the journey an end, Akhila is ready to act according to her wish. She comes back to her place with renewed energy, with the courage of organizing her life. Mistress, a novel is one of the most exciting works of literary creativity. In this novel culture, true emotions, real life and literary expressions merge in the background of the classical dance form, Kathakali together to make the work a true classic. The novel is set on the background of Nila, a river on whose banks the prestigious art culture in Kerala still thrives. The novel explores the depth of relationship between Shyam and Radha. In their relationship we find that Radha’s role as a wife blocks her freedom. Radha’s alienation under Shyam’s cold intellectuality. The indifferent attitude of Shyam serves to deepen her love for Chris. Radha’s contact with Shyam never went deeper than skin. She is unable to satisfy her sexual urge because of Shyam’s aloofness, and this leads her into Chris arms. Nair, who is a sensitive writer, can go deep into people’s personalities and take the reader on a wonderful journey of relationship. Radha rejects her husband’s oppressive environment and she rebels against the false materialism and vulgarity of society. She even virtually rejects her marriage. She distrusts love as a form of male possessiveness and does not want love

47 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 to be an aspect of male domination. Radha who had a pre-marital affair with a married man, had an abortion, Later her affair with Christopher, she finds the true sense of love, completely removed from the sense of guilt. As she travels back to her uncle life she confronts many harsh truths of her own past. Radha who is fed up with ugly life, she has a strong desire to find out an order. She tries to explore the past of her uncle, as well as, Christopher who are so closely connect with her mysterious past. She wants to understand the secret behind Christopher’s visit and her uncle’s unwillingness to narrate his own life story. Her search to the past provides her many realizations. The shocking revelation that Christopher, with whom she had extramarital affair, is her cousin leaves her devastated. In the process of knowing her past, she is transformed into a new being. This transformation gives her the inner strength to submit to Shaym’s wish to take her back to home. This novel is a strong attack on male-chauvinism, female apathy and reluctance and it is a woman’s voice for freedom and emancipation. In this background, women like Radha in Mistress, Akhila in Ladies Coupe occupy a unique place. Being sensitive and having spent their childhood in comfortable conditions of parental care, it was expected that their marital life should be wholesome and happy. But, it could not come about, mainly on account of their sensitiveness and an inner urge to carve their own identity. Radha’s search for physical interaction and gratification or that of Koman-her uncle for recognition is no different from Akhila’s search for meaning in life. They want an alternative definition of this world, its inhabitants and their own life. The crisis that Nair presents is that of the whole, “women” race. Radha’s and Akhila’s character she depicts the compromise between what ‘is’ and ‘what ought to be.’ Anita Nair’s woman characters in her novels rebel against patriarchal community in order to explore their own terms, regardless of the consequences that such a rebellion may have on their lives. They take the position of “outsiders” to fight and criticize those cultural ideologies that come in their way of becoming free individuals. Anita Nair has also projected her own Indian sensibility and attitude through her women characters in her novels. Most of the Indian women living in an orthodox and conservative family feel inhibited to raise their voice against aggressive dominance of the male person of the society owing to their inferiority complex and rigid code of conduct imposed on them. Their ambitions, desires, sense and sensibility are faithfully expressed in Nair’s novels. Her novels show how such women in spite of being highly educated undergo psychological suffering due to inferiority complex and dead sense of inhibitions. In a tradition bound Kerala society where, family, wifehood have due importance and worth women feel more subjugated. She not only limits her writing to upper class urban people, but also picks up characters from all stratum of society. Her theme is not only restricted to domestic problems, but it is variegated in nature. Anita Nair’s Ladies Coupe and Mistress are about the possibilities of exploring changes within oneself. They want to free themselves from the traditional concerns and cherish a spontaneous urge towards life. One can trace the struggle of a woman protagonist to seek a meaningful definition of life. She strongly puts forth the private truth about what woman want. Her women feel their emotions strongly, yet retain a constant value judgment, about themselves as well as, about other relationships they have to live through. Though they belong to different stratum of society, they do

48 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 possess an inner independence to experiment with their life. In the process, life yields self knowledge which imparts them the strength of accepting that a woman desire to succeed like an individual is not incompatible with her desire for love or small pleasures of domesticity. However Anita Nair is excellent in depicting the inner furies of women and their rising tone for emancipation and empowerment. One can say Nair’s Ladies Coupe’ and Mistress explore the fake moral rebel against the tradition bound old mode of life. Women experience and suffering can be brought in words accurately by women. Women represent almost half the population of country. Contemporary novels are about middle class women who have education a development of a feminine sensibility, beyond being feminine. They might resist marriage or even indulge in extra- marital affairs in order to be happy and content in their life. Women fight against pre-determined status, social roles that tradition and culture impose upon them. There is intense introspection and analysis within her. There is a struggle to sustain their identity and quest for freedom. Thus the struggle to establish one’s identity and to assert individuality has led the authors to fight against the existing social order. These characters are true representation of new woman of India, who gets an urgent need to discard the cultural norms created by the traditional society. There is a search for strength and independence. Both these novels are the reconstruction of female identity and assertion of female desires to realize full individuality. They are bold enough to choose their own path to escape from monotonous desperate familial bonds. So both the characters in the novels are true representations of new courageous liberated women of present India. Women experience and suffering can be brought in words accurately by women. Women represent almost half the population of country. Contemporary novels are about middle class women who have education a development of a feminine sensibility, beyond being feminine. They might resist marriage or even indulge in extra- marital affairs in order to be happy and content in their life. Women fight against pre-determined status, social roles that tradition and culture impose upon them. There is intense introspection and analysis within her. There is a struggle to sustain their identity and quest for freedom. Thus the struggle to establish one’s identity and to assert individuality has led the authors to fight against the existing social order. These characters are true representation of new woman of India, who gets an urgent need to discard the cultural norms created by the traditional society. There is a search for strength and independence. Both these novels are the reconstruction of female identity and assertion of female desires to realize full individuality. They are bold enough to choose their own path to escape from monotonous desperate familial bonds. So both the characters in the novels are true representations of new courageous liberated women of present India. Family is considered to have restricted the expression of the individual freedom through the imposition of a code of conduct and ethics. This familial interference in the life of an individual is resisted strongly by younger people in the community and this resentment has considerably impacted the efficacy of the institution of family. An arranged marriage was the traditionally accepted mode of matrimonial arrangement in the Hindu society. With the impact of westernization and modern education, young men and women began to assert their right to choose their life partner. Some of the Indian English women novelists have depicted a society in which women are

49 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 not only ill-treated but are also abused and exploited. They have tried their best to free the female mentality from the age-long control of male domination. There are a number of Indian English novels that deal with woman’s problems. But the treatment is often peripheral and the novels end up glorifying the stereotypical virtues of the Indian woman, like patience, devotion and abject acceptance of whatever is meted out to her. CONCLUSION Tradition is so deeply rooted in Indian women that none would dare to uproot it and make a change. By resigning themselves to their condition and enduring the treatment meted out to them the women inflict it on generation after generation. Bound by age long social custom formulated by society it takes a courageous woman to stand up and fight for her rights and happiness and that is what Janu finally does. She is in charge of her own destiny. Jaishree Misra in Ancient Promises gives an account of a woman’s effort to transform her own life and live on her own terms by breaking out the social and familial codes that held her down from seeking her own destiny and happiness in life. Misra’s women work hard for their freedom and earn it. This shows their inner strength of character and courage. The freedom they win has the power to guarantee what they wish their life to be. So this novel can be considered as a struggle and the final triumph of individual will. Women must throw off the shackles of tradition and educate themselves to carve out a distinct identity for themselves. REFERENCES Lodge, David. Modern Criticism and Theory. Longman,London,1983 Print. Naik. M.K. History of Indian English Literature. Sahitya. Akademi. New Delhi.1982. Print. Nair,Anita. Ladies Coupe’. Penguin Books,New Delhi.2001. Print. Nair, Anita. Mistress. Penguin Books, New Delhi,2005.Print. Showalter Elaine. Towards a Feminist Poetics, Contemporary Literary Criticism. New York, Longman. 1986.Print. Misra,Jaishree. Ancient Promises.Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2000. Print. Misra,Jaishree. .Afterwaeds.Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2004. Print. Singh,Sushila. Feminism: Theory, Criticism, Analysis. Pencraft. New Delhi.1997.Print. Swami.S,P, Feminine Voice in Indian English Fiction. Asia Book Club. New Delhi. 2005. Print.

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ADVERTISEMENTS AS CULTURAL INDICATORS: A STUDY OF INDIAN ADVERTISEMENTS

Jyothsna C. R. P.G. Scholar in English Sree Sankara College, Kalady, Ernakulam Dist.Kerala (Mahatma Gandhi University, Kotyam) e.mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Indian cultural history is an amalgamation of numerous customs, traditions and rituals. All these practices serve as signs and signification systems in the realm of Cultural Studies. The idea of text in Cultural Studies comprises of all the meaningful cultural artifacts. Advertisements are one such cultural resonant frame. The advertisers fabricate media frames with culture, myth or rituals to make its appeal salient and real. This work “Advertisements as Cultural Indicators: A Study of Indian Advertisements” examines how advertisements act as a touchstone to Indian culture through semiotic analysis of each frames. Semiotics of advertisements highlights the part played by the consumers as participants in creating a code that unites the designer and reader. Keywords: Culture, Advertisements, Semiotics, Sign, Tradition, Hinglish, Plurality.

Culture has the specific connotation of ‘a way of life’ and refers to practices of specific groups of people. It is a state or process of perfection of absolute human values. It is difficult to identify the process of human perfection with the discovery of absolute human values because these are ordinarily defined and can be called as a process of human evolution. As Williams advocates in ‘Culture is Ordinary’: Culture is ordinary. Every human society has its own shape, its own purposes, its own meanings. Every human society expresses these, in institutions, and in arts and learning . . . we use the word culture in these two senses: to mean a whole way of life - the common meanings; to mean the arts and learning - the special processes of discovery and creative effort. (2010, 6) In Williams’s categorization, the second sense is an understanding of culture as an abstract noun which describes a general process of intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic development and can be traced to the 18th century.

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Recent attempts at theorizing culture, question such divisions that demarcate the realm of culture into the more individualistic inner, spiritual world of aesthetics and the more outer, practice- oriented, group-related way of life. In archaeology and cultural anthropology, the reference to culture is primarily to material production, while in history and cultural studies the reference is primarily to signifying or symbolic systems. To see culture as primarily referring to signifying or symbolic systems also indicates a shift in emphasis from looking at products of culture to the processes of such a production. This clubs the shifting of emphasis from the written to the visual, to the topography, to the imaginary and these methodological innovations questioned the presumed centrality of the written text. Therefore culture becomes the context in which society makes sense of the world. Cultural studies uses a wide range of materials and representational practices from the realm of popular culture including films, radio, popular magazine, television, cartoons, advertisements, news reports, magazines and internet. Stuart Hall, who was instrumental in creating a new space for the study of culture, in his ‘The Work of Representation’ discusses the importance of understanding the relationship between signs, systems of signs and the concepts that a culture share. Signs are organized into languages and it is the existence of common languages which enable us to translate our thoughts (concepts) into words, sounds and images, and then to use these, operating as a language, to express meanings and communicate thoughts to other people. (1997, 18) The term language here means more than the written or spoken language and the signs used by that language. In semiotics, the visual images, whether produced by hand, mechanical, electronic, digital or some other means, when they are used to express the meaning are considered as the components of a language because they also contribute to the process of making meanings. All these are included in a system of representation. In advertising, advertisers heavily rely on the semiotics to frame the intended message along with the cultural significance. Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation. According to Ferdinand de Saussure, the sign consists of a physical form and its associated mental concept, which in turn is an apprehension of external reality. The sign relates to reality only through the concepts of the people who use it. Semiotics of advertisement analyses signs and sign processes; mainly the indication, designation, sound, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification and the associated meanings behind them in order to decipher the advertiser’s intended message. Therefore the study of advertisement is the study of text in culture. In the Elements of Semiology Barthes developed two different levels of signification: the denotation and the connotation. Denotation is the definitional, literal, obvious or commonsense meaning of a sign. In linguistic signs, the denotative meaning is what the dictionary attempts to provide and the denotation of a visual image is what all viewers from any culture and at any time would recognize the image as depicting. The term connotation refers to the socio-cultural and personal associations like the ideological, emotional dimensions of the sign. These are naturally related to the interpreter’s class, age, gender, and ethnicity. Signs are more polysemic, that means the capacity of a sign to have multiple meanings. This leads to multiple interpretations of their

52 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 connotation. Both the denotation and connotation are interconnected and complement each other in the meaning making process. Roland Barthes wrote in his book, The Semiotic Challenge: A garment, an automobile, a dish of cooked food, a gesture, a film, a piece of music, an advertising image, a piece of furniture, a newspaper headline-these indeed appear to be heterogeneous objects. What might they have in common? This at least: all are signs. When I walk through the street-or through life-and encounter these objects, I apply to all of them, if need be without realizing it, one and the same activity, which is that of a certain reading: modern man, urban man, spends his time reading. He reads, first of all and above all images, gestures, behaviors: this car tells me the social status of its owner, this garment tells me quite precisely the degree of its wearer’s conformism or eccentricity. (1988, 147) Advertising, which is based on language and communication, is the most culture-bound element of the marketing mix. Advertisers make use of symbolic semiotics to create culture resonant frames. The contemporary advertisements are a vehicle of denotative and connotative meanings and communication is achieved via decoding and encoding messages. The connotative meaning represents the overall message about the meaning of the product which the advertisement creates by using the images. The advertisement functions by showing us a sign with easily readable mythic meaning as well as by placing this sign next to another, potentially ambiguous, sign. Advertising, as a linguistic phenomenon, has become ensconced into social discourse by means of its widespread diffusion throughout societies all over the world. Advertisements serve two functions, the text and the context. It becomes interaction of elements in which genres merge into each other. The textual part is no longer the key element in many advertisements. There are advertisements without text or in which text plays a subordinate part. A discourse analysis is mandatory to describe both text and their contexts. Advertising in Indian print media shows a remarkable development during last few years and it gives a global identity of Indian advertisement with its quality and creativity. India is a multi- cultural society; the consumers often support the interpretation of the message in their own ways according to their cultural, social and ethical values. The meaning of all verbal and non-verbal communication used in advertising are differently analysed by consumers. The consumer interprets the advertisement in accordance with lifestyle and culture they share. Advertising is largely a reflection of the society, it creates imagery through various signs, visuals and symbols around the consumers. When TV advertisement portrays a specific theme in commercials, consumers instantly connect with it. One of the main source of meaning generation is culture. Culture is the aggregate processes by which meanings, norms, values, codes, sign are created, stored and transferred. Culture gives us tools to interpret the world around us. Through semiotic analysis we can interpret the consumer’s preferences and responses towards these various signs. By disentangling the interweaving of culture with commercialism in advertisement, we can trace the culture of that community. Indian advertising has the challenge of speaking to one of the world’s most diverse populations. Though English is the only common language throughout India, people from many sections are unfamiliar with the language. While targeting the mass, advertisers use local languages.

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Now-a-days, a very common practice among advertisers is to mix English and Hindi, which forms a new variety called Hinglish, is widely used by the advertisers. The Swadeshi Movement, now known as ‘Make in India’ campaign was officially proclaimed on 1905. The Boycott Movement was also launched along with the Swadeshi Movement. The movements included the idea of using goods produced in India and abandoning British made goods. The advertising taglines and messages rich in patriotic spirit and tradition fueled both the movements. The abolition of foreign models and powerful employment of social messages to create the spirit of nationalism made these advertisements a mini Swadeshi Movement. Parents in most household wanted their children to imbibe the strong value system of Indian culture. This latent desire was fulfilled by these advertisements. On 25th September 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi reinstalled the concept of Swadesi Movement with a motive to raise the standard of living, to make India a major hub for industries and to embrace progress under the campaign ‘Make In India’. The logo for the ‘Make In India’ campaign is an elegant lion, inspired by the Ashoka Chakra and designed to represent India’s success in all spheres. This initiative highlighted the best democratic conditions with effective governance and manufacturing superiority of India over other nations. The campaign reflected the new mind set of growth in India and its rich natural resources. The logo for the campaign advertising is derived from India’s national emblem and it unveiled India’s rich tradition and culture. The prowling lion stands for Indian strength, courage, tenacity and wisdom. Lion is the divine mount of goddess Durga and worshipped as Narasimha, an avatar of Hindu god Vishnu, visualized as half- man and half-lion. Mahavir and Buddha also used the lion as their symbol. Gautam Buddha’s first sermon was called Simhanada, the lion’s roar and he himself came to be known as Sakyasimha, the lion of the Sakyas. The lion was the symbol of royalty in Hindu mythology where the king and his throne the Simhasan, meaning the lion’s seat were inseparable. The Maruti Suzuki’s advertisement with their shibboleth “ghar aa gaya Hindustan” which signifies the meaning ‘India comes home in Maruti Suzuki’ perfectly goes with Indian culture. The Maruti Suzuki’s advertisement shows that people in different parts of India are driving a Maruti Suzuki model and getting back to their near and dear ones. The semiotic study of this advertisement reveals the plurality of the nation as it captures various locales of the country like mountains, deserts, back-waters, plains, traditional Kerala, a North Indian wedding, a contemporary professional institution of India, traditional Rajasthan in transition from its lofty walls of fort to cricket and to car drive, the modern couple of Chandigarh and the long passages of UP. The people also change with the background as it shifts from youngsters playing pranks to just married and elderly couple, a new born in its mother’s arms and a collegiate by the road side. Everyone needs to reach out to their loved ones. This advertisement envelops the values of family bonding, love and marriage in India. It also portrays the traditional customs like applying sandal paste, ritual ‘pooja’ and celebration of Diwali. The advertisement of Surf Excel is commensurate with South Indian identity. In the advertisement, an old south Indian lady draped in a nine yards sari as per the Tamil Brahmin culture is encouraging a foreign boy to eat with hand during a traditional South Indian marriage. She says to his parents, “In India, eating with hands, washing with hands”. The words uttered by

54 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 the old lady resembled the loving grandmother in each household and captured the mind of the consumers. The old lady is proud enough that in India we wash clothes manually and so there is seldom any problem related to cleaning. The brand gets identified as an appropriate purchase for the Indian traditional washing habits. There is pride attached with the use of hands and not shame. In the background, a recognizable South Indian wedding environment is shown where people are served food in the banana leaf. The statement of washing culture in India also exhibits common culture. As the little foreigner boy dirties his clothes while relishing the wedding feast, his parents are in a state of shock and the old lady consoles them by uttering the statement of using hands for washing purpose only shows how confident she is of her Indian habits and culture. The spirit of nationality is used by products like bikes to attract their customers. Hero Motors with their gag line “Desh ki dhadkan” is one such attempt to induce in the Indian tradition and culture. They use the youth icons like Hrithik, Priyanka, Virendra Sehwag, Irfan Pathan, Gautam Gambhir and Major Rajvardhan Singh Rathore to present Indian culture and tradition. Priyanka in a traditional dress with plate decorated to offer prayers in her hand communicates Indian tradition and identity. Tanishq’s “A Wedding to Remember” advertisement absorbed the acceptance of second marriage or re-marriage in India. As widowed and divorced women have historically been shunned in areas of India, it was once a taboo. This advertisement embraces the spirit of the growing-up- phenomenon and beautifully portrayed it in the light of traditional Indian marriage including Satphera. The Tata tea’s “Jago re: India Awakens” is a series of awareness campaign and a sense of pride among all those who strongly believe in nationality. In the year 2007, “Jago Re” launched its very first campaign “One Billion Votes” with an aim to awaken the entire nation and encouraged them to participate in the functioning of the country’s politics by voting. The advertisement shows a young man interviewing a candidate who is standing in elections. The leader is taken aback by the straightforwardness of the man. The advertisement shows that leaders who are to run the country are not rulers but are designated representatives whose job is to serve the nation. The citizens of the country have right to learn about them, question them and assess them. It conveys that the relation between the citizens and the leaders is not of the ruler and the ruled. It is rather a relation between the employed (leaders) and the decision makers of that employment (voters). The nation and its constitution are represented by the statement “Desh ko chalane ka job”. Nation as a single political unit is symbolically shown through the election context. Democratic situation in the country is being evaluated through the advertisement especially the leader and his followers, the garland around the leader’s neck, his arrogance and attitude of treating a commoner as insignificant. After this success Tata has decided to awaken the Indians for the cause of corruption. In 2010 with the message “aje se khilana bandh, pilana shuru” they aimed to awaken the country and to fight against corruption. This campaign made the Right to Information Act familiar for Indian citizens and informed people that it is our right to get the work done by government without paying any bribe. In 2011, they came with a new initiative “Soch Badhlo, Deshh Badhlega”, which was aimed at bringing to the light the positive stories within the country. They flourished the idea that a positive thought can change the whole nation. In 2012 with Women’s Rights and safety at the forefront they launched “Choti Shuruaat” with an objective to encourage individuals to make

55 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 small gestures of change towards eliminating preconceived notions that cause gender stereotyping. They launched this campaign just after the Delhi gang rape in 2012 with an aim to ensure women’s security. Currently they are with a mission to empower the women voters through the “Power of 49” campaign. The initiative highlighting the fact that women form as much as 49 percent of the electoral base; they can wield a great deal of power in the upcoming election. All these campaigns are successful with the active co-operation of the Indian citizens. From the success rate, it is evident that Tata has created a revolution by interwreathing the culture and the commercial. CONCLUSION All these interpretations are contingent upon the values and norms of a particular segment of society. In these sense, advertisements are tapped into the vein of culture and can be called as a true mirror of life. Culture as a concept and emotion in advertisements not only reflects but also reinforces the societal values and behavior. WORKS CITED Barthes, Roland. The Semiotic Challenge. New York: Hill and Wang, 1988. Print. Hall, Stuart. “The Work of Representation.” Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. Ed. Stuart Hall. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 1997. Google Book. 2013. Web. 20 June 2016. Williams, Raymond. “Culture Is Ordinary.” Resources of Hope: Culture, Democracy, Socialism. 2nd ed. London: Verso, 1989. Google Book. 3 Sept. 2010. Web. 15 June 2016.

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THE PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAUMA OF A TRANSGENDER IN JEETH THAYIL’S NARCOPOLIS

Biby Moitheen Assistant Professor, Department of English Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning (GIAL) Bethany Hills, Post Box No. 9, Kottayam – 10 e.mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Narcopolis, the debut novel of Jeet Thayil deals with narcotic dens and whore houses. The book has a strange beginning with a seven page prologue written in one long sentence where we meet narrator, the “I”, Dom Ullis, who vanishes in the middle of the novel and leaves the reader among his characters and suddenly returns towards the end. Narcopolis does not follow a linear story pattern, it comprises of multiple stories of multiple people appearing, disappearing and reappearing here and there. Key words: Religious Fanatics, Drug-Lords, Frustrated Businessman, Discriminations

The narrator has returned to Bombay from New York, where he was caught selling drugs. The story opens in Rashid’s opium house on Shuklaji Street sometime in the 1970s. The narrator introduces us to Rasheed, the owner, his regular clients and Dimple, the eunuch, who prepares his pipes. Very gently, we are drawn in to their world. Thayil takes us in and out of characters’ lives, and we move on with them. The novel takes us to the very heart of Bombay, the journey starts with the Bombay of 1970s and ends with modern metropolitan -Mumbai. We move from narcotic dens to whore houses meeting addicts, pimps, prostitutes, eunuchs, drug-lords, murderers and religious fanatics. Even a person who hasn’t visited these opium dens gets a clear picture of how it functions and the filling of the pipes are presented as if a poet or an artist creating his magnum opus. The book is in three parts the first part “The Story of O” which opens in Bombay in the late 1970s as its narrator Dom first arrives at Bombay and he quickly finds the opium den of Rashid on the Suklaji street around which most of the actions take place. He comes in contact with all the characters there, Dimple the beautiful eunuch who works for Rashid preparing bowls of opium; Rumi, the frustrated businessman; Bengali who looks after Rashid’s money; Newton Xavieer, the famous painter and poet; Mr Lee, the Chinese immigrant and variety of other characters but

57 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 after introducing the character the narrator vanishes and appears again only towards the end. The second book “The Story of Pipe” presents the life and death of Mr Lee, life of Dimple. The third book “The Intoxicated” shows the transition of the opium dens into brutally effacing world of garad, heroin and Rashid’s Khana is also affected with this change. We also come across the horrific Bombay riots that burned the whole city and its population. The fourth book “Some uses of Reincarnation” deals with Dom’s return Bombay and his visit to the Rashid’s old Khana which is transformed into a new business office run by Jamal, Rashid’s son. We see the new generation selling cocaine in clubs. Dom discovers the ancient opium pipe which belonged to Dimple, which told him the stories. Thayil has ended the book at the same place where it was started by saying “All I did was write it down, one word after the other, beginning and ending with the same one, Bombay”.(292) The story begins at Rashid’s opium house on Shuklaji Street and it’s there that the eunuch, Dimple is introduced to the reader, “...... was already nodding as I watched the woman, watched Dimple, and something calmed me in the unhurried way she made the pipe.....”.(5) Sexual minorities over the world continue to suffer discriminations at the hands of the state and from an educated society. Even in countries like India with a major educated population the heterosexual majority is hostile towards them. Some human rights groups have started racing voice for them. These sexual minorities suffer a lot from the mainstream society. No one is bothered about their identity, emotions, feelings, psyche and the trauma that they undergo. They are often forced to leave their family and some are even killed or sold at a very young age. Those who survive flee to metro Politian cities like Madras, Bangalore, Bombay and Delhi, especially to the Northern parts of India where they make their living by begging or prostitution. This might have influenced Thayyil to make a hijra, Dimple as the central female character in his novel. Thayyil presents Dimple not just as a eunuch but in a more complicated way. ‘Cut’ before the age of ten, she is a ‘hijra’, a transsexual who is a prostitute. Her mother sold her into prostitution much young and she still has nightmares about the pain she underwent during the surgery. Still she undergoes body pain due to the hormonal changes due to her surgery at a younger age. She has vague memory about her parents but has no hatred towards her mother but still she couldn’t get the answer ‘why’ her mother did it. But how could she possibly remember such things when she’d been separated from her parents at the age of seven and at eight had already come to live with the tai, who had named her Dimple, not because she had any, but because there was an actress of that name who had for the briefest moments captured the nation’s excitable imagination? But she did, she remember with absolute clarity her mother placing her in the hands of the priest. (240) Dimple is always happy and very much happy with her looks still the thoughts of her surgery haunts her throughout her life. May be it is opium that helped her to overcome this trauma. Psychological trauma is like an irremovable mark encrypted in once psyche. It will destroy all the tranquillity and serenity of the mind and put the individual into a world of depression and loneliness. Trauma is defined as:

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The events that involve an actual threat or injury to oneself or others and that are accompanied by feelings of helplessness, fear or horror such events can be either discrete episodes such as kidnapping or a rape or prolonged and repetitive occurrences such as ongoing physical or sexual abuse.(Clark 196) Trauma is the state of mind which consists of feeling like helplessness, fear, insecurity etc. Dimple undergoes severe psychological trauma from her childhood onwards but she survives in the streets with her will power and her desire to live. Even though a silent character she perpetuates terrible strength throughout the novel. She influences others too like Mr. Lee who finds a daughter in her, Rasheed who gets a lover in her and for the narrator a friend. This is very evident when we analyse the role of Dimple in the life of other characters. Dimple was a friendly person and was quite close to Mr. Lee who treated her as a daughter. Dimple was suffering from severe body pain due to her lifestyle. She heard about the Chinese medicine of Mr. Lee and met him for treatment. Lee, a Chinese drug dealer introduced her to opium to get rid of her unbearable body pain. An unusual friendship develops between them, and he confides the story of his lost life and loves. They used to spend long hours in the beech which was a comfort for both and they used to share a lot of things. Before he dies Mr Lee asks her to bury him in China. But she couldn’t make it up and she reproaches herself for not fulfilling the last wish of her friend. She receives from him two ancient and beautiful pipes as ‘dowry’ from him. Dimple was more than an employee to Rashid. He tried to find his love in her. Once Dimple moves from the brothel and she stays with Rashid , in the upper part of his house. He changed her name to Zeenath since he was a fan of the Hindi film actress Zeenath Aman. Once they went to see the film Dum Maro Dum. She never protested with her new identity. When they went out he made her wear a ‘burgha’ which made her more comfortable. Thus we have Rasheed trying to change her identity but this make no difference in Dimple. Receiving new identities has become a part of her life. But Rashid is the one who misses her even after her death. After her death he hears her opening a door at night or moving things around. He tries to catch a glimpse of her. Dimple is very friendly with Rumi, a regular customer at Rashid’s opium house and with the Bengali, an old man who works along with Dimple in the khana. He helps Dimple in reading. She always regretted that she couldn’t study, like any hijra she too was denied education. It is her skill of making the pipes of opium that help to draw other people into the den. She is very much aware from the beginning what waits for her at the end. She is truly a tragic figure caught in the hands of fate and is helpless. Customers who come and go away from the den have many choices but she is left without a choice. But even in such a life she tries to gain education, its only due to her interest in learning that she manages to learn to read. She reads whatever comes in her hand and she discusses about book with the customers. Thayyil tries to go into the psyche of transgender through Dimple. Dom asks questions to her like Is it better to be a man or a woman? Dimple said: For conversation, better to be a woman,

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for everything else, for sex, better to be a man...... She said Woman and Man are words other people use not me. I’m sure what I’m. Some days I’m neither, or I’m nothing. On other days I feel I’m both. But men and women are so different, but how can one person be both? Isn’t that what you are thinking? Well I’m both. (11) Dimple is a very bold character who makes her on decisions. She decided to leave the brothel and went to live with Rashid. She was not bothered about the society. Even though Rashid’s family hated her she was successful in creating a bond with Rashid’s son. She was dedicated and enjoyed filling the pipes. For her it was an art and she did it beautifully and perfectly like an artist. Narrator used to watch the way she prepared the pipes. Transgender are the ones who are denied even the basic right to live independently in a society. Their list of losses starts at a very young age, from childhood onwards. Most of them are killed during the birth itself. Even the most educated society which is aware about the existence of a third gender hesitates to accept them. They are denied of their rights. They face many restrictions. Those who accept themselves as the third gender always face many problems like dress, mannerisms, education, employment, gender, sexuality, love, acceptance, health, family, religion, existence. They face only denials. Since they are denied and restricted everywhere they can’t receive education as a result they can’t find a job. Then they are forced to be either beggars or prostitutes to make a living. For the family too they become a burden. They are left with the only option, to flee from their own land. (Sheethal, 12) The use of heroine in the case of dimple was an escape from her childhood memories and to overcome from the severe body pain due to the hormonal imbalances in her. At one moment she decides to be free from this addiction and she seeks the help of Dom , who leaves her at a rehabilitation centre, which leads to a highly unexpected change in her life. She becomes a, Soporo Omar, an intellectual leader of the rehabilitation centre where he lectures to the reforming addicts. Soporo kills Rumi who blackmails him with her past and as Dimple once more returns to Rashid and dies of cancer from smoking opium. CONCLUSION For Dimple changes in character, identity and gender; whether it be Zeenath or Sopro or Dimple makes no difference. Sold as child to a brothel and castrated, she escapes by taking opium become a prostitute later the mistress of Rashid, becomes a muslim- Zeenath, then Soporo, then Rumi’s murderer. We can only expect death for such a person as Thayyil has done to her. But her death creates a vacuum in the hearts of the readers just like Dome’s. Thayyil has very well depicted the agonies and trauma of a transgender through Dimple. The identity crisis and the existence of two genders within them haunt them throughout their life. The discriminations and the traumatic experiences always fill their life with perpetual fear and humiliations. They too have the right to enjoy a normal life and the society should accept them and support them to come to the main stream.

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REFERENCES Thayyil, Jeet. Narcopolis. London: Faber and Faber Limited, 2012. Print. Clark, Andrew and Mischel S Jellinek. Post –traumatic Stress Disorder;Saunders Manual of Pediatric Practice. Newyork:Elaviere, 2002. Print. Friedman, B, Stranford. Comprehensive Adolescent Health Care. St. Louise Missouri: Mosby Publication,1998. Print. Shyam, Shethal. “Jeevichirikkal Oru Manushyavakashamanu”. Mathrubhumi, April 2016. 12-15. Print. King, Bruce. “Bombay: heroin of the story”. Biblio: A Review of Books, May-June 2012. 14-15. Print.

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DECONSTRUCTING WOMAN IN A GLOBAL UTOPIA: REREADING MAHASWETA DEVI’S STATUE

Sheril Sara Thomson P. G. Scholar (English), C.M.S College, Kottayam, Kerala Mobile: 9645805004 e.mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT One of India’s foremost writers, Mahasweta Devi breaks from the anonymity of restricted folk narratives towards a modern discourse of challenging naturalized assumptions about women and society. This paper looks upon Statue, a short story from Devi’s Old Women translated by ‘Practical Marxist- Feminist-Deconstructionist’ Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. The national independence could only conserve the rights for a minority educated community turning the others to be benefiting less of the same constitution. In Statue, Devi focuses upon the violence meted out to the subaltern. She turns to be the voice of the voiceless marginalized, while Spivak’s translation paves to revoice the texts to the world. Key words: Women and Society, Violence, Subaltern, Marginalized Community

Through the narration of Mahasweta Devi the voiceless at the periphery receives a voice, which in turn is echoed to the world by Spivak’s translations. Devi’s works become object through Spivak’s narrations where there would be a change in subject formation. Spivak’s question of ‘Can the subaltern speak?’ is quiet answered by Devi’s narration but it is restricted to a certain territory and audience. But through Spivak’s translation the text gets a global read thus maintaining a double articulation for Devi’s texts. In Statue, the old woman Dulali’s body is abjected but at the end the same body turns a sight of resistance. Spivak’s excellent translation irons out the wrinkles of hyper-realism into the universal prose of Third World literature. Mahasweta Devi’s story of old woman Dulali in Statue comes with their caste and class surroundings, deities, snake goddess Manosha. In this story, she depicts a woman as subaltern. Spivak comments on Statue that the realization that as time passes for a woman the ideology of love remains a memory but acknowledges defeat in the hands of hunger is an exquisite aporia almost between species life and species being. One of the main protagonists of the story Statue, Brajadulali called as Dulali or Pishi, is given a voice where she is at the centre of the narration. A widow at a young age she faces harsh

62 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 life. In her old age Dulali finds hunger as a reality and to satisfy half a belly turns to be her priority. She starts collecting pots of goddess Monisha and also steals lentils. The narrative proves the notion of national liberation for the subaltern as both a tragedy and a farce. Not even the Constitution of the country helps to uplift the ‘marginalized’ but forces them to be in an abject poverty of rights. Nothing in Constitution works for her to achieve upliftment, but creates the binary of high caste/ low caste, dominant/oppressed, man/woman and such discrimination etc. Mahasweta Devi gives Dulali courage and realization that she need not stick to a community or village where she is already an outcaste and has turned her invisible. Dulali though at an advanced age decides to step out of the village, no more to cry out from the periphery but live a life and not to survive. The narrative of Mahasweta Devi is not just exposing the women’s plight but gives voice for the mute, thus making it a grand narrative of an untold story of a peripheral woman. Mahasweta Devi calls in for specificity where in ‘Author’s Preface’ to Bashai Tudu feels the want to use her ability to write in defence of the dispossessed and the disinherited; she feels accountable for her generations and to answer for herself. ‘Pishi is the neglected soil. She looks cracked and dry like thirsty neglected soil.’ She grows up in bitter soil, brutalized, the mooted mute in Statue. From earliest consciousness she remembers that she was at once unwanted and indispensable in the household….Does she belong to this house? If close kin, then why outcast? If not kin, then why is she in the house? If the decision is not to feed her, then why give? If one feels like feeding, why give such a small amount of rice? (13-14) “At seventy-eight the body becomes such that today’s unappeased hunger appears much more real than the requited love of the past.”(27) The educated Dindayal Thakur and Nabin of the same illiterate Chhatim village are tagged revolutionists as they are against the social evils like mistreating widows. Dinu questions, “Who says life ends at widowhood? Who says there can be no marriage between a Bhunya and a Thakur?” (18) Devi portrays with the death of Dinu and the social isolation of Dulali of a marked failure of political independence to effectively change the class and gender inequalities in Indian society. Nabin becomes a leader of the deprived those whose dream of roads, health care, school etc. The farce of the government is unveiled, for them “the statue of a dead man is much more important than other living problems.” Mahasweta Devi a champion of the underdog took on the Left front in Bengal in solidarity with the oppressed. Her works can be read as an indomitable art; where she speaks of ordinary men in life and in death, for her real history is made by oral people. The only character who sticks by Dulali is Nabin where in Statue he describes her as the’ spirit of the village’ and ‘village goddess’; while other characters in the story define her as a disaster. Devi unlike many Indian writers deconstructs the marginalized female in a humorous and colloquial style. Dulali is not hindered of her dream weaving capabilities though advanced in age. A royal line turned outcaste, a widow, at an advanced age she deconstructs love as nothing material. At the end, Dulali with Nabin walks out of the dark, illiterate, ruthless chains of Chhatim community. Our nation is unable to decolonize the violence associated with the imperial regime, but

63 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 there is a continual apathetic existence of women under double oppression. Dulali becomes a ‘homosacer’ who is heavily under inclusion of the exclusion system. She is a living goddess, a royal line but an outcaste being a widow. Robert J.C Young in the preface to Jean Paul Sartre’s “Colonialism and Neocolonialism” states that the colonial subject always exist in a confused state because he internalizes the ideology of inferiority within himself and believes to be less than fully human. The state of Dulali is a ‘condition of ontological ambivalence’. She in her marginalized society turns to be the organizer and victim of a system that has silenced her. Fifty four years later when Dindayal Thakur is celebrated as brave, Dulali remains an outcaste and denied to slip out of her room. She mocks at people’s foolishness in raising a statue for there are other priorities like road, lighting, education, health care still strange to the people. A woman of seventy-eight turns out to be the light of inspiration to other generations to live a life of their own. Mahasweta Devi picks up this old lady whose thoughts have turned belly-centered, whose dreams are crude dreams, where she wears a whole cloth, and has food to her full. A bud denied blooming to her full, Dulali at her old age champions to be a rebel in every community, where she no more restricts herself to any notions. Mahasweta Devi is an indefatigable chronicler of the marginalized. She gives voice to the voiceless to narrate the untold stories of pitiful plights. Her portrayal of woman is sensitive and depicts the socio-economic oppression that she survives. The women of Devi’s short stories try to achieve upliftment but they are narrowed down to a territory and certain space. Though Devi is a prolific writer of the women in periphery she was denied reputation that she deserved. But the old woman Dulali in Statue proves that she gets voice through Devi and is revoiced to the world by Spivak’s translation. The old lady of Statue of Old Women faces cruelty and oppression right from her young age with her being a widow. For the old woman her dreams have turned crude dreams, wants to wear a whole cloth. Though of a royal line she is an outcaste in her own house and she survives on ration by her family. The old woman in Statue initially sighted as body of abjection at the end turns a body of resistance where the woman in the periphery is brought to gray light. A farce on the government is unveiled through the statue of a dead man which is given importance than any other living problems of Chhatim village. Kamala Vishweswaran refers Dulali the old lady of Statue as woman as subaltern. The story is an ethical risk where educated voices for an old widow. Though Devi expresses for the dispossessed she is not recognized; ultimately where we are made to dream for a global utopia. Dulali is made an outsider at home. She survives in her own spirit to not to live in the past. For her love is redefined not to any man but anything that satisfies her hunger. Mahasweta Devi gives a voice to this downtrodden widow and makes it a grand narrative to unveil an untold story of a woman in the periphery. This periphery thus points to the patriarchal society at the centre which conditions society according to their interests. Mahasweta Devi in Statue is revoiced by Spivak’s translation that retells the world of her texts. Devi’s Dulali can be seen to move away from social rejection. There are situations where she has an apathetic existence, where she becomes a homosacer, an outsider in the four walls of her house. She turns like a deity that is worshipped no more. She does not stick on to a vulnerable position as a daughter, goddess or disaster, but finds a space of her own. She finds herself an authoritive sense of life, to identify an identity. Her advanced age does not hinder her to weave dreams.

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CONCLUSION Women are conditioned in society as marginalized and kicked to periphery to a sense of docility and negligence. Termed marginalized, the outcries from the periphery is indecent and improper and lose of her identity. Every woman endures a fate despite belonging to an upper or lower caste shares the same story in different situations. Women from ages past are conditioned to be subversive and be indifferent to class caste indifferences. A woman is denied from her birthright to change her domicile. Her sufferings go untold unnoticed to the world. Men at the centre with women in the periphery give premise to binary oppositions of colonizer-colonized, imperialism-nationalism and good-bad. In this politics of power relation, a woman is governed by men. Mahasweta Devi’s Statue explodes such binary notions where the woman in the periphery falls into the gray scale of marginal living, an ambivalent situation, thus resultant to double oppression. Dulali loses her voice being mixed with the social scenario but eventually she finds her way out. WORKS CITED Devi, Mahasweta. Old Women. Trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Calcutta: Seagull Books, 2002. Print Iyengar, K.R. Srinivasa. Indian Writing in English. New Delhi: Sterling, 1985. Print. Tharu, Susie, K. Lalita. eds. Women Writing in India: the Twentieth Century. New York: The Feminist Press, 1993. Print.

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CORPORATE GOVERNANCE PRACTICES IN INDIAN COMPANIES – A COMPARATIVE STUDY

Nikhil Anil Guest Lecturer (Commerce), NSS Hindu College, Changanacherry

Karthika P Nair Guest Lecturer (Commerce), NSS Hindu College, Changanacherry

ABSTRACT This case study is aimed at investigating the corporate governance practices in Indian firms. The spate of corporate frauds and scams rattled the confidence and faith of the stakeholders in the corporate world. For the long term sustainability of the corporate houses in particular and the economy in general, good corporate governance is imperative. The corporate governance is both a science and an art. The objectivity is achieved to a great extent through the codes of corporate governance practices. The spirit with which the corporate world obeys the letters of the code determines the quality of governance. Revised Clause 49 of the SEBI guidelines on Corporate Governance is taken as the benchmark for the present study. Sample size is 50 (CNX Nifty Index) companies. The study covers the concept of corporate governance, saga of corporate governance reforms and regulatory framework, literature review, objectives, analysis and findings and conclusion. The results of the study reveal that the mandatory provisions of revised Clause 49 are followed by most of the companies. However, there is a need to extend the scope of existing mandatory requirements of revised Clause 49 further Key words: Corporate governance, OECD, Clause 49, Revised Clause 49, audit committee, compliance report, Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, Cadbury Report

INTRODUCTION Corporate governance is a buzz word in the corporate world. The concept of corporate governance gained further momentum after the sudden crash of Enron, WorldCom, Xerox, Lehman Brothers and the crisis of Satyam. Lack of transparency and poor disclosures in the annual reports are blocking the stakeholders from ascertaining the well-being of the corporate houses. As a consequence, investor community urged for improvements in governance practices which lead to the implementation of corporate governance codes. In today’s world of globalization, the concept of corporate governance has taken an important place. Today, companies are operating in the international arena. For attracting foreign investors and global fund raising, the corporate houses

66 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 have to demonstrate high quality governance. The key principle for success is to ensure the growth which is sustainable and inclusive. Out of various critical aspects of corporate governance, current study aims at investigating the corporate governance practices followed by Indian companies by taking Clause 49 (Revised) as the benchmark. Clause 49 of the SEBI listing agreement has brought out landmark transformation to improve the quality of disclosure of the Indian companies. Objectives of the study The study has the following two objectives. a) To examine corporate governance practices of CNX Nifty 50 companies in India. b) To benchmark the corporate governance practices of CNX Nifty 50 companies with the revised Clause 49. Research Methodology This study is about corporate governance practices of CNX Nifty 50 companies in India. Annual reports of 2010-11and 2011-12 have been used for this study. The revised Clause 49 of the listing agreement of stock exchanges introduced by SEBI is taken as the benchmark and disclosure regarding corporate governance practices in the annual reports is compared. Clause 49 of the SEBI listing agreement has brought about landmark transformation in improving the quality of disclosure of the Indian companies. Scope (Sample and period of study) This study is about governance practices of CNX Nifty 50 companies in India. It covers two years, 2010-11 and 2011-12. CNX Nifty index undergoes changes. Only common companies present in both the years have been considered for the study. Of the 50 companies, 48 companies were commonly found in the CNX Nifty 50 index for both the years. In 2010-11, out of the common 48 companies one company named, Housing Development Finance Corporation Ltd was not considered due to non-availability of annual report. In 2011-12 analysis, one company named Sun Pharmaceuticals Ltd was excluded due to non-availability of annual report. Hence this analysis comprises 47 companies in 2010-11 and 2011-12. The Concept of Corporate Governance The meaning of the term corporate governance is a subject of considerable debate. The concept has been defined in many ways. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has defined corporate governance as, “procedures and processes according to which an organisation is directed and controlled. The corporate governance structure specifies the distribution of rights and responsibilities among the different participants in the organisation – such as the board, managers, shareholders and other stakeholders – and lays down the rules and procedures for decision-making.” As per the Cadbury Committee (1992), “Corporate governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled. Boards of directors are responsible for the governance of their companies. The shareholders role in governance is to appoint the directors and the auditors to satisfy themselves that an appropriate governance structure is in place. The responsibilities of the board include setting the company’s strategic aims, providing the leadership to put them into effect, supervising the management of the business and reporting to shareholders on their stewardship. The board’s actions are subject to laws, regulations and the shareholders in

67 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 general meeting”. In a nutshell, the corporate governance is all about governing corporations in such a transparent manner that all stakeholders interests are protected, and with due compliance with the laid down laws. Saga of Corporate Governance and Regulatory framework in India Corporate governance concept has gained public attention in early 90s in India. First special initiative on corporate governance was taken by confederation of Indian Industry (CII) in 1996 by introducing voluntary corporate governance code. The objective was to develop and promote a code of corporate governance to be adopted and followed by Indian companies. CII came up with the recommendations to be followed by Indian industry. In 1999 Kumar Mangalam Birla committee was appointed to promote the standards of corporate governance. It made recommendations for several issues including board of directors, audit committee, remuneration committee, management, shareholders etc. In 2000, SEBI introduced mandatory corporate governance code in place of voluntary one through Clause 49 of listing agreement. The term „Clause 49 refers to Clause number 49 of the Listing Agreement between a company and the stock exchanges on which it is listed (the Listing Agreement is identical for all Indian stock exchanges, including the NSE and BSE). It is mandatory for listed Indian companies to follow the provisions of Clause 49. The equivalent of Clause 49 is US Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) Act of 2002, which was introduced by Securities and Exchange Commission for the companies listed in U.S stock exchanges. In 2002, Naresh Chandra committee was appointed by the department of company affairs. This committee took forward the recommendations of Kumar Manglam Birla committee. This committee laid down strict guidelines defining the relationship between auditors and clients. In 2003, Narayan Murthy committee was setup by SEBI. This committee came out with the recommendations focusing on strengthening the responsibility of audit committee, quality of financial disclosure, proceeds from initial public offerings and many other important aspects. On 29th October 2004, SEBI finally announced revised Clause 49. The revised Clause 49 on corporate governance made major changes in the definition of independent directors, strengthening the responsibilities of audit committees, improving quality of financial disclosures, including those relating to related party transactions and proceeds from public/ rights/ preferential issues, requiring Boards to adopt formal code of conduct, requiring CEO/CFO certification of financial statements and for improving disclosures to shareholders. Certain non-mandatory Clauses like whistle blower policy and training of board members have also been included. Main concepts Board of Directors Board of directors is the committee elected by the shareholders of a company, who are responsible for formulating the corporate policy. The analysis is covered under the following three sub headings i. Composition of Board of directors: It was found that during 2010-11 out of 47 companies 44 companies had followed the provision of Clause 49. Only 3 companies composition of board was not as per provision, but it had been disclosed in the annual reports. During

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2011-12, the board composition was as per provisions in respect of 45 companies. ii. Independent Directors:It was found that during 2010-11, 44 companies and during 2011- 12, 45 companies had shown proper disclosure and followed the provisions of revised Clause 49. iii. Nonexecutive director’s compensation and disclosure: It was observed that during 2010- 11 and 2011-12 all the companies had provided proper disclosure except for one company. Other Provisions relating to the Board: This heading has been subdivided in to six parts. This includes the following: a) No. of Board Meetings b) Attendance of each director at the board meeting and AGM c) Gap between two meetings d) As a chairman (for not more than 5 companies) e) As a director membership in committees (not more than 10) f) Code of conduct. The study revealed that all the companies during 2010-11 and 2011-12 had followed the provisions of revised Clause 49 and made a proper disclosure in respect of the other provisions relating to the Board except for one provision i.e. code of conduct. During 2010-11and 2011-12, 41 companies had made proper disclosure and had attached the certificate of the code of conduct with the annual report; and, 6 companies had not made a proper disclosure in this regard. Audit Committee The Cadbury Report termed the annual audit as “one of the cornerstones of the Corporate Governance.” Seven aspects have been provided under the heading audit committee, they are i) Composition of audit committee ii) Chairman of audit committee (Independent Director) iii) Qualification of audit committee members iv) Meetings of audit committee (minimum 4) v) Quorum for meeting (2/3 or 2 whichever is greater of total members) vi) Role of audit committee. vii) Review of statements. This analysis revealed that during both the years 2010-11 and 2011-12 all companies had followed the provisions of revised Clause 49 and had disclosed proper information on each aspect of audit committee. Subsidiary companies The results of analysis showed that during 2010-11 and 2011-12, 45 companies had disclosed proper information on subsidiary companies and attached accounts of subsidiary companies along with the annual report. One company had not attached accounts of subsidiary companies, but it had mentioned this fact in the annual report and one company had not disclosed any information on subsidiary companies.

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Disclosure As per revised Clause 49 this aspect has been further divided into eight sub headings, which include: i) Basis of related party transaction ii) Disclosure of material transaction with related party iii) Disclosure of financial statements with management explanation iv) Risk assessment and minimization procedure by board v) Proceeds from public/right/preferential issues vi) Criteria of Remuneration of directors vii) Management viii) Shareholders The present study showed a mixed bag of results under the disclosure aspect. Many aspects like proceeds from public/right/preferential issue had been ignored by the companies. In 2010-11 and 2011-12, only 5 companies had disclosed proper information on this aspect. Others had not disclosed any information on this aspect in both the years. One another important aspect i.e. Risk assessment and minimization by the Board, 7 companies had not disclosed any information in 2010-11 and 2011-12. On Other aspects of disclosures, proper information was given by all the companies in both the years. CEO and CFO Certification Revised Clause 49 has mandated the CEO and CFO Certification to board of directors of listed company on specific matters and disclosure of the same in the annual report. As per the analysis, in 2010-11and 2011-12, 22, companies had disclosed proper information and attached CEO certificate with the annual reports. 14 companies had not attached the certificate and 11 companies had not given any information on this aspect. Compliance report: It was found that all the companies had attached the certificate of compliance with the annual report during 2010-11 and 2011-12 except for one company. Report on Corporate Governance The study revealed that all the companies provided the report on corporate governance in their annual reports. Non mandatory Requirements: Information on the non-mandatory requirements has been provided under seven sub headings. The findings were different in case of non-mandatory requirements as compared to mandatory requirements. Analysis revealed that a very few companies had provided proper information on non-mandatory requirements. Board (Tenure of non-executive directors) In 2010-11 and 2011-12, only 21 and 22 companies respectively had followed provisions and disclosed properly. 8 companies had not given proper information in both the years and rest of the companies had not disclosed any information. Remuneration Committee: 41 companies in 2010-11 and 43 companies in 2011-12 had set up remuneration committee and disclosed properly. Shareholders right is very important requirement of corporate governance. As per revised Clause 49, companies may send annual report to the shareholders residence, but only 8 companies in 70 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

2010-11 and 2011-12 had dispatched financial results to shareholders residence, another 33 companies in 2010-11 and 2011-12 had excuse of following green initiative but it could have been sent through emails. Six companies had not provided any information on this aspect. Audit qualification In 2010-11 and 2011-12, 13 and 12 companies had not disclosed any information on this aspect. Training of Board members: Only 19 companies in 2010-11 and 20 companies in 2011-12 had followed provisions and conducted various training programs and disclosed properly. In 2010- 11 and 2011-12, 8 companies had given vague information; rest of the companies had not disclosed any information on this aspect. Mechanism for evaluating non-executive directors: Surprisingly only15 companies in 2010-11and 17 in 2011-12 had followed the proper mechanism and disclosed properly. Whistle blower policy: In the years 2010-11 and 2011-12, 38 and 41 companies respectively were having proper whistle blower policy in place. 7 companies in 2010-11 and 4 companies in 2011-12 had not followed whistle blower policy, but they disclosed in the annual report. 2 companies had not given any information on this aspect for both the years. The results had shown that companies are not focusing much on non-mandatory requirements. CONCLUSION Majority of the sample companies are following the mandatory provisions and disclosing the required information as per the revised Clause 49. A few number of companies (Bajaj auto, Infosys, Dr. Reddy etc.) disclosure levels are beyond the requirements of the revised Clause 49. And they are following the voluntary corporate governance guidelines 2009 and taking sustainability initiatives and taking steps for corporate social responsibility. In fact, Infosys gets the rating done for its corporate governance practice from ICRA and CRISIL. It is interesting to see the corporate governance practices of the companies outside the CNX Nifty index. This provides scope for further research. REFERENCE 1. Cadbury Committee report (1992) On The Financial Aspects Of Corporate Governance, 1 December 1992, p. 14, Para 2.5 2. Gupta A, Nair A P and Gogula R. (2003) Corporate Governance Reporting by Indian Companies: A Content Analysis Study, The IUP Journal of Corporate Governance, Vol. 2, No.4, pp.7-18 3. Reema Sharma and Fulbag Singh (2009) Voluntary Corporate Governance Disclosure: A study of selected companies in India, The Icfai University Journal of Corporate Governance, Vol.8 No.3&4, pp 91-108. 4. Sulphey MM. and Janardhanan Rajesh (2010) The Position of Indian Companies in the Quest for Corporate Governance: Contemporary management research, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 1-8. 5. Dr. Antony Thomas, Dr. Leena James; Corporate Governance; Pratibha publications. 6. www.sebi.gov.in 7. www.thehindubusinessline.com

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DIGITAL ADVERTISING MARKET IN INDIA: CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Jacob Sam Research Scholar (Commerce), Kerala University Library, Palayam, Trivandrum e.mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT In the age of digital media, India has seen a rise in digital marketing activities and new trends in adoption of internet for branding and marketing. As Indian consumers started increasingly shifting to digital, mobile has been their preferred medium for accessing digital content and services. Recognising this trend and the fact that digital, particularly mobile is where their audience is, marketers have taken this route too. Businesses are now increasingly spending money in online marketing services. From the consumers perspective , the ability to filter content , freedom to view what one wishes to view and having access to relevant ads and communication , makes digital advertising extremely relevant to the consumer segment. As per the latest study report by IAMAI, digital advertising market in India is pegged at Rs 5200 Cr and is estimated to reach Rs 7044 Cr by December 2016.The report further says that the digital advertising spend will account for 12% of the total advertising spend in the country. The present paper is in this direction analysing the trends in digital ad spend, spend among different sectors and future prospects of this industry. Key Words: Digital Advertising, Internet and Mobile Association of India (IAMAI), Indian Market Research Bureau (IMRB) International

INTRODUCTION What ever market your business is working in, understanding your customers is key. The growth of internet use in India is attracting the focus of global brands, as well as changing the way national firms market themselves. With increasing mobile and internet penetration and the rise of a tech-savvy generation of consumers, digital media is seen as a potent tool to disseminate information and engage a target audience. India being the second largest internet population already, offers a huge opportunity for those who are planning to get into this industry. From information to opinion to shopping, digital media is becoming the first choice for a large section of the population in India today. The changes have been fast and today to reach upmarket and professional audiences the internet has to be a core part of the strategy and this development is what is driving the spend on digital marketing .

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Objectives 1. To examine the trends in digital Ad spends for the last five years. 2. To analyse the factors that acts as a growth driver for the digital advertising industry. 3. To examine sector- wise spend of digital advertising. Research methodology This paper is based on secondary data and information has been sourced from various books, journals, newspaper reports, IAMAI-IMRB reports and is descriptive in nature. Concept of Digital Advertising Digital Advertising also called online advertising or internet advertising is a form of marketing and advertising which uses the internet to deliver promotional marketing messages to consumers. It includes e-mail marketing, search engine marketing, social media marketing, many types of display advertising and mobile advertising. Digital Advertising Market in India Table1: Table showing digital advertising market in India Year Digital Advertising Spend (In Cr) 2010-11 1140 2011-12 1750 2012-13 2260 2013-14 2750 2014-15 5200 -IMRB Report Source: IAMAI-IMRB Report The digital advertising market in India was pegged at Rs 5200 Crore by the end of December 2015 as per the latest findings by the IAMAI-IMRB report. The report finds that the digital advertising spend is about 12% of the total advertisement spends in the country. Fig1 - Digital Ad spend in India for the last five years

Sector wise spend on traditional and Digital advertising Digital advertising spend is about 12% of the total advertising spends in the country. Interms of volume , E-commerce lead the digital ad spends with Rs 1040 Cr followed by Telecom and BFSI. However , a comparison of these verticals in terms of share of spends on Traditional Vs

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Table 2: Table Showing share of Digital spend by Verticals Sectors Traditional Digital Share of Digital Spend by Ad spend (In Cr) Ad spend (In Cr) Verticals FMCG 14174 676 5% E-commerce 3010 1040 26% Telecom 2370 780 25% Education 2388 312 12% Travel 1678 572 25% BFSI 1072 728 40% Auto 3960 540 12% Others 11148 552 5% Total 39800 5200 Source: IAMAI- IMRB Study Digital show that BFSI organisations incurred the highest share on digital advertisement spends.40% of their overall advertising spends was on Digital followed by e-commerce , telecom and travel. Growth Drivers for Digital Advertisnig Industry in India Mobile Internet Users in India Table: 3 Mobile Internet Users in India (In Millions) Year Internet users 2012 48 2013 91 2014 185 2015 239 2016 371 Source: IAMAI- IMRB Report The exploded adoption of smart phones due to declining ASP (Average Selling Price) is resulting in an enormous surge in the number of mobile internet users in India. Driven by higher adoption in rural India, the number of mobile internet users in the country is expected to reach 371 million by June -2016, a report by IAMAI-IMRB International report. Fig 2: Mobile Internet Users in India

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Internet Penetration in India Table: 4 Internet penetration in India Year Internet Users Penetration(% of pop) 2011 125,617,813 10.1 2012 158,960,346 12.6 2013 193,204,330 15.1 2014 233,152,478 18 2015 354,114,747 27 Source: Internet Live Stats

Despite the untapped potential, India already is the second largest (surpassing the US) online market worldwide. The number of internet users in India has been steadily increasing and India had 354 million internet users in 2015. This figure is projected to grow to 402 million users in 2016. Fig 3 Interment penetration in Percentage

Trends and Growth  With increasing mobile and internet penetration, digital media is seen as potent tool to execute marketing campaigns.  Driven by higher adoption in rural India, the number of mobile internet users in the country is expected to reach 371 million by June 2016.  The number of internet users in India is expected to reach 402 million by 2016.While internet took more than a decade to move from 10 million to 100 million and three years from 100 million to 200 million , it took only a year to move from 300 to 400 million users. Clearly internet is mainstream in India today.  Usage of social media in India has been growing and there are 143 million social media users in India as on April 2015. Largest segment accessing social media consists of college students followed by young men.  Majority of the users’ access social media on their mobile device. 75 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

 Governments are increasingly using the mobile internet to communicate with their citizens and make information available. The Digital India initiative aims to bring to citizens transparent services electronically. To do so. It aims to provide high-speed internet in all villages of the country.  Many handset manufacturers are contributing to the increasing trend of Smartphone usage by selling high end phones at lower price points. CONCLUSION With the world becoming digital in every way possible, it’s easy to see why digital media is gaining prominence among both consumers and businesses. For consumers, it offers engaging, informative, timely content in addition to its convenience and flexibility. For businesses, it offers cost effectiveness, instant feedback, accessibility and much more. Digital advertisement has curved a substantial space in the overall advertising space. Digital marketing provides various channels for marketing which may be sending promotional information to customers or prospective customers through e-mail, spreading awareness through blogging, video streaming, search engine marketing, SMS marketing, application based mobile marketing etc. Each channel has its own reach, advantages, richness and costs associated with it. Marketers need to be prompt to identify what would work for them and work in tandem with other organisational functions to effectively use the channel of digital marketing. No doubt, digital marketing is here to stay. REFERENCES 1. Rajiv Kaushik, (2016). Digital Marketing in India Context. IJCEM International Journal of Computational Engineering and Management, 19(2) 2. “The Digital DNA-State of E-marketing India 2015” Octane Research. Jan 2015 3. Social Media in India 2014- IAMAI –IMRB Report 4. ‘Mobile Internet in India 2015’- IAMAI Report 5. Mishra P (2014). Rise of Online Advertising in India: An Overview. Journal of Mass Communication and Journalism, 4:172. doi:10.4172/2165-7912:1000172 6. Jerry Watkins (2012). Mobile and Smartphone use in Urban and Rural India. Continuum,26(5), 685-697. 7. TRAI Annual Reports 2014-15

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CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY: A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR ORGANIZATIONS IN KERALA

Rakendu M.L. Research Scholar in Commerce, Kerala University Library University of Kerala, Trivandrum

ABSTRACT The corporate social responsibility is an en-suite strategy for the business enterprise and a source of entrepreneurial innovation in order to maximize its opportunities. It considers the companies’ decisions and actions on the environment and the society as a whole. As a socio- economic institution a company has to perform all tasks involved in the development and delivery of desirable goods and services from production to consumption. As a social institution, it is responsible to deliver a standard of living and maximizing life’s quality both in society and in the environment. The present study helps to know whether the practice and prevailing policy of both public and private sector organization with regard to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is good enough or any improvement is required.

INTRODUCTION The relationship between companies and the communities in which they operate is becoming more complex as the operations of a business enterprise affect a wide range of activities. The shareholder, the employees, the consumers, the suppliers of resources, the local community and the entire society is affected by the way a company functions. Corporate undertakings have choices about how they manage their business, what approach they take to labour and customer relations, for example, can determine whether or not they are seen as good citizens. The best of the world’s companies are setting high standards of behaviours in many aspects of business and wider social conduct. Good corporate citizens have a major impact on how these business partners in turn run their local businesses. Thus Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) can be seen as the realization of connection between everyday activity of companies and the well being of society and as a comprehensive approach towards corporate citizenship, social and environmental responsibility (Sarma, 2003). Statement of the Problem In India, business houses and manufacturing firms have started realizing the importance and usefulness of their social responsibility for the long-term viability and sustenance of their

77 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 survival and growth. Compliance with the existing norms of pollution and guidelines for sustainable utilization of natural resources inclusive of soil, water and biological resources has considerably increased in last few years in India. Some of the compliances are under legal pressure, some are under technical and some fall under the domain of economic incentive. It has been said that business is bound by an iron law of responsibility, which states that ‘in the long run, those who do not use power in a way that society considers responsible will tend to lose it’ (James, 2002). This is an important concept, considering the importance of corporate social responsibility. Hence, it is felt that a study on CSR has greater relevance in the coming years. Objectives of the study The major objectives of the study with regard to public and private sector organizations are elicited below: 1. To identify the key drivers of CSR; 2. To understand the high priority areas of CSR; 3. To discover the hurdles in the implementation of CSR. Methodology of the study In view of a large number of companies that make pollution enormously in Kerala, particularly in the industrial belt of Eloor- Kalamassery region, two public sector undertakings and two private sector undertakings were selected for the present study. They include Indian Rare Earths Ltd, HMT Machine Tools Ltd, Binani Zinc Limited and Apollo Tyres Ltd. Both primary and secondary data were collected and used for the study. For primary analysis, a questionnaire was prepared and data’s were collected from 100 respondents from these four companies, which include key managers from HRD and other top and middle level managers. For primary analysis, convenience sampling method has been used. The technique of ranking is used to ascertain the order of preferences of the respondents. The collected data are validated, tabulated and classified. Limitations of the Study The analysis of the present study mainly depends upon the personal views of the respondents; an element of subjectivity cannot be overruled, in spite of the earnest efforts to overcome this limitation. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS Key Drivers of CSR The key drivers of CSR include all those root causes, which persuade companies to act in the field of CSR. For identifying the key drivers of CSR, the respondents interviewed in the study were asked to rank their choices according to their preferences out of the six pre-identified reasons as 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 respectively and then average weighted score was calculated. Based on the average weighted score ranked the key drivers of CSR. Table.1 clearly elicit the sector wise classification of the key drivers of CSR. The table 1 shows that reducing the negative image of the industry and increase in awareness are the predominant key drivers of CSR in public sector organizations. The AWS of them are 5.600 and 5.560 respectively. In private sector companies, increasing international standard

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Table: 1 - Sector- wise classifications on the key drivers of CSR Companies Key Drivers of CSR Public Private AWS Rank AWS Rank Reduces the negative image of the industry 5.600 1 4.880 3 Increase in awareness 5.560 2 4.520 4 In the long run, CSR rewards more in terms of sustainability and increased marketing 5.400 3 5.880 2 opportunities CSR helps in avoiding more governmental 4.260 5 4.040 5 regulations To increase international standard and brand image 5.080 4 6.320 1 Due to pressures from supply chain, competitors 2.040 6 3.580 6 and local communities (Source: Field Survey) and brand image and rewards in terms of sustainability and increased marketing opportunities in the long run are the foremost identified key drivers of CSR. Their AWS are 6.320 and 5.880 respectively. According to public sector companies, in the long run CSR rewards more in terms of sustainability and increased marketing opportunities and CSR also helps to increase international standards and brand image. Their AWS are 5.400 and 5.080 respectively. Whereas, in private sector companies, reduction in the negative image of the industry and increase in awareness are the subsequently identified key drivers of CSR. The AWS of them are 4.880 and 4.520 respectively. The pressures from supply chain, competitors and local communities are the least identified key driver of CSR in both public and private sector companies. The AWS of them are 2.040 and 3.580 respectively. From this, it can be inferred that CSR reduces the negative image of the industry, is the prior identified key driver of CSR in public sector companies, whereas, increase in the international standard and brand image are predominant key drivers of CSR in private sector companies. And irrespective of sectors the least identified key driver of CSR is the pressure from supply chain, competitors and local communities. High Priority Areas of CSR In order to identify the high priority areas in CSR, certain areas were pre-determined and the respondents in the companies were asked to rank their high priority areas according to their ascending order of importance as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6 respectively and average weighted score was calculated by assigning weights to the ranks as 6 for 1, 5 for 2, 4 for 3 and so on. The average weighted score thus obtained is given in table.2 In table.2, the sector wise classifications on the high priority areas of CSR are described. Accordingly, labour welfare activities are the most important area of CSR in public sector companies and social relief activity is the top most priority area in private sector companies. The AWS of these areas are 6.680 and 6.660 respectively. The second and third priority areas of CSR in public

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Table: 2 Sector-wise classification on the high priority areas of CSR Companies High Priority areas of CSR Public Private

AWS Rank AWS Rank Labour welfare activities 6.680 1 4.720 4 Social relief activity 5.280 2 6.660 1 Rural area development 4.780 3 5.160 3 Society building programmes 3.800 5 6.140 2 Environmental management 3.720 6 3.680 5 Fair business practices 3.980 4 2.720 6 (Source: Field Survey) sector companies are social relief activity and rural area development and their AWS are 5.280 and 5.040 respectively, where as in private sector companies, the second and third priority areas are society building programmes and rural area development. The AWS of them are 6.140 and 5.160 respectively. The least preferred in public sector companies is environmental management and that in private sector companies it is fair business practices. The AWS of them are 3.720 and 2.720 respectively. From this it can be concluded that public sector companies gives high priority to labour welfare activities and least priority to environmental management, where as, private sector companies gives high priority to social relief activity and least priority to fair business practices. Hurdles in the implementation of CSR For the purpose of identifying the hurdles in the implementation of CSR, the respondents interviewed in the study were asked to rank some choices, which were pre determined for the study, according to their ascending order of importance as 1,2, 3, 4, 5 & 6 respectively and average weighted score was calculated by assigning weights to the ranks as 6 for 1, 5 for 2, 4 for 3 and so on. The average weighted score thus obtained is given in table 3. Table: 3 Sector-wise classification on the hurdles find in the implementation of CSR Companies Hurdles in the implementation of CSR Public Private AWS Rank AWS Rank CSR disturbs the routine work 4.740 4 5.840 1 The burden of CSR dilutes the operating profit of the 6.160 1 5.440 2 industry Benefits from CSR cannot be known accurately 5.560 3 5.300 3 Lack of stimulus from the government and from the 2.920 6 4.120 5 top management Unstable government policies 4.000 5 3.520 6 Shortage of finance 6.120 2 4.224 4 (Source: Field Survey)

80 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 In table: 3 the sector- wise classifications on the hurdles in the implementation of CSR are shown. In public sector companies, the burden of CSR dilutes the operating profit of the industry and shortage of finance are the first and second hurdle in the implementation of CSR, whereas, in private sector companies, CSR disturbs the routine work and its burden dilutes the operating profit of the industry are identified as the first and second hurdle in the implementation of CSR. The AWS of them are 6.160, 6.120, 5.840 and 5.440 respectively. The least hurdle explicated in the public sector companies is the lack of stimulus from government and from top management, whereas, in private sector companies it is instable government policies. The AWS of them are 2.920 and 3.520 respectively. From this, it is can be seen that the burden of CSR dilutes the operating profit of the industry and shortage of finance is the foremost hurdle in the implementation of CSR in public sector companies, whereas, in private sector companies, CSR disturbs the routine work and the burden of CSR dilutes the operating profit of the industry are the first and second hurdles of CSR. CONCLUSION Most of the companies are of the opinion that CSR activities dilutes their operating profits and is a burden to their routine work. The companies both in public and private sector are being realised their added responsibility to the society in recent years, but they are giving less priority to environmental management. The oft-plea of the citizens for fresh air and water that is free from industrial pollution is increasing day by day in the society. Hence from the present study, it can be concluded that the companies have got a great role to play in discharging their corporate social responsibility. REFERENCES 1. Sarma A M. (2003). Aspects of Labour Welfare and Social Security, Himalayan Publishing House, New Delhi, p.140. 2. James. A. F. Stoner, R. Edward Freeman, Daniel. R. Gilbert. Jr, Management– Sixth Edition, Prentice .Hall of India Private Ltd, New Delhi 2002 , p:102-114. 3. Website, Internet and other books.

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IS FINANCIAL LITERACY A NEED OF THE HOUR? (Empirical evidences from Bangalore youth)

Rishikesh. K.B. Senior Accreditation Associate, Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode IIMK (P.O), Kunnamangalam, Kozhikode - 673570 Email: [email protected], Mobile: 9916868160

ABSTRACT In the increasingly complex financial markets of today, Financial Literacy has become inevitable. Financial Literacy plays a vital role in the recent Financial Inclusion initiatives of the government, and contributes to the broader goal of social inclusion and sustainable development. Financial illiteracy has socio-economic consequences affecting allocation of savings, participation in financial markets and ultimately the overall quality of life. There is worldwide consensus that financial education should start at an early age. Today such efforts are increasingly involving introduction of such subjects in the school and college curriculum. These strategies have been developed after undertaking comprehensive surveys of students to identify the literacy gaps. The present study is designed to measure the literacy level of college going students in Bangalore, and identify the socio demographic factors affecting the level of financial literacy. The study was conducted on 1064 students in various colleges in and around Bangalore. The results revealed medium levels of financial literacy amongst this segment of population under study. Further, it was observed that Male students have higher levels of financial literacy, and Commerce students have significantly higher levels of Financial Literacy. Level of education and income also has positive impact on Financial Literacy. Above all, there was a significant positive correlation between Financial Literacy and Financial behaviour. Students were ranked the least on their awareness about banking sector, interest rates, inflation and investment options. Keywords: Financial Awareness, Financial Literacy, Investment, Youth

INTRODUCTION Since Independence, India has prioritised economic growth, poverty alleviation and reduction in the income inequalities. The income share held by the top 10% of the population has been continuously increasing with roughly 30 % of the income being controlled by top 10 % of the population in 2011. The share of the bottom 10 % has been continuously declining since the last

82 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 two decades and widening the gap further. The richest 10% earned over 6.5 times than the bottom 10% in 1993 and this gap has increased to 8.5 times in 2011. The same trend is reflected in the comparison of top 20 % and bottom 20%. The top 20 % of the population continue to hold 40% of the country’s income whereas the bottom 20% controls a meager 8%. The top 20 % earned roughly 4 times income than the bottom 20% and two decades later this proportion has increased to more than 5 times. Income inequality threatening a country’s political stability can lead to crime and corruption and limit economic growth in the long term by inefficient allocation of resources. The income gap between the rich and poor has been continuously increasing in India. Our empirical investigation into the levels of financial literacy (as measured by S&P Global Financial Literacy Survey)of 64 countries and the gap between income share of top 10% and bottom 10 % reveals significant negative correlation. Table 1: Table showing income inequality in India Income Difference (Top 10% And Low 10%) Adults Financially Pearson Correlation -.446 Literate (%) Sig. (2-Tailed) .000 Source: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/income

All the policy interventions by the government aimed at providing benefits to the poor can be effective only when it reaches them directly through the banking system. A study conducted by IMF on six developing countries has revealed that financial inclusion has direct impact on GDP growth; and productivity as access to finance would result in efficient allocation of resources, boosting entrepreneurial ventures in the country and increasing aggregate output. In India, Reserve Bank of India has been spearheading the campaign of financial inclusion through awareness programs and rationalised banking solutions for the disadvantaged. Successive governments have also been targeting the underserved segment of the society through various schemes, most notable the recently launched Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana. However, despite sustained efforts of the policymakers, progress on the aspect of Financial Inclusion is not satisfactory. According to Census 2011, out of 24.67 crore households in the country, only about 14.48 crore or 58.70 percent households had access to banking services. One reason for less than satisfactory performance of the financial inclusion programme is lack of financial literacy. Financial Inclusion and Financial Literacy are integral to each other as Financial Inclusion provides access to financial products and Financial Literacy provides awareness about the financial products and services. Without knowing about the financial products and services available and how to use them for maximising personal financial wellbeing, all efforts towards including the masses in the formal financial sector will go in vain. Lack of financial literacy has far reaching impacts even on a macro level. Financial illiteracy therefore has significant costs with people making awful investment choices, borrowing heavily at high interest rates, and eroding their savings. A study by Gerardi, Lorenz and Meier on the financial literacy and cognitive ability of U.S mortgage borrowers between 2006-07 revealed that foreclosures were two-thirds lower with

83 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 borrowers that had a higher level of numerical ability or financial literacy than those that lack financial literacy. Financially literate borrowers were better able to choose mortgages as compared to those with little understanding of complex financial terms in mortgage contracts and ended up with excessively risky mortgages Financial Literacy is a matter of concern for all the stakeholders. However, increasing attention is being paid towards the youth - a potential game changer in strife for Financial Inclusion. International agencies like OECD have also focused their attention on students as ideal financial education and investments should begin at an early stage to have a multiplier effect on the society. Many universities across the world have introduced courses on Personal Finance as Financial Education simplifies the financial world for the students and helps them in the long run. A pre- requisite for introduction of such courses is measuring the current levels of Financial Literacy so as to gauge the areas where attention needs to be paid and influence the factors affecting Financial Literacy positively. The present study aims to achieve the above mentioned target by measuring the levels of Financial Literacy of the youth – the college going students in and around Bangalore. Bangalore attracts students of different backgrounds from across the country, and was conceived as a representative sample of the population. The study contributes to the existing literature by being one of its kind to define Financial Literacy as the combination of Financial knowledge and Financial Awareness with exclusive focus on college going students in Bangalore and identifying the levels of Financial Literacy and socio-demographic factors affecting it. This study would specifically be useful in designing a Personal Finance course suited to the unique needs of the student body. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Definition The OECD definition of financial literacy for youth, is: “knowledge and understanding of financial concepts and risks, and the skills, motivation and confidence to apply such knowledge and understanding in order to make effective decisions across a range of financial contexts, to improve the financial well-being of individuals and society, and to enable participation in economic life”. The National Financial Educators Council which certifies financial literacy programs around the world defines financial literacy as: “Possessing the skills and knowledge on financial matters to confidently take effective action that best fulfils an individual’s personal, family and global community goals.” The studies by Danes and Hira (1987), Chen and Pavlicko (1996), Chen and Volpe (1998) are few of those old studies which focus specifically on college students and take knowledge of credit card, insurance, borrowing and general money management as a measure of Financial Literacy. Worthington (2006) define Financial Literacy of adults as mathematical ability and understanding of financial factors. Lusardi, Mitchell and Curto (2010) conducted a study on 7417 college students of US in 1997 operationalised Financial Literacy as knowledge of 3 parameters: Interest rate, inflation and diversification. Boyland and Warren (2013) use the definition proposed by Cude (2006) and measure financial literacy as students’ degree of comfort and familiarization with various financial topics such as income, money management, savings, spending, and credit.

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Frączek & Klimontowicz (2015) in their study on assessing young customers’ financial literacy measured basic knowledge of key financial concepts such as interest rate, risk to guage the Financial Literacy level. Commensurate with major studies around the world, we define Financial Literacy of college students as Financial Knowledge and anothr dimension which has been added is the Financial Awareness.. Financial Knowledge has been defined as understanding about working of key money management concepts such as banking, taxation, time value of money, insurance, interest rates, investment, financial markets, diversification etc. Financial Awareness is the basis of financial knowledge and has been defined as having an idea about the financial terms around us. Financial Awareness is intellectual whereas Financial Knowledge is experiential. Financial Knowledge is deeper understanding about the operation/application of financial concepts; whereas Financial Awareness is superficial knowledge of the financial terms. Financial Awareness has been captured through basic questions such as requirement of opening bank accounts, full forms of financial terminology, types of financial products, purpose of insurance etc. It is expected that even laymen will have a certain level of financial awareness. Financial Behaviour and Financial Attitude have not been considered as a component of Financial Literacy as our target population is students who are not yet earning. So their Financial Attitude and Financial Behaviour is a manifestation of their perception and not necessarily action which gets shaped later on when they start earning. Literature Review Few of the studies around the world have focused on college going students and on an average the studies report low levels of Financial Literacy. A survey of 323 students from Iowa State University revealed low levels of knowledge regarding credit cards and insurance. Married students were more knowledgeable and males displayed greater knowledge of insurance and personal loan (Danes and Hira, 1987) [7]. Volpe, Chen and Pavlicko (1996) surveyed 454 students from a state university in U.S and found low levels of financial knowledge. Males were more knowledgeable than females and business students scored better than non-business students. Chen & Volpe (1998) surveyed 924 college students across 14 campuses in U.S through a comprehensive questionnaire covering questions on savings, investments, borrowings and insurance concluded that one reason for low levels of knowledge is the lack of formal course on Personal Finance. However, this paper doesn’t define financial literacy and proceeds to measure it using a questionnaire on 4 aspects of Financial Education. All these studies use financial knowledge to capture Financial Literacy and overlooked Financial Awareness. Also, financial literacy was not analysed across socio-demographic factors. Beal and Delpachitra (2003) in an attempt to determine Financial literacy of Australian population surveyed 789 students of University of Southern Queensland. It was found that there were low levels of financial literacy, with decision making skills and knowledge of insurance to be the least scored areas. Business majors scored better than non-business majors. Financial Literacy improved with work experience and income. A limitation of all these studies is failing to differentiate between Financial Knowledge and Financial Awareness as two components of financial literacy; and relating Financial Literacy with perceived Financial Behaviour and Financial Attitude.

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Jorgensen (2007) created a College Student survey instrument covering financial literacy (knowledge, attitude and behaviour) and peer and parental influences and administered amongst 478 students across various colleges in U.S. The study found that financial knowledge, attitude, and behaviour scores were low but that they significantly increased with seniority. Further, students who were financially influenced by their parents had higher financial knowledge, attitude, and behaviour scores. Finally, students with higher financial knowledge also had higher financial attitude and behaviour scores. Lusardi (2009) surveyed 7183 respondents using NLSY97, a dataset of U.S youth aged between 12-17. The results revealed that only 27% of young adults could answer basic questions on interest rates, inflation and diversification. Women proved to be less financially literate even after adding demographic and family characteristics. Parents had an important influence on financial literacy. A lot of heterogeneity was seen in financial literacy even while considering a narrow population. Boyland and Warren (2013) assessed the financial literacy of 92 undergraduate students at a southern New England university using the Survey of Personal Financial Literacy of the JumpStart Coalition dealing with aspects: income, money management, savings and spending. The results of this study were compared with the result of the February 2008 JumpSstart survey of 1030 students. There wasn’t a significant difference between the results of the two surveys conducted, confirming the need for a programme which can improve financial literacy of the students. Brau et al surveyed 1493 students of a private U.S University before they begin learning financial principles. Financial Literacy is then used a dependent variable and family and background characteristics, formal learning activities and experiential learning are taken as explanatory variables. Gender was a significant variable and males were better informed than females. College classes on accounting and finance has a significant impact on financial literacy, however, entry level business majors were no more financially literate than their counterparts. Experiential learning such as having a savings account, allowance, participation in stock market, marriage, credit cards had a significant impact on financial literacy proving the age old adage that experience is the best teacher. The overall model was able to explain 32% of the variation in the financial literacy levels. Need of the Study The present study aims to gauge the financial literacy level of college going students in Bangalore in order to determine their knowledge and awareness about key aspects of financial matters such as about asset building, credit, debt management, inflation, savings, risk, taxation, banking, investment etc. The sample of Bangalore is considered to the convenience of the researcher, and accessibility of the youth. The study aims to identify the gaps so that special attention can be made on such areas through dedicated courses/modules. An attempt has been made to discern how the level of financial literacy differs across demographic characteristics such as gender, economic background, discipline, and level of education so as to identify the peculiar needs of various demographic groups and accordingly recommendations will be made to address the gaps in financial literacy. The sources of financial literacy of the students have been ascertained to determine what influences their financial literacy. The results of the study will be useful in curriculum design as well as to regulatory institutions in designing

86 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 financial literacy campaigns and awareness programs. Objectives of the Study The following were the objectives of the study: 1. To measure the level of financial literacy among the youth. 2. To measure the level of financial literacy across gender, disciplines, family income groups and level of education. 3. To measure the impact of financial literacy across gender, disciplines, family income and level of education. 4. To know the sources /influences of financial literacy of youth at Bangalore. 5. To determine “whether there exists any relationship between financial literacy, financial attitude and financial behaviour” METHODOLOGY Sample The youth (especially the college students) were taken as a representative sample to include the appropriate mix of undergraduates, postgraduates and research scholars from all disciplines: Arts, Science & Commerce. The survey instrument was administered physically amongst close to 1500 students across 30 colleges and the final dataset comprised of 1064 respondents. Survey Instrument The survey instrument was divided into 4 parts: The first part focused on Personal Information of the respondents: Gender, Level of educational attainment, University background, Discipline, Annual family income, Domicile and location of college within Bangalore. The second part consisted of 12 questions (through mix of dichotomous responses and multiple choice questions) capturing Financial Knowledge which had questions on Objectives of Insurance, banking terminology, taxation, risk, return, inflation, interest rates, time value of money etc. The third part comprised of 12 questions pertaining to Financial Awareness (through mix of dichotomous responses and multiple choice questions). Financial awareness was measured through basic questions on meaning of financial year, bank accounts, KYC, PAN cards, financial inclusion schemes in India, mutual funds etc. The fourth part captured the sources of learning about managing money and whether the respondents have taken any course on money management / financial literacy. The fifth and sixth part captured financial attitude and financial behaviour through 5 statements each whose responses were recorded on a 5 point Likert Scale. DATA ANALYSIS Demographic Description Table 2: Gender wise distribution of population Frequency Percent Male 502 47.3 Female 559 52.7 Total 1061 100 Source: Compiled from the survey

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Table 3: Distribution of population across various disciplines Frequency Percent Science 280 26.6 Arts 291 27.7 Commerce 447 42.5 Others 34 3.2 Total 1052 100 Source: Compiled from the survey

Table 4: Table showing the annual family income across the population Frequency Percent Less than 2 lakh 116 11.4 200001-400000 189 18.5 400001-600000 218 21.3 600001-800000 155 15.2 800001-1000000 118 11.5 More than 10 lakh 226 22.1 Source: Compiled from the survey

Table 5: Distribution of place of domicile among the population Frequency Percent Bangalore 486 49.1 Non Bangalore 503 50.9 989 100 Source: Compiled from the survey

Table 6: Distribution of level of education among the population Frequency Percent UG 747 74.25 PG 259 25.75 1006 100 Source: Compiled from the survey

Level of Financial Literacy Objective 1: To measure the level of financial literacy of Indian youth Initially we divide financial literacy score into three categories: High level of Financial Literacy is defined as score more than equal to 14.4, Medium level is defined as more than equal to 9.6 less than14.4 and low level is Less than 14.4. The maximum score is 24 (12 questions each of Financial Knowledge and Financial Awareness) and a score of 60 % and above is deemed as high, score of 40 % and above but below 60% is deemed as medium. The overall level of Financial Literacy is found to be medium with a mean score of 13.70. The results indicate that Bangalore youth have Medium level of Financial literacy with mean score 13.70 (Maximum possible score is 24). Our results are robust as all sample subgroups shows same results. 88 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

Objective 2: To measure the level of financial literacy across gender, disciplines, family income groups and level of education. Objective 3: To measure the impact of financial literacy across gender, disciplines, family income and level of education.

Table 7: Mean score of Financial awareness, Financial Knowledge, and Financial literacy across various levels of education Financial Financial Financial Literacy

Awareness Knowledge Graduate 1st year 6.35 6.57 12.91 Graduate 2nd year 6.73 6.53 13.26 Level of Graduate 3rd year 7.09 6.93 14.02 education PG 1st year 7.31 7.03 14.33 PG 2nd year 7.41 6.79 14.20 Source: Compiled from the survey

It can be seen that as level of education increases, level of financial awareness and financial knowledge increases and so does financial literacy. This shows that although college education has a positive impact on Financial Literacy, the component financial awareness is contributing more to the increase in Financial Literacy than Financial Knowledge. This means that students are becoming more aware but not knowledgeable. Gender Wise Analysis Our results shows mean score of financial literacy of male students is 14.24 and female students are 13.21. Mean score of Males is high compared to mean score of Females. Both male and female fall into medium level of financial literacy category. In the above result, mean score of Financial Awareness of male students is 7.34 (maximum possible score 14) and female students is 6.62. Mean score of Financial Knowledge of male students is 6.9 (maximum possible score 14) and female students is 6.59. Table 8: t-test for equality of means of Financial Literacy, Financial Awareness and Financial Knowledge Male Female t Sig (2-tailed) Financial Literacy 14.24 13.21 3.797 0 Financial Awareness 7.34 6.62 4.713 0 Financial Knowledge 6.90 6.59 2.044 0.041 Source: Compiled from the survey *Variances is not equal in all cases, so Equal variances not assumed for t - test Mean score of Financial Awareness as well as Financial Knowledge of Males students is high compared to Females students. Secondly, Mean score of Financial Awareness is high as compared to Financial Knowledge both of males and females. Financial Literacy: On the basis of above results we can say that level of Financial Literacy of male students is significantly more than the level of Financial Literacy of female students at 5% . Financial Awareness: The level of Financial Awareness of male students is more than level of Financial Awareness of female students at 5% significance level. Financial Knowledge: Financial Knowledge of male students is

89 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 more than the level of Financial Knowledge of female students at 5% significance level. Males have significantly high Financial Knowledge and High Financial Awareness as compared to Females and consequently high financial Literacy. This is in consonance with various other studies conducted abroad (Danes, 1987; Volpe et al (1996); Lusardi (2009) ; Brau).

Table 9: Financial literacy gender wise, domiciled, and stream based Gender Discipline Financial Literacy Mean Category Male Science 13.87 Medium Arts 12.89 Medium Commerce 15.15 High Female Science 12.65 Medium Arts 12.15 Medium Commerce 14.11 Medium Source: Compiled from the survey

The table 9 shows that Males respondents on an average have medium financial literacy, except males belonging to commerce background have high score on financial literacy. Females whether belonging to any stream and origin have medium score. Financial Literacy Level Of Under Graduates and Post Graduates There is medium level of Financial Literacy in UG students (mean value 13.50) and PG students (mean value 14.25), however on the basis of t statistic we can say that PG students have more financial literacy in comparison to UG students. This shows that level of education progresses, the students become more financially literate.

Table 10: t-test of students at Bangalore (UG v/s PG) UG PG t Sig (2-tailed) Financial Awareness 6.79 7.36 -3.078 0.002 Financial Knowledge 6.71 6.90 -0.949 0.343 Financial Literacy 13.5 14.25 -2.205 0.028 Source: Compiled from the survey *Variances is not equal in all cases, so Equal variances not assumed for t - test There is significant difference in financial awareness in UG students and PG students (on the basis of p-value). Financial awareness is increasing with education but not knowledge. Financial Literacy Level of Students (Science, Arts and Commerce) On the basis of Levene Statistic there is no homogeneity of variances in Financial Literacy and Financial Awareness across discipline Table 11: Result of Kruskal Wallis Test Financial Awareness Financial Knowledge Financial Literacy Chi-square 20.937 47.343 46.548 Df 2 2 2 Asymp. Sig .000 .000 .000 b. Grouping Variable: Discipline Source: Compiled from the survey

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Table 12: Table showing multiple comparisons Variable Sig. Commerce Science 0.001 Financial Literacy Arts 0 Commerce Science 0 Financial Knowledge Arts 0 Financial Awareness Commerce Arts 0 Source: Compiled from the survey *Equal variance not assumed, used Tamhane’s T2 for multiple comparison There is significant difference in financial literacy levels belonging to Science-Commerce & Arts-Commerce. However, there is no significant difference in financial literacy of students belonging to Science and Arts. Commerce students have significantly higher literacy level (mean value: 14.55) as compared to Arts (12.48) and Science (13.32). There is also significant difference in financial awareness of science and commerce students. Commerce students have greater financial awareness as compared to other categories. As far as Arts and Science are concerned, the financial awareness level is not significantly different. Table 13: Mean scores across disciplines Discipline Financial Literacy Financial Knowledge Financial Awareness Arts 12.48 6.06 6.41 Science 13.32 6.47 6.84 Commerce 14.55 7.26 7.28 Source: Compiled from the survey

Financial Literacy Level of Students Belonging to Different Family Income Groups On the basis of Levene Statistic there is no homogeneity of variances in Financial Literacy and Financial Awareness across Family income groups, so we go for non-parametric tests.

Table 14: Table showing Kruskal Wallis Test Financial Literacy Financial Knowledge Financial Awareness Chi-square 21.364 22.455 15.382 Df 5 5 5 Asymp. Sig. .001 .000 .009 Source: Compiled from the survey

At 5 % significance level, there is a difference in the financial literacy level of students belonging to less than 2 lakh family income group and those belonging to more than 2 lakhs and upto 8 lakhs. The same results can be observed for Financial Knowledge and Financial Awareness. At low levels of family income, financial literacy levels are low and increase as income increases. However, when the income crosses 10 lakhs, the literacy levels decline. Students belonging to low income category have low level of financial knowledge as their families may not have surplus to invest. However, as family income increases, money matters are discussed at home and children may also be involved in this. After income crosses a level, students can afford to be less financially concerned and their money matters become far less important to them.

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Table 15: Multiple comparison across family income groups Dependent variable Sig. Less than 2 lakh 200001-400000 0 600000-800000 0.04 Financial Literacy 200000-400000 600001-800000 0.006 800001-1000000 0.033 Less than 2 Lakh 800001-1000000 0.033 Financial Knowledge 200001-400000 800001-1000000 0.004 800001-1000000 400001-600000 0.017 200001-400000 600001-800000 0.004 Financial Awareness 400001-600000 600001-800000 0.043 600001-800000 200001-400000 0.004 Source: Compiled from the survey *Equal variance not assumed, used Tamhane’s T2 for multiple comparison

Table 16: Mean score across family income Annual Family Income Financial Literacy Financial Financial Knowledge Awareness Less than 2 Lakh 13.14 6.32 6.82 200001-400000 13.03 6.45 6.58 400001-600000 13.41 6.60 6.60 600001-800000 14.72 7.16 7.56 800001-1000000 14.58 7.52 7.06 More than 10 Lakh 13.89 6.79 7.11 Source: Compiled from the survey

Table 17: Gamma co-efficient of Income v/s Financial Literacy Value Approx. Tb Approx. Sig. Ordinal by Ordinal Gamma .080 3.158 .002 Source: Compiled from the survey

The table 17 shows that Family Income and Financial Literacy have significant positive relationship. As family income level increases, financial literacy level increases upto a certain level. Objective 4: To know the sources of level influence of financial literacy of youth at Bangalore The table 18 shows that 73 percent of the students attribute their financial literacy to parents. Teachers (school and college) are sources for 46% of the students. Relatives and textbooks are cited by the lowest percentage of students (42%). This means that most of the working knowledge of students comes from home and as per their perception, role of school and college teachers is limited. Moreover, textbooks are seen as the cited by the least percentage of students. The role of teachers and textbooks is not helpful as per the students so there is a gap which should be addressed and application based teaching and experiential learning based on simulation projects should be encouraged.

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Table 18: Sources of Financial Literacy Learning financial literacy Percentage* of students Learnt from Parents 73.40 Learnt from school teacher 46.71 Learnt from college teacher 46.43 Learnt from website 46.24 Learnt from Friends 45.77 Learnt from Text Book 42.48 Learnt from Relative 42.20 * As the choice was given to tick more than one option in the questionnaire, the cumulative percentages are calculated for each option. Source: Compiled from the survey

Table 19 : The response on the Financial Knowledge Numbers Percentage* Rank K--Primary objective Insurance policy 757 71.20% 1 K--Service Tax in air conditioned restaurant 755 71.00% 2 K--Subject matter of Insurance policy 726 68.30% 3 K-- Taxes on buying readymade garments 686 64.50% 4 K--Time value of Money 653 61.40% 5 K--Risk and Return 647 60.90% 6 K--Risk in various investments Options 598 56.30% 7 K--Bank Credits Amount in your savings account 587 55.20% 8 K--Inflation 462 43.50% 9 K--Different Banks/Post office accounts 451 42.40% 10 K--Compounded Interest Rates 436 41.00% 11 K--Account payee cheque-Impact 405 38.10% 12 * As the choice was given to tick more than one option in the questionnaire, the cumulative percentages are calculated for each option. Source: Compiled from the survey

The table 19 ranks the questions on the basis of highest percentage of correct answers. The questions on insurance & service tax were answered by the highest number of respondents. A possible reason can be general principles of insurance are taught at the school level before specialisation. All the students go out eating and they are naturally aware of service tax which increases the bill amount. Banking, inflation, interest rates are the grey areas which were answered by roughly 40% of the respondents. These areas are of utmost practical importance and hence, it seems that students are missing out on working knowledge of finance. Questions on risk and return, time value of money and comparison of various investment options were answered roughly by 50-60% of the respondents which shows that there is a scope of improvement and separate modules can be developed which focus on investment and portfolio management with simulation projects as theoretical knowledge is not helping half of the student community. As far as financial awareness is concerned, here also questions on banking, interest rates. Investment are the least correctly answered. This affirms the findings that low levels of literacy are attributable to lack of knowledge about working of banking system, different accounts, interest 93 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

Table 20: Financial awareness questions: Ranked as per highest number of correct responses Numbers Percentage* Rank A--Financial Year in India 880 83.00% 1 A--Shares of a company can be purchased from 754 71.10% 2 A--Credit Card 727 68.60% 3 A--PAN Card issuing Authority 700 66.00% 4 A--Name of Stock Exchange 686 64.70% 5 A--KYC Full form 664 62.60% 6 A--Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana 598 56.40% 7 A--Savings account in post office 594 56.00% 8 A--Tax benefit on education loan 564 53.20% 9 A--Minor savings account in a bank 487 45.90% 10 A--Accounts offering highest rate of interest 483 45.60% 11 A--Minimum investment in Mutual Funds 277 26.10% 12 * As the choice was given to tick more than one option in the questionnaire, the cumulative percentages are calculated for each option. Source: Compiled from the survey rates and evaluation of investment options. The financial awareness schemes are not having the desired impact as the young generation is not aware of the difference between various bank accounts, which account offers the highest interest rate, which investment options are more desirable from risk-return perspective etc. Objective 5: To know “Is there any relationship between financial literacy, financial attitude and financial behaviour”

Table 21: Karl Peasons Correlation between Financial Literacy, Financial Attitude and Financial Behaviour Financial Behaviour Financial Attitude Pearson Correlation .074 .124 Financial Literacy Sig. (2-tailed) .016 .000 N 1063 1063 Source: Compiled from the survey

There is a significant positive correlation between Financial Literacy, Financial Attitude and Financial Behaviour. This implies that high levels of Financial Literacy are associated with desirable financial behaviour and positive financial attitude so the same can be influenced by improving the levels of Literacy. CONCLUSION The financial literacy level of youth (especially students) at Bangalore is found to be medium with a mean score of 13.69. Medium score is defined as answering 40%-60% of the questions on financial knowledge and financial awareness. Males are found to have greater financial literacy as compared to females, however both fall in medium category. This is in consonance with

94 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 major studies conducted worldwide (Danes, 1987; Volpe et al (1996); Lusardi (2009) ; Brau). As far as income groups are concerned, financial literacy levels show “S” shaped relationship with respect to income levels. At low levels of family income, financial literacy levels are low, the literacy increases as income increases. However, when the income crosses 10 lakhs, the literacy levels decline. Students belonging to low income category have low level of knowledge as their families may not have surplus to invest. However, as family income increases, money matters are discussed at home and children also are involved in this. After income crosses a level, students can afford to be less financially concerned and their money matters become far less important to them. There is significant difference in financial literacy level of students belonging to Science- Commerce & Arts-Commerce. However, there is no significant difference in Financial literacy of students belonging to Science and Arts. Commerce students have significantly higher literacy level as compared to Arts and Science. This result is logical as Commerce students have more knowledge of business and related financial terms as a fact that Commerce field encompasses knowledge of Banking, Insurance, Taxation, Investment, Interest rates which contributes to financial literacy. As far as influences are concerned, 73% of the students attribute their financial decisions to their parents. Teachers (school and college) are sources for 46% of the students. Relatives and textbooks are cited by the lowest percentage of students (42%). This means that most of the financial awareness of students come from the discussions at home; and as per their perception, role of school and college teachers is limited. Moreover, textbooks are cited by the least percentage of students. The role of teachers and textbooks is not helpful as per the students. So there is a gap which should be addressed. Application oriented teaching, and experiential learning based on simulation projects should therefore be more encouraged. Students had the least awareness on banking sector, interest rates, inflation and investment options.. A positive correlation is found between Financial Literacy; Financial behaviour and Financial attitude. This shows that desirable financial behaviour and positive financial attitude can be fostered by increasing the levels of Financial Literacy. Recommendations The literacy level of college students at Bangalore is found to be medium. Following recommendations are being made based on the findings of the study:  All major streams should incorporate a paper on Personal Finance just like Environmental studies and English courses in undergraduate syllabus presently. Financial Literacy is akin to a crucial life skill as all students irrespective of their specialisation require financial literacy.  Most of the respondents could not answer basic questions on banking system, interest rates, inflation and investment. These topics can be included in a separate module which can be offered as an elective.  Females are shown to have low levels of literacy as compared to males as this is the phenomenon observed worldwide. Vocational courses should be introduced in colleges which give preference to female students for admission in the form of relaxed eligibility norms and fees concessions. Extra credit may also be provided for females completing such courses.

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 The government should conduct financial awareness programs in schools and colleges in Bangalore especially, and all across India REFERENCES 1. The World Bank, World Development Indicators (2012). Income share held by the highest 10% [Data file]. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.DST.10TH.10 IMF Working Paper. (2015). Identifying Constraints to Financial Inclusion and Their Impact on GDP and Inequality: A Structural Framework for Policy. Norris E., Ji Y., Townsend R. & Unsal D 2. Gandhi R. (2015, May 16). Financial inclusion, financial literacy & role of technology. 3. The Economic Times. Retrieved from http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/ 4. Federal Reserve bank of Atlanta, Working Paper series (2010). Financial Literacy and Subprime Mortgage Delinquency: Evidence from a Survey Matched toAdministrative Data. Gerardi K., Goette L. & Meier S. 5. OECD (2013). Financial Literacy and Inclusion: Results of OECD/INFE Survey Across Countries and by Gender. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/daf/fin/financial-education/TrustFund2013/ 6. S&P Global Financial Literacy Survey Findings. Retrieved from https://www.spglobal.com/corporate- responsibility/global-financial-literacy-survey 7. Danes, S. M., & Hira, T. K. (1987). Money management knowledge of college students. 8. The Journal of Student Financial Aid, 17(1), 4-16. 9. Volpe, R. P., Chen, H., & Pavlicko J. J. (1996). Personal investment literacy among college students: A survey. Financial Practice and Education, 6(2), 86-94. 10. Chen H. & Volpe R. (1998). An Analysis of Personal Financial Literacy Among College Students. Financial Services Review, 7(2), 107-128 11. Beal D. & Delpachitra S. (2003). Financial Literacy Among Australian University Students. Economic Papers. 22(1), 65-78 12. Jorgensen B. (2007). Financial Literacy of College Students: Parental and Peer Influences (Master’s thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute). Retrieved from https://theses.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd- 10162007-143627/unrestricted/Thesis_BJ2.pdf 13. Lusardi A., Mitchell O & Curto V. (2009). Financial Literacy among the Young: Evidence and Implications for Consumer Policy. NBER Working Paper No. 15352. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/ w15352.pdf 14. Boyland, J., Warren, R. (2013). Assessing the financial literacy of domestic and international college students. Johnson & Wales University, Providence, RI. Retrieved from http://scholarsarchive.jwu.edu/ mba_student/18/ 15. Brau J., Holmes A. & Israelsen C. (2015). Financial Literacy among College Students: An Empirical Analysis. Journal of Financial Education (forthcoming) 16. Shaari N., Hasan N., Mohamed R. & Sabri M. (2013). Financial Literacy: A Study Among the University Students. Interdisciplinary Journal Of Contemporary Research In Business, 5(2), 279-299.Retrieved from http://journal-archieves33.webs.com/279-299.pdf 17. Kaur M, Vohra T. & Arora A. (2015). Financial Literacy among University Students: A Study of Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab. Asia-Pacific Journal of Management Research and Innovation. 11(2), 143-152. Retreived from http://abr.sagepub.com/

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AFGHANI VS. SIR SAYYID – THE INDIAN BACKGROUND

Dr. Finser K. Muhammed Former Principal, Coaching Centre for Muslim Youth (An Institution under Minority Welfare Department, Government of Kerala) Thodupuzha, Idukki Email: [email protected] Phone: +91 9745275717

ABSTRACT In the eighteenth century a relentless political penetration galvanized Muslims into a reaction consonant with Islam’s politico-religious structure. They realized the necessity of religious reform for improving both the social and political conditions. It was Jamal al-Din al-Afghani who introduced a religious system which was quite new to the Muslim mind. There was no intellectual in the Muslim world equal to the task of merging the complex challenges except a few figures in India like Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan. Sir Sayyid believed that the Muslims would not get their due place in the changed situation unless they learnt themselves to the new conditions. Through his activities he persuaded his community to acquire scientific knowledge emanating from the West. In spite of the common objective of the reformation of the Islamic society, the most visible factor, between them, is their ideological differences. Afghani’s attack on Sir Sayyid became much comprehensive, when the former visited India and he attacked Sir Sayyid on theological and philosophical levels. A close study on the ideological aspects of Afghani and Sir Sayyid, will lead to various interesting and notable assumptions. Keywords: Reformation, Islamic philosophy, Islamic modernism, Pan-Islamism

INTRODUCTION The Arab world had been in an isolated form and insulated against almost all outside influences and changes, till the end of eighteenth century. It was an era of multi-dimensional crisis ushered by the consequences of the political and scientific plight of the West. Throughout the Muslim world in general and the Arab world in particular, this relentless political penetration galvanized Muslims into a reaction consonant with Islam’s politico-religious structure. The new crisis demanded quite a new approach for its analysis helpful in the protection of essential values of Islamic culture. This explains the practical nature of Muslim responses to western challenges during the last one hundred years or so. The Muslims were, thus, awakened to the need of taking stock of their cultural holdings.

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They realized the necessity of religious reform for improving both the social and political conditions. Thus a new trend of response based on the liberation from the traditional theological totalitarianism emerged. This response, however, did not represent the Muslim consensus but a minority of Muslim thinkers while the majority consisting of the ‘ulama’ resolutely resisted any shift from what they considered to be the authentic traditional theological positions. To such minority belongs Jamal al- Din al-Afghani (1838-1897) who attempted for the revival of the Islamic world within the context of Islam. So far as the theoretical aspects are concerned, Afghani preface his interpretation of Islam with a justification for a religious system which was quite new to the nineteenth century Muslim mind and it continued to treat religion as a purely spiritual and rigid legal system. He realized that the western domination of military and political power is not due to their advanced technological weapon which is mere material and outward symbol of power but this domination is actually the result of knowledge and social dynamism which opened the doors of success in all fields for the West.1Afghani advocated the establishment of constitutional governments in Muslim countries and appealed for the unity of Muslim countries under a single Caliph, which led to an immense struggle with the three groups – (a) foreign political pressures (b) despotism of Muslim rulers and (c) the orthodox ‘ulama’. It was this wide ranging struggle invited bitter opposition from his far more powerful enemies who deprived him of every opportunity to give effect to his plans of Muslim renaissance. Compared with the wide range of Afghani’s vision, the understanding and response of the conservative and enlightened Muslim elite of this period exhibited no insight into the real nature and proportions of the problems. There was no intellectual in the Muslim world equal to the task of merging the complex challenges except a few figures in India. Among such figures the prominent one is, obviously, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898). Among the Muslim modernists none appears to be thinking on the lines of Afghani’s three point programme of (i) defence against western imperialism through Muslim unity, (ii) internal political modernization through establishment of constitutional governments, and (iii) religio-intellectual modernization. Among his contemporaries it is only Sir Sayyid who could match the daring ingenuity of Afghani. Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan believed that the Muslims would not get their due place in the changed situation unless they learnt themselves to the new conditions. A reinterpretation of Islamic values was the crying need of the day. Through his writings and educational institution, he made consistent efforts to persuade his community to acquire scientific knowledge emanating from the West. He also exhorted the Muslims to eschew politics and devote themselves to education. He was convinced that the Muslim community in India could not regain its rightful position in the national life of the community unless it imbibed fresh ideas and gave up its traditional mode of thinking. He thus became a social and a moral force which accelerated the process of transition from the medieval to the modern age. In spite of the common objective of the reformation of the Islamic society, the most visible factor, between Afghani and Sir Sayyid, is their ideological differences rather than similarities. Obviously the political motives of both were responsible for this and gradually Afghani’s attack on Sir Sayyid became much comprehensive, when he attacked Sir Sayyid on theological and

98 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 philosophical levels. If on one side Afghani was a nomad in politics, and he never showed any moderation in any of his activities; but on the other, Sir Sayyid, as a practical reformer adopted a pro-British policy for the upbringing of his backward Muslim society. All these factors led to a severe attack of Afghani toward Sir Sayyid which became much violent. Through his articles Afghani staunchly criticized Sir Sayyid’s ideologies and activities and accused him as a heretic. 1. Afghani in India The activities of Jamal al-Din in India were not considered significant enough by the British authorities to be mentioned in any of the voluminous materials they regularly sent home to the Indian office in London. A report about Afghani was sent from India to the Indian office only in the summer of 1883, after Afghani had gone to Paris and had begun sending newspapers with anti-British articles to India. Although the evaluation of Afghani’s views by the Government of India cannot be considered decisive, the picture of Jamal ad-Din as a religious and not political or radical figure given by the Government of India documents is confirmed for the Indian stay by Blunt in his India under Ripon. From December, 1880 to October, 1881 Afghani wrote for a whole year without a break in the monthly Mu’allim-i shafiq, Hyderabad, contributing altogether six articles, some in two or three installments. While analyzing the limited information from the 1879-1882 Indian stay, it is also notable that, during these periods, Afghani involved mostly in speaking and writing. The evidence also shows some change in Afghani’s image during this stay to an apparent defender of Islam against the westernizers. Through his writings he impressed the Indian who knew him as a radical, a freethinker, and firebrand.2 Both reformist and Muslim apologetic ideas appeared in his Indian writings, discussed below, and only a close analysis of these writings can explain the apparent contradictions between his liberal articles and his attacks on various forms of liberalism in the “Refutation of the Materialists.” Articles of Afghani in India There is little documentation of his stay in Hyderabad, but since Afghani wrote several articles and his major treatise during this stay, one may surmise that writing was his most important activity.3 In this period that Afghani wrote almost all of his available Persian articles, covering a wide range of issues like the rise and fall of Islam and Muslims, the negative role of ‘ulama’, importance of learning modern sciences and philosophy, language as a unifying force in a nation, etc. He was instrumental in starting journals, Mu‘allim (edited by SajjadMirza) and Mu‘allim-e- Shafiqfrom Hyderabad. The six articles published in this journal hold a unique place among Afghani’s whole literary pursuit. The translated titles of these articles in the order they appeared, are: “The Benefits of Newspapers,” “Teaching and Education,” “The Philosophy of National Unity and the Truth about Unity of Language,” The Benefits of Philosophy,” and “A Description of the Aghuris with pomp and show.”4 The last mentioned article is considered as one of the most virulent attack on Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s groups and their political loyalism.5 Within the context of Afghani’s anti-imperialist nationalism on the one hand, and his

99 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 philosophic rationalism on the other, the import of his attack on Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, the third point stressed in his Indian articles, can be understood. The attack was not really on Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s rationalism, reformism, and scant orthodoxy – all qualities that also characterized Afghani. It was rather on Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s belief in cooperation with the British instead of nationalist opposition, and his willingness to borrow heavily from the British and openly to abandon much of the Indian Muslim heritage, thus depriving Indian Muslims of a source of national, anti-imperialist pride.6 As a lifetime opponent of British incurious in Muslim lands, Afghani was ready to align himself with more traditionally Muslim groups against Sayyid Ahmad Khan and his followers.7 The nationalist and anti-imperialist thrust of the attack on Sayyid Ahmad Khan is clear from Afghani’s articles about him.8Afghani’s longest Persian article about Sayyid Ahmad Khan was called “A Description of the Aghuris with Pomp and Show.”9 In this article, Afghani attacks those who harm their brothers in the interest of foreigners. “Why should someone who destroys the life spirit of a people be called their well-wisher; why should a person who works for the decline of his faith be considered a sage? What ignorance is this? “ He asks.10 As an attack on Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s group, never named directly, Afghani says that someone who embraces the killers of his brothers is the worst type of man. Such men put out great efforts to strengthen the Christians by confirming the truth of the Torah and the Gospel. Students should be taught patriotism, and to sacrifice themselves for their nation.11 The “Aghûrîs,” however, teach slavery instead of freedom, and hence are obstacles to the progress of their people. They have no religion and no interest other than to fill their own bellies. They use education only as a means to worldly goals. Here as elsewhere, Afghani exaggerates the irreligion of Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s school and vilifies them as “materialists” in the vulgar as well as philosophic sense.12 In an oblique attack on followers of the British path in education, Afghani then asks whether one whose interests lie in the ignorance, corruption, and blindness of someone else would try to educate him and cure his blindness. Only from the first kind of education can national unity be produced. In view of this it is possible to imagine that foreigners (i.e., the British rulers of India) would support the first, national, type of education; they have certainly not come in order to strengthen the nationalism and community feeling (jinsiyyaandqaumiyya) of others.13 In these articles he discussed about the well-going of a community and also tried to attack the Aghuris for their abandonment of virtues, disunity of the community (‘Umma), and breaking the laws of humanity.14 While analyzing this article we could find that the nationalist basis of the attack on Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s school is clear. The group is attacked for undermining the unity of the community, and often it is even unclear whether the Indian communities as a whole or the Indian Muslims are intended. Similar conclusions result from reading Afghani’s shorter Indian article, “Commentary on the Commentator,” directed more specifically against Sayyid Ahmad Khan as an individual, rather

100 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 than simply against his school. In it Afghani speaks of the need for a sage and reformer who will save the Muslims from their current condition of decline and corruption. Although Afghani claims to have looked to Sayyid Ahmad Khan (not named, but clearly implied) as such a potential reformer, it is probable that he pictured himself in this role. Afghani is, no doubt being frank when he then objects to Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s high evaluation of human nature; Afghani stands here with Muslim philosophical tradition. So his main point was that there are social benefits that can only be assured by religious belief on the part of the masses. Anything that undermines faith in Islam will thus lead Indian Muslims to identify with their British conquerors, which Afghani wants to avoid at all costs. Convinced of the political evils that would arise from the Muslims’ following Sayyid Ahmad Khan on his Pro-British path Afghani could easily believe that all means, including the exaggerated rhetoric permitted by his tradition were legitimate to discredit Sayyid Ahmad Khan and his school.15 In addition to these articles, Afghani also attacked Sir Sayyid in his Qur’an commentary by criticizing the Tafsir al-Qur’an written by Sayyid Ahmad Khan. The motive he attributed to his adversary’s commentary on the Qur’an was that its purpose was ‘to weaken the faith of the Muslims, to serve the ends of the aliens, and to mold the Muslims in their ways and beliefs.’16 Afghani also criticized Sir Sayyid’s Tabyin al-Kalam. According to him, it is an attempt to please the rulers. Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s trust in the bonafide of the British Government in trying to improve the lot of the Indian Muslims he regarded as supreme folly, and for Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s associates he used even deadlier invective. In Afghani’s Qur’an commentary, his views on the preparation of a fresh commentary are more vividly expressed in his criticism of the Tafsir al-Qur’an written by Sayyid Ahmad Khan.17 In it, he maintained that Sir Sayyid “distorted the sense of words and tampered with what God revealed.... He called openly for the abandonment of all religions....”18 Ahmad Khan and his followers took off the garb of religion and publicly called for its abandonment, desiring discord among the Muslims and seeking to divide them.19 The Refutation of the Materialists Afghani was prompted to write this treatise, which is in a way a refutation of the views and beliefs of the naturalists, because of the growing popularization of the views of the school of Sayyid Ahmad Khan. This treatise is called Haqiqat-i-Madhhab-i-Nichariwa Bayan-i-Hal-i- Nichariyan(The Truth about the School of Naturalism and Description of the Naturalists). In this work Afghani repeatedly claims that religion is good for the people because it supports the social fabric, while the Naichiris, like other sectarians, bring dissension and finally political ruin to the community. He also states that the Naichiri school of India was similar to the atheistic school that flourished in Greece during the third and fourth centuries B.C. He found that its real aim was to uproot the foundations of all religions and establish Ibahat(rendering something lawful) and Ishtirak(communion) among the people.20 He further states that the word Nichariyat(materialism) was very popular in most of the cities of India and everyone gave a different interpretation according to his own understanding. In this work he also tried to criticize some Islamic sects in East and West which followed

101 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 a materialist outlook and caused the decline of nations. He says that it was by virtue of the essential beliefs and qualities that the Muslims gained political power got several thousand non- Muslims converted to Islam, but with appearance of the materialist thinking in Egypt in the fourth century of Hijra, Islam began to show signs of decay.21 It was started by the Batinis22 who propagated their ideas throughout the Muslim world, especially in Persia. By exemplifying the activities and methods of these Islamic sects Afghani argued that these Islamic sects attracted men into illegitimate allegorical interpretations and denial of the sacred law and of religious duties. “Their teachings drew men away from the general interests of the community towards their selfish desires and prepared the way for foreign invasions.”23 Thus Afghani pointed out that they taught to believe in ‘the name,’ while denied ‘one who is named.’ They tried to corrupt the morals of the Muslims and when the ‘ulama’ and political leaders saw the danger, they resisted it. These naturalists, even shedded the blood of thousands of ‘ulama’ and reformers, in support of their beliefs.24Afghani remarks that as a result of their teachings the Muslims degenerated and became weak. It was for this reason that the Tartars, the Turks, and the Mongols were able to enter into their territories. But deep rooted Islamic beliefs and morals, which were not completely erased from the minds of the Muslims, brought them back to the line of some success. But yet, the Muslims could not completely overcome the weakness that had been caused by the teachings of the naturalists in the Islamic society and regain their earlier grandeur and power.25 Throughout his work he violently showed his bitterness towards the Neicheri’s (materialist). He states that the materialists or the naturalists have appeared in different communities in different disguises and under different names.By analyzing the naturalist principles, Afghani states that the most dominated aspect in all the activities of naturalists is self-love. Self-love allows to sacrifice universal good for one’s own particular good, which means that one can sell one’s nation for personal benefit.26He states that the materialists adopted different methods for propagating their views. He holds that besides corrupting the morals of people, they lead nations towards slavery and misery. Again, there are some who, without betraying their beliefs of ibahat and ishtirak, are content with the denial of God and Day of Judgment. Undoubtedly these teachings are themselves quite enough to destroy society and culture. Afghani comes to the conclusion that it is possible to find a naturalist who is cultured and has good conduct.27 In its concluding parts, Afghani firmly states that if a religion, howsoever false and the lowest among the religions it may be, is based upon the beliefs of God and of Reward and Punishment (which are commonly held by all religions), it is superior to materialism in respect of culture, society, administration and all other human organizations and achievements.28 Of all the religions Islam is most capable of ennobling men’s souls leading them to happiness.29 The Collision between Afghani and Sir Sayyid – An Overview While analyzing all the arguments of Afghani against materialism one could read in between the lines, his criticism towards some unmentioned personalities to observed, whom he showed severe verbal outbreaks and criticisms. Here it is obvious that throughout his ‘Refutation’, Afghani tried to reproach Sayyid Ahmad Khan without mentioning his name.

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Afghani writes, “He passed himself off as a Naturist (materialist) and proclaimed that the only existence is blind Nature, that God does not form part of this being (this is a manifest error), and that all the prophets were Naturists who did not believe in the God of the Scriptures (God forbid); he called himself a Nechari(Naturist) and began to attract sons of the rich, who were thoughtless youths.30 One thing is understood that, as a lifetime opponent of British incursion in Muslim lands, Afghani was even ready to cooperate with orthodoxy to refute Sayyid Ahmad Khan and his followers.31 His “Refutation,” ostensibly an attack on internal opponents of Islam, including radical reformers, is in fact mainly aimed at pro-British reformers like Sayyid Ahmad Khan, not because they are reformers but because they are pro-British. A close study on the ideological aspects of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, will lead us to various interesting and notable assumptions. To Afghani, Pan-Islamism and an anti-British attitude would free Muslims from atrocities and oppression; while to Sir Sayyid Anglo-Muslim friendship could lead Muslims to prosperity. Afghani thought in terms of all the Muslims, whether they belonged to India or West Asia or other parts of the World, while Sir Sayyid particularly thought of the security of Indian Muslims. So it is obvious that, compared with Sir Sayyid, Afghani’s thought was more wide ranging. Sir Sayyid, after experiencing a bitter counter- attack from the conservatives against his overzealous adventure into rationalization of Islamic metaphysics, confined himself to socio-economic rehabilitation of Indian Muslims as his ultimate objective. Afghani, moreover, aimed at laying the foundations of an altogether new structure of Muslim society infused with the spirit of philosophy and science through concrete political measures. These were the main difference between these two great contemporaries. All the collisions and ideological disagreements between them was an outcome of these two aspects. While focusing on the first aspect, the strong influence of their political thoughts in their activities, especially their attitude towards the Britishers, is visible in the early analysis of their socio-religious and political thought. Even the accusation of Afghani on Sir Sayyid as a “materialist” was the product of this difference. As much as the second aspect is concerned, the circumstances and conditions of the area they have worked – the Indian Muslim scenario and the whole Islamic world – were entirely different from one another which led to the differences of their socio-political ideologies. Hence, the reformist activities of Afghani and Sir Sayyid were reasonable in their particular situation. Prof. Khaliq Ahmad Nizami has rightly said that Jamal al-Din al-Afghani had to face the sick man of Europe while Sayyid Ahmad Khan had to deal with the Dead man of India.32 Muslim political democracy, though on the decline, still existed in name in the Islamic countries where Afghani was preaching his dogma. It means the sick man was not yet breathed his last, though the imperialist West desired its quick demise. On the other hand Sir Sayyid in India was working for the advancement of the Muslims who had lost their political influence and who were also economically and culturally in a state of backwardness. It was, therefore, natural for Sir Sayyid to be moderate in his views and to ask his people to be friendlier with their English rulers. Moreover Sir Sayyid’s attitude towards Caliphate can be considered as the finest example

103 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 of the influence of his political dogmas in his whole ideologies. On one side Sir Sayyid attempted to combat the Pan-Islamic sentiments in India, excited by the preaching’s of Afghani, and contributed articles in the Aligarh Institute Gazette and denied the pretensions of the Sultan ‘Abdul Hamid of Turkey to the Khilafat. But on the other hand, in the articles of Afghani, the nationalist basis of the attack on Sayyid Ahmad Khan and his school is clear. The group had been attacked for undermining the unity of the community, and often it is even unclear whether the Indian community as a whole or the Indian Muslims were intended. But it is clear that Afghani tried to combine the nationalist and Pan-Islamic ideals – both could be seen as a part of the same coin of anti-imperialism. Another accusation put forward by Afghani against Sir Sayyid was that Sir Sayyid openly casting doubt on Islamic dogma. Meanwhile, if we consider the case of Sayyid Ahmad Khan, he ‘had one love, and only one – Muslim India. He could not tolerate anything which, in his view, was likely to threaten the future of Indian Muslims.’ He tried to force his choice on his community. The first of his fifty-two innovations, listed by Hali, was his indifference to the consensus. He opposed the consensus of the orthodox ‘ulama’, who decided to ignore his advice, and chose not to be loyal to the ruling power and political security, but loyalty to the Dar al-Islam and political adventure. It accepted not only Jamal al-Din al-Afghani’s political ideology of Pan-Islamism, but also his political expediency of recognizing the Ottoman Sultan as the Khalifa of all Muslims. Considering all these aspects, certain similarities between their thoughts were also worthy to consider here. There is at least one point common between the views of al-Afghani and of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan: both believe Islam to be capable of an evolutionary process within the present and future history of mankind and in accord with it.33 Both of them were convinced that the dead weight of time had encumbered the true and original Islam with later developments that were no essential part of it and both wished to reveal the true Islam primarily to Muslims but also to non-Muslims. Here, another interesting aspect observed by this research was that, inspite of all their differences and inconsistencies, their genealogy traced back to one person - Imam Hussain. Moreover their approach to the necessity of modernism is much the same. Sir Sayyid tried to expose a modernist ‘Ilm al-Kalamwhich stressed the need of an adjustment between religion and science in this matter.34Both of them realised the necessity of a new ‘Ilm al-Kalamand implication of ijtihad but the only difference between them was that Sir Sayyid considered it as his own responsibility and developed a new theology by himself, while Afghani stressed that it was the duty of the ‘ulama’ to arrive at a consensus of ijtihad and he never indulged in the risky adventure of a modern ‘Ilm al-Kalam. CONCLUSION An analysis on the success and failure of these two intellectuals also varied in nature and extent. Sir Sayyid failed in his attempt of religious modernisation, to a large extent, but succeeded in leading the Indian Muslims in the direction of accommodation with social and economic changes through political cooperation with the Indian British government and popularisation of modern education. Afghani, on the other hand, failed in achieving concrete results, during his lifetime, in the political sphere but was successful posthumously in establishing the anti-imperialist constitutional movements and the religio-intellectual modernisation trends in the Muslim world of the 20th century.

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In both the cases the decisive factor underlying success or failure was acceptance or rejection of compromise with the authority – political or ideological. Sir Sayyid’s partial success in the educational and socio-political spheres was due to his compromise with the British and his failure in religious modernism lies in his refusal to surrender his right of independent investigation into Islamic theology. Afghani’s failure in gaining concrete results was due to his total rejection of any compromise either with imperialism and despotism or conservatism. Nevertheless, both continue to serve as relevant frames of reference for Muslims in various regions of the world. REFERENCES 1 Ami, Sayyid Jalaluddin.1989, Tahqeeqat-e-Islami. Idara-e-Tahqeeq-O-Tasneef-e-Islamika Tarjuman. Edited.Vol. 68, No. 26, Oct-Dec. Aligarh.p. 88 2 Keddie, Nikki R. 1972,Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani – A Political Biography. Berkeley: University of California Press.p. 150. 3 Ibid,pp. 143-144 4 Keddie, Nikki R. 1972,Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani.p. 156. 5 Ahmad, Aziz.1969, Afghani’s Indian Contacts,Journal of American Oriental Society, Vol. 89, No. 3, American Oriental Society, Jul-Sep,p. 480. 6 Keddie, Nikki R. 1972, Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani.p. 167. 7 Keddie, Nikki .R. Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani.Rahnama, Ali. 1994, (ed.), Pioneers of Islamic Revival. London: Zed Books Ltd.p. 19. 8 Urwat ul-Wuthqa, p. 431; (compiled by Sayyid HadiKhusrewShahi). 9 The Aghuris were a small, despised caste with special religious practices, and Afghani applied the name to the followers of Sayyid Ahmad Khan as a term of vituperation. 10 Quoted by Keddie, Nikki R. 1972,Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani.p. 167. 11 Maqalat-i-Jamaliyyeh, p. 33. 12 Keddie, Nikki R. 1972,Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani.p. 168. 13 Ibid. 14 Maqalat-i-Jamaliyyeh, pp. 42-52 15 Keddie, Nikki R. 1972, Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani.p. 170. 16 Afghani, Jamal al-Din.1884,Tafsir-o-Muffasir.Calcutta: Dar al-Saltanat. 17 Vol.I, published in 1880; Vol. II, in 1882, Vol. III, in 1885; Vol. IV in 1888; Vol. V in 1895. Afghani’s criticism is based on the first two volumes. 18 Translated by Keddie, Nikki R. 1968,An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Berkeley. University of California Press.p. 177. 19 Ibid.,p.178. 20 Asadabadi, Syed Jamal al-Din.1303 A.H. Haqiqat-i Nichariva Bayan-i Hali-i Nichariyan, Tehran.pp. 2-3. 21 Moazzam, Jamal al-Din al-Afghani,p. 90; Keddie, “Refutation of the Materialists” (tr.),An Islamic Response to Imperialism,pp.160-163. 22 The term Batiniya was applied by Arab writers to several quite distinct sects including the Khurramiya, the Isma‘iliya, the Mazdakiya, the Ta‘limiya, and the Malahida. 23 Keddie, Nikki R. 1972,Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani.p. 177. 105 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

24 Ibid. 25 Asadabadi, Syed Jamal al-Din.1303 A.H. Haqiqat-i Nichariva Bayan-i Hali-i Nichariyan.pp. 52-54. 26 Ibid. p. 39. 27 Asadabadi, Syed Jamal al-Din.1303 A.H. Haqiqat-i Nichariva Bayan-i Hali-i Nichariyan.pp. 60-62. 28 Ibid.,p. 73. 29 Ibid.,74ff. 30 Translated by Baljon, J.M.S.The Reforms and Religious Ideas of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan. pp. 117-118; for more details see Asadabadi, Syed Jamal al-Din.1303 A.H. Haqiqat-i Nichariva Bayan-i Hali-i Nichariyan.p. 26. 31 Keddie, Nikki .R. Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani.Rahnama, Ali. 1994, (ed.), Pioneers of Islamic Revival. p. 9. 32 Ni“ami, Prof. Khaliq Ahmad.1953,‘Syed Ahmad Khan Aur Sayyid JamaluddinAfghani.’Aligarh: Aligarh Magazine, Special Aligarh Number, p. 119. 33 Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Lectures, [Sadhora: 1892], 55; Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, ‘Asbab-i- haqiqat-wa sa‘adat wa shifa-i insan, in Mu‘allim-Shafiq, [Hyderabad: 1879]; also see Ahmad, Aziz. 1964, Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian Environment. Oxford: Claren Press. p. 56. 34 Ahmad, Aziz. 1964, Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian Environment.p. 56.

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KERALA A PARADISE OF AYURVEDA- INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN AYURVEDA TREATMENT -A CASE OF VAIDHYARATNAM OUSHADHASHALA OLLUR, KERALA

Deepa N.N. Assistant professor in Economics, Universal Engineering College Vallivattom, Irinjalakuda, Thrissur

ABSTRACT People from all over the world come to Kerala in search of Ayurveda treatment – either for rejuvenation or to find a cure. Superior service in hundreds of exclusive Ayurveda treatment outlets in high-budget and low-budgets brackets has made Kerala the world’s number one in the field of Ayurveda. Ayurveda has become an indispensable branch of medicine, thanks to the world awareness about the enormous benefit Ayurveda offers to the mankind. When people think of Ayurveda, they think of Kerala as a natural choice where world’s top ranking Ayurveda treatment facilities are available at affordable cost. This paper is focussing the investment opportunities of Ayaurvedic treatment in Vaidhyaratnam Oushadhasala. Most reputed Ayurveda institutions are rooted in Kerala where it has a strong presence in the healthcare of people. Unlike in the past, entrepreneurs are setting up world class facilities in Kerala offering both curative and rejuvenate remedies based on Ayurvedic formulations. Besides its rejuvenation packages, people slowly realize Ayurveda’s effectiveness in offering cure for chronic health conditions such as diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, mental diseases, eye diseases, fistula, obesity and life-style diseases such as spondylosis. Key words; Panchakarma, Damshtra Chikitsa

INTRODUCTION Ayurveda, popularly known as the Indian system of medicine, is gaining worldwide recognition day by day . It is the ancient Indian health care system and is the world s oldest and comprehensive system of natural medicine. Ayurveda is grounded in Hinduism and Vedic texts dating back 3,500 years or even before. Ayurveda, literally knowledge or science of life represents a sophisticated system of healing that offers holistic approach to living based on the balance and nurturance of mind, body,and spirit.Ayurveda dictates the social norms for an individual. This helps in maintaining spiritual health and also elaborates on the daily routine and seasonal routine. Seasonal routines change according to the region of the habitat, and age of the person. Ayurveda believes that man is influenced to a great extent by his environment which affects his health status too.

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These routines include diets, habits, and a general attitude towards life. These are to be changed according to the age and sex of an individual, his living condition, and the environment. This helps the body to maintain its natural resistance to diseases.Ayurveda like other systems of traditional medicine has its unique features. It lays emphasis on the promotion of positive health and prevention of diseases. In Ayurveda, the main emphasis is laid upon the “field” than the “seed”. In the treatment prescribed, it does not aim at correcting the affected part alone. The treatment always aims at correcting the site of origin. Yoga and Tantra which are primarily meant for spiritual attainments have also certain prescriptions for the prevention and care of psychic, somatic, and psychosomatic ailments. They have a rich tradition of the use of plants, minerals, and animal products having therapeutic utility. The Government of Kerala has put in place a certification scheme for providers of Ayurveda healthcare services. Institutions will be granted ‘Olive Leaf’ and ‘Green Leaf’ certifications based on the facilities on the premises, availability of qualified professionals, infrastructure etc. Ayurveda centres, which have been classified/approved by the Government of Kerala, will be eligible for financial concessions/incentives which includes investment subsidy up to 10 per cent subject to a maximum of Rs.10 lakh. They are also eligible for concession in electricity charges. Vaidyaratnam Nursing Home (A NABH Accredited Firm) aims to serve the society by providing the authentic Ayurvedic care. Situated at Thaikkattusery, Thrissur, the nursing home ensures tranquillity of a typical rural ambience with the superiority of advanced treatment facilities. with all amenities including best of the breed communication facilities. Growth of Ayurveda would mean the use of indigenous knowledge systems for creation of jobs and wealth. It has significant multiplier effects in the area of tourism, agriculture, manufacturing and education. Vaidhyaratnam say’ “We aim at a five-fold increase in the share of ayurveda in next five-six year period,” The present annual revenue from the sector stood at Rs 1,000 crore. With the increasing acceptance of alternative medicine globally, Vaidhyaratnam said Ayurveda was successful in the treatment and management of lifestyle and chronic diseases. Research methodology The primary data were from Vaidhyaratnam oushadhasala and secondary data from vaidhyaratnam journals and magazines. Purpose of the study Tthis study is focussing to introduce the importance of Ayurveda treatment and their facilities to reduce major diseases and to find out their investment opportunities to the modern world. About Vaidhyaratnam Vaidyaratnam Oushadhasala (Oushada means medicine and Sala is a building or institute) was instituted in 1941 by Eledath Thaikkattu Neelakandan Mooss. He had won prestigious Padma Shri award for his contributions to Ayurveda treatment. Vaidyaratnam Ayurvedic Nursing Home was started in the year 1955 and Ayurvedic Medical College in 1976.Vaidyaratnam Nursing Home (A NABH Accredited Firm) aims to serve the society by providing the authentic Ayurvedic care. Situated at Thaikkattusery, Thrissur, the nursing home ensures tranquillity of a typical rural ambience

108 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 with the superiority of advanced treatment facilities. The most modern nursing home embraces Executive cottages, Suite rooms, Deluxe rooms etc. with all amenities including best of the breed communication facilities. Analysis and interpretations Vaidyaratnam Nursing Home provides Panchakarma treatments strictly in accordance with the sacred tenets of Ayurveda under the guidance of Ashtavaidhyan Padmabhooshan E T Narayanan Mooss. The Ministry of health and Family affairs, Govt of India has recognized Vaidyaratnam Nursing Home for reimbursement of In –Patient expenses. It’s a rare Honour enjoyed by very few Ayurvedic hospitals in the country. Today Vaidyaratnam Nursing home is India’s most preferred hospital destination for those who want to be healed by the power of authentic Ayurveda. The services of Ayurvedic Physicians who follow the doctrines with religious devotion, coupled with our cordial hospitality is sure enough to make your treatment at Vaidyaratnam Nursing home a memorable experience. Vaidyaratnam is committed for providing traditional Kerala ayurveda to the world community in a systematic way of patients care at affordable cost and comforts. Our organization gives a unique tradition of health care services to the common public. Its aims at providing traditional ayurvedic treatments to benefit the masses and wish “lokasamasthasukinobhavanthu”  Provide highest quality and services for all people  Adhering to professional and scientific integrity. Unlike all other branches of medicine, Ayurveda observes a patient in entirety - on physical, mental and spiritual levels - while treating diseases. It is well established by the modern science beyond any doubt that one’s mind has a very strong influence on his body. With this knowledge rediscovered, Ayurveda is fast emerging as a holistic alternative to all other systems of medicine. With its enormous understanding on human mind, body and spirit, Ayurveda offers treatment for almost all known diseases. There are eight branches (Ashtangas) in Ayurveda. They are Kaya Chikitsa (General Medicine), Bala Chikitsa (Pediatrics), Graha Chikitsa (Occult and Tantric Medicine), Oordhwanga Chikitsa (ENT), Salya Chikitsa (Surgery), DamshtraChikitsa (Toxicology), JaraChikitsa (Geriatrics) and Vrisha Chikitsa (Aphrodisiac Treatment). Vaidhyaratnam physicians belong to the rare tradition of the Ashtavaidyas - those equally proficient in all the eight branches of Ayurveda. Vaidyaratnam offers effective treatments for Paralysis, Cervical Spondylitis, Lumbar Spondylitis, osteoarthritis, Ankylosing Spondylitis, Slip Disc, Arthritis, Rheumatism, Parkinsonism, avascular necrosis, Depression, Migraine, Sinusitis, Skin diseases and various paediatric diseases. They have all kinds of authentic Kerala Ayurvedic treatments. Vaidhyaratnam Nursing Home specializes in treating certain ailments very effectively with good results. Few such disorders are neurological problems like Hemiplegia & facial paralysis, Geriatric problems, skin problems like psoriasis, diabetes, obesity respiratory problems like bronchial asthma and allergies, migraine, male & female infertility, rheumatism and spinal disorders. Treatments are decided based on clinical assessment by Physician. These are:

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Panchakarma  PoorvaKarma  Snehanapanam ( Oleation therapy)  Swedam (Foementation treatments)  Pizhichil  ChoornaSwedam  Pathraswedam  ShashtikaPindaSwedam  Ooshmaswedam  Upanaham  Avagaham  ChoornaPindaSwedam Pradhanakarma: Purifactory methods of treatments  Vamanam ( Emesis)  Virechanam( Purgation)  Nasyam ( Nasal medication)  Snehavasthi ( Enema with oil)  Kashayavasthi( Enema with medicated decoctions )  Jalookavacharanam ( Leech therapy) Special Treatments  Thailadhara  Takradhara  Sarvangadhara  Dhanyamladhara  Sirovasthi  Prishtavasthi  Pichu  Thalapothichil  Thalam  Udwarthanam  Tharpanam  Putapakam  Lepam  Annalepanam Clinical Services/ Departments  AnnavahasrotorogaChikitsa - Gastroenterology  BalarogaChikitsa - Pediatrics  Kayachikitsa - General Medicine  MutravahasrotovikaraChikitsa - Urology  StreerogaChikitsa - Gynaecology

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 ShalakyaTantra - Eye & ENT  PranavahasrotoRogaChikitsa - Pulmonology  TwakrogaChikitsa - Dermatology  VajeekaranaChikitsa - Aphrodisiac  VrikkarogaChikitsa - Nephrology  Vataroga - Neuromusculoskeletal Disorders VaidyaratnamOushadhasala is an ayurvedic pharmaceutical company situated in Thaikkattussery, near Ollur (Thrissur, Kerala). It is managed by Thaikkattusseri Eledathu Thaikkattu Family, one among the Ashtavaidya families of Kerala. Vaidyaratnam runs a nursing home and an Ayurvedic Medical College apart from two ISO certified manufacturing plants in Thrissur and an R&D centre in Thaikkattussery, under the flagship of Vaidyaratnam CONCLUSION The first and most important step is to correlate Ayurveda concepts with those of modern biology and then develop appropriate experimental models to test Ayurvedic propositions in a rigorous fashion. This needs collaboration of the best Ayurvedic physicians and theoreticians, with the best scientists from western life- and physical sciences in order to do epistemologically informed translation and experimentation. The task calls for interpreting the systemic theories of Ayurveda into the structural frameworks of science. This program needs critical and sustained support for trans-lational and trans-disciplinary research on strategic problems. It needs to be executed in a coordinated way by visionary and missionary leadership located in a network of institutions. Today, Kerala has not yet created a single world-class research institution for translational research that bridges Ayurveda and modern biology, but needs at least half a dozen of them in order to make a national and global impact. REFERENCES 1. www.irdindia.in Journal IJRDMR D ol2Iss1 12.pdf12.ummertrainingreports.blogspot.com/.13. 2. www.isca.in IJMS Archive v2i1 .ISCA-RJMS-2012-0 .pdf14. 3. www.aryavaidyasala.com15.www.healthtourismkerala.com

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NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING (NLP) SYSTEM IN NAVYANYAYA SASTRA

Sruthi P.A. Research Scholar, Dept. of Sanskrit, S.N.G.S College, Pattambi, Palakkad, Mob: 9745664170 e.mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT In this paper the issues in Natural Language Processing (NLP) which could possibly benefit from Sastric studies are discussed. This paper also projects a brief history of NLP. Knowledge base consisting of data and rules are also covered. The three major Sastras used for NLP system are explained. Processing are briefly explained. Main importance in this paper is given to the role of ‘Navyanyayasastra’ as more compatible language used in NLP system.

INTRODUCTION The history of NLP(Natural Language Processing) started in 1950. Alan Turing published an article titled ‘Computing Machinery and Intelligence’ which now known as ‘Turing test’. The Georgetown experiment in 1954 involved fully automatic translation became a solved problem. Modern NLP algorithms (Step by step method) are based on statistical machine learning. The paradigm of machine learning is different from that of most prior attempts at language processing. Many different classes of machine learning algorithms have been applied to NLP tasks. Some of the earliest used algorithms are decision trees, statistical models, probabilistic decisions etc. These models have the advantage of expressing many different possible answers, producing more reliable results. Some of the most commonly researched tasks in NLP are – 1. Automatic summarization. 2. Discourse analysis. 3. Machine translation. 4. Morphological segmentation. 5. Named entity recognition. 6. Natural language generation. 7. Natural language understanding.

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8. Optical character recognition. 9. Parsing. 10. Part-of-speech tagging. 11. Question answering. 12. Sentiment analysis. 13. Topic segmentation. 14. Speech segmentation. 15. Word segmentation. 16. Speech processing etc. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLP) The issues in Natural Language Processing which should possibly benefit from sastric studies are discussed. The DESIKA package developed at the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing Pune. Sastric studies are developed through Sanskrit language. So in NLP system, Sanskrit is the most apt language. This is the reason why Indian Sastras are more useful for NLP system. Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language renowned for its highly structured grammar described by sage Panini, millennia ago. Even in modern times, the language has evoked keen interest among linguistic and computer scientists for possible clues to Natural Language Understanding (NLU) issues. DESIKA serves the need for an authentic computer based package for its study. In Indian Sastras the scientific factors are dealt with integrally and the result is the formulation of a comprehensive system of language description for correct usage. This system has Vedas at the nucleus and a host of auxiliary sciences to assist their understanding and preservation. These are really devices for ensuring distortion - free transmission over generations through oral tradition. This system has remarkably served the cause for millennia, and that is precisely why there is interest in modern scientists working in AI(Artificial intelligence) about these literary traditions. In AI issues like processing of natural languages, representing knowledge in computers, particularly inference and modeling commonsense/contextual knowledge are frontier areas of research. NLP has mainly faces three issues, are representation, reasoning, and recognition. There are three levels considered in NLP. Word level means syntactic, sentence level means semantic, and discourse level means pragmatic. Two bases are consisting, that is database and rule base. Information processed dynamically or variably is called database. Static information which is applied on the database is called rule base. There are 3 major Sanskrit Sastras being discussed or used in NLP. They are Vyakarana, Nyaya, Mimamsa. Vyakarana Sastra The science with rules by Panini contains well structured description of Sanskrit grammar and deals with word level and sentence level as syntactic aspect. Both plain and accented forms are exhaustively treated. Besides the rules called Ashtadhyayi, there are database for ganapatha(of nominal stems), dhatupatha (of verbal roots), linganusasana (gender determination) and siksa (phonetics). The theory of karaka(functional relationship) relating the case structure of syntax and the denoted objects is a major outcome of universal application to the natural languages. The activity denoted by the verbal root: ‘dhatvarthamukhyavisesyaka sabdabodha’.

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Mimamsa Sastra This science with rules by sage Jaimini established principles for understanding the contents of vedic passages by maxims and pragmatic reasoning. Contextual factors and common sense aspects are formulated with hierarchy of knowledge sources for conflict resolution and disambiguation. Various means of practical wisdom are a result of there in Indian culture. The significant aspect of the import of a sentence normally the bhavana (intention or force) typically in injunction or commands: ‘bhavanamukhyavisesyaka sabdabodha’. Nyaya Sastra This science with rules by sage Gautama. deals with padarthavibhaga. As the Nyaya sutra in Prachina Nyaya is the foremost work on Nyaya Sastra, Aksapada says that supreme felicity (Nihsreyasa) s attained by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories treated in his Nyayasutra. But in Navyanyaya these sixteen categories comes under seven categories, they are Matter, Quality, action etc. In NLP system the Parser gets all the detail in the output through different tasks like Question–Answering. For eg. If an input given as ‘Earth’, then the parser gets the ‘Earth is a Matter, its definition and such details. The four pramanas or Right knowledge in Navyanyaya Sastra are perception, inference, comparison and verbal testimony. Conjunction of soul with mind is a cause which operates in the production of all kinds of knowledge. Perception is defined as the contact of a sense with its object. Inference is really a means of right knowledge as the errors alleged to be involved in it may be explained away. Inference is by reasoning. For eg. if inferer see a river swollen , he infer that there has been rain. Comparison is a separate knowledge of a thing through its similarities with another. The knowledge gained by verbal testimony is correct, not simply because it comes through the medium of words but also it comes through words spoken by a reliable person. For eg. paradise, nymphs, seven islands etc. Those who accept them as realities not because it is simple but are spoken by persons who are reliable. In NLP system if the eg. of inference given as ‘input’ then the ‘output’ will be the confirmation of ‘input’ as inference, definition of inference , terminology of example and such details. At the same time if definition of inference is given as input the parser will get example as output. Same as in verbal testimony if a sentence given as an input then output will be a sabdabodha or exact meaning of that sentence. That is in NLP all type of knowledge of Navyanyaya Sastra is applicable through the satric form. Processing Stages Certain stages of computational processing of linguistic data pertaining to case based languages like Sanskrit, a parser consider both generation and analysis at word, sentence and discourse level. Parsing a given sentence or creation a sentence to denote indicated information is the test of machine understanding of natural language. This understanding may demonstrated by query processing, voice change or paraphrasing the input sentence for a parser. Conversely parser output should be input to the generator to obtain the input sentence. The processing stages have 3 levels, word level, sentence level and discourse level. 1. Word level-Generating inflectional natural language words and recognizing finished words

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in terms of base and affix (including multiple possibilities) require computational knowledge base aforesaid and a proper algorithm for arriving at the output from the input, systematically. This procedure would then be capable of capturing the traditional expertise in its exhaustive form for all future users and refinements. Thus, ’knowledge’ can be preserved in contra- distinction to ‘data’ or ‘information’ storage and retrieval. 2. Sentence level-Generating sentences or analyzing them syntactically and semantically is involved in this stage. Here the individual words are to be processed in sequence defined by the input. The sentential import ant introduced modifications to the sigma of individual (component) word level results and these factors are quiet tricky to handle. This calls for careful choice and design of guiding principles. 3. Discourse level-Over and above the sentence level, pro-nominal and other forms of back references, anaphora, ellipsis etc., are to be particularly addressed at this stage. CONCLUSION The most advanced sector of computers today is AI. NASA after 20 years of research found that the most apt language for A.I is Sanskrit. There is a federal grant in U.S to study Sanskrit and if one has to learn A.I in NASA then have to learn Sanskrit. Desika is a comprehensive package for generating and analyzing Sanskrit word. It caters to different user communities like academicians, students , researchers, linguists, computer scientists etc. So user communities have made a beginning in seriously studying the utility of Sastras for NLP and thus resulting in the increase in popularity and enrichment of Sastra studies. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Gopinath Kaviraj ,History and Bibliography of the nyaya vaisesika literature Indian Studies, Calcutta, 1961. 2. Keshab Chandra Dash Dr.Logic Knowledge Base,Sri Satguru Publications.A division of Indian books, center, Delhi, 1992 3. Satis Chandra Chatterjee, An introduction to Indian philosophy Motilal Banarsidas , Delhi, 2016. 4. Satic Chandra Vidyābhucana, A history of Indian logic Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 2015 5. en.wikipedia.org/wikp/NLP 6. Desika-A NLU system for Sanskrit “Project report, centre for Development of Advanced Computing(C-DAC),1992

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MARRIAGE IN ANCIENT INDIA : AN ANALYSIS

Saranya. P.S. Research scholar, Department of Sanskrit Sahithya S.S.U.S, Kalady, Ernakulam Dist , Kerala Email [email protected] mob no: 9497702206

ABSTRACT Hindus believe that every aspect of life is sacred. That is why each significant stage, from conception to cremation, is celebrated as a reminder that life is a gift from God which should be duly respected and lived according to His wishes. This is the first installment describing the significance of the 16 samskaras. Since eternity man has strived to improve his own self. This realization, unique only to mankind, has led him to think deeper about his physical, mental and spiritual well being. Towards this end, the Vedic seers prescribed a set of observances, known as Samskaras. The nearest English word for samskara is sacrament, related to the phrase ‘rite of passage’. sacrament is defined as a “religious ceremony or act regarded as an outward and visible sign of inward or spiritual grace.” In classical Sanskrit literature texts, such as Raghuvamsha, Kumarsambhava, Abhijnan-Shakuntal, Hitopadesha and Manu Smriti, samskara is used to mean: education, cultivation, training, refinement, perfection, grammatical purity, polishing, embellishment, decoration, a purificatory rite, a sacred rite, consecration, sanctification, effect of past actions (karmas), merit of karmas, etc. A general definition of samskara, encompassing nearly all of the above is “to improve upon something while removing its undesirable attributes Keywords: Arsha, Asura, Brahma. Daiva, Gandharva, Paisacha, Prajapatya, Rakshasa

INTRODUCTION Hindus believe that every aspect of life is sacred. That is why each significant stage, from conception to cremation, is celebrated as a reminder that life is a gift from God which should be duly respected and lived according to His wishes. This is the first installment describing the significance of the 16 samskaras. Since eternity man has strived to improve his own self. This realisation, unique only to mankind, has led him to think deeper about his physical, mental and spiritual well being. Towards this end, the Vedic seers prescribed a set of observances, known as Samskaras. The nearest English word for samskara is sacrament, related to the phrase ‘rite of passage’. Sacrament is defined as a “religious ceremony or act regarded as an outward and visible sign of inward or spiritual grace.” In classical Sanskrit literature texts, such as Raghuvamsa, Kumarsambhava, Abhijnan-Shakuntal, Hitopadesha and Manu Smriti, samskara is used to mean: education, cultivation, training, refinement, perfection, grammatical purity, polishing, embellishment,

116 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 decoration, a purificatory rite, a sacred rite, consecration, sanctification, effect of past actions (karmas), merit of karmas, etc. A general definition of samskara, encompassing nearly all of the above is “to improve upon something while removing its undesirable attributes. Aim of Samskaras (1) Cultural The variety of rites and rituals related to the samskaras help in the formation and development of personality. In the Parashar Smriti it is said, “Just as a picture is painted with various colors, so the character of a person is formed by undergoing various samskaras.” Thus, the Hindu sages realised the need of consciously guiding and molding the character of individuals, instead of letting them grow in a haphazard manner (2) Spiritual According to the seers, samskaras impart a higher sanctity to life. Impurities associated with the material body are eradicated by performing samskaras. The whole body is consecrated and made a fit dwelling place for the atma. According to the Atri Smriti a man is born a Shudra; by performing the Upanayana Samskara he becomes a Dvija (twice born); by acquiring the Vedic lore he becomes a Vipra (an inspired poet); and by realising Brahman (God) he becomes a Brahmin. The samskaras are a form of spiritual endeavor (sadhana) - an external discipline for internal spiritual edification. Thus, the entire life of a Hindu is one grand sacrament. The Isha Upanishad reveals that the final goal of the samskaras, by observing the rites and rituals is “to transcend the bondage of samsara and cross the ocean of death.” To this we can add that after transcending the cycle of births and deaths, the atma attains Paramatma the Lord Purushottam. Although the number of samskaras prescribed by various scriptures vary, we shall consider the sixteen that are a consensus among scholars. Marriage This is the most important of all the Hindu Samskaras. The Smritis laud the grihastha (householder) ashram as the highest, for it is the central support of the other three ashrams. Manu enjoins, Having spent the first quarter of one’s life in the guru’s house, the second quarter in one’s own house with the wife, and the third quarter in the forest, one should take sanyasa in the fourth, casting away every worldly tie.1. By marriage an individual is able to achieve the four purusharthas (endeavors) of life: dharma (righteousness), artha (wealth), kama (desire) and moksha (salvation). He is also able to pay off ancestral debt by having children. Procreation for children is also a primary purpose of marriage. In addition to being a religious sacrament, Hindu marriage is also regarded as an important social institution. For developing a stable and ideal society, marriage has been regarded as an essential element in all cultures of the world. A society without loyal marital ties tends to degrade. It is said that promiscuity was one reason for the downfall of the Romans. By marriage, both an individual and society, while remaining within the moral norms, can progress together. Simultaneously it does not cause harm to others nor infringe upon one’s independence. This samskara boosts cultural values and dharma. It upholds and promotes moral righteousness and self control.

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Types of Marriages In the Hindu scriptures there are eight types mentioned. In the Manu Smriti they are divided into two groups: (i) the morally approved (prashasta) and (ii) the disapproved (aprashasta).2 These eight types of marriages jointly called Ashtavivahas. (i) Prashasta (a) Braahma This is the purest type. It was so called because it was thought fit for Brahmins. In this the girl is given by the father, with such ornaments that he can afford, to a man of character and learning, whom he has invited voluntarily and received respectfully, without taking anything in exchange3. The Smritis consider this type as the most honorable, as it is free from physical force, lust, imposition of conditions and lure of money. Social decency and religious considerations are fully taken into account. (b) Daiva This is the next type, inferior to the Braahm. In this, the girl is ornamented and given away by the father to a priest who officiates at a yajna (sacrifice). It is called Daiva since the gift is made on the occasion of a Daiva yajna. This method was prevalent among the first three Hindu classes. This type has faded, for it is considered improper to offer a girl to a priest. (c) Aarsha In this method the father of the bride received a pair or two of kine a cow and an ox or two cows and two oxen - from the bridegroom for the purpose of a yajna which formed a part of a religious ritual. The pair of kine was not the bride’s price. This method was known as Aarsh because it was prevalent among the priestly families. Nonetheless, according to the Manu Smriti accepting a gift, small or large, amounts to a sale. (d) Prajapatya This involves the father giving away his daughter to a suitor with the specific understanding that they both perform their civic and religious duties together. The name Prajapatya suggests that the couple enter the bond for discharging their duties to Prajapati i.e. for procreating and raising children. From the Western point of view this type of marriage may be regarded satisfactory because the rights of the husband and wife are equally well secured. But from the view of the Hindu shastras, it is inferior to the first three. This is because the daughter is given subject to mundane conditions. Hence the ‘gift’ cannot truly be regarded as free. As a point of interest, Kautilya in his Arthashastra prohibited divorce for the four Prashasta marriages. Now we shall consider the four types of marriage which are not approved by the scriptures (ii) Aprashasta (e) Asura The Manu Smriti defines this as, Where the husband having paid money to the relations of the bride and the bride herself, accepts her out of free will.5 The main consideration in this kind of marriage is money and it is, in reality, a purchase. Manu condemns it, The learned father of the girl

118 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 should not accept even the least amount of price. Accepting the price out of greed, he becomes the seller of children.6 The Aitareya Brahmana (I.16) brands this type as pashuvivaha - animal marriage. Today this form of marriage is still prevalent in certain sections of Hindu society where a dowry is demanded by the bridegroom’s father from the bride’s father. Public opinion has begun to frown upon dowry. (f) Gandharva According to Manu, Where the bride and bridegroom meet each other of their own accord and the union is consummated in passion, that form is called Gandharva.7.The name Gandharva is derived from a tribe of that name living in the Himalayas, in which it was a common occurrence. It was more prevalent among the Kshatriyas as they represented the freest element in society. The majority of the lawgivers discouraged it on religious and moral grounds. It was regarded as inferior to the first five forms because it was performed without sacred rituals and it originated from passion, a factor which seemed to be tenuous. (g) Rakshasa Manu says, “Capture of a girl by force while she is crying, having killed, scattered and injured her relatives, is called Rakshasa Vivaha.”. This usually occurred during war or political upheavals. The Kshatriyas usually practised this since they participated in war and obtained women as war booties. The word rakshasa means demonic. (h) Paishacha This is the least approved. Manu defines this as, “Cohabiting with a girl in loneliness when she is sleepy, mad or intoxicated.” Obviously, this was the most uncivilized and barbaric method. Paishacha means ‘of witches’.9 CONCLUSION Marriage is a social change and considered as a sacrifice for both bride and groom. It is allowed to that person, those are completed education at the age of sixteen. In ancient culture samskaras have it’s own place in society. And they are still represented within the limits of contemporary religious society. Marriage acquires its true meaning and reaches perfection only when the conjugal relationship is based on the realization that marriage is willing for sacrifice for the good of the partner, the family , society and the world. BIBLIOGRAPHY • C.P. Ramaswami Aiyer,1969. The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. II, Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute • Deshpandey Maithreyi, 2010, Manusm£ti, New bharatiya book corporation, Delhi • Pandey Rajbali , 1993, The Sixteen Samskaras. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publications • Mani Vettam 1964, Pur¡¸ic encyclopedia , DC books, Kottayam • Sharma Vasudeva (Ed) .1920, Manusm£ti , Nirnayasgar press , Bombay • Pandey Rajbali, 1969, Hindu Samskaras : socio religious study of the hindu sacraments, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publications • Tripathi G M, 1966, Marriage forms under ancient hindu law, Geetha Press, Bombay 119 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

PEACEFUL CO-EXISTENCE OF SUFISM AND VEDANTISM: THEORETICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

Dr. Scintila N.J. Assistant Professor, Department of Islamic History, Maharaja’s College, Ernakulam Email: [email protected] Phone: +91 9746820849

ABSTRACT The paper describes the theme in two different perspectives – Theoretical and Historical. The first part is a theoretical comparison of Sufism and Vedantism, which analyses the similarities between its basic principles, symbols and philosophical aspects with the help of examples. The paper also observes the influence of Sufism and Vedantism with each other, which created such a peaceful co-existence between the ideologies of Sufism and Vedantism. The second part is a historical perspective, which provides a concise summary on the emergence and development of cultural symbiosis and peaceful co-existence among the Indian community – including Hindus and Muslims – for which Sufism and Vedantism acted as the connecting bridge. The spiritual stimulus created by these mystics gradually led to the development of a cultural symbiosis by emphasising on the message of universal love and brotherhood, which is preached in both mystical beliefs. In short, this paper is an attempt to examine the influence of Sufism and Vedantism with each other and to study on the role of Sufis and Vedantins in creating communal harmony and peaceful co- existence in Indian society. Key words: - Sufism, Vedanta, Mysticism, Spirituality, Religion, co-existence

INTRODUCTION Mysticism is a term, which is not used exclusively in a religious sense. Nevertheless, it nourished under the religions, stands primarily for religious experiences and at the same time these mystical elements itself gave life and vitality to almost all religions. In Islam, we cannot find any direct permission for the mystical experience. Qur’an never lendsthemselves to a mystical interpretation. It emphasizes overwhelmingly the complete otherness of God – ‘Like unto Him hath there never been anyone.’1 Almost all monotheistic religions, never lead themselves to mysticism, but the exact fact is that all Mysticism is born of religion itself. So obviously, we could find that Sufism was born in the bosom of Islam and rooted in Islam, which is considered as the source and origin of Sufism and from the same Qur’an that Sufism seeks support for their origin. Perhaps, this mingling emerged due to its overlapping with some religious concepts like spirituality.

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Though there maybe so many external influences were there, but the original source of Sufism is the Qur’an itself and the life of Prophet Muhammad.2 As all of know Sufismis an Islamic way of reaching God, which involves rigorous meditation and prayer, emphasis on inner self rather than external rituals, continuous service towards humanity and renunciation of worldly pleasures. It also has defined as an attempt of individual Muslims to realize in their personal experience the living presence of Allah.3 It is the practical aspects of religion, which concern both spirit and intellect as essential features of Sufism. I am not daring to repeat a detailed explanation on the principles of Sufism here. So let’s move to an introduction to Vedantism. An introduction to Vedantism About a thousand years before the earliest Greek Philosophers of whom we have record, a collection of Sanskrit writings were made in India. The writings were known as the Veda, which means knowledge. Their authorship is unknown, which is in keeping with traditional claim that the Veda originally ‘heard’ by sages and then passed on orally through teachers. They were finally written down to ensure their preservation. The first Veda, the Rig-Veda (which may possibly date back to about 4000 BC.), contains mainly prayers in praise of Gods associated with natural elements, such as fire, air etc. the Yajur- Veda and Sama-Veda borrowed much from the Rig-Veda and were largely for the use of priests. Finally, the fourth Veda, Atharva-Veda contained original hymns and it is considered as a later addition among the Vedas.4 Vedanta is considered as a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the self-realization by which one understands the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman). The literally meaning of ‘anta’ is the “the last” the end portion. Vedanta thus means concluding portion of the Vedas. But later other treatises were added to Vedanta.5 The basic texts of Vedanta are the The Upanishads, The Bhagavad-Gita and the Brahma-Sutra. Together they are referred to as the Prasthana-traya, the triple canon of Vedanta. It was based on this Prasthana-traya that the Vedanta classified into many sub-schools. There are mainly six important interpretations were developed out of which three are prominent. They are: 1. Advaita Vedanta: The non-dualist tradition in Vedanta, founded by Sankaracharya. 2. Visishta-Advaita: The qualified non-dualism founded by Ramanujacharya. 3. Dvaita-Vedanta: The dualist aspect of Vedanta, founded by Madhava. Besides these three schools, there are some other systems of Vedanta. Important of them were Dvaita-dvaita, Sudhadvaita, Achintyabhedabheda6 etc. Generally, we could abstract five major principles of Vedanta. The first and most basic concept is that of all-pervasive Brahman. The second is that this Brahman resides within each individual’s consciousness, i.e. in the Atman, which is the reflection of all pervasive Brahman. Another important Vedantic concept is that all human beings, because of their shared spirituality, are members of a single, extended family. The fourth major Vedantic concept is the essential unity of all religions of all spiritual paths. The fifth concept is that of the welfare of all human beings.7

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Sufism and Vedanta- a theoretical comparison While considering the two trends, the Sufism and Vedantism, one could find that both emphasize on the moral and ethical aspects of human beings. As mentioned earlier Islamic Mysticism is considered as a moral and spiritual way of life rather than a set of disciplines and doctrines. It is a type of mysticism which is to a large extent conditioned by a monotheistic creed. But Hindu mysticism, on the other hand, develops along its own lines irrespective of creed or dogma. A comparative study of these two systems of philosophy brings into relief many striking points of contact, an account of which certain ‘ulama’s have not been slow to pass strictures on Sufism, and condemn it as an unwarranted innovation in Islam.8 They erroneously infer certain well-known affinities that the doctrine of Sufism must have been borrowed from the Vedanta. The agreement and affinity between the Hindu and Muslim mystical ideas is visible both in higher spheres of philosophical speculations, and also on popular and devotional levels. The Pantheistic monism of the Advaita-Vedantaand Wahadat al-Wujudof the Sufis are different expressions of the same worldview, and this is the basis of their conceptions of divinity, of man, and of the universe. The self-manifestation of the Ultimate Being is spoken in the Vedantic terms as Vivarta, Pratibhasa and Pratibimba, which are literally the same as the Sufi concepts of tajalli, zuhur, aks and numud. The most central idea of the Advaita-Vedanta, is namely, the essential unity of all beings, which is expounded in the Upanisadic passages as “Sarvamhyetad Brahma”, is also similar to the pantheistic philosophy of Ibn al-Arabi and his followers, and was popularized in the ‘hama-ust’ doctrine of later Sufis. Similarly, we could find various affinities in the Conception of Divine Essence and God, the idea of Supreme soul, the Absolute Being, while considering the Sufism and Vedanta. In all these case jnanaor ma’rifat is the only state in which the ultimate truth can be released. As an example of mutual agreements between Vedanta and Sufism, one may conveniently compare the idea of Nirguna Brahmanof the former with that of dhat al-Mutlaq of the latter; jivatmawith the idea of ruh. Take a look at some other examples: Marga with tariqat Bhumikas with maqamat Savikalpa-samadhiwith kashf al-Shuhûd. Vyaktaandavyakta with zahir and batin Nirupadhika and sopadhika with mutlaq and muqayyad Sat and satyam with haq and haqiqat, and so forth. Sometimes agreements and similarities are not merely in ideas, but in language and expression as well. AhamBrahmasmi (Brih. Upanisad) with ana’lHaq Sarvamidam Brahma with hama-ust. Satyasya Satyam with haqiqat al-haqaiq Jyotismjyotih with nur al-anwar, these, and many others, seem to be exact translations of Upanisadic Passage into Sufi terms.9 122 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

If we consider the general affinities or similarities between Sufism and Vedantathe most notable points were follows. Both observe meditation, the restraining of breath, fast and Penance, zikr or recitation of sacred word, service and submission to a piror Guru. Both adopt the use of the rosary. Both believe in union with the Supreme Being, toleration of other religions, universal love and Bhakti, the two aspects of the Supreme Being, etc.10 On the other hand, there are several elements in Hindu religion and in various schools of Hindu mysticism, which are the very antithesis of Sufism. • The Upanishadic quest of the self is fundamentally different from the quest of god of the theistic Sufi. • The stress in the Bhagavat Gita and by its commentators of different schools on the performance of allotted caste duties, its affirmation of the doctrine of Karma, and its anthropomorphic belief in the birth of God as man, are all opposed to the main trend of Sufism in Islam. R.CZaehner also put forward an important difference between the two, i.e. in the case of the Sufis, the means of realizing divinity, is love, but in the case of Vedantins it is simply the acquisition of the intuitional truth.11 Moreover some Hindu elements like the theory of incarnation of God, God’s materialization as statues and portraits, the concept of celibacy, etc. were totally foreign to the Sufistic beliefs. But we couldn’t deny the fact that both the Sufism and Vedantism tried to preach the unity of mankind, believed in the equality of all human beings before the divine grace and emphasized love and devotional worship of God as against format ritualism and external piety. While considering the emergence and development of the cultural symbiosis and peaceful co- existence among the multifaceted community in India, it can be noted that Sufism and Vedantism acted as the most responsible factors. In the Arab chronicle, there are occasional references to the influence of Indians. The Arabs acquired from the Hindus some knowledge in Indian religion, philosophy, medicines, mathematics, astronomy and folklore. If we look at the origin or emergence of cultural symbiosis in India, famous writers like R.C. Zaehner, S.R. Sarada, Tarachand, Barth, R.A. Nicholson all of them holds their own views regarding this matter. S.R. Sarada, through her work ‘Sufi Thought’ tried to prove the Indian influence on Sufism. By exemplifying Al-Hallaj and Abu YazidBistami, she tried to compare some famous Sufi sayings to that of Vedanta. According to Sarada, Abu Yazid’s controversial interpretation of Tauhid and ‘fana’ belongs to the Upanisadic and Vedantic origin. All these philosophical ideas were transmitted to Abu Yazid, by his teacher Abu Ali Sindi, a mysterious person generally supposed to have come from Sindh (the valley of India), but possibly from ‘Sindh’ a village in Khurasan much nearer to Bistan. R.A. Nicholson also supports this view.12 A very elaborate hypothesis has recently been put forward by Zaehner, suggesting that

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Abu Ali Sindhi, the teacher of Abu Yazid must have been a convert from Hinduism and is likely to have brought with him the Upanisadic view of the mystic self-identification with God, when Sankaracharya had just systematized Vedanta. According to Zaehner what the ideas he got from his teacher are plainly reflected in the sayings of Abu Yazid.13 At the same time, Barth, the famous historic writer tried to point out some points regarding the Muslim influence of Hindu centres of mystical learning especially on the Southern area of India.14 But Majumdar rejects the theory of any possible influence of Islam on Hinduism before thirteenth century. But the notable point is that in addition to the actual elements of borrowing from Indian sources into Sufism there are parallelisms in the two mystical systems which might have been connected, partly connected or unconnected. Even Al-Biruni, Ibn al-Arabi and Ghazzali noticed these resemblances earlier. Development of the Cultural Symbiosis and Peaceful Co-existence: A Historical analysis In the eleventh century, when Sufism came in the Indian sub-continent, we could find an integration of religious law and mysticism in India. Sufism took special care to resolve its differences with orthodoxy at that time. In the twelfth and thirteenth century, when the Sufi orders transplanted their hospices in India, the Sufis continued the principle of some close correspondence between the esoteric and exoteric elements of religious life. Under Moinuddin Chisti, anti-Hindu polemics and task of conversion started on a large scale but later it slowed down under Nizam al-Din Auliya.15 As the missionaries of Islam and as liberal leaders of its spirituality, the Sufis were the first among the Muslim intellectual elite to come in contact with the Hindu masses, and thus directly with individual features of Hindu mysticism, especially the Yoga. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, as Sufism penetrated into the masses of converts and semi-converts from Hinduism, the Bhakti Movements rose as popular Hindu counter-challenge to the proselytizing pull of Sufi humanism. About the same time a number of minor heterodox (bi- shari’) sects came into being and gained some popular following, through their actual strength but their sphere of operations was very limited. These sects borrowed a number of Tantric practices and popular superstitions from the lower forms of Hinduism. During the sixteenth century, there were seventeen Sufi orders prevalent in India, which is quoted by AbulFazl, in his AiniAkbari. All the major Sufi orders in India, The Chisti, Qadiri, Shattari, and the Naqshabandi show a similar approach to Hinduism which begins with hostility, passes through a phase of peaceful co-existence and culminates in tolerance and understanding. Under Akbar an enhanced platform created for a wide cultural symbiosis in India. His liberal attitude towards the Hindus and his encouragement to Hindu scholars and mystics, led to the fusing of the thoughts of Hinduism and Islam which gradually led to the establishment of a new religion Din-e- Ilahi. Whatever may its fate, and whatever may be the reaction of orthodox ‘ulama towards it, it has been considered as a great attempt for a cultural symbiosis. If look at the seventeenth century, one could find so many great personalities and scholars throughout India, who engaged in the comparison between the two philosophies – Sufism and

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Vedanta – and tried for a cultural unity. Dara Shikoh, the Mughal Prince, the son of Shah Jahan, was the greatest personality in this aspect, who joined the Qadiri order of the Sufis, and has respect for Hindu saints. He studied Sufism and Indian Vedantism and endeavored to show the similarities existing between them. He translated many Hindu works into Persian, including fifty Upanishads, which is called Sirr-i-Akbar, wrote treatise on Vedanta in Sanskrit, and several works in Persian dealing with Vedanta and Sufism. But the greatest work of Dara Shikoh was ‘Majma- ul-Bahrain’ or ‘the mingling of two oceans’, in which compared this two mystical trends. He declared the difference between Sufism and Vedantism as verbal and that in their higher aspects they were practically identical.16The other personalities who engaged in such practices in this period were, Husain Ambar Khan, (who wrote commentary in Marathi on Bhagavad-Gita, AmbarHusaini), Sheikh Mohammad (a Marathi writer, who made a binocular glossary (do chashma) of Vedanta and Sufism), Kalim-Ullah (a Chisti Mystic), and some Sufi poets likeMuhammad AfdalSarkhush, Sayyid Sultan, MirzaBidil etc. So it is evident that Sufism could create an atmosphere of spiritual stimulus here. This spiritual stimulus led to the development of a type of ‘cultural symbiosis’ between two communities. The aversion of Sufis towards dogmatic formalism, their freedom from fanatical rigidities, their adherence to voluntary poverty and simplicity, and their ethical and humanistic ideals were the main reason for the success of the Sufis in their mission. The Sufis could move easily and preach among the masses, attract large numbers of Hindus and Muslims to their teachings, and influence their thought, manners and social attitudes. Thus, along with the spread of Islam in India, Sufism continued to serve as a major medicine of sympathetic inter relations between two communities and brought the brighter side of Islam, its higher values, its principles of universal equality and human brother hood, and its active realistic outlook, to the view of Hindu society. We could find so many factors responsible for creating such an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding between two communities. It may be the affinities, which we have discussed earlier, may be the catholic and humanistic attitude of Sufis, or may be because of their opposing attitude towards the orthodox outlook of ‘ulama. The Sufis moved about among the masses, lived with them, and could establish heart felt relationship with the Hindu population and gain converts on the basis of the spiritual values of their own teachings. The contacts between the two communities became close and cordial. Bonds of sympathy and fellowship developed among the masses were of far-reaching consequences. But while consideringthelater development, one could find that the Sufism, which worked as a bridge between the two communities, later changed their stand. When the Sufis supported the Muslims in their political conflict with the Hindus and played important role in conversion of indigenous people to Islam, it gave birth to politicization of religion, which generated communal tension between the two religious communities. Gradually the political Islamists of Sufi background used the doctrine of Tawhid to accelerate the process of Muslim separatism in Indian subcontinent and which led to the philosophy of Two-Nation Theory. But it is obvious that as soon as advanced philosophical speculations and approaches comes, confusions and tensions will always there. So we couldn’t forget the role of Sufism and Vedantism as a connecting bridge between the two communities during medieval India.

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CONCLUSION While considering the theoretical and historical perspectives of harmony between Sufism and Vedantism, the most evident fact is that the peaceful co-existence between these two forms of mysticism changed the course of religious prejudices and even the history of Indian sub-continent. In spite of its different background and outlooks, it shares unique ideological and philosophical assumptions, which is based on universal love and brotherhood. Hinduism and Islam, strictly bound by the tenets of their own scriptures and had no points of contact with each other. So the orthodox Hindus as well as orthodox Muslims were really unfit to take the task of peaceful co-existence under the circumstances in India. It was left to the free spirits and lovers of humanity from both these groups, the Sufis and Vedantins, to devote their lives to the construction of the bridge between these two communities. They also influenced with each other without any religious intolerance. The role of Sufis and Vedantins in creating communal harmony in India is a fine example of peaceful co-existence among different communities which is witnessed by the medieval India history. REFERENCE 1 Qur’an, 112:4. 2 Rizwi, S.A.A. 1978, A History of Sufism in India – Vol.-I, New Delhi: MunshiramManoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., p. 25. 3 Hasan,Masudul.1992, History of Islam,Vol. I, Delhi: Adam Publishers and Distributors, p. 17. 4 Hodgkinson,Brian.2006, The Essence of Vedanta, Royston: Eagle Editions Limited, pp. 9-10. 5 Deussen,Dr. Paul.1996, The System of the Vedanta,New Delhi: Classical Publishing Company, p. 4. 6 Mahadevan,T.M.P.1974, Invitation to Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 359-368. 7 Gupta, Surendranath Das.1993, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol.II,Delhi: MotilalBanarsiDass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 13. 8 Nicholson,R.A.1966, The Mystics of Islam, London: Routledge&Kegan Paul Ltd. pp. 19-20. 9 Fathullah, Mujtabai. 1978, Hindu-Muslim Cultural Relations, New Delhi: National Book Bureau, pp. 92- 97; Bijli, S.M. 1999, Mysticism, Delhi: Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, p. 8. 10 Shushtery, A.M.A. 1937, Outlines of Islamic Culture, Bangalore: Bappco, p. 297. 11 Zaehner,R.C. 1960, Hindu and Muslim Mysticism, London: The Athlene Press, p. 14. 12 Sharda,S.R.1975, Sufi Thought – Its Development in Punjab and its Impact on Punjabi Literature from Baba Farid to A.D. 1850, New Delhi: MunshiramManoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 18-24. 13 Zaehner, 1960, Hindu and Muslim Mysticism, pp. 93-94. 14 Barth, A. 1890, The Religions of India, London: Kegan Paul Ltd. pp. 209-211. 15 Ahmad,Aziz.1966, Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian Environment,New Delhi: Oxford University Press, p. 131. 16 ul-Haq,Prof. M. Mahfuz.2006,(trans.), Commingling of Two Oceans – “Majma ul-Bahrain” – A Discourse on Inter-Religious understanding by Prince Dara Shikoh, Delhi: Hope India Publications.

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THE INFLUENCE OF INTERNET ON STUDENTS IN A DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT

Anila K.T. Research Scholar in sociology, Research Centre, CHMK Library University of Calicut, Malappuram Dist.

ABSTRACT The revolution in the field of information and communication technology affects all aspects of human life. It too affects the educational field. In the present scenario there has emerged a considerable body of knowledge as educational technology. Information and communication and communication technology influenced the educational system in all its forms. In the educational field different types of information and communication media are used to impart education. The digital device with internet can be used to help educate students in every subject because of the high availability of resources. Although this change will occur face to face communication will remain important and a top priority in the educating of students with this new technology. Hence this paper proposes that the impact of new media on learning in a digital environment. The empirical part of the study is the University of Calicut. The interviews enquired into the student’s digital competency, internet usage pattern and the attitude towards digitalization of university services. The study revealed that the presumptions on the basis of which this study was started are sustainable. The attraction of the people to the new media on learning is affected their learning and thinking process.

INTRODUCTION In the field of education, technology has recently been given higher priority. Most educational institution have desktop computers and the teaching of information technology is being brought in to more courses at University. The personal computers and the telephones allow them to communicate with colleagues in the office or connect to relevant computers (Janardan Prasas1999). The internet as a teaching implement, will change the classroom environment, as well as the teacher student relationship. “Computer mediated learning involves many sometimes radical changes in communication pattern. Rather than numerous verbal and non- verbal cues available in face - to face encounters, The user acceptance of digital technology requires changes in how one thinks, compose materials and communicates. Researchers point out that often new learners appear to experience some form of ‘culture shock’ which dissipates with additional practice and experience with the system (Husain, 2012). As individual learn to use electronic networks,

127 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 they will be able to acquire information from new source related to the solution of self-defined problems, to define with the aid of other computer network members, technical and social problems and seek solutions to these problems, and to develop with others new knowledge, products and proposals”(Husain,2012. The modern communication services include electronic mail, voice message system, audio conferencing, video conference. And these are used for communicating the world over. The communication satellites are geared to bring the world together for the welfare of the human being. Objectives 1. To identify the digital competency of student in the digitalized university. 2. To assess the internet usage pattern of the students in the digitalized university. 3. To analyse the attitude towards digitalization of university services. Methodology This paper is prepared on the basis of an empirical study conducted among the postgraduate students of the University of Calicut. Data from 100 samples were collected by using an interview schedule. The samples were selected through purposive sampling from the University students. The data was analyzed on the basis of the objectives of the study ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS Digital competency Digital competency is the ability to keep abreast with the rapid changes in the area of information and communication technology. It is a technology related skills. The students who have digital competence can identify, locate and access appropriate sources from the internet. It is ability to use the digital technology in a meaningful way of studying, working and for everyday life in general in various activities. Table 1: Frequency of internet browsing in a day Browsing time 1-2 hour 2-4hours 4 hours & above Total Male 10 (20%) 15 (30%) 25 (50%) 50 (100%) Female 5 (10%) 15 (30%) 30 (60%) 50 (100%) Total 15 (15%) 30 (30%) 55 (50%) 100 (100%) Source: Primary data The analysis table 1 shows that 50% of male students browse internet daily for three hours and above while 60% of female students browse the internet daily for three hours and above. From this we can understand that both male and female students are interested to search information through online for their study and other purpose like knowledge gathering, online shopping, internet banking, online booking tickets and so on. Table 2: Way to access the Internet Way to access WiFi Landline Mobile data Total Male 40 (80%) 5 (10%) 5 (10%) 50 (100%) Female 35 (70%) 10 (20%) 5 (10%) 50 (100%) Total 75 (75%) 15 (15%) 10 (10%) 100 (100%) Source: Primary data

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From the above analysis of the table 2 shows that most of thestudents access internet through WiFi network because of the freeunlimited access of internet is available in the University campus. However 10 Percentage of both male and female students access the internet through mobile data as they do not get Wi Fi signal in their digital gadgets. Table 3: Ability to use internet facilities Abilities Web site creation Blog creation Social network creation Male 6 (12%) 20 (40%) 50 (100%) Female 4 (8%) 5 (10%) 45 (100%) Total 10 (10%) 25 (25%) 95 (95%) Source: Primary data The study of table 3 revealed that 100 percentage of the student community are having the ability to create social networking site I D for their study and communication purpose. 40 percent of male students know to create blogs and 10 percent of female students know to create blog. The analysis shows that the students have better digital competency. Internet usage pattern Among the internet users students especially university students utilize internet facilities for studying, entertainment, shopping etc. The students always want to be connected online. The internet has become a part of young people’s daily activities. Table 4: using internet for learning Internet use Read e- paper/e YouTube videos Online resources for Total books for learning study purpose Male 15 (30%) 10 (20%) 25 (50%) 50 (100%) Female 12 (24%) 3 (6%) 35 (70%) 50 (100%) Total 27 (27%) 13 (13%) 60 (60%) 100 (100%) Source: Primary data Table 4 shows that the majority (50%) of male students responded that they use online resources for their study purpose and 30 percent of student read e-paper and e books. 70 percent of female students responded that they also use online resources for their study. It is clear that the student community use online resources than the print resources. Table 5: Use of infonet facility Infonet facility Use Do not use Total Male 10 (20%) 40 (80%) 50 (100%) Female 35 (70%) 15 (30%) 50 (100%) Total 45 (45%) 55 (55%) 100 (100%) Source: Primary data The study revealed that 80 percent of male students do not use the UGC Infonet services in the University while 70 percent of female students use the infonet services provided by theUGCthrough the University. The male respondents believe that they can access information from other online sources than the infonet and they can gather knowledge at any time from their gadgets.

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Table 6: Internet use for assignment and seminars Assignments/seminars Use Do not use Total Male 40(80%) 10(20%) 50(100%) Female 30(60%) 20(40%) 50(100%) Total 70(70%) 30(30%) 100(100%) Source: Primary data Considering the table 6 80percent of male students use internet and online resources for preparing seminars and assignments than print materials. While 40 percent of female students use print resources for preparing assignment and seminars. Attitude towards digitalization By the increasing use information and communication technology affect the lifestyle of people today. The spread of smart phones, personal computers and other information and communication technologies affected all aspects of human life. The digitalization of university services influence students attitude towards the benefits like online examination and result publication system, online issuance of mark lists and so on. Table 7: Attitude towards digitalization services of the University Digitalization service Support Not support Total Male 33(66%) 17(34%) 50(100%) Female 46(92%) 4(8%) 50(100%) Total 79(79%) 21(21%) 100(100%) Source: Primary data The study of table 7 revealed that 66 percent of male students support the digitization services of the university such as online application system , student web centre system, online fee payment system etc . 92 percent of the female students also support the digitalization service of the university. It is clear that the student community are highly influenced the digital world. Table 8: Use of social media for academic purpose Social media use for academic purpose use Do not use Total Male 30 (60%) 20 (40%) 50 (100%) Female 17 (34%) 33 (66%) 50 (100%) Total 47 (47%) 53 (53%) 100(100%) Table 8 shows that 60 percent of male students use social media for their academic purpose while 66 percent of the female students responded that they do no use social media for academic purpose. The female students believe that the information which they get from the social media is not accurate and authentic and they use other online and print materials. Table 9: Attitude towardsOnline issue of marklist and result publication Online issue of marklist Support Do not support Total and result publication Male 40 (80%) 10 (20%) 50 (100%) Female 45 (90%) 5 (10%) 50 (100%) Total 85 (85%) 15 (15%) 100 (100%) Source : Primary data

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From the analysis of table 9 shows that both male and female students support the online issuance of mark list and result publication. The other 20 percent of male students and 10 percent of female students not support these system. Table 10: Attitude towards online examination system Online examination system Support Do not support Total Male 18 (36%) 32 (64%) 50 (100%) Female 36 (72%) 14 (28%) 50 (100%) Total 54 (54%) 46 (46%) 100 (100%) Source : Primary data The study of table 10 revealed that 64 percent of male students do not support the online examination system and they responded that there is chance to misuse the examination system while 72 percent of female students support online examination system. CONCLUSION The digitalization and spread of networks affected the institution of education especially on higher education. Digitalization and network provide online resources and better facilities for students. The study revealed that both male and female students have fairly good digital competency and they use maximum potential of them. They use online resources such as resources from social media, you tube, search engines for their academic and personal needs. REFERENCES 1. Mahapatra B.C, Education in Cybernetic Age, Sarup& Sons, New Delhi, 2006 2. Prasad Janardan, Modern Media and Educational Practice, Kanishka publishers New Delhi,1999 3. Verma Mahesh, Technology in Digial Education,MuraliLal&Sons, New Delhi, 2006 4. Vijay Kumar Kaushik, Modern Media and Education, ANMOL Publication, New Delhi, 1997 5. Chandra Ramesh, Impact of Media &Technology in Education, Kalpaz Publications, New Delhi, 2005.

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EMPLOYMENT OF FUNDS IN KERALA STATE CO-OPERATIVE BANK (KSCB)

Pradeesh. S Ph.D. Research Scholar in Commerce University of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala e.mail: [email protected] Mob: 9446705054

ABSTRACT Banking business has done wonders for the world economy. The simple looking method of accepting money deposits from savers and then lending the same money to borrowers, banking activity encourages the flow of money to productive use and investments. This in turn allows the economy to grow. In the absence of banking business, savings would sit idle in our homes, the entrepreneurs would not be in a position to raise the money, ordinary people dreaming for a new car or house would not be able to purchase cars or houses. The government of India started the cooperative movement of India in 1904. Then the government therefore decided to develop the cooperatives as the institutional agency to tackle the problem of usury and rural indebtedness, which has become a curse for population. In such a situation cooperative banks operate as a balancing centre. At present there are several cooperative banks which are performing multipurpose functions of financial, administrative, supervisory and development in nature of expansion and development of cooperative credit system. In brief, the cooperative banks have to act as a friend, philosopher and guide to entire cooperative structure. Key words: Cooperative Banks, Fund Employment

INTRODUCTION The history of Co-operative movement concerns the origin and history of Co-operatives. Although, the co-operative arrangements and principles of co-operation existed long before, the co-operative movement began with the application of co-operative principles to business organization. The achievement of co-operative movement includes economic benefit, political benefit .The origin of co-operation is old as human civilization. Sir. Horace Plunkett said “Co-operation is a self-help made effective through organization”.Mr. H. Calvert defined “Co-operation as a form of organization wherein persons voluntarily associate together as human being on the basis of equality for the promotion of the economic interest of themselves.” The co-operative movement in

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Kerala has a long history. The movement started in Kerala long before the attainment of independence. In 1946 there were 1669 co-operative societies with a share capital of 32 lakhs. There are at present about 14000 co-operative societies under the Register of co-operative societies. Out of these 10,503 societies are functioning satisfactorily. They include the apex institutions like the state Co-operative Bank, the State Agricultural and Rural Development Bank, 14 District Co-operative Banks, 60 Urban Banks, 48 Primary Agricultural and Rural Development Banks and 1602 primary Lending Societies. The total deposit in the co-operative sector is 40,000crores. About 75% of this is distributed as loans. Co-operative institutions were developed in Kerala as a result of mass struggles and peoples’ participation. Compared to the movements in other States, the co-operative movement in Kerala is more comprehensive and creative. Land reforms have played a great role in freeing the people from the clutches of illicit money lenders who extracted heavy interests.Apart from functioning as a service sector, the co-operative movement also serves as an employment sector also. About 40,000 persons are employed in the co-operative societies coming under the jurisdiction of the Registrar of Co-operative Societies. If all the employees working in the entire co-operative sector are taken together, it may exceed 1lakh. It has importance as a sector which employs an enormous number of employees both directly and indirectly. Statement of the Problem Financial institutions play significant roles in the economic development of a country broadly by promoting mobilization of resources and allocating these resources in the form of loans and advances. The resources available with the financial institutions are to be carefully managed and distributed in order to maintain efficiency. Efficiency of funds management lies not only in the efficient mobilization of funds but also in the effective and optimum use of resources. This argument is very much relevant in the present context because, out of the total resources of the banking institutions, a good share is to be kept as reserves and the banks have to improve their spread by efficiently managing the remaining resources. The problem becomes further complicated in the current environment of global economic reforms and the resultant cut-throat competitiuon.co- operative banks are also not free from this global problem. The service Co-operative Bank mobilizes deposits from members and borrow fund from other financial institutions. If the fund mobilized is not properly utilized, it will affect the overall efficiency of the bank. The bank being a service co-operative bank, it extends all types of credit needs. The profitable employment of fund after considering the factors like profitability, liquidity and safety are essential for the development of the bank with maximum profit. So we concentrated on the topic of management or ’Employment of funds’ in this bank to assure better living to its members and for the economic development. Significance of the Study This study has a major focus only on the funds of the KSCB. This helps to identify the changes of fund flow in KSCB. Other functional and operational transactions like deposit mobilization and credit expansion were not considered for analysis purpose.

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Review of Literature Verma S.K (1999)examined the rural development through co-operatives. He has observed that the co-operative institutions have been tremendously contributing in accelerating the economic development of rural and urban areas of the country specially the economically weak people. He has concluded that it is the best instrument to promote social justice and prevention of exploitation at the gross root level. Bhaskaran and Josh (2000) decided that the recovery performance of co-operative credit institutions continues to unsatisfactory which contributes to the growth of NPA even after the introduction of prudential regulations. They proposed legislative and policy preparations to make co-operative credit institutions more efficient, productive and profitable organization in tune with competitive commercial banking. Jain (2001) has done a comparative performance analysis of District Central Co-operative Banks (DCCBs) of Western India, namely Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan and found that DCCBs of Rajasthan have performed better in profitability and liquidity as compared to Gujarat and Maharashtra. Ansari A.A and Amir Ullah Khan (2004) have examined the agricultural sector reforms and role of co-operatives. They have observed that the economic reforms, which have been introduced since 1991, have given new dimensions to precepts and practices of economic development. They have concluded that the co-operatives have not been able to take the fullest advantage of the economic reforms, as they have been bypassed in the reform process. Singh and Singh (2006) deliberate the funds management in the District Central Cooperative Banks (DCCBs) of Punjab with specific reference to the analysis of financial margin. It noted that a higher proportion of own funds and the recovery concerns have resulted in the increased margin of the Central Co-operative Banks and thus had a larger provision for non-performing assets. Mavaluri, Boppana and Nagarjuna (2006) recommended that performance of banking in terms of profitability, productivity, asset quality and financial management has become significant to stable the economy. They found that public sector banks have been more efficient than other banks operating in India. Pal and Malik (2007) examined the differences in the financial characteristics of 74 (public, private and foreign) banks in India based on factors, such as profitability, liquidity, risk and efficiency. It is suggested that foreign banks were better performers, as compared to other two categories of banks, in general and in terms of utilization of resources in particular. Campbell (2007) focused on the relationship between nonperforming loans (NPLs) and bank failure and argued for an effective bank insolvency law for the prevention and control of NPLs for developing and transitional economies as these have been suffering severe problems due to NPLs. Dutta and Basak (2008) suggested that Co-operative banks should improve their recovery performance, adopt new system of computerized monitoring of loans, implement proper prudential norms and organize regular workshops to sustain in the competitive banking environment. Darling Selvi V (2008) examines the lending performance of Kanyakumari District Central Co-operative Bank (KDCCB). He observed that the overall growth rate of loan disbursement on

134 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 short term credit shows a positive growth of 25%. The credit facilities extended by KDCCB are high for services, medium for industries and low for agriculture. He concludes that the overall performance of the KDCCB is good. If the benefits are properly toiled and utilized there will be a bright future for both to the community and to the nation. Singla(2008) emphasized on financial management and examined the financial position of sixteen banks by considering profitability, capital adequacy, debt-equity and NPA. Chander and Chandel (2010) analyzed the financial efficiency and viability of HARCO Bank and found poor performance of the bank on capital adequacy, liquidity, earning quality and the management efficiency parameters. Objectives of the Study 1. To study the resources of the bank 2. To study the utilization of deposits 3. To give suggestions for improving the employment of funds Research Methodology Type of Research - Descriptive research is used in this study in order to identify the lending practices of bank and determining utilization of funds. The method used was questionnaire and interview of the experienced loan officers. Sample selection The Kerala State Co-operative Bank selected as sample for the study of the employment of funds of KSCB. Data collection and procedure The study made use of both primary and secondary data. The primary data is collected from members, nonmembers, staff, managing committee members etc. for analyzing the trend and pattern of funds, 5 years data collected from annual reports, Bye-laws, ledgers, registers, and audit report of the TSCB starting from 20011-2015. Scope of the Study The present study is limited to the fund management of the KSCB, palayam. Though funds management is a very broad concept, the present study explores only the sources and utilization of funds and their management efficiency. However, the concept of efficiency is relative and hence precise and direct measurement is difficult. Limitations of the Study 1. Time constraints:-The functions of the bank are very wide. The time is limited to understand the overall functioning of the bank. 2. References:- only five years records are taken for the study and records of head office were only taken for analysis of the project work. 3. Discussions and suggestions:- lack of proper interactive discussions with the authorities in the bank.

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Profile of the bank The beginning of the Kerala state co-operative Bank Ltd dates back to early 20th century .In the year 1914, the then Maharaja of Travancore, Sree Moolam Thirunal Ramavarma, through a proclamation introduced “The Travancore co-operative societies Regulation Act”. The first co- operative society in the State of Travancore got registered under this Act was “The Trivandrum Central Co-operative Bank”, on 23rd November 1915.It started functioning as a Bank on January 18,1916 with a share capital of 100000/- made up of 1000 shares of 100/- each. In the beginning there were 16 Co-operative Societies and 69 individuals as its members. Later the Bank endeavoured to build up loan portfolio with a working capital of 50000/- raised by means of a special borrowing from the Government. In `1934 the Bank could earn a working capital of 21.97lakhs including a deposit of 19.44lakhs In 1943, it was converted in to the Travancore Central Co-operative Bank, giving it a federal character of the Travancore State. In the wake of Indian Independence and the reorganization of state, the bank was re-organized as a State Co-operative Bank for Travancore- Cochin State in the year 1954.In the year 1956, the reorganization of Indian States took place and the State of ‘Kerala’ was formed. The Bank was then elevated to the position of State Co- operative Bank for the state of Kerala and it became “The Kerala State Co-operative Bank Ltd.” At the time, the Bank had a working capital of 42.90lakhs, deposit of 30.33lakhs and loans advances to the tune of 21.66lakhs The Kerala State Co-operative Bank was registered and retained as an Apex Bank in which only Co-operative Banks approved by the Registrar of co-operative Societies were admitted as members. Since then the Trivandrum District Co-operative bank and the Government of Kerala were the only members. Subsequently after the formation of the Districts, District co-operative bank were registered in each District Co-operative Banks were admitted as members. In July 1996, the Kerala State Co-operative bank Ltd was included in 2nd schedule of the Reserve Bank of India Act 1934 and was brought under the control of Reserve Bank of India. The Reserve Bank of India as per the provision Contained in the 2nd Schedule of the Act approved the bank as Schedule state co-operative Bank. The Kerala State Co-operative bank Ltd is the first Schedule Apex Co-operative Bank in the co-operative Banking sector in the country. During April 1972, In accordance with the provision of Rule Act 1949, the Reserve Bank of India issued license to the Bank for carrying on banking Business. At present the 14 District Co-operative Banks and the Government of Kerala are the member and shareholders of the Bank.AS on 31st March 2014, the authorized Share capital of the Bank is 1000.00crore consisting of 10,00,000shares of 100/- each. The paid up share capital of the Bank as on 31st March 2014 is Rs 494.20crore which include the Government share capital contribution of 294.20 crore. Sources of Funds Fund is the life blood of each and every organization. Bank deals with public men’s money. Without funds bank cannot functions smoothly.so the Bank mobilizes funds from public through various kinds of deposits. These deposits ensure flow of fund into the organization, so that the bank can utilize these funds in an effective manner and thereby ensure financial stability in the organization.Sources of funds are share capital, reserves, deposits, borrowings, working capital, 136 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 loans and advances and investments. Share capital The term share capital denotes the amount of capital raised or to be raised by the issue of shares. A share is one of the units in to which the total capital is divided. The share capital might be the main source of the mobilization of fund. Share capital refers to the portion of a company’s equity that has been obtained by trading stock to a shareholder for cash. In its strict sense, as used in accounting, share capital comprises the nominal values of all shares issued if the allocation price of shares is greater than their par value. eg: as in a rights issue ,the shares are said to be sold at a premium commonly, the shares capital is the total of the aforementioned nominal share capital and the premium share capital. Reserve fund The Reserve fund shall belongings to the bank as a whole and is intended to meet unforeseen loss. No part of the funds of a co-operative society shall be divide by way of bonus or dividend or otherwise among its members.Provided that after at least one-fourth of the net profit in the year has been carried to the reserve fund payments from the remainder of such profit and form any profits of past years available for distribution may be made to the member to such extent and under such conditions as may be prescribed by the rules or byelaws.The Reserve funds of the bank shall not be invested or deposited except one or more of the modes mentioned in section 39 of the co-operative societies act. But when reserve fund of the bank exceeds 20%of its working Capital, the excess may with the sanction of the Registrar, is utilized in its business. Deposits Deposits are the important source from which a bank derives a major portion of its funds. Deposit represent 90%of bank funds. Receiving of deposit has been considered as an ideal method of raising Working capital of the society. 1.Fixed Deposit When a fixed sum of money is deposited in a bank for a definite period, it is called a fixed deposit. Fixed Deposit is beneficial to both the banker and depositor. They are useful to the banker because it is deposited for a definite period and he is known as the time of repayment .Therefore, he can invest the amount in long term securities which may bring him a higher return. More over Cheque system is not allowed against fixed accounts. A depositor is also benefited, as he earns a higher rate of interest. On receipt of the deposit amount, the banker issue a receipt known as “Fixed Deposit Receipt”. 2. Savings Deposit Savings Bank Accounts are those accounts opened by persons of moderate means who want to save something out of their fixed income to safeguard against future uncertainties and at the same time to earn some income by way of interest.This is a scheme opened to mobilize scattered savings of the public and direct them towards proper investment .certain restrictions are imposed on number of times of withdrawal of money within a period. A moderate rate of interest is allowed on all savings deposits.

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3.Current Deposit Current Deposit Account is a running account in which money can be deposited and withdrawn without any limit. No restrictions has been imposed on the current account, relating to the number of times the account shall be operated during a day, a week or month. Any amount can be deposited any number of cheques can be issued on such accounts. The money deposited in the account is repayable on demand and therefore banker is expected to maintain sufficient reserves. It is suitable for big business houses, public institution, corporate bodies etc. current account holder should keep a minimum balance of 500 to keep account running. Overdraft facilities are permitted in this type of account’s only. Borrowings Borrowing is a source of fund for the organization for development and modernization. The organization arranges the fund from different financial institution on the basis of term loans against mortgage of fixed asset or any other valuables Working Capital Working capital is a financial metric which represent operating liquidity available to a business, organization or other entity ,including government entity Along with fixed assets such as plantand equipment ,working capital’s considered a part of operating capital. Gross working capital equal to current asset. Working capital is calculated as current asset minus current liabilities.Working capital means funds at the disposable of the society inclusive of the paid up capital, share capital, funds created out of profit and money raised by borrowing or by any other means. The greater the amount of capital held by the co-operative, the greater its ability to purchase more efficient technology, invest in staff training and education and make other improvements to the running of the business. Loans And Advances Lending money is one of the primary function of the bank .The bank lends money in different forms and they generally lend money only for short periods. Since the deposits are repayable on demand, the bank cannot lock up funds for longer periods. Usually loans are granted against collateral securities, but in some cases advances are also given purely on the personal security of Government. Investment An investment is an asset or item that is purchased with the hope that it will generate income or appreciate in the future. In an economic sense, an investment is the purchase of goods that are not consumed today but are used in the future to create wealth. In finance an investment is a monetary asset purchased with the idea that the asset will provide income in the future or appreciate and be sold at a higher price. In finance investment is buying or creating an asset with the expectation of capital appreciation, dividends, Interest earnings, Rent or some contribution of these returns. This may or may not be backed by research and analysis most or all forms of investments involve some form of risk such as investment in equities, property and ever fixed interest securities which are subject among other things to inflation risk.

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Table 1- Sources of Funds and its Changes Sources 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Amount 22.68 172.68 388.69 391.69 494.2 Share Capital Increase/Decrease 0 150 216.01 3 102.51 Amount 288.68 308 402.88 359.61 409.79 Reserves Increase/Decrease 0 19.32 94.88 43.27 50.18 Amount 6154.5 4851.3 5517.8 5584.5 6934 Fixed Deposit Increase/Decrease 0 1303.2 666.48 66.68 1349.5 Amount 85.98 81.63 91.44 93.15 123.32 Savings Deposit Increase/Decrease 0 4.35 9.81 1.71 30.17 Amount 408.72 272.49 294.92 450.34 645 Current Deposit Increase/Decrease 0 136.23 22.43 155.42 194.66 Amount 107.72 93.71 1384.3 994.89 206.96 Borrowings Increase/Decrease 0 14.01 1290.6 389.42 787.93 Amount 6828.7 5523.2 7648.5 7570.3 8376.2 Working Capital Increase/Decrease 0 1305.5 2125.3 78.19 805.87 Amount 2056.2 2706.9 3076.7 4281.2 2435.2 Loans and Advances Increase/Decrease 0 650.71 369.85 1204.5 1846 Amount 4284.2 2225.5 4161.7 2838.3 5574.2 Investments Increase/Decrease 0 2058.8 1936.2 1323.4 2735.9

Interpretation From the table 1 it was observed that the amount raised from share capital is only 22.68crore in the year 2011 but the following year there is a hike of 150crore .But in the year 2014 only 3crore increase in the amount of share capital. Simultaneously there is increasing trend in the following years.In the year 2011, reserves created by the firm were only 288.68 crores. But in 2012 and 2013 reserve increased continuously. But in the year 2014 reserve kept by the firm decreased slightly comparing these five years, 2015 shows the minimum reserves. While the deposits collected by the firm in the year 2011 are 6154.50 crores and in the year 2012 it decreased by 4851.32 crores. In the year 2013 deposits by the firm is 5517.8 crores but in the year 2014 it is increased to 5584.48 crores. Comparing these five years 2015 has the highest deposit and it is 6933.98 crores. The amount raised from saving bank deposit is only 85.98crore in the year 2011 but the following year there is a hike of 4.35crore. Similarly there is increase in saving bank deposit 9.81crore. But in the year 2014 the amount increased only 1.71crore. Simultaneously there is increasing trend in the following years.As per the above table and graph it is found that current deposit showing a steady increase during the year 2011 to 2015. Amount raised from borrowings is 107.72crore in 2011. But the following year decrease of 14.01crore. Borrowing has become the maximum in the year 2013. But for all the other years it is showing a declining trend.

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Increase or Decrease of Source of Funds Share Capital Reserves

94.88 216.01

150 102.51 50.18 43.27 19.32 3 0 0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Fixed Deposit Current Deposit

1303.18 1349.5

194.66 155.42 666.48 136.23

0 66.68 0 22.43 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Borrowings Working Capital

1290.6 2125.25

787.93 1305.47

805.87 389.42

0 14.01 0 78.19 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Loans and Advances Investments

1845.98 2735.89 2058.77 1936.22

650.71 1204.48 1323.42

0 369.85 0

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Savings Deposit 40

30

20 Series1 10

0 1 2 3 4 5

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It can be seen that the amount raised from share capital is only 6828.69crore in the year 2011. But the following year there is a decrease of 1305.47crore .Similarly there is increase in working capital 2125.25crore. But in the year 2014 the amount decreased 78.19crore. Simultaneously there is increasing trend in the following years. Amount raised from loans and advance’s is 2056.15crore in the year 2011. But the following year there is a hike of 650.71crore. Similarly there is increase in loans and advances 3076.71crore .But in the year 2014 the amount increased only 1204.48crore. Simultaneously there is decreasing trend in the following. Source of funds from investment is 4284.23crore in the year 2011. But the following year there is decrease of 2058.77crore. Similarly there is increase in investment 1936.22crore. But in the year 2014 the amount decreased only 1323.42crore. Simultaneously there is increasing trend in the following years. Utiliastion of Funds Loans to Individuals During the year under report, the Bank sanctioned various types of loans directly to individuals through the branches such as Gold Loans, Samridhi Loans, Mortgage Loans, Vyapar Loans, Education Loans, Housing Loans etc. Facilities such as Clean Overdraft, Cash Credit Accommodation, Bills Discounting, advance against NSC etc. have also been sanctioned. An aggregate amount of 767.43 crore is outstanding under the above heads as on 31st March 2015 against that of901.35 crore as on 31st March 2014. i) Loan Schemes a) Vyapar Loan As a part of promoting business of small and tiny traders in the state, we have introduced the vyapar loans. Loans ranging from 10,000/- to a maximum of 2.00 lakhs is advanced to a permanent resident trader of Kerala. The maximum amount that can be is fixed at 20 percent of the annual sales turnover on hypothecation of the goods/stock. Loans are allowed to a group consisting of three traders on mutual guarantee basis. The loan has to be repaid in 36 equated monthly installments . The proportionate amount of installment is collected on daily basis on door steps of the traders by collection agents of the Bank. The balance outstanding as on 31.03.2015 under the head is 66.53 crore as against the balance of 73.39 crore as on 31-03-2014. Loans above 2,00,000/- and up to10,00,000/- are also being issued under the scheme to traders on the security of landed property repayable in 120 equated monthly installments. b) Mortgage Loan Mortgage Loans up to the limit of 10.00 lakh are being issued to individuals on the security of landed property for any legitimate purpose on attractive terms and conditions. The total outstanding balance under the head as on 31-03-2015 is 279.64 crore as against the balance of 280.97 crore as on 31-03-2014. c) Co-Bank Housing Loan Housing Loans are allowed to persons having regular income for purchasing of ready built houses, construction of new houses and also for addition, extension and renovation of existing houses. Maximum amount of loan that can be sanctioned under the scheme is 20.00 lakhs on the

141 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 security of the land and the house building. The balance outstanding in the account as on 31-03- 2015 is 151.31 crore as against the balance of 150.22 crore as on 31-03-2014. d) Samridhi Loan Samridhi Loan upto the limit of 3.00 lakh is scheme to salaried and other individuals having regular income on personal security of Borrower and Co-obligates for any legitimate purposes on attractive terms and conditions. The total outstanding balance under the head as on 31-3-2015 is 71.10 crore as against that of65.84 crore as on 31-03-2014. e) Overdraft and Cash Credit Accommodation Overdraft Accommodation of 2.00 lakh to individuals on personal security of Borrower and Co-obligates for any purpose and Cash Credit Accommodation of 25.00 lakhs to Contractors and Business firms on the security of collaterals for working capital requirements on attractive terms and conditions are being sanctioned through Branches. The total outstanding balances under these heads as on 31-3-2015 are 1.93 crore and 30.29 crore respectively as against those of 4.10 crore and 35.63 crore as on 31-03-2014. f) Gold Loan Gold Loan upto the limit of 10.00 lakh is being issued to individuals on the security of Gold ornaments and coin for any legitimate purposes on attractive terms and conditions. The total outstanding balance under the head as on 31-3-2015 is 18.68 crore as against the balance of 19.91 crore as on 31-03-2014. g) Educational Loan Considering it as a social obligation from the year 2004 onwards we extend education loans to the needy and middle/low income group students for meeting the expenses of their professional education. The outstanding balance in the account as on 31-03-2015 is 75.49 crore as against that of 77.97 crore as on 31.03.2014. ii) Loans to DCBs 1) Short Term Loans for Financing Seasonal Agricultural Operations The Bank sanctioned an aggregate Short Term Credit limit of 700.00 crore to 14 District Co-operative Bank for Seasonal Agricultural Operations for the year 2014-15 as against 1046.27 crore sanctioned during 2013-14. The outstanding under ST Agricultural advances as on 31.03.2015 was 700.00 Crore . The Bank-wise details are given in AnnexureIII 2) Schematic (MT<)/Non-Farm Sector Loans The outstanding under the head as on 31.03.2015 was 22.73 crore as against 87.89 crore as on 31.03.2014. The District-wise position of loans outstanding under IRDP, Schematic Lending, Rural Housing and Self-Help Scheme as on 31.03.2015 is furnished in Annexure III. a) Weavers Finance The District Co-operative Banks were not allowed any credit limit under the head during the current year and there was no outstanding as on 31.03.2015. The Kerala State Handloom Weavers’ Co-operative Society (HANTEX) was enjoying a credit limit of 20.40 crore during the year 2014-15 for procurement and marketing activities and trading in yarn. There were no 142 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 transactions in the account during the year under report. b) Coir Finance The District Co-operative Banks were not allowed any credit limit under the head during the current year. The Kerala State Co-operative Coir Marketing Federation (COIRFED) was enjoying a credit limit of 23.00 crore for procurement and marketing activities during the year 2014-15. There were no transactions in the account during the year under report. c) Short Term Non Agricultural Loans During the year report the bank provided short-term loans for non-agricultural purposes to District Co-operative Banks for financing primary Agricultural Credit Societies and Employees’ Co-operative Societies for lending to their members. The Bank sanctioned credit limits aggregating to 2647.50 crore during the year 2014-15 to the District Co-operative Banks for purpose. The outstanding under the head as on 31.03.2015 is 339 crore. The details are given in Annexure III. d) Housing Finance i) LT Housing Loans to DCBs: The Bank has sanctioned a limit of 150.00 crore to DCBS for their customers Housing needs and the balance outstanding in the accounts as on 31-03-2015 is 34.38 crore ii) National Housing Bank: During the year under report, the bank has not disbursed any amount under the NHB Refinance Scheme. The outstanding under the head as on 31.03.2015 is 0.10 crore against that of 0.22 crore as on 31.03.2014. iii) Thanal Housing Scheme: During the year no fresh limit was sanctioned under the schemes. The outstanding as on 31-03-2014 & 2015 was 8.00 crore. iv) Rural Housing Scheme: Due to non-availability of refinance assistance from NABARD the Bank has not disturbed fresh limits under the Scheme during the year under report. A sum of 22.25 crore is outstanding under the scheme as on 31.03.2015 against that of 87.11 crore as on 31.03.2014. v) EMS Housing Scheme: The Government of Kerala have during the year 2008 introduced a new Housing Scheme named ‘ EMS Housing Scheme’ as a programme of the XI Five Year Plan. The Scheme envisaged complete solution to the housing needs of the poor sections by the end of the year 2011. The scheme is formulated for implementation through Local Self Government Bodies exclusively for providing dwelling to the homeless families and land/houses to the landless/ homeless families living below poverty line. The total credit limit sanctioned for implementation of the scheme is 1320.00 crore. a sum of 194.13 crore is outstanding under this head as on 31.03.2015. i) Industrial Finance: The District Co-operative Banks were not allowed any amount under the head during the year under report due to non-availability of refinance assistance from SIDBI. A sum of 149.85 Crore is outstanding under long term industrial finance as on 31.03.2015 against the outstanding of 153.62 Crore as on 31-03-2014. ii) Short Term Gold Loan to DCBs: The Bank has sanctioned limit of 1400.00 crore to DCBs for their various business activities and the balance outstanding in the accounts as on 31-03-2015 is 35 crore.

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Findings 1. Share capital being apportion of companies equity obtained by trading stock to a shareholder for cash, it is considered as the life blood for the organization. Here share capital shows a trend of increase during the five consecutive years. This shows a positive trend of the bank. 2. Reserve fund being the money created for unforeseen losses is a needy factor of the organization .Here reserves shows a tendency to increase and then decrease but in 2015 the reserve tends to become maximum. There by the bank is able to meet any unforeseen contingencies. 3. Deposits ensure flow of funds into the organizations. In 2015 the bank has mobilized maximum deposits and so the bank can utilize these funds in an effective manner and thereby ensuring financial stability in the organization. 4. Borrowings by the bank is showing a declining trend and this is a positive trend of the bank ,as it can pay back borrowings over a fixed period of time 5. Working capital being the circulating capital of the organization is showing a trend of increase and decrease alternatively .The increase in working capital enables the organization to work smoothly and utilize their fund for the day today activities. 6. Loans granted against collateral securities tend to show an increase during the four years. This implies that the bank cannot lockup funds for a longer period. 7. Investment collected by the bank is showing an increase and decrease trend alternatively. 8. Current deposit shows an increasing trend. Suggestions 1. KSCB can provide different kinds of term loans. Because bank receives more deposit in 2011-2015 2. Bank takes necessary step to maintain stability in investment 3. Bank should provide modern banking facilities to its members 4. Bank should use working capital more effectively because it shows a continuous increase. 5. It should implement loan schemes for women for self-employment. 6. The non-banking activities such as scanning centers can be opened to provide this facility at concessional rate. 7. The bank should take necessary steps to increase CASA deposits. 8. The bank should provide ATM facilities.

CONCLUSION To conclude we hope that the Kerala state co-operative bank can definitely do a lot for increasing and improving the banking activities. In Kerala the co-operative sector developed in recent years so the KSCB is an apex institution to provide long term credit facilities through DCB’s and control all credit societies functioning in Kerala. Though the bank has to undertake 144 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 many schemes for the efficient employment of fund through non-banking activities also, it has yet to do a lot more for the coming days. References 1. Andrew Campbell (2007), “Bank insolvency and the problem of nonperforming loans”, Journal of Banking Regulation, 25-45. 2. Beaver, W. H. (1966), “Financial ratios as predictor of failure-empirical research in accounting”, Journal of Accounting Research, No. 4, 71-111. 3. Bhaskaran R and Praful Josh P (2000), “Non Performing Assets (NPAs) in Co-operative Rural Financial System: A major challenge to rural development”, BIRD s Eye View Dec.2000. 4. Chander Ramesh and Chandel Jai Kishan (2010), “Financial Viability of an Apex Cooperative Credit Institution- A Case Study of the HARCO Bank”, Asia-Pacific Business Review Vol. VI, No.2, April- June 2010, pp 61-70 5. Chandra, Buddhadeb (2006), “Performance of Burdwan Central Cooperative Bank in the Development of the District (1988-89 to 1998-99)”, Finance India, September, 2006. 6. DuttaUttam and BasakAmit (2008), “Appraisal of financial performance of urban cooperative banks- a case study.” The Management Accountant, case study, March 2008, 170-174. 7. Fulbag Singh and Balwinder Singh (2006), “Funds management in the central cooperative banks of Punjab- an analysis of financial margin”, The ICFAI Journal of Management, Vol. 5, 74-80. 8. Geeta Sharma and Ganesh Kawadia (2006), “Efficiency of urban cooperative banks of Maharashtra: A DEA Analysis”, The ICFAI Journal of Management, Vol. 5, Issue 4. 9. Harish Kumar Singla (2008), “Financial performance of banks in India”, The ICFAI Journal of Management, Vol. 7, Issue 1. 10. Jain (2001),”Comparative study of performance of District Central Cooperative Banks (DCCBs) of Western India i.e. Maharashtra, Gujarat & Rajasthan for the year 1999-2000 from the point of view of net profit/loss”, NAFSCOB Bulletin, April-June 2001. 11. Ohlson, J.A. (1980), “Financial Ratios and the Probabilistic Prediction of Bankruptcy,” Journal of Accounting Research, No. 18, 109-131. 12. Ramesha and Nagaraju (2007), “Prudential Standards and the performance of Urban Co-operative Banks in India: An Empirical Investigation”, The ICFAI Journal of Financial Risk Management, June, 2007. 13. Taffler R J (1982), “Forecasting company failure in the U.K. using discriminant analysis and financial ratio data,” Journal of the Royal Statistical society, Vol. 145, 342-358 14. UrsNiranjan Raj B and Chitambaram K (2000), “Measuring the performance of District Co-operative Banks”, NAFSCOB Bulletin, October-December, 2000. 15. Ved Pal & N S Malik (2007), “A multivariate analysis of the financial characteristics of commercial banks in India”, The ICFAI Journal of Management, Vol. 6, Issue 3. 16. Justin Paul and Padmalatha Suresh (2008),”Management of Banking and Financial Services”, Second impression, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., PHI, Chapter: 6, 78-116. 17. Shiang-Tai Liu (2009), “Slacks-based efficiency measures for predicting bank performance”, Graduate School of Business and Management, Vanung University, Chung-Li, Taiwan.

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MOBILE BANKING A PARADIGM SHIFT IN BANKING SECTOR

Soumya Sebastian Assistant Professor in Commerce Deva Matha College Kuravilangad, Kottayam Dist.

ABSTRACT Indian banking sector has been undergoing significant reforms with the backing of information technology. The new technology ,mobile banking has brought an arena in which a customer can do all his banking and financial services anywhere without having to wait at banks. Mobile banking involves the access to, and provision of, banking and finance services through mobile devices. This service is time saving, convenient and cost effective for the customer as well as for the bank. Thus mobile banking is the usage of mobile phone as a platform for banking transactions. Mobile Banking is not only one of the most leading and successful product but it is also an essential for the growth of any developing country. In the future mobile banking will be a product that will provide a gradual boost to the economy.

INTRODUCTION Banking environment has become highly competitive today. To be able to survive and grow in the changing market environment, banks are going for the latest technologies, which is being perceived as an ‘enabling resource’ that can help in developing learner to respond quickly to the dynamics of a fast changing market scenario. IT has helped the banking industry to deal with the challenges the new economy poses. Technology has opened up new markets, new products, new services and efficient delivery channels for the banking industry. Online electronic banking, mobile banking and internet banking are examples of this. Information technology has been the cornerstone of recent financial sector reforms aimed at increasing the speed and reliability of financial operations and of initiatives to strengthen the banking sector. As a result various electronic delivery channels are increasingly used by banks for delivering their products and services at the convenience of customers at low cost. Delivery of banking services to customers at their office or home with the help of electronic technology is termed as e-banking. It facilitated customers by availing anytime and anywhere banking services. With the advent of Internet Banking customers could check out their account details, perform transactions like transferring money to other accounts, and pay their bills by sitting in the comfort of their homes and offices. However, the biggest limitation of internet banking is the

146 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 requirement of a PC with an Internet Connection, not a big obstacle if we look at the US and the European countries, but definitely a big barrier if we consider most of the developing countries of Asia like India and China. Mobile Banking address this fundamental limitation of Internet Banking, as it reduces the customer requirement to just a mobile phone. The main reason that Mobile Banking scores over Internet Banking is that it enables ‘Anywhere Anytime Banking’. The banking industry has enjoyed tremendous success in the application of high-end information systems and technologies. Technological advances have reshaped the size and nature of the financial industry, allowing it to extend beyond the traditional, brick-and-mortar concept of borrowing and saving. Internet banking, digital wireless banking and mobile banking are an extension of the technological progression that is now features of the banking sector. Mobile banking involves the access to, and provision of, banking and finance services through mobile devices. Mobile Banking-Meaning Mobile banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial institution that allows its customers to conduct a range of financial transactions remotely using a mobile device such as mobile phone or tablet, and using software, usually called an app, provided by the financial institution for the purpose. M-banking involves conducting account balance and transaction history inquiries, fund transfers, bill payments, stock trades, portfolio management, as well as insurance ordering, via a mobile device. An emerging component of M-services that could become a significant revenue source to both banks and telecom service providers is M-banking. It provides value for consumers, above other banking channels through ubiquitous access, time convenience, and mobility. The Federal Reserve survey defines mobile banking as “using a mobile phone to access your bank account, credit card account, or other financial account. Mobile banking can be done either by accessing your bank’s web page through the web browser on your mobile phone, via text messaging, or by using an application downloaded to your mobile phone.” Mobile banking is defined by Tiwari and Buse as mobile banking refers to provision and an availment of banking and financial services with the help of mobile telecommunication devices. The scope of offered services may include facilities to conduct bank and stock market transactions, to administer accounts and to access customized information.” According to this model mobile banking can be said to consist of three interrelated concepts: • Mobile accounting • Mobile brokerage • Mobile financial information services Most services in the categories designated accounting and brokerage are transaction- based. The non-transaction-based services of an informational nature are however essential for conducting transactions - for instance, balance inquiries might be needed before committing a money remittance. The accounting and brokerage services are therefore offered invariably in combination with information services. Information services, on the other hand, may be offered as an independent module.

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As per Reserve Bank of India guidelines u/s 18 of payments and settlements system Act, 2007; RBI defines ‘mobile banking’ as: “Undertaking banking transactions using mobile phones by bank customers that involve credit/debit to their accounts.” It also covers accessing the bank accounts by customers for non-monetary transactions like balance enquiry etc. Recent innovations in telecommunications have enabled the launch of new access methods for banking services, one of these is mobile banking; whereby a customer interacts with a bank via mobile phone while one almost always carries a mobile phone, one does not carry one’s PC or laptop if one can look at overall context the number of cell phone users is four and half times the total number of bank accounts in this country, so mobile banking is being looked at as an option for providing transfer across the length and breath. Thus mobile banking is the usage of mobile phone as a platform for banking transactions. The high penetration of mobile phones in India is the biggest driver for mobile banking in India. SMS, interactive voice response and wireless internet protocol are few modes available to Indian users for mobile banking. Table 1-The trend in usage of Mobile Banking as per the RBI report (last 3years) Year No. of Users(Million) Volume(Million) Value (Billion Rs.) 2010-11 5.96 6.85 6.14 2011-12 12.96 25.56 18.21 (117.45%) (273.139%) (196.58%) 2012-13 22.51 53.30 59.90 (73.69%) (108.53%) (228.94%) Note: figures in brackets indicate the growth over the previous year. Mobile phone facility is an easy and faster means of communication and one communicates with family and friends, and transacts the business anywhere, anytime at a reasonable cost. It means the mobile phone is no doubt a communication tool but it has enormous potentials to aid other value added services especially financial services. In Japan and Korea, mobile banking has taken the bank into mobile phone , but in India, mobile banking is in a budding stage and act like win –win situation for both the banks and the bank’s customers due to the fact that mobile banking services are innovative, intangible and employing high technology. It should be very clear that from mobiles phones it is not necessary to have net access on phone because now banks are offering wireless service connection with or without mediating internet on phones have mobile banking refers to any kind of banking services through phone. On the other hand internet banking refers to have a desktop arrangements with proper land line connection. The mobile banking service is among the recent innovations that use the mobile devices such as smart phone, cell phone or personal digital assistant (PDA) in banking service and currently mobile banking services enable consumers, for example, to request their account balance and the latest transactions of their accounts, to transfer funds between accounts, to make buy and sell others for the stock exchange and to receive portfolio and price information. These are referred mobile banking services. The following chart help to know various services provided bankers through mobile to customers/users.

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Chart - 1 Mobile banking services provided by bankers to users ↓ Retail Customers or Corporate customers Bank staff or mobile phone users or mobile phone users Mobile Phone users ↓ ↓ ↓ 1. Transaction alerts 1.Transaction alerts 1.Bank alerts 2. Account enquiries 2. Accounts enquiries 2.Pattern branch alerts 3Fund transfers 3.Transaction approvals 3.Transactions approvals 4. Bill Payments 4.Service requests etc 4.Inquiries 5. Various requests & Inquiries 5.All bank staff & retail 5.All retail customers Other than accounts Customer services services 6. Proximity payment 7. Loan related services 8. SMS banking services 9. WAP banking services 10. Web banking services

Characteristics/features of Mobile Banking: Mobile Banking builds a cornerstone for mobile commerce. The banking industry today is in the industry of its revolution. Mobile banking has emerged as new alternative way of banking which is more convenient and user-friendly than traditional form of banking. Following are some of the characteristics of mobile banking: 1. Time Saving Mobile banking provides the customers to anytime , anywhere banking with the help of mobile telecommunication services. 2. Cost Saving Many banks use the savings generated from online transactions to offer clients better interest rates, or other rewards, for maintaining online accounts. 3. Speed The speed at which m-payment are executed must be acceptable to customers and merchants. Mobile Banking is done by the mobile internet users in a very fast speed as compare to another mode of banking. 4. Saving the environment Mobile banking reduces the number of paper transactions .Reduced paper use helps to preserve natural resources and is better for the environment. 5. Universally Accepted Mobile banking is universally accepted by each bank. The customer operate their bank account at anywhere in the country with the usage of mobile internet. M-payment service must provide transactions between C2C , or B2C Or B2B. The coverage should include domestic, regional and global environment.

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6. Cross-Selling To become widely accepted the m-payment application must be available globally, world- wide. 7. Security Mobile Banking is very safe and secure with the help of mobile pin. Each user of mobile banking is secured by pin number which was firstly issued by the bank but we can change it many times as per the needs of the customers. 8. Privacy and Trust A customer must be able to trust a mobile payment application that his or her credit or debit card information may not be misused. Customer privacy should not be lost in the sense that the credit histories and spending patterns of the customers should not be openly available for public scrutiny. 9. Larger client base Mobile banking helps the banks to increase their customers .Mobile banking can be performed by a customer anywhere at anytime. So this facility provides the banks with a geographically wider, client base. 10. Economic Development Today, there is large portion of our population has no account holders but with the help of mobile banking awareness more people especially young people opened bank account and this helps in economic development. 11. Allowing customers to access their account The most basic feature of mobile banking is allowing customers access to their account balances no matter what time it is and no matter where they are. In addition to keeping customers up-to-date on how much they have to spend, this feature is designed to notify them if any pending bill payments or deposits have posted. Advantages of Mobile Banking Mobile Banking Technology plays a vital role in Banking Sector. This technology helps the customers to provide all the account information as well as save timings. Following are the major benefits of Mobile Banking. 1. Time Saving Some mobile banking features allow customers to access their accounts on the go, make transfers between accounts, make separate deposits and pay bills using their phones. 2. Easy and Convenient Mobile Banking is available round the clock 24/7/365 and is easy and convenient mode for many Mobile users in the rural areas. 3. Cost Effective Mobile Banking is cost effective and Banks offer this service at very low cost to the customers.

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4. Anytime Banking Mobile Banking gives you the benefit of anytime and anywhere banking. One can do most of the banking transaction after banking hours from anywhere, irrespective of whether you are travelling or not. 5. Mobile Banking is Free The service provided by bank is free of charge, there is no limit for number of times you can access your account. 6. Secure Generally, good mobile banking apps have a security guarantee or send you a SMS verification code you need to input to authorise a payment for added security. Downloading the app directly from the server with advanced encryption technologies making it safe and secure as Internet Banking. 7. Increased Efficiency As more and more consumers switch to mobile banking services, financial institutions will be balanced to improve their overall efficiency. 8. Moving from Regional to National Banks offering wide range of mobile services to expand their operational footprint. This facility is not available to a single geographical location, they will be able to expand their market and increase their customer base. 9. Improved Access to Products and Services As mobile banking apps are more widely available, customers will have a greater opportunity to consider all of their financial options when making any purchase. 10. Building New Relationships Mobile banking provide a distinctive opportunity for banks and credit unions to build a new type of relationship with retailers and manufacturers. 11. Fraud reduction It is one of the real advantage to implementing mobile banking. This facility allows the customers to watch their accounts in real time. CONCLUSION Mobile banking has made its rapid growth in banking sector since its use. The landscape of global banking is changing and redefining its concepts. On the other hand, banks that are not providing mobile banking service to their customers may face complexities. Mobile banking through a service based on SMS requires lowest efforts and amount and is also economical and cost- effective. People can easily access their account information and content services through mobile banking. Similarly, payments & transfers made on time, services related to debit and credit cards are also accessed smoothly with mobile banking service. It is concluded that Mobile Banking is not only one of the most leading and successful product but it is also an essential for the growth of any developing country. In the future mobile banking will be a product that will provide a gradual boost to the economy. 151 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

REFERENCES 1. Akturan, U. & Tezcan, N. (2012). Mobile Banking Adoption of the Youth Market: Perceptions and Intentions. Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 30(4), 444-459. 2. Alpesh Patel. (2013). M-Banking and M-Payments:The Next Frontier. Delhi: Deloitte 3. Amin, H. Hamid, M., Lada, S. and Anis, Z. (2008),”The adoption of mobile banking in Malaysia: the case of Bank Islam Malaysia Berhad(BIMB)”, International Journal of Business and Society, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 43-53 4. Chandran, R. (2014). Pros and Cons of Mobile Banking. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications,Volume 4,Issue 10,ISSN 2250-3153 , 1-5. 5. .Dass, R. & Pal, S. (2011). Exploring The Factors Affecting The Adoption Of Mobile Financial Services Among The Rural Under-Banked. European Conference on Information Systems, ECIS 2011 Proceedings, paper 246 6. Dr.K.Kavitha. (2015). Mobile Banking Supervising System -Issues, Challenges & Suggestions to Improve mobile Banking Services. ACSIJ Advances in Computer Science: an International Journal , 65-67. 7. George, A. (2013, March). A Customer Centric Study On Banking In Kerala. Retrieved from www.mgu.ac.in. 8. L.S.Dialing. (2007). Mobile Phones target the world’s non reading poor. Scientific American , Volume 296 issue 5. 9. MD.Tukhrejul Inam, M. I. (2013). Possibilities and Challenges of Mobile Banking: A Case Study in Bangladesh. International Journal of Advanced Computational Engineering and Networking , Volume 1, Issue 3 ,ISSN: 2321-2106. 10. Mohammad Majedul Islam, M. E. (n.d.). Consumers’ Attitudes towards Mobile Banking in Bangladesh. 11. Rahmath Safeena, H. D. (Vol. 4, No. 6, December 2012). Technology Adoption and Indian Consumers: Study on Mobile Banking. International Journal of Computer Theory and Engineering , 1020- 1024. 12. Thangavel, S. a. (2015). Challenges Faced By Banks In Providing Mobile Banking Services To The Customers . IJER© Serials Publications , 295-302.

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THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES AND IMPACT OF DEMONETIZATION OF 500 AND 1000 RUPEE NOTES

Sreeja. E.S Guest Lecturer, Dept of Commerce Sree Kerala Varma college, Thrissur, Kerala Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Demonetization is the act of stripping a currency unit of its status as legal tender. Demonetization is necessary whenever there is a change of national currency. The old unit of currency must be retired and replaced with a new currency unit. The demonetization of 500 and 1000 rupee banknotes was a step taken by theGovernment of India on 8 November 2016, ceasing the acceptance of all 500 and 1000 rupee notes as a form of legal tender in India from 9 November 2016.The announcement was made by the Prime Minister of India in a live televised address to the nation at 8:15 pm IST the same day. In the announcement, Modi declared circulation of all 500 and 1000 rupee banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi series as invalid and announced the issuance of new 500 and 2000 rupee banknotes of the new Mahatma Gandhi series in exchange for the old banknotes.The demonetization was done in an effort to stop the counterfeiting of the current banknotes alleged to be used for funding terrorism and for cracking down on black money in the country. In brief demonetization of currency means withdrawal of a particular form of currency from circulation. Similar measures have been taken in the past. In January 1946, currency notes of 1000 and 10,000 rupees were withdrawn and new notes of 1000, 5000 and 10,000 rupees were introduced in 1954. The Janata Partycoalition government had again demonetized notes of 1000, 5000 and 10,000 rupees on 16 January 1978 as a means to curb forgery and black money Key words: Currency Demonetization, Impacts of demonetization, and economic consequences

INTRODUCTION Demonetization of Rs 1000 and 500 notes will have a cleaning effect on the state economy, which had been affected by the flow of hawala money and fake Indian currencies from the Middle East.The demonetization of 500 and 1000 Indian Currency Note has come as a surprise to everybody. The incidence of fake Indian currency notes of higher denomination has increased. For ordinary persons, the fake notes look similar to genuine notes, even though no security feature has been copied. The fake notes are used for anti-national and illegal activities. High denomination notes have been misused by terrorists and for hoarding black money. India remains a cash-based economy

153 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 hence the circulation of fake Indian currency notes continues to be a menace. In order to contain the rising incidence of fake notes and black money, the scheme has been introduced. India is not the only country to have opted for currency demonetization. There are similar examples from other countries as well. India’s central bank, the Reserve Bank of India, came out with a surprise announcement today that it will withdraw all banknotes printed before 2005 at the end of March 31, 2014. This is what the bank said: “The Reserve Bank has also clarified that the notes issued before 2005 will continue to be legal tender. This would mean that banks are required to exchange the notes for their customers as well as for non-customers. From July 1, 2014, however, to exchange more than 10 pieces of Rs 500 and Rs 1,000 notes, non-customers will have to furnish proof of identity and residence to the bank branch in which she/he wants to exchange the notes. History of Demonetization Of Money Third time’s the charm, the ban on Rs500 and Rs1, 000 notes could finally wipe off corruption in India. Narendra Modi may have shocked the nation with his Nov. 8 announcement, but the prime minister’s move was hardly unprecedented. India has pulled select denominations of its currency twice before. The first was when Rs1,000, Rs5,000, and Rs10,000 notes were taken out of circulation in January 1946, a year and a half before the country won independence from the British. The Rs10, 000 notes were the largest currency denomination ever printed by the Reserve Bank of India, introduced for the first time in 1938. All three notes were reintroduced in 1954.In the early ’70s, the Wanchoo committee, a direct tax inquiry committee set up by the government, suggested demonetization as a measure to unearth and counter the spread of black money. However, the public nature of the recommendation sparked black money hoarders to act fast and rid themselves of high denominations before the government was able to clamp down on them, Mint reported. Then, in 1977, the Janata Party coalition government came into power. A year into the government’s term, party leader Morarji Desai was more bullish about cracking down on counterfeits and black money. The High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetization) Act, instated by the ruling party on Jan. 16, 1978, deemed the Rs1, 000, Rs5, 000 and Rs10, 000 notes illegal for the second time. At the time, then-RBI governor I.G. Patel disagreed with the measure and accused the Janata coalition government of trying to cripple the corrupt predecessor governments instead of simply eradicating black money. For the most part, Modi’s measure mirrors Desai’s except this time, he has the backing of his RBI governor, Urjit Patel, who applauded Modi’s”very bold step” addressing concerns about the “growing menace of fake Indian currency notes.” But that doesn’t mean all the skeptics are off his back. Economists doubt the impact of his decision. “That’s because people don’t stack black money in cash. Rather, they stash it in undisclosed accounts in Swiss Banks,” said Abhiroop Sarkar, a professor at the Indian Statistical Institute. “So the demonetization won’t affect the biggest fish.” How will this impact the vast sections of India’s population who depend on cash? This move deeply impacts the working sections of society: drivers, maids, cooks, electricians, plumbers. Those persons who are provide services in the informal sector and depend on monthly or bi-monthly cash payments. The reason for this can be explained with the help of an example: if you had planned on paying your maid or cook tomorrow and you aren’t able to beat the ATM queues or have enough smaller-value notes lying around the house, they will have to wait to be

154 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 paid until you can get your hands on some cash. If ATMs are not replenished quickly, often over the next two weeks this could be a very serious problem. The severity of this impact will depend on how easily and smoothly India’s banking system and the government executes the transition. Stepping back, however, anybody in rural India who doesn’t have access to a bank account (roughly 200-300 million people at last estimate, although the number is likely higher) and depends on high- value cash transactions will be crippled until new notes come through. One argument is that with the Jan Dhan scheme and the UPI/digital payment stack, rural India shouldn’t have too much of a problem. However, it will be a long time before rural India moves to completely cashless transactions. How is this going to impact urban consumers, small businesses, and large businesses? Over the next month, there will undoubtedly be a significant shortage in cash supply: not just Rs 500 and Rs 1000 bill, which are being taken out of circulation, but almost every other denomination as well. Firstly ATMs will be closed on November 9 (pan-India) and November 10 (in some places). This is being done in order to remove all existing Rs 500 and Rs 1000 notes from the ATMs and replace them with lower-value bills. Multiple experts and government officials, however, have said that this process will likely take one to two weeks in urban and semi-urban areas and up to a month in remote and rural regions. In the meantime, long queues at ATM have already started. People are withdrawing smaller notes to stock up, so there will be shortage in the days and weeks ahead. As a consumer, depend on small notes (which are the great majority of India) to pay for groceries, household items – it could be difficult over the next one week to do so. Small businesses, both in urban and rural areas, will find this move downright crippling in the short-term. These businesses are mostly run on cash: they use hard cash to receive payments for services and to make payments for inventory and goods. It’s unclear at the moment how quickly they will be given access to the new Rs 2000 notes that will be issued. On the other hand, as analysts have noted, India’s larger and new-age companies will have no problems in making the switch to Rs 2,000 notes. Traditional sectors, such as real estate or cement, where are politically controversial and where there is larger incidence of corruption and high-value cash transactions, will likely go through a tremendous amount of pain, chaos and restructuring in the next few weeks. We have just witnessed a tremendous step towards increased transparency in the Indian real estate industry. The effects will be far-reaching and immediate, and shake up the sector in no uncertain way. Stricter measures against black money have for long been required to help bring about greater transparency, give the Indian real estate sector more credibility and make it more attractive for foreign investors. The ripple effects of this cannot be understated. There are major industries in India thrive on a parallel economy funded by black money. How will this affect the more legitimate and normal economy? The weeks and months ahead will tell. Positive Impact of Demonetization In a single master stroke, the government has attempted to tackle all three malaises currently plaguing the economy—a parallel economy, counterfeit currency in circulation and terror financing.In addition, the Indian economy has been provided a new lease of life—a “reset” if you will with huge

155 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 positive implications for liquidity, inflation, fiscal and external deficit in the short term. Over the next two-three years, improvement in India’s position on transparency and corruption in the global stage will further add to its investor appeal. With GST on the anvil, India is now on the cusp of higher growth in the medium term to be steered by the organized sectors including MSMEs and the revival of the private sector capex cycle. Boost deposit base and savings Global agencies have pegged the size of the parallel economy in India at close to 23% as of 2007. Basis this, we estimate unaccounted cash in the economy to the tune of 4500 billion, of which a certain significant proportion will make its way to the banks, thus boosting deposit base as well as financial savings. The banks’ deposit base is expected to receive a fillip of 0.5-1.4% of GDP.In turn, financing savings can be expectedtoriseby close to this proportion due to switch from savings from unproductive physical assets to financial assets. Improve monetary transmission and reduce lending rates • A rise in deposit base will allow banks to lower the blended cost of funds as higher CASA (current accounts, savings accounts) deposits help to replace the high cost of borrowing and lower overall cost of funds. We expect banks to reduce deposit rates by ~125 bps over the next six months. • The new regime of MCLR (Marginal Cost of Funds based Lending Rate )will immediately take into account the lower cost and will thereby lead to a decline in lending rates, which will boost economic activity in the medium term. 3. Create room for further monetary accommodation • With improved monetary transmission, economic efficiency and structural moderation in currency in circulation, there is likely to be a greater room for the RBI to ease monetary policy rate further. I am hopeful that the RBI will ease by another 100 bps in 2017-18 to a repo rate of 4% by March 2018. • The piecemeal liquidity support from OMO purchases will now to a larger extent be addressed by the structural change in currency demand Ready, steady, now go: financial inclusion via Jan Dhan Over the last two years, while the number of Jan Dhan accounts has recorded a stellar growth, the share of these accounts in total deposit base of the banking system has remained under 1%. The demonetization drive of higher denominated notes should give a push to cash deposits in Jan Dhan accounts, of which close to 43% so far have remained dormant. In addition, the move will help to inculcate banking habits among the largeunbanked population in the country. Support government finances With some part of unaccounted money making way into the formal channel, the government stands to benefit from higher income tax collections. This should help cushion the government’s FY17 fiscal deficit target, especially post the shortfall in anticipated spectrum revenues.The latest move will move the economy from the unorganized to organized sector, dovetailing into the GST architecture that is expected to come on board next year. This is likely to enhance the government’s

156 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 ability to tax commercial transactions resulting in a structural improvement in tax to GDP ratio in the economy. The Indian economy has been provided a new lease of life a “reset” if you will— with huge positive implications for liquidity, inflation, fiscal and external deficit in the short term. Positive impacts from a bond market perspective · Improvement in bank deposit base leads to higher SLR (statutory liquidity ratio) demand. · On the supply side, with tax buoyancy seeing an improvement, supply of g-secs is likely to get more rationalized due to gradual reduction in fiscal deficit over time as the impact of FRBMA (Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act) is underway. · Anticipation of monetary easing to further support bonds. Rise in GDP growth potential While there are short-term implications for growth in cash-intensive sectors such as real estate, construction, and discretionary household consumption in general, I believe that long-term benefits for GDP growth will outweigh the short term transitional impact. We are now surely heading towards a 9% GDP growth by FY2018-19. In a single master stroke, the government has attempted to tackle all three malaises currently plaguing the economy a parallel economy, counterfeit currency in circulation and terror financing. How badly has demonetization of rupee hit the Indian markets? Or negative Impact of Demonetization of Money At the time of writing, the Indian markets have fallen a bit more than other emerging markets in Asia. The S&P BSE, Sensex is down 3.8%, which is more than more or less all other Asian emerging markets. The possibility of a Donald Trump win is keeping markets on the edge worldwide. The extra fall in the Indian markets compared to others could be due to many factors, including high valuations, but it’s very likely that the demonetization effect is mainly responsible for the fall. That is clearly seen if we dig a little deeper. The Sensex is made up of very large companies which may not be impacted as much by the demonetization process. BSE’s mid-cap and small-cap indices have fallen by over 6% each at the time of writing. And in truth, the largest impact of the government’s move will be in the unorganized sector, which isn’t represented in the markets The true picture is reflected in sectoral indices such as the BSE Realty index, which is down as much as 15% at the time of writing. Some stocks such as DLF Ltd are down nearly 20%. This industry is known to entertain cash transactions of large magnitude. Similarly, stocks of jewellery companies such as Titan Industries Ltd have fallen by around 11% as well, perhaps because a lot of gold purchases are through cash. Besides, stocks of mid- and small-sized finance companies which collect payments in cash have fallen by 8-10%. Information technology stocks, for now, are down around 3%, which is more or less in line with the broad markets. While these companies will be unaffected by the demonetization process, this reflects a concern about a Trump presidency and a possibility of anti-outsourcing measures. CONCLUSION Demonetization has both positive and negative impacts. The Honorable chief minister of Kerala said on Sunday that the Centre’s aim was not to catch black money but to ruin the life of 157 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 daily bread earners. “Those who have black money were well aware of the government’s demonetization and they have not been affected by it.The move has only affected the common man. The Centre has implemented this without looking in to practical difficulties involved. The common man is now not able to pay hospital fees, examination fees and power and water bills and also buy the essential commodities. Meanwhile, state finance minister Thomas Isaac claimed on Sunday that the Centre withdrawing the notes, “anarchy” like situation was prevailing in the country. “There is total chaos in the country. People are unable to pay wages .With construction work coming to standstill, the workers have no work and their families are starving. Besides that there will be positive effects they are Boost deposit base and savings, Create room for further monetary accommodation,Rise in GDP growth potential etc. REFERENCES 1. The Economic Times 2. The Hindu 3. The Times of India 4. WWW.Wikipeadia.com

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MULTIDIMENSIONAL WORK OF WOMAN COMMUNITY INCREASES HEALTH PROBLEMS

Farsana K.P. Research Scholar Center for Social Medicine and Community Health, JNU, New Delhi

ABSTRACT Women, Work and their Health are closely related and relevant. Female work has various dimensions; most of the women are being part of both paid and unpaid works in their daily life. This paper will discuss how these double burdens of work or multiple roles of a woman increase health problems and the later section will discuss the major health problems faced by women and also the later section will deal with the example of sex workers and their health. Key Words: Women, Work, Health Problems, Work Stress

INTRODUCTION When we speak of man- woman relationships, generally appear physical relationships. But the man- woman relationship does not only mean physical relationships, but also labor relationship. So physical relationships constitute the natural dimensions, and a labor relation constitutes social dimensions. Aspects related to the dimensions of nature are also affected by the nature of the social relationship. Through the example of ‘domestic work or house work,’ we can understand how these dimensions affect women’s health in their everyday life. We can simply divide work into two which are paid and unpaid work or housework and outside work. In India, female workforce participation is 27 percent, however, at the same time, 54 per cent of women are doing unpaid work (World Bank, 2010-2014). Some of them are part of both paid and unpaid work. Through this double work, they are increasing the burden of work also. This paper will discuss how these double burdens of work or multiple roles of a woman increases health problems and the later section will discuss the major health problems faced by women and also the later section will deal with the example of sex workers and their health. This paper is thus intended to address a major research gap to respond to the consequence of treating millions of hard working Indian women’s economically unproductive and no more valuable than beggars and prisoners. Most of the women in India spent 16-18 hours of the day for unpaid activities in the household. This burden left them always with numerable health problems. This

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work is an attempt to understand the women’s work and their health problems. In short, this paper will analyze 1. Studying the nature of multidimensional work of woman 2. Woman and their working contexts 3. Analyzing the link between work and health/illness Women’s work All over the world, women live longer than men, although women are living longer, they do not necessarily live better and healthier life. And women are responsible for health and care of children and other members, and they provide care and support for the ill and disabled of the family. At the same time, they are the worse sufferers of the family. However, Scientist, employers, decision makers and sometimes trade unions and even women themselves do not take women’s work-related health problems seriously. Also the issues related to women’s health or occupational health in our country has not received much attention either from academia or the women’s movements (Vindhya, et.al, 2001). This is because of traditional perceptions of women’s work and the social invisibility of their labor. When we look at the statistical data on women’s health and safety at work, we can see that men’s industrial accidents are compensated ten times more as compared to women. Women’s occupational health may be underestimated since many diseases and disorders are chronic and go unrecognized. This perception has led to the widespread belief that women’s job or work are considered to be light, and safe compared to men’s and has held back effort to improve women’s working conditions and occupational health. In short, some hazards particularly affect women because of the kind of work they are doing, and because of gender segregation in work. For example, many muscular skeletal disorders (long term pain) are caused by intensive fast paced, repetitive, monotonous work, awkward, forceful movements of the hands and wrists, lack of breaks, poor and inappropriate equipment and work situations (Messias et.al, 1997). However, the emergence of feminist’s movements brought a positive sign about future. In the 1960s and 70s women’s movements largely engaged with issues related to women oppression in society along with for work and wages, for protection for the environment etc. On the other hand, since the 1980s movements engaged with the question of caste, religion, community and national as well. Also physical and mental health has not figured on the agenda perhaps because it is viewed as a manifestation of an individual problem, not directly related to societal oppression and not common to all women (Vindhya, et.al 2001). Gendered role has been playing an important role in each and every society. Women they have to assign to do ‘certain works’ within the households. While women’s role is recognized by society in conventional economyso, women stand veiled and unappreciated in what is termed by Elson (1995) as the ‘economy of care.’ This ‘economy of care’ would come under the ‘certain works’ which women have to do. Throughout the lived experiences and incidents shows that the women liberation and women’s movements have not led to a distribution of household labor between men and women, because of women’s performance and men’s avoidance of unpaid work remain potent daily enactments of uneven gender relations. Still, women do more household works ‘and take care of

160 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 children than men. Marriage, children and employment increase women’s household labor but have little or no effect on men’s unpaid work’ (Sayer, 2005). Over the last decades, the feminists across the world have been discussing on the demand to value women’s unpaid work in law and to define domestic work as a part of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Brooks (2005;195) has discussed different methods for calculating the market value of unpaid work and has stressed to appreciate women’s productive unpaid labor in the home, which is enormously valuable- it keep us fed, clothed, healthy, happy and promotes social stability it ought to be valued as accurately as possible (ibid). Here can understand that the unequal distribution of household work limits the professional choices of women in the labor markets. The choices of women always embedded within institutions and the household power structure. Their choices are very much shaped by the patriarchal ideology that attaches less value to their well-being within the household, and beyond (Kabeer, 1999 cited in Scaria) and in other hand, women often do not consider the inequalities unfair since they have internalized the social norms that attach less value to them in society. A study done by Scaria in Kerala in women’s space, in her study shows that the women’s earning capacity did not wipe out the role of an ‘ideal womanhood’; on the other hand, it enhances her value as ‘domestic manager.’ And the working statuses imposed on her ‘double role’ as a homemaker and employer. It means women are spending more time in work. According to Swaminathan’s study in Chengalpettu in Tamilnadu shows that the workday for the woman, especially married woman, stretches 16-18 hours and leaving them exhausted. These long hours of work lead them to many health problems. Next section of this paper will discuss women’s health and it’s affecting factors. Determinants of Health Women’s health affected by many factors including poverty, changing demography (birth rate and aging population), gender, violence against women and lack of research about women (Craft,1997). In addition to this socially constructed gender differences are determining women’s potentials for a long and healthier life. Gender is a crucial element in health inequalities in developing countries, including India. Gender influences the control men and women have over the determinants of their health, including their economic positions and social status, access to resources and treatment in society (WHO, 2000). Gender configures both material and symbolic positions men and women occupy in the societal hierarchy as well as the experiences which condition their lives. Thus gender can be conceptualized as a powerful social determinant of health which interacts with other determinants as age, family structure, income, education and social support and with a variety of behavioral determinants (WHO, 2000). However, when we are going through the literature, an extensive literature documented the relationship between women’s health and their gender role or gender division in society. Through this can understand that the socio-cultural and political factors showing the strong link with the physical and mental wellbeing of an individual (Annandale & Hunt, 2000) and the literature shows that social norms about the division of the division of responsibilities mean that many women have very heavy burden of work, especially those who combines employment with domestic works, pregnancy, and childbearing. Within the household itself, they get little support. And a recent study estimates that 19 percent of the total disease burden carried by women aged 15-44 in developed

161 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 countries is the result if domestic violence and Rape. As well as the gender inequality and discrimination limits the to access health care facilities (Doyal, 2001). There is a growing evidence of association of economic difficulties with the risk for depression and the social gradient in health is heavily gendered, and women are disproportionately affected by the burden of poverty which, in turn, may influence their vulnerability to depression. Women are far more likely to be victims of violence in their home; women who experienced physical violence by an intimate partner are significantly more likely to suffer depression, abuse drugs or attempt suicide (WHO, 2002). The explanations given were imputed to heavy workloads, financial insecurity and the burden of caring for children and elderly, duties which are heavily gendered in their distribution. Many studies shows that the depression among Indian women especially post natal depression in mothers specifically that have a girl child, particularly if the desired sex was a boy or if the mother already had a living girl child. Women and Ill health India is a vast country with rich traditions and cultures. Post independent government or constitution provides equal rights to all citizens, but a strong patriarchal system which persists in each and every nook and corner of Indian society it shapes the lives of women. In most Indian families female or women are considered as a liable, and they are conditioned to subordinate the opposite sex i.e. men. The patriarchal Indian tradition addressing gender disparities is no easy task. This gendered division is influencing and affecting all other facets of her life it Including education, health and future as well. According to Manusmriti women “Pita Rakshati Kaumere, bhartta rakshati Yavwane, rakshati sthavere putra, na stri swatantryamarhati Her father protects her in childhood; her husband protects her in youth; and her son protects her in old age; a woman is never fit for independence. It shows that the entire life span of an Indian woman should be coming under a man. Like this patriarchal structure working and reproducing the structure with in the society. Like this gendered roles also reproducing. These structured roles lead them into many mental physical problems. Even though the issues related to women’s health in our country have not received much attention either from academia or from the women’s movements (Vindhya et.al 2001). Mental illness In a broad sense, we can define mental health as a reflection of equilibrium between the individual and the environment, constituting an integral part of overall health (WHO, 2001 a). Mental health we cannot identify or understand as separately, because meant all health and ill health are largely interacting and related with social, psychological and biological factors of a human being. Factors such as insecurity, hopelessness, violence, low income, limited education, abuse, physical ill health, distress, addiction, stress full work conditions and human rights violations have been found to increase vulnerability to mental ill health (Basu, 2012). Especially in India,

162 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 each and every society is highly stratified and segregated in its way. Caste, class, and gender play an important role in women’s mental health in India. As I mentioned earlier mental health is extremely set in socio-economic factors of an individual. But viewing mental illness from the biomedical perspectives mainstream academic approaches have, by and large, ignored the impact of socio-cultural factors. It is necessary to consider the socio-cultural context of their health since it is being increasingly recognized that the stress that differentially affects women because of their unequal social status have lead to pervasive mental health problems. The epidemiological findings from various studies show that mental illness had social as well as physiological and psychological causes. (Vindhya, et.al 2001). According to DALY in our country, it is estimated that more than three crore individuals suffer from mental illness every year and that 1.75 lakh new cases are added every year (Prabhu & Raghuram, 1987). In India, most of the mental disorders and mental illness are closely related to women’s work and their role in family and society. Institutions like family, marriage and kinship have important role in women’s life in India. So the notion of ‘family’ caregiving obscurers the fact that woman does most of the caregiving work. Gender norms that prescribe nurturing and domestic roles for women naturally assign to women the responsibility of caring sick family members at home (Gerstel & Gallagher, 1993 cited Jnardhana, Shravya & Naidu). Caregiving involves a significant expenditure of time, involves tasks that may be unpleasant and uncomfortable and is often a role that had not been anticipated by caregivers (Ibid). This directly or indirectly leads them to mental pressure. Additionally, there are two major concerns related to role-related stress which including multiple role strain, role overload, and role conflict. The second concern includes actual sexual victimization, rape battering, incest or other forms of violence against women. STRESS: Most of Indian women are suffering from stress due to various reasons. Lazarus and Folk man, two psychologists who have been important in developing psychological theories on stress, according to them stress is neither by an environmental event nor from a person’s physiological response to it. Here the work, workload and role conflicts being cause for this stress among women. Rather stress is defined by the perception of the individual about the environmental event, this perception involves the appraisal of potential harms, threats and challenges posed by the event as well as the individual perceived ability to deal with the challenges. And when an individual is experiencing or facing stress at the same time they also experiencing negative emotions like anxiety, depression, etc. these kind of changes in the body would affect the behavioral pattern and risk for diseases (Tracy,1997). Walters & Charles study shows that the most common themes concerned low-level mental health issues are stress, anxiety, depression, phobias, panic attacks, and nervous breakdown. In addition to this many women suffering from migraine and headaches, had sleeping problems and bad back aches. According to them, women’s family responsibilities as wives and motherhood continue to be the primary definition of womanhood, because of all these reasons women must be seen as managing situations and circumstances and despite these difficulties they face in meeting what are sometimes impossible demands. These situations lead them to ‘housewife syndrome’ called by Bernard (1972) (Walters & Charles, 1997). Furthermore they explained about how the

163 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 role changes affecting women’s life; according to him unpredictability and associated anxiety appeared to be linked role changes of women; stop working, being disabled, having children etc. directly or indirectly the role changes affecting women’s mental and physical health. Domestic violence Domestic violence is a health problem for women and not just because of the injuries they receive. It leads to acute and chronic physical injury, miscarriage, loss of hearing and vision, physical disfigurement and often depression, alcoholism and sometimes suicide. Physical injuries can include bruises, burns and scalds, broken bones, penetrative injuries from the knives and other objects, etc.(Abbott & Williamson, 1999). Prevalence studies across the world demonstrate that women are tremendously the victims and men the perpetrators of violence in intimate relationships (UN, 1993) and women in violent relationships also frequently experienced depression and somatic complaints such as migraine and non specific pains in the stomach and joints. Women living in violent relationships have significantly poor health than women who do not live in such relationships. Furthermore the psychological impact of domestic violence can be more unbearable than physical injuries (Abbott & Williamson, 1999). BACKACHE: Back pain is a problem that affects many people at some age stage in life. Complaints like back pain many accompany almost every illness in women. It is especially common around the ages of thirty in those who are work long hours as beedi makers, maid servants, stone breakers, vegetable vendors, agricultural laborers etc. even typists, clerks, teachers, nurses and ‘Housewives’ do not escape this affliction (Veena, 2012). In addition, numerous disease processes cause back pain or back ache inflammatory conditions, infections, developmental abnormalities and mechanical and degenerative disorders and after child birth also women experiencing severe back pain. Most of the Indian women are doing multiple roles in their life as a wife, as a mother and as an outside worker etc. in a sense most of them are adopting only one posture during their work leading to sagging of the disused muscles which are not exercised for days together sometimes. For example cooking, washing clothes and utensils, brooming requires that women sit and bend forward for 10-14 hours per day (Ibid). Most women’s diets contain with low calcium content; calcium is very important factor for the development of bones. So lack of nutrition in bones became cause to back pain. To make conditions poorer, most of the Indian women go through repeated pregnancies, long period of breast feeding and long hours of work resulting in weak bones and sagging back muscles. Not surprisingly back pain sets in early in life (Ibid). However, no study has investigated the nature of the back pain after the child birth. Shathruguna study reveals that most of the women worked hard long hours in large families all their years with very little money reserves. They had worked throughout pregnancy and had breastfeed each child for two or three years. Furthermore, they have to do the cooking, sweeping, minding children and elderly members of the family and in between these works it was very difficult to think and care about themselves. In addition to this through her study she finds out that, women have always cared others in the family, if when women themselves are sick or ill, the family comes to a standstill and only a female substitute to care her and the men are not expected to take care of her. As I mentioned above most of the women are suffering from postnatal back aches.

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According to the study of Robin Russell Shows that women with a postural backache had also suffered from different kinds of pain and tenderness over the tailbone starting immediately after delivery, and this pain was worse after sitting for long periods. Furthermore, she is adding to its long-term back pain associated with antenatal headache and abdominal pain. Through this can understand the pathways of illness. Mental illness can cause to physical ill health and also physical ailments can cause to mental illness. Through the analysis of sex work; it would help to understand how these ‘works’ affecting women’s health/ ill health. Sex work: we can define Sex work as the provision of sexual services for money or goods. Sex work or prostitution is a multibillion-dollar industry that employs millions of women worldwide. But here in India sex work is not legal. Even though in India have more than 6.8 lakhs registered sex workers. There have debates around sex work as well as feminist positions regarding sex work. Feminist literature has extensively covered issues concerning sex work, such as acceptance of sex work as profession, attitudes towards sex workers and analysis of the impact of sex work on society (Karandikar & Gezinski, 2012). Feminist positions on sex work more or less are divided into two distinct school thoughts; which are included advocates for the abolition of sex work and advocates for the rights of sex workers (Wahab, 2002). Debates around prostitution are laden today with heightened division it has created among feminists and between feminists and sex workers. The disagreement between these contending groups is not only because of the questions solely related to prostitution but also those issues that are being addressed by feminist’s every day such as the relationship between feminists and female ‘victims of oppression’, the construction of the female subject in terms of their ‘agency’, conceptualization of women’s work and female sexuality. There are three main legal frameworks that address the issue of prostitution. Legal, because the law is one the prime structures that constructs and demarcates a ‘woman’ from a ‘prostitute woman.’ Three main legal frameworks address sex work- criminalization, decriminalization and legalization (Shah, 2003). This debates around the different frameworks are laden today with questions not only surrounding prostitution but also with regard to the questions of women’s agency and construction of female sexuality. The state has addressed prostitution/ sex work in three ways; 1) Abolition of sex work 2) Decriminalization 3) Legalization Abolitionists seek to abolish prostitution in all forms and punish all those are associated with it in any form. They can also be referred to as the radical or abolitionists view that sees sex work as nothing but exploitation of women whose entry into the profession is always coerced and involuntary whose existence depends entirely on the support of criminal elements like pimps, brothel keepers, crime mafia, and sex-tourism operators. Those who are advocates for the rights of sex workers, this group consider sex as a form of work or occupation and advocates sex workers rights to equal opportunity, and they are justifying the rights of the sex workers (Karandikar & Gezinski, 2012). However the tolerationist perspective on prostitution is to do with rights of

165 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 individuals to engage in the act with mutual consent. The tolerationist’s work for the punishing of the prostitutes associates such as the pimps, and brothel keepers and not the prostitute herself. A third option for the state is to legalize prostitution like in the state of Nevada in USA. However this move is more concerned with the well-being of the clientele and not the prostitute. Through legalizing prostitution, the state would intend to regulate it by imposing registration, licensing, mandatory health checks, and taxes. Through this way, the state would be able to perform surveillance and regulation on prostitute activities. A legalized system of prostitution does not permit all types of prostitution, and hence if there are prostitutes not registered under the licensing of the state, it becomes as good as illegal. Under a legalized framework, those businesses and individuals involved in sex work face regulations and licensing procedures that other businesses do not. In the Nevada brothel system, every sex worker must register with the police department as a brothel worker. They have restricted mobility and stipulated working conditions, and they have mandated weekly testing for gonorrhea and Chlamydia, and monthly testing for HIV and syphilis (Barbara & Hausbeck, 2005). Decriminalization of sex work; this demand comes from the viewpoint of liberal feminist. They view sex work as a profession as any other profession or work. They demand the decriminalization of sex work and they consider that those who favor prohibition of sex work interfere with individual’s right over their own bodies. This theorist doesn’t consider sex work as criminal activity, and they are demanding that, the state should not interfere with the lives and rights of the sex workers (Karandikar & Gezinski, 2012). The debate is going on among feminists and scholars about, is the sex work is work or not, and the need of legalization and decriminalization of sex work. But at the same time the society is looking into the sex workers as the source of infections such as HIV/AIDS and STDs etc. The government of India estimates that about 2.40 millions of Indians are living HIV (1.93-3.04million) with an adult prevalence of 0.31% (2009). Children (<15 yrs) account for 3.5% of all infections, while 83% are the in age group 15-49 years of all HIV infections, 39% (930.000) are among women. India’ highly heterogeneous epidemic is largely concentrated in only a few states- in the industrialized south and west and in the north east. The high prevalence states of south India (Andra Pradesh-500,000, Mahashtra-420.000, Karnataka- 250.000, and Tamil Nadu-150.000) account for 55% of all HIV infections in the country. West Bengal, Gujarat, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are estimated to have more than 100.000 PLHA each and together account for another 22% of HIV infections in India (WHO, 2005). In India, it is well established fact is that sex workers as a group are the most vulnerable victims of HIV/AIDS. By unprotected sex between sex workers and their clients and by injecting drugs with contaminated syringe are the main reasons for the HIV infections. According to NACO, the bulk of HIV infection in India occurs during unprotected heterosexual intercourse. Apart from this HIV infections sex workers being victimized for violence on the street, on the job or professional life which led them into different health problems. Most of the time violence against sex workers is related with inconsistent condom use or lack of condom use and with increased risk of STI and HIV infection. WHO defines violence as the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community that results or has a

166 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017 high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, sexual or psychological harm, mal-development or deprivation of liberty (WHO, 2005). Furthermore sex workers facing different forms of violence in their works and daily life. It includes physical, sexual, emotional violence and human right violations as well and 80% of sex workers reported that they have been facing physical and mental illness, asthma and rheumatic disorders. Addition to this A study among sex workers in Thrissur, Kerala, in 2000 showed prevalence of syphilis at 34/%, Chlamydia 5.4% and trichomoniasis 28.5/o In unlinked anonymous testing for HIV, 3.8% were found to be positive.5 they have also complained of vaginal discharge, genital ulcer, urinary tract infection and lower abdominal pain (Jayasree, 2004). Different studies shows that the physical and mentall illness of sex workers. Stigmatization of sex ‘work’ limits them to access public health facilities and make them more vulner CONCLUSION A factor often overlooked in the way health is associated with its social environments is the work women perform at home as domestic and affective labor. However in most cases our focus tends to primarily stay with the health hazards outside home. Through this paper can understand the invisible, unaccounted and marginalized nature of women’s work within the household have several consequences, a major one being the steady of deterioration in the well being of the poor in general particularly woman and also through the ‘pathways’ can understand the link between work and ill health.

TABLES Table: per cent of population in the labor force (in %, ages 15-59) Year 2007/08 All india 58.7 Females 32 Males 84.6 Rural India 61.7 Females 37.6 Males 85.6 Urban India 52.2 Females 19.7 Males 82.5

REFERENCES 1. ABBOTT, P., (1999). Women, Health and Domestic Violence. Journal of Gender Studies, 8(1), pp.83–102 2. Ala-Mursula, L. et al., (2006). Long hours in paid and domestic work and subsequent sickness absence: does control over daily working hours matter? Occupational and environmental medicine, 63(9), pp.608–616. 3. Annandale E, Hunt K. Gender inequalities in health, Buckingham: open University Press, 2000. 4. Basu , S (2012). Mental Health Concerns for Indian Women. . Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 19 (1), pp. 127-136

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Table 2: How Burdened is women’s life Weekly average time spent (in hours) on some peculiar activities by sex (all) Activities Combined states Male Female Cooking 0.52 14.93 Cleaning household 0.21 4.55 Cleaning utensils 1.10 3.39 Washing and mending clothes 0.18 2.71 Shopping 0.59 0.64 Pet care 0.03 0.04 Care of children 0.32 3.16 Teaching own children 0.16 0.19 Accompanying children to places 0.08 0.09 Care of sick or elderly 0.04 0.19 Supervising children 0.28 0.78

Table 3: state wise distribution of time spent (In hours) in SNA by mode of payment and sex States Male female Paid Unpaid % time on unpaid Paid Unpaid % time on unpaid activities activities Haryana 33.09 18.12 35.38 4.13 25.34 85.99 M.P 29.41 23.34 45.25 14.31 15.75 52.40 Gujrat 44.37 14.17 24.21 17.18 13.87 44.67 Orissa 31.25 22.42 41.77 8 18.18 69.44 T.N 41.42 13.36 24.39 21.8 10.32 32.45 Meghalaya 17.34 35.39 67.12 7.83 25.34 76.39 Source:Hiraway,2002

5. Brents, B.G. & Hausbeck, K.,( 2005). Violence and legalized brothel prostitution in Nevada: examining safety, risk, and prostitution policy.Journal of interpersonal violence, 20(3), pp.270–295 6. Craft, N., (1997). Women’s health: women’s health is a global issue. BMJ, 315(7116), pp.1154–1157. 7. Davar, V Bhargavi (1995), “Mental illness among Indian women”, Economic and political weekly, Vol.30, No.45 (Nov.11, 1995), pp. 2879-2886. 8. Dinat, N. & Peberdy, S.,(2007). Restless worlds of work, health and migration: domestic workers in Johannesburg. Development Southern Africa, 24(1), pp.186–203. 9. Doyal, L (2001) Sex, Gender, And Health: The Need For A New Approach, British Medical Journal, Vol. 323, No. 7320 (Nov. 3, 2001), pp. 1061-1063 10. Doyal L. What woman makes sick, gender and political economy of health, London: Macmillian, 1995. 11. Frank, M.,(1989). Women, Work, and Family Life. International Labor and Working-Class History, 35, p.89. 12. Gertler, P. Shah, M. and Bertozzi, SM. June (2005). Risky Business: The Market for Unprotected Commercial Sex, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 113, No. 3 13. Janardhana ,N. R., Shravya D.M., Naidu L. and Seshan Saraswathy Valli.(2011), Giving Care to Men and Women with Mental Illness: Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 18(3) 405–424. 168 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 1 January 2017

14. Jayasree, A., (2004). Searching for justice for body and self in a coercive environment: Sex work in Kerala, India. Reproductive Health Matters, 12(23), pp.58–67. 15. Karandikar, S. & Gezinski, L.B., (2012). “Without Us, Sex Workers will Die Like Weeds”: Sex Work and Client Violence in Kamathipura. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 19(3), pp.351–371 16. MESSIAS, D.K.H. et al., 1997. DEFINING AND REDEFINING WORK: Implications for Women’s Halth. Gender & Society, 11(3), pp.296–323. 17. Moen, Phyllis.(1991), Transitions in Mid-Life: Women’s Work and Family Roles in the 1970s: Journal of Marriage and Family,Vol. 53, No. 1. 18. Nakkeeran, N. (2003). Women’s work, status and fertility: Land, caste and gender in in a south Indian village, Economic and Political Weekly,Vol. 38, No. 37 (Sep. 13-19, 2003), pp. 3931-3939. 19. Northcott , Herbert C. (1980), Women, Work, and Health: The Pacific Sociological Review,Vol. 23, No. 20. Sen G & Sen C, 1985, Women’s Domestic Work and economic Activity, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol 20 (17), WS 49-56. 21. Silver, H. & Goldscheider, F.,(1994). Flexible Work and Housework - Work and Family Constraints on Women’s Domestic Labor. Social Forces, 72(43118), pp.1103–1119. 22. Swaminathan, Padmini (2002), “Women, work and health: issues for consideration”, in Khanna R., Shiva, M., S.,[eds], Towards comprehensive women’s health programmes and policy, SAHAJ, Baroda, pp. 442-459. 23. Vindhya, U., Kiranmayi, A. and V. Vijayalakshmi., (2001), Women in Psychological Distress: Evidence from a Hospital-Based Study: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 36, No. 43 (Oct. 27 - Nov. 2, 2001), pp. 4081-4087 24. Walters, Vivine and Nikie (1997), “I just cope from day to day: unpredictability and anxiety in the lives of women”, Social science & Medicine, Vol 45, issue 11, December, pp 1729-1739.

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Call For Papers Next Issue : LUX MONTIS Vol.1, No.2, July 2017 Last date for submission of Research Papers : May 5, 2017 Address for Communication : Dr. A. Sebastian Aikara Chief Editor LUX MONTIS Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning (GIAL) Bethany Hills, Vadavathoor P. O. Kottayam Dist. Kerala Mob: 09447415193 e.mail: [email protected]

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DECLARATION FORM I (See Rule – 3) STATEMENT ABOUT OWNDERSHIP AND OTHER PARTICULARS OF THE JOURNAL 1. Title of the Newspaper Lux Montis 2. Language in which it is published English 3. Place of Publication Kottayam 4. Periodicity of the Publication Bi-annually 5. Printers Name Rev. Dr. Varghese Kaipanaduka (Whether citizen of India? Yes, Indian If foreign, state the country of origin) Address Director Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning (GIAL) Vadavathoor P.O., Kottayam Dist. 7. Publisher’s Name Rev. Dr. Varghese Kaipanaduka Whether citizen of India? Yes 8. Chief Editor’s Name Dr. A. Sebastian Aikara Whether citizen of India? Yes 9. Name and address of individuals who Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning (GIAL) own the Newspaper and partners and Vadavathoor P.O., Kottayam Dist. shareholders holding more than one Kerala percent of the total capital

I, Dr. A. Sebastian Aikara, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true.

Kottayam, (Sd/-) 01-12-2016. Dr. A. Sebastian Aikara (Chief Editor)

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Guidelines for submission of Research Paper 1. Manuscript should not exceed 5000 words (12-15 A-4 Size pages, typed 1.5 space, Font size 12, Font type - Times New Roman). 2. Language used - English. 3. An abstract of about 150 words should be included at the beginning of the paper. 4. The paper should not have already been published or submited elsewhere for possible publications. A certificate in this regard is to be submitted by authors while submitting the papers to the editor. 5. The authors can use figures, charts, tables and diagram. They may be black and white, and numbered using Roman numerals with a brief title. 6. All footnotes should be indicated by serial numbers in the text, and the literature cited should be detailed under Notes at the end of the paper bearing corresponding numbers, before the references. 7. Place the references at the end of the manuscript following the end notes. All references should note the complete list of journals and books with page numbers. 8. The References should be prepared in the following form: Books Abraham, K. (2001) Ethiopia: The Dynamics of Economic Reforms (Economic Liberalisation and Political Transformation), Addis Abada: EIIPD (Ethiopian International Instt. for Peace and Development). Edited Volume Aharoni, Y. (1991) “On Measuring the Success of Privatisation”, in Ramamurthi, R. and Vernon, R. (eds) Privatisation and Control of State Owned Enterprises. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Journals Boardman, M. and Vining, D. (1989) “Ownership in Competitive Environments: A Comparison of the Performance of Mixed, Private and SOEs”, Journal of Law and Economics, April, No. 32. 9. Manuscripts not considered for publication will not be sent back. 10. Manuscripts, which do not confirm to these guidelines, will not be considered for publication. 11. No paper of the jounral will be reprinted without the prior permission of the Editor. 12. The journal is published bi-annually in July and January. Papers for publication should be addressed to-

The Chief Editor, LUX MONTIS Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning Bethany Hills, Vadavathoor P.O., Kottayam, Kerala. e.mail: [email protected] Contact Number: +91 9447415193

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