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N/L A Research National Aeronautics and Space Administration and

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Technology Houston, Texas Annual Report

FY- 1980

C. Itr The charge.out number_A,_:://essi_ NO.) National Aeronautics and fo,t.i, book "/ N/ A Space Administration

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Houston, Texas 77058 ii .a UL

Rep_toA"_ol AT2

Dr. A. M. Lovelace Deputy Administrator National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, DC 20546

Dear Al:

Enclosed are two copies of the annual Johnson Space Center R&T Report prepared in accordance with your request. For additional information or copies, contact M. E. Goodhart, Code AT2.

Sincerely, /_ K Director

Encl osures

cc: NASA Hqs., Mr. T. W. Chappelle, LB4 - lO cys Mr. W. E. Lilly, B Mr. W. C. Williams, D Dr. A. J. Calio, E- lO cys Mr. J. F. Yardley, M - IO cys Dr. S. I. Weiss, 0 Dr. W. B. Olstad, R - lO cys Mr. A. J. Stofan, S - lO cys Mr. R. E. Smylie, T - 2 cys Ms. S. Wilson, LG-2 - lO cys Mr. S. J. Evans, H ARC, Mr. C. A. Syvertson, DD 2 cys DEFC, Mr. I. T. Gillam, OD - 2 cys GSFC, Mr. A. T. Young, lO0 - 2 cys JPL, Dr. B. C. Murray, 180-905 - 2 cys KSC, Mr. R. G. Smith, CS - 2 cys LaRC, Mr. D. P. Hearth, 106 - 2 cys LeRC, Dr. John McCarthy, OlO0 - 2 cys MSFC, Dr. W. R. Lucas, DAOI - 2 cys NSTL, Mr. J. Hlass 2 cys WFC, Mr. R. L. Krieger, OD - 2 cys

JSC-16993 Research and Technology Annual Report FY-1980

Space Transportation Systems Aeronautics and Space Technology Space and Terrestrial Applications Space Sciences

Prepared by Program Planning Office Technical P_anning Office Code: AT

November 1980

The charge.out number IAccesslon No.)

ior this boqll_isJSreDort is prepared on an annual Preface basis for the purposes ot mgnllgt,[i,_u the fiscal year research and technology (R&T) activities. Its intent is to better iuP, t11_,/ NO.'J inform the R&T Program Managers of cSarr,_'-out number [Accession significant accomplishments that , promise practical and beneficial pro- !o, this book is ,/_. _'-f _/ gram application. The report is not in- clusive of all R&T activities. The document is organized into two distinct sections: (1) a general summa- L ry of the major R&T activities in each program area, and (2) a description of significant individual completed activities and their results. This document will be updated November 1 of each year. ....L.7.,?&'..... I The JSC Annual R&T Report is com- # piled by the Technical Planning Office, Office of the Center Director. The personnel listed below have coordinated the technical inputs for their respective sections of the report. Detailed ques- tions may be directed to them or to the technical monitors listed in the Signifi- cant Task indices.

M. E. Goodhart/Code AT2 Space Transportation Systems 713-483-2703

L. C. Krchnak/Code AT2 Aeronautics and Space Technology 713-483-2703

G A. Nixon/Code SA Space and Terrestrial Applications 713-483-2539

Dr. J. L. Warner/Code SA Space Sciences 713-483-2781

OHNSON SPACE CENT_ HouSTON, TEXAS

iii

Index

Summaries 1

3 Office of Space Transportation Systems

7 Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology

11 Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications

15 Office of Space Sciences

Significant 19 Tasks

21 Office of Space Transportation Systems

37 Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology

59 Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications

75 Office of Space Sciences

Summaries

Office of Summary Space Transportation Systems

category is that of major systems The Space Transportation System several time-phased STS augmentations as shown in the evolution table studies, which pursues the definition (STS) fiscal year 1981 activities plan (table I). The Johnson Space Center of augmentations to the Space highlights the establishment of per- Transportation Systems that are re- manent manned occupancy in low (JSC) plays a major role in the definition and development of these quired to support new initiatives iden- Earth orbit as the overriding goal for tified in the activity plan. These capabilities. The research and tech- the 1980's with this capability to be studies are carried from preliminary expanded by a manned geo- nology activities sponsored by the Ad- vanced Programs Office are divided phase A analyses through phase B synchronous-Earth-orbit facility in the project definition. The second major 1990's. Inherent in these goals are into two major categories. The first

TABLE I._EVOLUTION OF SPACE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS NEEDS

Goal: Permanent/manned occupancy of low Earth orbit Goal: Operation of manned geosynchronous facility

1990 to 2000 1980 to 1985 1985 to 1990 Objective: geosynchronous facility Objective: routine operation of Shuttle/ Objective: permanent facility in low Earth orbit Spacelab Inertial Upper Stage, Spinning Solid Upper Stage, and Manned Maneuvering Unit • Orbital transfer vehicle (OIV) • Augment STS operational capability • High-performance upper stage Transportation such as advanced Centaur Power Extension Package (PEP) • Crew capsule (MOTV) Shuttle thrust augmentation • Shuttle-derived heavy-lift • High-energy Solar Electric launch vehicle (HLLV) Propulsion System (SEPS)

• Adapters, tools, and devices for Service systems for routine Services • Orbiter health determination operations using Orbiter Remote operations remote from Orbiter Ln geosynchronous orbit • Satellite services near Orbiter Manipulator System (placement, retrieval, module Maintenance and repair of satellites replacement) in sight of Orbiter

Satellite services remote from Orbiter (placement, retrieval, module replacement)

• • Large structures experiments and Large power module Platforms • Large structures experiments definition demonstrations

• Free-flying power modules, experiment platforms, and materials processing modules (unmanned/STS-tended) • Permanent mannable facility qn • Low-Earth-orbit facility with service, Facilities habitation, flight support, and geosynchronous orbit construct,on capability category of activity encompasses sup- Figure 1.--Near Orbiter satellite serviceselements. porting studies to identify subsystem hardware and software requirements and to carry those subsystem developments through breadboard and prototype demonstrations. The bulk of the current JSC research and technology activity is centered on those objectives for the 1980 to 1985 time frame. Specific areas of near-term high priority include those of satellite services near the Or- biter and Shuttle augmentation. For the 1985 to 1990 time frame, the Space Operations Center (SOC) low- Earth-orbit manned facility is the highest priority new initiative. The following paragraphs highlight the current in-house and funded activities in support of these goals.

Figure 2.--The opencherrypicker, Satellite Services Near Orbiter

Satellite services is a high-priority evolutionary program at JSC. The baseline STS, through the use of the Remote Manipulator System (RMS), the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU), and the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU), will offer users the capability to deploy and retrieve satellites and to provide limited payload services. Future near-term payloads are expected to require much more extensive supporting services that will necessitate longer extravehicular activity (EVA) periods and more extensive astronaut support equipment and service tools. The spectrum of activities that is expected to be required in the mid- to late-1980's is shown in figure 1. Figure3.--The ManeuverableTelevision. The specific activities underway at JSC fall into both the major system studies and the supporting studies and advanced development categories. Two parallel studies are the augmenting of in-house activities aimed at identifying satellite services require- oeO eee° ments and the specific hardware _ • • • • 2 TV CAMERAS WITH DUAL-CHANNEL CAPABILITY necessary to satisfy these require- "_""_'_'_,_lr"'x, • • • COMMUNICAT IONS THROUGH ORBITER _;_n_a_ • • OPERATING RANGE - 3219 METERS (2 MILES) ments. Additional activities are under- _e • MINIMUM&v- DIFFERENTIAL VELOCITY : ee• 0.003 M/S CO.OlFT S_ way to design, develop, and test pro- • • •. • SIZE - 84 BY 84 BY 109 CENTIMETERS totype hardware that has already been " • • (33 BY 33 BY 43 INCHES_ _ ego • WEIGHT - 272 KILOGRAMS (600 POUNDS) determined to be a vital part of the satellite services program. 441t'°• • " &'_ Two key hardware elements, re- ported in more detail in the text of this report, are the open cherrypicker (OCP) (fig. 2) and the Maneuverable OBSERVATION ON-THE-GROUND Television (MTV) (fig. 3). The OCP will FROM ORBITER REMOTE DIAGNOSTICS progress was achieved in expanding will develop wraparound contact cells provide the astronaut with a stable as well as conventional top/bottom work station from which to access and the PEP performance data base ad- contact cells. Phase 1 of this activity service payloads that are attached in dressing these variables. Results have (cell development and production or near the payload bay. The OCP is been published with a complete readiness) will be completed by June attached to the end of the Remote description of the PEP design and operational characteristics in a con- 1981, at which time phase 2 (produc- Manipulator System and thus aug- tion verification) will begin. Both ments both the utility of the RMS and venient "PEP User's Handbook." This handbook highlights the major phases of the activity are scheduled to the capability of the astronaut to per- be completed before the initiation of form useful work. The MTV is a small benefits of PEP starting with the in- PEP hardware development. free-flying television that will provide creased power it offers payloads, the associated increase in electrical Another area of operational concern a vital inspection function in the near- as mission durations increase is that of Orbiter vicinity to determine the status energy that allows mission extensions of two to three times the Orbiter atmospheric revitalization. The Space of payloads before berthing with the Shuttle uses expendable lithium- Orbiter and to provide monitoring baseline of 7 days, and its enhancement of Orbiter heat-rejection capac- hydroxide canisters for carbon dioxide capability during satellite servicing. removal. Mission durations in excess Additional capabilities and equipment ity resulting from reduction in fuel cell of 7 days with this system would im- that are being considered include zero waste heat generation. Other major benefits are described including co- pose severe stowage problems as well prebreath suits to reduce EVA over- as increase weight penalties. A prime head, handling and positioning aids to manifesting opportunities, all-altitude candidate for early incorporation is the provide access to payloads, and and all-inclination flight regimes, regenerable solid amine carbon diox- special tools to accomplish detailed quick installation and removal of ide removal system that has been service tasks. payloads for fast mission turnaround, light weight, and compact packaging. developed under the advanced Through an intercenter agreement, development funding. Also high on the priority list for Shuttle enhancement is Shuttle Augmentation JSC and Lewis Research Center have initiated the development of large- 'the Solid Polymer Electrolyte (SPE) fuel cell. The solid polymer fuel cell Shuttle augmentation activities for the area low-cost solar cells for applica- will provide an order of magnitude in- next several years wilt concentrate on tion in the PEP program. The goal of crease over the current fuel cell increasing the Space Shuttle this development is to achieve a system. This system augmentation capabilities, decreasing the weight reduction in solar cell procurement promises both cost and weight savings and cost, enhancing reliability and costs from current levels of approx- and considerably reduces ground turn- safety, and reducing ground turn- imately Sl00/watt to S30/watt. In this around requirements. around time. JSC continues an active development, two solar cell vendors research and technology program aimed at these areas to bring the STS to a routine operational status. Figure 4.--The Power Extension Package. One major concern of the Space Shuttle payload community is the limited capability of the Orbiter for user onorbit energy requirements. For the last several years, a major portion of the JSC advanced programs activities has been the pursuit of augmenting this power capability. The Power Extension Package (PEP) (fig. 4) is a fiscal year 1982 new initiative that promises both increased user power and extended mission duration. It is an easily installed lightweight mission kit consisting of two deploya- bte solar arrays that augment the :_. _I cryogenic fuel cell power system. A ; typical PEP mission at 55 ° orbital in- _ . clination would provide an increase in user power to 15 kilowatts from the nominal 7 kilowatts while increasing potential mission duration to 20 days. PEP performance is influenced by several mission-planning variables including altitude, inclination, launch date, launch time, orientation, and required power level. Significant Space Operations Center The JSC team that participated _n the concept definition has been ex- The Johnson Space Center continues panded and is now comprised of some in its role of principal proponent of a 20 specialists covering all areas of permanently manned low-Earth-orbit system and subsystem design and facility. A prime candidate for such a analysis, operations, and program- facility is the Space Operations Center matics and costs. In addition to sup- (fig. 5). The SOC is intended to pro- porting the technical management of vide a permanent base for the con- the contracted studies, this group is struction of large structures, the servic- continuing in-house tasks that rein- ing of orbital transfer vehicles and force the industry study efforts. It is satellites, and the provisioning of also a key participant in the program scientific and medical endeavors. The planning activities that are developing concept was developed and analyzed the various options available to estab- by a JSC in-house study team in fiscal lish a manned operational facility by year t979. In fiscal year 1980, studies the end of the decade. The SOC is were awarded to industry to provide currently proposed as a new initiative further configuration definition and for fiscal year 1985 with initial opera- systems analysis and to define and tional capability in 1988. analyze the interaction of the SOC with the Space Transportation System.

Figure 5.--Space Operations Center.

6 Office of Summary Aeronautics and Space Technology

tie flight data in related technology activity is the transfer of Shuttle- The activities at Johnson Space disciplines and to verify, correlate, and Center (JSC) funded by the Office of related technology developments to an all new technology airplane with extrapolate data derived from ground- Aeronautics and Space Technology based facilities with the flight data. lower weight and reduced operational (OAST) involve aeronautical, space, cost. and energy research and technology (R&T) development. These research Solar Power Satellite and technology areas encompass future developments of all NASA pro- Experimental Programs JSC in-house and contractor studies gram offices as well as other Govern- have shown that space generation and ment agencies. The use of the Space The Orbiter Experiments Program will transmission of solar power is an at- Shuttle Orbiter as an experimental use the Space Shuttle Orbiter as a tractive candidate for augmenting ter- vehicle, the development of space- flight research vehicle to obtain in- restrial fossil-fueled electric power flight data over a broad flight spectrum based power satellites to beam energy generation plants in the future. As a to Earth, the electrolysis cell/fuel cell for a variety of technology disciplines result of these studies, NASA and the orbital energy storage systems, the (fig. 1). As the lead center for the over- Department of Energy (DOE) initiated advanced onboard propulsion tech- all project, JSC is responsible for pro- the Solar Power Satellite Concept nology and the large space systems ject management and integration of Development and Evaluation Program. technology are areas of continuing various Orbiter experiments. These ex- This evaluation program is guided by a JSC interest and activity. periments are designed to augment joint DOE-NASA plan that covers the the research and technology data The major activities in space period from mid-1977 to mid-1980. research and technology at JSC during base for design verification of current fiscal year 1980 were (1) support to and future vehicles by collecting Shut- the Orbiter Experiments Program for which JSC continues to provide overall integration management and program planning, technical development for Figure 1 .--Shuttle mission experiment opportunities. specific experiments (including development of supporting equipment), and integration of experiments into the Orbiter; (2) in-house and funded system definition studies of the solar power satellite (SPS) system that would generate terrestrial electric power from orbiting SPS systems; (3) large-capacity orbital energy storage FUGHT CONTROLS systems research and technology, _: RO THERMODYNAMICS which include electrolysis cell/fuel FUGHT CONTROLS cell development, laboratory modeling of space plasma environmental in- STRUCTURES ,_ MATERIALS teractions of large high-voltage solar arrays in the large vacuum chamber, and development of advanced thermal _,,= ,,r

management systems for space use; • "rE

(4) advanced onboard propulsion AEROTHERMOOYNAMICS

technology; (5) advanced synthetic STRUCTURES & MATERIALS aperture radar; and (6) large space systems technology to lower cost of

PROPU_ON space assembly, fabrication, or _,T_*_C_JI_E > • MATLRb_LS deployment of large space systems. STRUCTURES & M z'Tt-R A S Another major area of continuing JSC The overall objective of this pro- tions were completed in the areas of Integrated Orbital Energy gram is to conceptually define a (a) solid-state combining device System reference system (fig. 2) and to under- assessment (which allows the com- stand the economic practicality and bination of several low-power solid- the social and environmental accept- Advances in critical space power state devices into an efficient high- research and technology at JSC in fis- ability of the SPS system. The program density microwave generator), (b) is divided into four major components: cal year 1980 include (t) low-cost fiber optics investigations (for phase- solar arrays in support of the Orbiter system definition: environment, control system circuits), (c) evaluation health, and safety; socioeconomic Power Extension Package, (2) high- of a retrodirective phase-control capacity energy storage based on the issues; and comparative assessment. breadboard system, and (d) the SPS Solid Polymer Electrolyte membrane NASA is responsible for conducting microwave/ionosphere interaction ex- fuel cell, (3) thermal management of the system definition activity and the periment. DOE is responsible for the other three. onorbit energy systems, and (4) The results of the ionosphere heat- modeling of space plasma environ- The objective of the activity at JSC is ing experiment indicate that the 23- mental interaction of large high- to conceptually define a reference mW/cm 2 power density limit for the SPS system and to identify alternative voltage solar arrays. microwave beam is too conservative A subauthorization from Lewis technologies within the reference con- and could be raised. Effects produced cept. The four major elements of the Research Center aided in developing by simulated SPS ionosphere heating low-cost solar cells for the Power Ex- JSC activity are as follows: are many times less than natural tension Package Solar Array being 1. Energy conversion in space ionospheric disturbances as intro- 2. Power transmission to Earth developed by JSC with sponsorship by duced by solar flares. The ionospheric the Office of Space Transportation 3. Space transportation power density limit is a critical SPS 4. Space construction Systems. system sizing parameter and has a The regenerative fuel ce I/ The first milestone of the joint DOE- significant impact on the cost. A high- NASA plan was completed with the electrolysis celt integrated energy er limit allows more power to be system involves development of tech- delivery of the Reference System delivered to a smaller rectenna. nology with many applications. With Document in October 1978. The DOE Three additional efforts that also has made extensive use of these data readily available water as the resupply support the SPS study are (1) large to perform environmental, compara- commodity, it is a prime candidate as space systems technology, (2) space the preferred energy system for any tive, and socioeconomic assessments. plasma interaction experiments for In 1979, JSC continued system defini- extended duration manned or un- large power systems, and (3) a con- manned orbiting spacecraft. From tion studies to iterate design of the tinuing study of techniques to use Shuttle-supplied water, this system reference concept with major lunar materials for space construction. emphasis on updating the system concept, optimizing the construction and maintenance approach, defining Figure 2.--Artist's concept of thereference solarpower satellite system. the industrial and Earth transportation complex, defining the total SPS operations, defining the SPS integration with the grid network, preparing technology advancement plans, and performing cost and schedule analyses. The major study areas for fiscal year 1980 include the following. 1. Summary reports were submitted to DOE in support of the SPS Pro- gram Assessment Report that is being prepared by DOE. 2. Workshops were conducted in the technical areas of microwave power transmission, space structures and construction, energy conversion and power management, and space transportation. 3. System definition studies were conducted with emphasis on costing the reference system and on defining alternative concepts that included laser-power transmission, reduced- size cargo launch vehicles, and solid- state microwave systems. 4. Critical supporting investiga- Advanced Synthetic Aperture can also be used for orbital manufac- tion tests were performed using a pro- Radar ture of propellants for orbital transfer totype Power Extension Package solar vehicles. It is ideally suited for space array module in flight configuration. The Advanced Synthetic Aperture platforms in which experiments could The prototype PEP array was perform- Radar project is designed to develop a draw power and/or hydrogen or oxygen ance tested under conditions of solar thermal vacuum and low-Earth-orbit low-cost automated capability to perfor propellants, for feedstock for space form active (radar) sensing in multifre- manufacturing processes, or for life plasma, both separately and in combination, to fully explore and verify its quencies and multipolarizations for support use as required. Thus, the multi-incidence angles. Such a system serves as an orbiting utility response under actual space operational conditions. The results verify system would enable multimission ex- substation. ecution at a substantial cost savings. Research and technology in in- satisfactory performance under com- An antenna, a calibration technique, tegrating thermal management con- bined solar and plasma conditions and control logic for easy use by prin- cepts for onorbit power systems was with plasma leakage current losses cipal investigators to enable originally initiated by the Office of less than 2 percent. Arcing to the multimode operations are the critical Space Transportation Systems. Joint plasma was observed at voltages over technologies to be developed. The funding was provided by the Office of 500 but was shown to cause no goal is to develop an aircraft system Space Transportation Systems and the damage to the array. before developing a space capability. Office of Aeronautics and Space Tech- nology in fiscal year 1980. The Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology Advanced Onboard Propulsion wilt continue to sponsor the effort in Technology Large Space Systems fiscal year 1981 and beyond. The work Technology in fiscal year 1980 provided a The advanced onboard propulsion feasibility demonstration of the dual- technology project will develop a can- A large space system technology pro- passage high-performance heat pipe didate reusable onboard propulsion gram has been initiated to develop design that forms the basic compo- system using nontoxic propellants for techniques for space construction (fig. nent of a large-scale long-life space- future spacecraft. The fiscal year 1980 3). These techniques include erection, constructable heat pipe radiator. effort at JSC involved the characteriza- deployment, and automated fabrica- The large vacuum chamber at JSC tion of nontoxic propellants and cor- tion methods. was used to perform several experi- responding properties of ignition and ments in a simulated tow-Earth- burn systems (thrust chambers, orbit/ionospheric space plasma en- nozzles, etc.). vironment. Initial engineering verifica-

Figure 3._Construction techniques.

Deployment Fabrication Erection Automated fabrication is believed biter Remote Manipulator System per- designing an aircraft that would inte- to be a key requirement for a viable formance. grate the many subsystem technology program to construct large-scale The graphite-fiber-reinforced ther- advances during the past decade, in- space systems. Some laboratory work moplastic has many desirable material cluding those demonstrated in the Or- is underway to study such machines. properties for application to space biter avionics system. These tech- In addition to the fundamental con- structures. It has a high strength-to- nologies include (1) redundant digital struction techniques, numerous other weight ratio and modulus of elasticity fly-by-wire flight control and stability elements of construction systems are and exhibits very little thermal distor- augmentation, (2) computer manage- being identified (fig. 4). tion. Extensive modifications to an ment of vehicle systems, (3) electric Large space systems technology existing bench test machine, which actuation for aircraft control surfaces, advances for fiscal year 1980 include includes use of heaters and coolers, (4) fiber optics communication and (1) designing and fabricating a full- provided forming capability and com- data transmission, (5) laser gyros, and scale functional model of a hexagonal- mercial ultrasonic welding machines (6) high-voltage electrical power frame/berthing-latch interface mech- joined the material. systems. The study concluded that an anism, and (2) forming and welding a all-electric secondary power system composite material (graphite-fiber- on a wide-body advanced transport reinforced thermoplastic) for space Application of Advanced aircraft fleet of 300 aircraft would save structures. Electric/Electronic Technology S9 billion in direct operating costs over The design requirements for the in- to Commercial Aircraft a 16-year period. This conclusion sup- terface mechanism were derived from ports further work by NASA in the an analysis of Orbiter constraints, plat- In fiscal year 1980, JSC conducted a development of these technologies for form interface requirements, and Or- study to evaluate the potential of aircraft applications.

Figure 4._onstruction system elements.

Special tools

Space construction _\_

jj Tube fabrication Beam fabrication

ane

Automatic truss assembly Automatic beam assembly

Work positioning fixtures

icker Docking / berthing Strongback ports platform

10 Office of Space Summary and Terrestrial Applications

While all seven are important to the The Early Warning/Crop Condition AgRISTARS Program USDA, the first two--early warning Assessment research effort is and commodity production forecast- designed to develop and test the The Agriculture and Resources Inven- basic techniques required to support tory Surveys Through Aerospace ing--have been given emphasis because of the immediateneed for the operational crop condition assess- Remote Sensing (AgRISTARS) is a 6- ment division of the USDA's Foreign better and more timely information on year program of research, develop- Agricultural Service. This effort ad- ment, evaluation, and application of crop conditions and expected production. dresses 20 crop and region combina- aerospace remote sensing for tions in the United States and seven agricultural resources beginning in fis- The technical program is structured into eight major projects, as follows. foreign countries (U.S.S.R., Argentina, cal year 1980. The program is a Brazil, Canada, People's Republic of 1. Early Warning/Crop Condition cooperative effort of the U.S. Depart- China, Mexico, and Australia) for six ment of Agriculture (USDA), NASA, the Assessment 2. Foreign Commodity Production major commodities (wheat, barley, U.S. Department of Commerce, the corn, soybeans, rice, and cotton).2 The U.S. Department of Interior, and the Forecasting 3. Yield Model Development techniques used for early warning are Agency for International Development. assumed to be largely crop dependent 4. Supporting Research The goal of the AgRISTARS Pro- and country independent. gram is to determine the usefulness, 5. Soil Moisture cost, and extent to which aerospace 6. Domestic Crops and Land Cover remote-sensing data can be in- 7. Renewable Resources Inventory tegrated into existing or future USDA 8. Conservation and Pollution These elements (fig. 1) are interre- systems to improve the objectivity, _Joint Program ol Research and Develop- reliability, timeliness, and adequacy of lated through research, exploratory ex- ment ol Uses of Aerospace Technology for information required to carry out USDA periments, pilot experiments, USDA Agricultural Programs, dated February 1978. missions. The overall approach is user evaluations, and large-scale ap- 'These crops and regions may change in response to USDA information needs. comprised of a balanced program of plication tests. remote-sensing research, development, and testing that addresses domestic resource management as well as commodity production information needs. The program specifically addresses the seven information requirements Figure 1 ._omponent projects of AgRISTARS. identified in the USDA Secretary's Initiative.' 1. Early warning of change affect- ing production and quality of commodities and renewable resources 2. Corr_modity production forecasts 3. Land use classification and measurement 4. Renewable resources inventory and assessment 5. Land productivity estimates 6. Conservation practices assessment 7. Pollution detection and impact evaluation

11 TheForeignCommodityProduction The Soil Moistureresearchis pollutants,andtoassesstheirimpact Forecastingactivityaddresses12crop directedtowarddevelopmentof the onagriculturalandforestryresources. andregioncombinationsintheUnited measurementofsoilmoisture(insitu Statesand six foreign countries andremotely)forpotentialuseinother (U.S.S.R.,India, Argentina,Brazil, applications,suchas earlywarning, Canada,andAustralia)forfivemajor crop yield estimation,watershed Forest Resource Information commodities(wheat,barley,corn, runoff,andvegetativestressassess- System soybeans,andrice).Thisprojectwilt ments. developandtestproceduresforusing The DomesticCropsand Land The prime goal of this project is to aerospaceremote-sensingtechnology Coverobjectivesaredirectedatauto- determine the viability of using toprovidemoreobjective,timely,and maticclassificationandestimationof satellite remote-sensing technology reliablecrop productionforecasts landcoverwith emphasison major for industrial forest management ap- severaltimes during the growing crops.Landsatandadvancedsensor plications in the Southeastern United seasonandimprovedpreharvestesti- datawillbeusedin conjunctionwith States. It is a 3-year cooperative proj- matesforthecropsandregionsofin- grounddatato improvetheprecision ect between the Southern Timber- terest.TheForeignCommodityPro- of estimationandclassificationpro- lands Division of the St. Regis Paper ductionForecastingactivitybuilds ceduresatthesubstatelevelandtoin- Company, the Laboratory for Applica- uponthe existingremote-sensing vestigatechange-monitoringtech- tions of Remote Sensing of Purdue technologybaseand extendsthis niques. University and the Johnson Space technologyto additionalcropsand TheRenewableResourcesInvento- Center (JSC). The project represents regions.Large-scaleapplicationstest- ry projectinvolvesrequirementsin the first private sector (wood products ingof candidatetechnologyformak- sevenmajorproblemareas:regional industry) user in NASA's Earth ingestimatesof productioninforeign and large-areainventories;current resources programs and is significant countrieswill be conductedby the technologyassessment;new tech- USDA. since the user also shares in the man- nology development;detection, agement and cost responsibilities for TheYieldModelDevelopmentwill classification,and measurementof the implementation of the Forest support USDAcrop production disturbances;classification,modeling, Resource Information System. JSC is forecastingandestimationby(1)test- and measurementof renewable primarily responsible for the contrac- ing, evaluating,and selectingcrop resources;determinationof site tual support with the Laboratory for Ap- yieldmodelsfor applicationtesting; suitabilityandlandmanagementplan- plications of Remote Sensing in (2) identifyingareasof feasible ning;andanalyticalandcartographic developing specified quantifiable researchfor improvementof model supportto the resourceinformation forest resource information from Land- usefulness;and (3) conducting displaysystem. sat multispectral-scanner data and researchto modifyexistingmodels Theconservationassessmentpor- correlating this information with St. andtodevelopnewcropyieldassess- tionof theConservationandPollution Regis-furnished inventory data on mentmethods. projectaddressesapplicationsin specific test sites. The contractor will TheSupportingResearchproject threeareas:inventoryofconservation develop the software and classifica- coversresearch,development,and practices;estimationof waterrunoff tion analysis procedures and provide testingof newandimprovedremote- usinghydrologicmodels;anddeter- for the technical training of St. Regis sensingtechnology.Researchwill be minationofphysicalcharacteristicsof personnel. This project also calls for conductedin thefollowingareasas snowpacks.Thepollutionportionof the establishment of a Forest relatedto applicationsof remote- theprojectwillprovideanassessment Resource Information System design sensingtechnology:areaestimation, ofconservationpracticesthroughuse and implementation based on the cropdevelopmentstageestimation, of remote-sensingtechniquesto project results and, finally, documen- spectralcrop appearancein yield quantitativelyassesssedimentrunoff, tation of these results for release to the estimation,cropstress,andsoils. todetectgaseousandparticulateair public domain.

12 Wildland Vegetation Resource Texas Application System Inventory Verification and Transfer

A Wildland Vegetation Resource In- The JSC is participating with the State ventory Application Pilot Test is being of Texas in a joint Application System jointly undertaken by the Bureau of Verification and Transfer Project to Land Management of the Department develop, evaluate, and transfer tech- of the Interior and JSC to test and im- niques for applying Landsat and other data to the needs of Texas natural plement an interactive system to assist in the inventory of public lands. resources management agencies. The This test is presently in the third and major objectives of the project are (1) final phase. Each phase--Alaska, to update and integrate state-of-the- Arizona, and Idaho--was related to a art remote-sensing technology with different ecological zone; the sites other information sources available to were carefully selected to represent the State to form a functional Texas the varied lands under the manage- Natural Resources Inventory and ment of the Bureau of Land Manage- Monitoring System, and (2) to test and ment. The Alaska phase, which began evaluate the utility and cost-effective- in May 1977 and was successfully ness of natural resource information completed in July 1978, was primarily derived from Landsat data and other a land-cover inventory of approx- sources when applied in a total system imately 2.5 million acres in South context to selected State agency man- Central Alaska. The Arizona phase, agement activities. The Texas Ap- October 1978 through June 1980, not plications Project began in June 1978 only used the experience and and spans 3 years. knowledge gained in the Alaska pro- The remote-sensing component of ject but went one step further by the system is NASA's major respon- developing productivity estimates for sibility. A prototype of the system will range forage (pounds per acre) and be operational on Texas facilities in forest and woodland volume (cubic late 1980. The system is being tested feet per acre) by type. The Bureau of and evaluated in support of applica- Land Management tested the tion categories in the areas of coastal knowledge gained during the project zone management, forestry, water by doing an independent land-cover resources, mineral resources, and classification of the Arizona Test Site. wildlife management. The Bureau of Land Management is presently conducting a project over the Idaho Test Site using all the capabilities learned during the other two phases of the Application Pilot Test. The NASA contractor is complet- ing project documentation and transfer of the technology to the Bureau of Land Management with the Applica- tion Pilot Test scheduled for completion in March 1981.

Office Summary of Space Sciences

One of the most important Apollo Lunar and Planetary Sciences although this effect is more important for the norites and troctolites than it is experiments was the X-ray map of a portion of the Moon obtained during During fiscal year 1980, planetary for the anorthosites. The rocks that form the lunar crust Apollo 15 and 16. However, the useful- sciences came of age at the Johnson ness of that data has been very limited Space Center (JSC) as evidenced by are widely believed to have formed from an outer shell of liquid rock because of the low spatial resolution. the broad range of experimental and One scientist, in a new effort using im- theoretical investigations currently several hundred kilometers thick early age-enhancement techniques, has being pursued. Sample-oriented in lunar history. A problem is how to improved the spatial resolution of the research on lunar and meteorite account for the compositions of the X-ray data by a factor of two (fig. 1). materials continues to be the major observed rocks if the liquid shell, This advance should provide the grist activity of JSC scientists. New and called a magma ocean, has a com- for many interpretative investigations. continued studies of Mars, Venus, and position like the bulk Moon. A study of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter dem- the effects of impact showed that the onstrate involvement in up-to-date impacts that account for the accretion Meteorite Studies planetary research. The consolidation of the Moon were of relatively low of research on the ancient crust of the velocity and as such could not produce The JSC continues to be involved in Earth has been gratifying as such impact melts. However, impact melts the collection and curation of Antarctic research will form a solid base for are melts with compositions of the bulk Moon. What low velocity impacts meteorites in association with the Na- planetary research during the decade tional Science Foundation and the of the 1980's. can produce is general heating which, Smithsonian Institute. The meteorites The activities of JSC in lunar and in excess, will produce partial melting. A magma ocean formed by partial are proving to be a vast storehouse of planetary sciences that are sum- secrets concerning the solar system. marized in the following paragraphs melting will be basaltic, and not of The early examination of the include lunar studies, meteorite bulk Moon composition. This idea meteorites in the meteorite laboratory studies, Earth's ancient crust, Mars, simplifies the problem of accounting is yielding important new data con- Venus, cosmic dust, comets, Galilean for the compositions of the observed cerning meteorite populations. satellites, cratering, and technology. rocks.

Figure 1 .--An example of a portion of the X-ray map for the Moon revealing the improved resolu- Lunar Studies tion and contrast o! geochemical "pictures." The two views illustrate the power of the new JSC image enhancement technique. The improvement in spatial resolution is obvious by inspection As research in Lunar and Planetary of the two images generated by a computer printer. The density of the regions represent Sciences diversifies, the fraction of differences in the ratio of magnesium to aluminum on the surface of the Moon. total effort devoted to lunar studies continues to decrease and now ac- counts for about one-third of the total; but there are three investigations that demand special mention. A study of the relative composition of the elements samarium, titanium, and scandium in lunar plutonic rocks found that the processes that are responsible for the formation of the lunar crust were strongly constrained. This work demonstrated that anorthosites did not experience a previous ilmenite fractionation whereas norites and troctolites did. Conversely, all plutonic rocks experienced some Enhanced Original previous pyroxene fractionation, Southeast Mare Serenitatis By Laplacian Subtraction

15 Researchon Antarcticand other Ancientanorthositesfrom Min- heated by sunlight and that the heat- meteoritescoversa rangeof descrip- nesota and Ontario are being ing causes Mars to be red. tive topics.A particularlyimportant investigatedas a modelfor the resultinvolvesthe discoveryof a basalticgrowthof continents.Recent youngage for severalachondritic workhasdemonstratedthatancient Venus meteorites. anorthositecomplexesarechemically richer in aluminumthan younger Venus is Earth's twin in size and den- anorthositiccomplexes. sity, but its surface is very different. Earth'sAncientCrust Theoreticalstudiesareattempting The Venusian atmosphere is very hot to integratethe knowledgegained (500 ° C) and consists of carbon diox- RecognitionthattheEarthisa planet directlyfromtheMoonandapplyit to ide with small amounts of sulfuric acid. thatisaccessibletodetailedstudyhas thestudyof theEarth.Modelshave A study to understand the surface en- directedsignificanteffortto usethe beengeneratedthatdemonstratehow vironment has been performed and a Earthasamodelforthegeneralplane- an Earthmagmaoceanwouldwork model has been produced that sug- taryprocessof crustalformation.JSC andwhattypeof crustit wouldpro- gests that the bottom of the Earth's effortshavebeendirectedtowardthe duce.Thepossibleexistenceof an oceans is a good analog to the surface originanddevelopmentoftheEarth's Earth magma ocean is being of Venus. The model suggests that the continentalcrust. Severalparallel investigatedbya worldwidestudyof very level surface of Venus (fig. 3) is studiesarebeingfollowedin thedis- theoldestrocksonEarth. due to windblown sediments and that ciplinesof geochemistry,petrology, the material in the level part of Venus geochronology,andfieldgeology.One is transported from the few plateau projectconsistsof systematically Mars regions. locatinganddocumentingtheoldest rocksin NorthAmerica.Rocksasold There are several studies underway to as3700millionyearshavebeenfound learn about weathering on Mars. One Cosmic Dust inMinnesotaandrocksasoldas3200 study uses soil core tubes collected millionyearshavebeendiscoveredin from the dry valleys in the Antarctic JSC is pursuing a twofold thrust involv- Ontario,Wyoming,and Montana, because those valleys are candidate ing the collection and population althoughmuchofthisancientterrainis analog environments to the cold dry analysis of cosmic dust. Population only2800millionyearsold (fig.2). conditions on Mars. A second experi- analysis flows from data collected on Bothpetrographyand geochemistry mental study uses a Mars weathering the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft; new arebeingperformedontheseancient simulation chamber. The chamber ex- data will be obtained from the Galileo rocks. periments demonstrate that Mars is spacecraft. Collection studies are

Figure 2._sochron diagram for some ancient crustal rocks discovered inthe Beartooth Mountainsof Montana and Wyoming.This diagram shows that approximately50 analyzed rocks fall on a line Figure &--Plot demonstrating the differences inthe surfacetopogra- that yields an age of 2780 millionyears. Theplot is based on theRb- phy of Earth and Venus. This diagramshows that 60 percent of the Sr radioactive decay system.87Rbdecays to 87Srand 86Sris usedas Venusian surface has an elevation within0.5 kilometer of the mean a normalizationparameter, As a system ages, the line defined by the elevation. By contrast, Earthdisplaysa muchwider range of surface analyzed points rotates counterclockwise. The steeper the line,the elevations.Thetwo peaks on theEarthcurverepresenttypical conti- older the rock system. nental elevation and typical ocean bottom elevation.

0,78 60

so VENUS

87Sr / 86Sr "Jl' _

0.74 2780 $ 25 M.Y,

0.7022 _'Z-2 _- -8 -6 °4 -2 0 2 4 6 _" 87Rb / 86Sr

0.70 I J I I 0 10 2.0 ELEVATION

16 at JSC conducts a broad range of based on spacecraft and airplane Cratering medical research and operations ac- flights. The spacecraft experiment will consist of a cosmic dust collector on Cratering studies, which receive a tivities in support of the goals of the the Long Duration Exposure Facility continuing strong emphasis, have Office of Space Science. The basic that will remain in Earth orbit for over 1 resulted in the publication of a major objective of these activities is to assure the health and safety of all year. The aircraft program consists of new model for the mechanics of crater those who fly in space. In pursuing this collecting cosmic dust on high-flying formation as a function of the impact- JSC aircraft. The collectors for the ing projectile's composition and objective, every effort is made to increase man's knowledge of the medi- aircraft program are being fabricated velocity and target composition and and the first collection will be made in volatile content. This model was used cal sciences and to apply this knowledge to the solution of man's fiscal year 1981. Expectations are that to predict the effects of cratering on much new and important data will be icy planets. problems on Earth as well as in space. obtained from these collected Research areas of significance to manned space flight include neuro- materials. Technology physiology (space motion sickness), cardiovascular physiology, bone and muscle metabolism, endocrinology, Comets A major technology effort to improve the curation of Moon rocks and and microbiology. The technology developed in carrying out investiga- One of the most exciting activities dur- meteorites was completed with the tions in these areas has resulted in ing 1980 was formally proposing two opening and operation of the Lunar several significant advancements in flight instruments for NASA's proposed Curatorial Facility. Technology efforts mission to Comet Halley and also continue in a range of analytical medical research during the past year. An area of research of considerable Tempel-2. Both instruments were endeavors. Fiscal year 1980 marked importance to the Space Shuttle Pro- designed to collect comet dust and the first direct dating of an anorthosite. gram is that of space motion sickness. perform geochemical analysis on that (The Adirondack Anorthosite is 1200 dust. One instrument, the scanning million years old,) Image enhance- Although less than half of all those electron microscope, analyzes in- ment of lunar X-ray data and new in- who have flown in space have shown any symptom of space motion sick- dividual dust particles for particle strumentation for flight experiments ness, this illness can incapacitate an morphology and size and analyzes have been mentioned previously. affected crewman for several days. major elements and organic molecule content. The other instrument Thus, it is important that all avenues of research be explored thoroughly to analyzes a bulk sample of comet dust Life Sciences for trace elements and isotopic com- assure that every step is taken to understand the cause, the effect, and the position and obtains an age for the The Medical Sciences Division of the treatment of this space-associated comet (fig. 4). Space and Life Sciences Directorate

Figure 4.--Assembly diagram for the mass spectrometry isotope dilution experiment that JSC Galilean Satellites proposed for the Comet Halley/'rempel 2 mission. The sample collection assembly has a funnel to aid in collection of comet dust by concentration, The collected dust would be chemically A new project was initiated in 1980 to processed using the dissolution and carrier acids with the excess acid being deposited in the excess-acid sink. The processed sample would be deposited on a filament in the mass study the global tectonics of spectrometer source chamber and analyzed by the mass spectrometer. Ganymede, the largest satellite of Jupiter. The contrasting dark and light cratered grooved portions of DISSOLUTION ACID RESERVOIR Ganymede are being interpreted as NEUTRALIZER AND TRAP

being in plate-tectonic relation to ESS ACID SINK each other. The dark portions of Ganymede drift relative to each other and the light portion is a filler between SAMPLE COLLECTION ASSY. the dark plates. A theoretical study

was also performed to investigate the GN 2 TANK internal mineralogy of Io, the volcanic CARRIER ACID RESERVOIR satellite of Jupiter. This study is based on a calculated phase diagram for the MASS SPECTROMETER system iron-sulfur-oxygen. Voyager results prompted both of these MASS SPECTROMETER SOURCE CHAMBER studies. DATA SYSTEM ELECTRONICS ) PROCESSOR ELECTRONICS POWER SUPPLY

17 syndromeIt is widelyacceptedthat byinjectingashort-livedradioisotope developed for use by a young child alterationsof theotolithreceptorsof intothebloodstreamandcountingthe afflicted with a severe immunization theinnerearareprimarilyresponsible radioactive particles given off as the deficiency. During the past year, addi- forthevestibulardisturbancethatis isotope moves through the heart. tional efforts have been made to im- characterizedbythesymptomsofmo- Figure 5 shows a cardiac phantom prove this system. tion sicknessin space.Linearac- with the image processed to display The JSC Engineering and Develop- celerationisoneof theveryeffective edge contour. The image was ob- ment Directorate and the Space and stimuliusedto inducea responsein tained with the phantom at diastole Life Sciences Directorate cooperated the otolithreceptors.To studythe (140 milliliter volume) using a tan- with the Stehlin Foundation for Cancer otolithreceptorand its responseto talum-178 tracer. This system can ob- Research in the development of im- controlledchanges,a linearaccelera- tain measurements for determination proved radiofrequency heating tech- tor designedto carryonemanwas of stroke volume, ventricular ejection niques for the treatment of certain developedby NASAin conjunction fraction, and heart chamber wall types of cancer. This project utilized withtheUniversityofMichigan. movements that have significant diag- NASA technology and expertise to Aparticularlypromisingapplication nostic value in cardiology. develop a system for experimental ofNASAtechnologyistheutilizationof Over the past several years, NASA treatment of small animals. This the multiwireproportionalcounting and the Baytor College of Medicine system was the prototype for a second techniquein medicalimagingof car- have cooperated in the development, system that was developed and used diovascularperformance.Thisdevice testing, and use of a mobile biological in the treatment of certain tumors in providesaseriesofpicturesproduced isolation system. This system was h u man patients.

Figure 5.---Cardiac phantom with image processed to display edge contour.

18 Significant Tasks

Office of Space Significant Tasks Transportation Systems

23 Space Operations Center System Analysis Funded by: Major Systems Studies (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: S. H. Nassiff/EB Task Performed by: Boeing Aerospace Company Contract NAS 9-16151 Rockwell International Contract NAS 9-16153

24 Power Extension Package Power Conditioning Evaluation Funded by: Advanced Development (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: W. C. Stagg/EH5 Task Performed by: Lockheed Engineering and Management Services Company, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15800

25 Manned Remote Work Station Development

Funded by: Advanced Development (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: S. H. Nassiff/EB Task Performed by: Grumman Aerospace Corporation Contract NAS 9-15881

26 Maneuverable Television Funded by: Advanced Development (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: R. H. Gertach/ED4 Task Performed by: Lockheed Engineering and Management Services Company, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15800

27 Advanced Extravehicular Crewman Work System Funded by: Advanced Development (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: M. RodriquezlEC2 Task Performed by: Hamilton Standard Division Contract NAS 9-15290

28 Satellite Population Assessment Funded by: Advanced Development (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: D. J. Kessler/SN3 Task Performed by: Lockheed Engineering and Management Services Company, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15800 Analytical Computational Mathematics Inc. Contract NAS 9-15883 Western Electric Co., Inc. Contract NAS 9-16127

21 30 Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Ceil

Funded by: Advanced Development (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: D. Bell III/EP5 Task Performed by: General Electric Company, DECP Contract NAS 9-15286

31 Space Construction Experiments Concepts

Funded by: Major Systems Studies (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: L. M Jenkins/EB Task Performed by: Rockwell International Contract NAS 9-15718

32 Space Construction System Analysis Funded by: Major Systems Studies (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: S. H. Nassiff/EB Task Performed by: Rockwell International Contract NAS 9-15881

33 Loads and Dynamics of Variable-Geometry Structures Funded by: Advanced Development (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: John Schliesing/ES2 Task Performed by: Grumman Aerospace Corporation Contract NAS 9-15895

34 Manned Geosynchronous Mission Requirements and Systems Analysis Funded by: Major Systems Studies (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: H. G. Patterson/EB Task Performed by: Grumman Aerospace Corporation Contract NAS 9-15779

35 Fiber Optics Multiplexing Funded by: Advanced Development (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: E. A. Dalke/EH42 Task Performed by: McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company Contract NAS 9-15585

36 High-Power Traveling-Wave-Tube Amplifier Funded by: Advanced Development (UPN-906) Technical Monitor: B. Kilker/EE3 Task Performed by: Hughes Aircraft Company Contract NAS 9-15235

22 The output of the SOC/Shuttle interac- The Space Operations Center system Space Operations Center tion effort will be an input to the overall System Analysis Study analysis performed by Boeing Aero- space Company will include iden- study of the SOC concept which has tification of a mission model and been underway in-house at Johnson The Space Shuttle will be the primary Space Center for the past several mode of space transportation for the requirements for facilities for construction, flight support, and satellite serv- years. Emphasis will be placed on the next decade and will serve as the ini- identification of constraints imposed tial space base or platform for a num- icing. An overall system analysis will be performed that will include tech- by the Space Shuttle in its interaction ber of planned missions of relatively with the SOC and on design or techni- nology assessment for the SOC pro- short duration. However, many mission cal solutions that will allow satisfactory gram. Rockwell International will payload concepts now being proposed accomplishment of the interactions. and under study will require opera- analyze SOC/Shuttle interaction and will address the issues of Orbiter The overall system analysis study will tional support capabilities beyond then provide SOC system require- docking or berthing with SOC, SOC those of the Space Shuttle. Future ments, system description, system planned programs and projects indi- assembly and buildup, resupply and propellant transfer, and more analysis results, and a technology cate a need to deploy, assemble, and assessment and advancement plan specifically, SOC flight support facility construct large systems in space and that will be used in future develop- requirements. A SOC assembly and to support long-duration missions for ment activities. science and applications, satellite buildup is shown in figure 1. servicing, technology development, and flight support for orbit transfer spacecraft. Additionally, a larger multiskilled crew will be required with the necessary habitability provisions and with provisions for increases in electrical power, communications, multidocking or berthing, propellant storage and transfer, and construction and manipulator equipment. A facility such as the Space Operations Center (SOC) is needed to provide these operational capabilities to accomplish current and future planned programs and projects.

Figure 1..--.FinalSOC configuration.

23 Power Extension Package A study was initiated at JSC in April Power Conditioning Evaluation board, including a high-fidelity solar 1978 that had multifold purposes: (1) array simulator, high- and low-voltage to conduct an industry-wide survey to A highly critical element in the Power distribution wiring, and high-power determine predicted performance switching contactors and fusing. Test Extension Package (PEP) (fig. 1) parameters for a number of regulators system design is the choice of the plans and procedures were developed in various stages of development, (2) and testing began in August 1979. The power conditioner or voltage regulator to select three or four of the most pro- parameters evaluated included con- used to convert the unregulated high mising design approaches and obtain version and peak-power-tracking effi- voltage (130 to 170 V dc) at the output breadboard models for detailed ciencies; input and output ripple; of the PEP solar array to regulated low evaluation testing in the Shut- voltage (30 V dc) for the Orbiter response to a variety of load tran- tle/Orbiter Electrical Power Distribu- sients; regulator and fuel cell load electrical power system. The conver- tion and Control (EPDC) breadboard sion efficiency and peak-power-track- sharing at various regulator output (fig. 2) at JSC (the only high-fidelity voltage set points; and overvoltage, ing efficiency of the regulator design simulation of the entire Shuttle/Orbiter are important because both affect the overload, and short circuit fault protec- electrical power system in existence), tion techniques. size, and consequently the cost, of the and (3) to select one or more suc- PEP solar array required to deliver 26 cessful models for further testing with kilowatts electrical power to the Or- an actual Orbiter fuel cell to validate To date, three of the four regulators biter at the array end-of-life. Conver- the breadboard test results and to in- have been tested in the EPDC bread- sion efficiency is also important vestigate fuel cell performance in the because it determines the heat load board with results that tend to verify PEP operating mode. Following com- earlier predictions of PEP perfor- imposed on the Orbiter thermal control pletion of the industry survey, four can- mance. Buck-type as well as system by the regulators. Other factors didate regulator designs were chosen transformer-coupled converters/ that are critical are the overall system for testing in the EPDC breadboard: (1) regulators have been demonstrated to operating stability, the ripple pro- a McDonnell-Douglas buck regulator, operate with conversion efficiencies duced, and the transient response (2) a NASA Marshall Space Flight as high as 92 percent and peak- when the regulators are supplying the Center programmable power pro- power-tracking efficiencies as high as Orbiter electrical buses in parallel with cessor (p3) (buck regulator), (3) a 99 to 99.5 percent. Load sharing be- the Orbiter fuel cells. Early attempts to Lockheed Missiles and Space Com- tween the regulators and the fuel cell gather regulator performance data on pany transformer-coupled converter, simulator has been as expected and which to base PEP regulator selection and (4) a series resonant converter proved futile because of the immature varies with regulator voltage as pre- from Wright-Patterson Air Force Base dicted. Final verification of these development status of suitable regula- modified for the PEP application. A results is expected to be achieved tors and the unique nature of the PEP simulated single-string PEP was application. through actual fuel cell tests during added to the Orbiter EPDC bread- early 1981.

Figure 1.--Orbiter Power Extension Package. Figure2.---Power ExtensionPackage power conditioningsystembreadboard.

. i

24 Manned Remote Work Station A program that includes flight- Two full-scale OCP development test articles (DTA's) have been built. One Development qualified basic OCP structure and development test article components has been used in recent water immer- A prime Space Shuttle requirement is and mechanisms has been formulated sion facility testing at JSC to evaluate that the Shuttle will have the for early OCP flight demonstration. system components and operation. The other OCP is located at Grumman capability to service the satellites that This approach includes engineering are attached in the payload bay and simulations, environmental testing, Aerospace Corporation on the six- detached in a free-flying mode. water immersion facility (WlF) tests, degree-of-freedom simulator. Addi- Studies have identified the specific ground and flight tests, and hardware tional WlF tests are planned to evalu- hardware development necessary for development and cost for a flight arti- ate the cherrypicker subsystems and the extravehicular activity (EVA) astro- cle available by 1985. A simulation to demonstrate satellite servicing. The naut to increase orbital productivity for program has been developed and is OCP DTA will be integrated with the satellite servicing and maintenance, currently underway to perform OCP JSC Manipulator Development Facility in mid-1981 and used in simulations inspection, and repair of the Orbiter. systems evaluation and to demon- One identified need is to provide the strate satellite servicing using a six- on the end of the RMS arm while both astronaut with a stable platform from degree-of-freedom simulator. The are supported on an air-bearing floor which he can perform a variety of work open cherrypicker is shown servicing (fig. 2). Future applications of the manned remote work station include functions coupled with the capability a satellite attached to the Orbiter closed pressurized cabin versions, to transport replacement modules to payload bay in figure 1. and from the Orbiter. The manned railed work stations, and free-flying remote work station "open cher- work stations. rypicker" (OCP) is a versatile system that can provide these capabilities. The cherrypicker is attached to the end of the Orbiter Remote Manipulator System (RMS) and the RMS and OCP are controlled and operated by an EVA astronaut located on the OCP work platform. The cherrypicker will not only enhance Space Shuttle operations in the near term for satellite servicing, but it will also provide the capability to demonstrate early onorbit construction techniques and operations that can be used to optimize construction of future large-system projects.

Figure 2.--The manipulator development facility and the open cherry- Figure 1 .-_Open cherrypicker simulation. picker on the air-bearing floor.

25 Maneuverable Television A study was initiated in fiscal year The subsystems of the vehicle were 1978 to define an inspection and identified and designed using pri- The Space Shuttle mission model in- documentation device that could ex- marily off-the-shelf equipment. The cludes many payload deployment and tend the remote television viewing components and parts have been retrieval operations to support satellite capability of onorbit cameras attached fabricated at JSC and the electronic servicing. Many payloads will require to the Orbiter vehicle and to the boxes have been obtained. A flight inspection and may require maneuver- remote manipulator. The effort iden- control system computer model has ing assistance during deployment and tified a maneuverable television con- been developed for analysis. The full- retrieval. The Maneuverable Television cept for a subsatellite that will free-fly scale chassis has been assembled (MTV) (fig. 1) is a versatile subsatellite in the vicinity of the Orbiter. This and the subsystem components are to support the satellite services re- television is remotely controlled by the being installed. The full-scale quirements for the Orbiter by providing crew of the Orbiter and is directed by a engineering model will be completed this remote capability. crewman to fly to the desired inspec- in fiscal year 1981. The model will be tion point. The maneuverable televi- operated on the air-bearing facility at sion is approximately 1 meter on each JSC. side and is berthed in the payload bay of the Orbiter. Docking and undocking is remotely controlled and real-time transmission is provided to the crew during flight. An in-house JSC program was initiated in fiscal year 1980 to define and develop an engineering model of the MTV to demonstrate feasibility.

Figure 1 .--The Maneuverable Television.

ATTITUDE REFERENCE

HORIZON SENSORS,

PROPULSION TANKS ELECTRONICS ASSEMBLY

BATTERIE: JPLERS

ANTENNAS CONTROL ASSEMBLY RADAR (RANGE RATE) DOCKING INTERFACE(3) TV CAMERAS TV LIGHTS

26 Advanced Extravehicular The advanced Extravehicular Crew- Promising EMU design improvements Crewman Work System man Work System study was initiated include (1) liquid absorbent for carbon to explore the additional requirements dioxide that is regenerated electro- As the Space Shuttle Program imposed by the new Space Transpor- chemically in the spacecraft, (2) a matures, a "next generation" ex- tation System (STS) operations in- thermal control concept using a radia- travehicular activity (EVA) work herent in the NASA 5-year plan. The tor on the rear surface of the portable system will be required to support ad- study, which was completed in July life support system (fig. 1) as part of a vanced activities such as satellite 1980, was to generate an Extravehicu- simple vapor compression refrigera- servicing and long-range missions lar Mobility Unit (EMU) develop- tion cycle to reject heat, (3) lithium such as the Space Operations Center. ment/growth plan to coincide with the thionyt chloride or sulfuryl chloride Satellite servicing will necessitate a projected development of the STS. batteries for increased energy density sophisticated EVA system that not The results indicate a need for a and recharge capability, and (4) ad- only allows the crewman to perform phased development initially aiming vanced microprocessor techniques for the required activities but also incor- at satellite servicing and gradually controlling supply and demand by ad- porates high-technology diagnostic evolving into the development of the justing ventilation and water controls equipment for fault isolation. To prop- subsystems required for EVA opera- to the crewman and to the refrigeration erly support typical Space Operations tions in high-energy orbits. compressor. Center activities, there is a need to For the space suit assembly, candi- improve the existing EVA technology date concepts include (1) an elec- base so that routine low-overhead tronic transparency control for the visor long-duration noncontaminating EVA's areas to provide automatic peripheral can be conducted. sunshades and glare protection, (2) the application of magnetic-pulse- forming technology to improve the in- tegrity of fabric-to-metal space suit at- tachments, (3) use of single-piece toroidal mobility joints based on heat- shrinking a combination bladder/ restraint layup on a master mandrel to eliminate the reliance on costly sewn seam construction, (4) use of a triaxial fabric to provide better load distribu- Figure 1 .---Enhanced capability extravehicular activity equipment. tion and avoid fabric distortion, (5) improved shoulder joint using truncated or "stovepipe" surfaces, and (6) an in- DEPLOYED RADIATOR-AUXILIARY tegrated glove/tool end adapter to pro- PANELS ADJUSTABLE FOR LIGHTS vide a powered tool assembly univer- MAXIMUM sally adaptable to a variety of applica- CAMERA tions.

LIGHT TRANSMISSION VISOR

;TOVEPIPE JOINT

CONTROLS

SPOTLIGHT

TEMPERATURE SENSOR-- TEGRAL TOOL ADAPTER HIGH-TACTILITY GLOVES

ADDITIONAL CAPABILITIES:

• NO VENT-REGENERABLE HEAT SINK • NO PRE-BREATHE REQUIRED

27 Satellite Population Assessment explosions either from U.S. spent as 4 centimeters in diameter are fre- stages or from U.S.S.R. antisatellite quently detected by NORAD radar just As the number of artificial satellites or- tests (table I). The observed growth prior to reentry. Objects of this size are biting the Earth continues to increase, has been between 10 and 13 per- sufficiently energetic in low Earth orbit the possibility that they may interfere cent/yr with the greatest concentration that, at their average relative velocity with future operations in space also in- between 500 and 1100 kilometers. of 10 km/s, they would penetrate ap- creases. Research is being conducted The probability of collision for a 50- proximately 20 centimeters of solid to identify potential hazards, evaluate meter-radius spacecraft is calculated aluminum upon collision. Based on the alternatives, and recommend policy to be O.O05/yr at 500 kilometers and observed number of these objects at changes as necessary. The analysis to O.01/yr at 1100 kilometers. For geo- 400 kilometers and on the size dis- date has identified three areas of con- synchronous altitudes, the calculated tributions that could be expected from cern: the hazards from the tracked probabilities are between 1 x 10 -5 low-intensity explosions, collision population, from the untracked pop- and 1 x l O-4/yr. However, only ob- probabilities can be estimated. The ulation, and from the future population. jects larger than approximately 1 probability of collision for a 50-meter These concerns are identified for both meter in diameter are detected at this radius spacecraft with the 4-cen- low Earth orbit (less than 2000 altitude. timeter and larger population is esti- kilometers) and geosynchronous orbit. mated to be 0.01/yr at 500 kilometers and O.05/yr at 1100 kilometers. These Untracked Population probabilities are surely higher for smaller debris but insufficient data ex- Tracked Population Knowledge that an untracked popula- ist to make a reasonably accurate esti- tion exists follows from two principal mate. At geosynchronous altitude, the The NORAD is currently tracking ap- sources: (1) that the more than 50 ex- population to 4 centimeters may be proximately 4700 objects in space. plosions in space would have been approximately a factor of 10 larger Most of them appear to be larger than expected to have produced many ob- than the observed population, leading about 10 centimeters in diameter, in jects too small to be tracked and (2) to an estimated collision probability low Earth orbit, and to originate from that objects that appear to be as small between 0.0001 and 0.001/yr.

TABLE I.-- SOURCE OF IN-ORBIT POPULATION TRACKED BY NORAD

SPACE OBJECT PERCENTAGE OF TRACKED NOTES POPULATION IN ORBIT

Operational payloads 5 Distributions are roughly equally divided between the UrS S R. and the United States.

Nonoperational payloads 12

Mission related (rocket 18 bodies, shrouds, etc)

Explosion fragments 54 6 Delta stages 20 percent '}

3 Agenas 12 percent / United States 2 other 10 percent 42 percent 8 U.S,S.R. satellite tests 12 percent

To-be-determined origin 11 Whereas a certain fraction of these objects may prove to be nonexistent, most are probably explosion fragments, Many will reenter before they become part ol the official catalogue. Some are in geosynchronous orbit and are possibly refound obiects with orbits that are no longer main- tained.

28 FuturePopulation structures.Inaddition,thishigh-colli- sionfrequencycouldbeginacascad- Ifpasttrendscontinue,thenumberof ing effect, further increasingthe objectsin spacecanbe expectedto populationgrowthof fragmentsand doubletoquadruplewithinthenext20 leadingtoanonreversiblefragmenting years,thus increasingthe previous process. probabilities by a corresponding A computermodelto accurately amount.However,moreimportantly, definetheseissuesis approximately theremaybe a sufficientnumberof 50 percentcomplete.Theresultsto objectsinspacethatseveralcollisions date tend to confirm previous could be expectedbetweennon- preliminaryanalyses.This model, operationalobjectsin towEarthorbit when completed, will predict (fig.1).Theconsequencesofonlyone spacecraftlifetimesfrom collisions of thesecollisionswouldbe to pro- andwillevaluatetheeffectivenessof ducea distributionof fragmentsthat variouscontroloptions.Theseoptions includes1.4 x 104particleslarger includetheretrievaloflargenonopera- than1centimeterand3.5x 106parti- tionalobjects,theplannedearlyreen- cleslargerthan1millimeter.A1-cen- try of spentrocketstages,andthe timeterobjectin lowEarthorbitwould banningoffutureexplosionsinspace. penetratea5-centimeterthicknessof Asaresultofclassifyingeachorbiting solidaluminum.Thecollisionfrequen- objectforthecomputermodel,it was cy ona 50-meterspacecraftwiththe determinedthat the currentmajor 1-centimeterpopulationin the year sourceofobjectsistheaccidentalex- 2000couldbe about0.1tyrat 500 plosionof the secondstageof the kilometers and l/yr at 1100 Deltarocket(tableI). Consequently, kilometers.The largernumberof new operationalrequirementshave smallerfragmentscouldsignificantly beenimplementedto preventfuture affectthereliabilityof muchsmaller explosionsof thisstage.

Figure1.---Orbitaldebrishazardandcontrol.

POSSIBLE MEASURES TO REDUCE HAZARD:

[_AN EXPLOSIONS CON|ROL REENTRY INCREASE SPACECRAF] SHIELDIN(; REMOVE DEAD PAYLOADS, ROCKE[S, EIC. BAN UN_IECESSARY RE[ EASE OF S HROIJDS, F,CL i S, E [ {;

29 Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Solid Polymer Electrolyte (SPE) acid The goal of the program is to develop a Cell fuel cell technology was studied to Space Shuttle fuel cell engineering provide a fuel cell system that would model of the Solid Polymer Electrolyte The average electrical power require- improve cost, weight, performance, type that is interchangeable with the ments of the Space Shuttle have con- and efficiency while retaining the Shuttle alkaline type now being used. tinued to increase as the system desirable characteristic of operating This change would result in a weight design matures. This growing need for life. In addition, the SPE has the seren- savings to the Orbiter of approximately power has put stress on the fuel cell dipitous characteristic of operating 171 pounds and also would reduce the life capabilities, greatly reducing the propellant grade reactants. These average vehicle turnaround time sig- amount of useful life available for goals were met with a 1.1-square-foot nificantly. Because the SPE fuel cell is flight. This, together with increased cell that was representative of a Shut- compatible with propulsion grade hardware costs due to inflation, has tle-designed component (fig. 1). The reactants, a related weight reduction caused serious concern regarding the cell accumulated over 3200 hours of option is also available. Recovery of continued use of alkaline fuel cells to invariant performance at a current main propulsion system residual liquid support future spacecraft. In the past density range between 100 and 500 oxygen for use with the Solid Polymer decade, the individual fuel cell power AtftL A tear down analysis of this cell Electrolyte (only) fuel cells could pro- requirements have increased from a 3- revealed no evidence of material vide an additional 1500-pound weight kilowatt average onorbit and a 4.5- degradation. savings on missions of 4 days or kilowatt peak during ascent to a 6.5- An 18-cell stack of 1.1-square-foot longer. This option requires minor kilowatt average onorbit and a 10- SPE cells (fig. 2) that represents one- plumbing changes to the Shuttle vehi- kilowatt peak during ascent. This has half of a Shuttle-configured fuel cell cle; however, these are considered to resulted in a reduction of fuel celt life has been assembled and a 2000-hour be low-risk changes. expectancy from 20 missions to as low demonstration test has been initiated. as 4 missions depending on power After initial calibration, this hardware levels and mission profile. Increased will be tested specifically to the Shut- spacecraft turnaround time is also re- tle qualification toad profile operating quired for additional fuel celt at Shuttle conditions of onboard gas- changeouts, more frequent fuel cell reactant pressures, temperatures, and refurbishments, and additional heat-rejection capabilities. purchases of fuel cell components to support increased activity. As a result of the average mission energy growth, the Space Shuttle Program cost to support the power generation system is expected to increase dramatically.

Figure 1.---Solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell components.

Figure 2.--A 7-kilowatt reactor stack with 18 cells.

3O From the experiment concepts Space Construction Experiment The approach used was to evaluate the construction requirements of the developed, a concept may be Concepts selected for a relatively simple early several large systems that were being flight experiment that will be valuable Future space program plans include examined in the Space Construction System Analysis study. From this list, in reducing the risk and uncertainty in spacecraft with a size and/or weight planning large systems later. that exceeds the volume limits or concepts for flight experiments to boosts the capabilities of the Space evaluate specific issues were gener- Transportation System (STS). Imple- ated. Three principal areas of techni- mentation of any of these programs cal concern are the actual construction will require the capability to construct operations, the characteristics of the large systems in space. These dynamics of low-frequency structure, systems will initially be constructed and the ability to control the system from the Orbiter. Because the ability to during and after construction. construct and operate large space Four flight experiment concepts systems has not been demonstrated, (fig. 1) were produced that, in con- users may be reluctant to employ large junction with a ground test program, space structures concepts with the ac- could generate the technology base needed to support construction of companying implications of high costs and high risks. Several complex am- future large space systems. An early bitious demonstration projects have experiment concept was the use of the • been studied; however, none has Remote Manipulator System (RMS) to been of a practical size and cost that deploy a structural subassembly, to could be implemented in a simple effect multipoint attachment of the Orbiter-based flight experiment. structure, and to install a simulated equipment module. A subsequent experiment would exercise extravehicular activity (EVA) and support equipment to access a structure for the installation of lines and systems. Another variation in the experiment concept would evaluate the joining of beam segments that might have been fabricated in space by a beam machine. The interaction of a low-frequency structure with the Orbiter might be studied by the deployment of a long boom that could replicate the dynamic performance of a large structure element such as an antenna feed mast.

Figure 1.Gour flight experiment concepts.

31 Space Construction System Part 2 of the study was initiated in The study was concluded in June Analysis June 1979 to establish mission re- 1980. Study conclusions indicate the quirements and concepts for an following. Large space systems should Studies of large orbiting systems con- Engineering and Technology Verifica- be designed for space construction cepts have projected a need for as- tion Platform (ETVP). This platform and constructed primarily by auto- sembly or construction in space to was selected to represent a future mated systems augmented by astro- achieve operational configurations. system that would eliminate most of naut EVA. Uncertainties in space con- Space construction methods and tech- the construction requirements envi- struction analysis must be resolved by niques need to be identified and sioned through the decade of the early ground and flight tests. Linear evaluated for various sizes and shapes 1990's. A detailed construction structural configurations are preferred of structures. Although past studies analysis was performed of time lines, over the other configurations studied have evaluated various construction Space Shuttle crew duty cycles, infor Earth-oriented missions. Systems methods, no detailed end-to-end tegrated lighting and power require- installation design is determined by analysis has been performed of a ments, payload manifests, payload construction and servicing require- specific large space project system to bay packaging, Shuttle launch re- ments. Construction requirements understand and evaluate the construc- quirements, and overall analysis of should be incorporated into ongoing tion techniques, the construction sup- construction drivers. Determination of developments such as the open cher- port equipment required, the time requirements for early Shuttle flight rypicker and the EVA mobility aids. lines, the system installation/location, construction experiments was also The results indicate that the Orbiter and the extravehicular activity (EVA) identified and evaluated. The use of can potentially be used as the con- assisted subsystem installation and the ETVP as an advanced communica- struction facility; however, limitations checkout. tions platform is shown in figure 1. A on Orbiter power/energy may con- multiple fabrication and assembly strain this type of activity. concept used for construction of the platform is shown in figure 2,

Figure 1.--The Engineering Technology Verification Platform in an advanced com- TRI-BEAM municationsplatform configuration.

°°ULE7 Y ZOROITTOANS R 7

-_ _PAYLOAD X "_ '

t ENGTH lOB METERS -REACTION CONTROL HEIGHT 6.5 METERS SYSTEM MODULE CROSSBEAM 17.4 METERS. (4 PLACES! WEIGHT 30 4]5 KILOGRAMS rh70SO POUNDS, -[ • TYPICAL PAYLOAD 8 P L INTERFACE LOCATIONS (ANTENNA) INSTALLATION 60 KILOW,_¢ATT FDUAL POWER EXTENSION PACKAGES ARRAy

Figure 2.--The multiple fabrication and assembly station concept for use in platform STATION l construction. • FAB LONGITUDINAL BEAMS • ASSEMBLY ANDINSTALLATION • CHECK-OUT

G_AND SERVICE PORTS

32 Loads and Dynamics of Variable- Several variable-geometry space- The modal-analysis approach conven- Geometry Structures structure concepts were reviewed in tionally used for reducing the size of order to select a configuration for ex- complex fixed-geometry problems Nearly all methods for dynamic struc- ploring new analytical techniques. The was extended to variable-geometry tural analysis are applicable only to selected configuration is illustrated in problems. This new approach reduced structures with fixed geometry. figure 1. Two separate construction the computer time by 85 percent with However, for new concepts in large problems were studied. In the first no appreciable loss in accuracy for the space structures that require space task, beam fabrication, a beam is con- problems that were investigated. A construction or deployment, the structed by an Automated Beam sample time history generated with capability is needed to predict Builder mounted in the Orbiter. the new modal method is shown in dynamic responses and loads Because of the inclusion of a power figure 2. In this problem, a 100-meter although the structural geometry is module with very flexible solar panels, beam is being fabricated from the Or- varying. The most direct approach to problem 1 forms the basis for in- biter while the control system is cor- this problem -- obtaining solutions vestigating beam fabrication from a recting a 1° initial attitude error about using physical degrees of freedom -- flexible base. In the second task, each axis. The illustration shows the requires too much computing time for beam relocation, the completed beam Orbiter pitch angle, the beam fabrica- routine application on even moderate- is grasped by the Remote Manipulator tion rate, and the elastic deformation size finite-element models. Therefore, System (RMS) and moved through a of the beam relative to the Orbiter in a more economical dynamic-analysis large angle by rotating the manipulator the fore-and-aft direction. method based on a reduced number of about its shoulder joint. coordinates is needed. In addition, it Simple mathematical models of It was also demonstrated that the would be desirable to develop innova- these structures were developed and dynamic response of the structure to tive approaches by which the range of computer programs were written to excitation resulting from variable- applicability of standard fixed- generate solutions by numerically in- geometry motion could be accurately geometry structural-analysis programs tegrating the equations of motion in determined by employing a standard such as NASTRAN could be extended physical coordinates. The models in- fixed-geometry program, such as to solve at least some of the variable- cluded a simplified closed-loop NASTRAN, in an innovative way. This geometry problems. idealization of the Orbiter vernier technique is useful for studying attitude-control system. A new responses during time intervals when reduced-coordinate variable-geometry problems are expected; e.g., when a method and an approximate technique sudden geometry change occurs, based on fixed-geometry methods although it is limited to time spans for were then developed. Finally, physical which the variation in geometry is coordinate solutions were used small. as a standard of comparison to evaluate the accuracy of the approximate techniques.

Figure 1.---Study configuration of construction problems.

1-METER BEAM

Figure 2._ample time histories for beam fabrication for the variable modal method, RADIATOR

.O200

_'-- SOLAR

- o_oo i_('_ _;,>_f_/_,,_ MANIPUL'ATOR ORBITER pITCH ANGLE 0-q fq j

i MODULE--J VELOCiTy OF gElM OROWTH ORBITER AUTOMATIC PROBLEM 1: BEAM FABRICATION BEAM _7 e a PROBLEM 2." BEAM RELOCATION BUILDER .8 AFT DISPLAC[M_NT of B[AM [pP

33 Manned Geosynchronous accomplish all missions except a 30- Some of the significant results of the Mission Requirements and man crew rotation and supply mission. phase 1 and phase 2 portions of the System Analysis All remaining missions can be ac- study are as follows, complished with one MOTV flight to 1. Two- or three-man crews and a The NASA is presently developing a orbit except the solar power satellite mission of up to 30 days duration will manned Space Transportation System demonstration mission that requires accomplish 85 percent of the pro- (STS) to low Earth orbit (LEO). four such flights because of the large posed Orbital Transfer Vehicle mis- However, advanced space mission amount of mission hardware needed sions. planning includes both manned low- to be transported to the construction 2, A 1-1/2-stage propulsion system Earth-orbit and manned geosyn- site. concept (fig. 1) shows better perform- chronous-Earth-orbit (GEO) missions. In phase 2 of the study, a com- ance and cost than a single- or two- The activities potentially requiring munications satellite servicing mission stage vehicle. manned participation in both LEO and was selected as the design reference 3. Proposed MOTV missions can GEO consist of construction, inspec- mission. In this mission, four com- be accomplished with two to five STS tion, servicing, repairing, and opera- munications satellites, all using the launches. tion of large space systems such as standard Multimission Modular 4. One Space Shuttle performs all communications, solar power, and Spacecraft (MMS) for subsystem sup- launches and loiter-mode recovery, A Earth observation satellite& To exploit port functions and all identical to each typical four-launch mission engages the capabilities of the Space Transpor- other, are routinely serviced by the the Space Shuttle for 71 days. tation System and to develop the full MOTV. The satellites are all located 5. The ground turnaround is potential of space operations, it is es- 90 ° apart in geosynchronous Earth or- baselined but low-Earth-orbit platform sential that developmental planning of bit. Periodically, the MOTV visits each turnaround may be cost effective, Orbital Transfer Vehicles (Ol-V's) be of these satellites and services the 6. A capsule diameter of 3 meters expanded to include manned MMS subsystems. allows mission equipment to be capability. mounted externally, The main objective of this effort is 7. Radiation protection require- to establish mission and systems op- ments dictate that the capsule wall be portunities and capability options for of 1.1-centimeter aluminum equiv- various levels of manned activity re- alent thickness. quirements, and to synthesize crew 8, Protection against solar proton module and/or other manned system storms requires forecasting the size of support necessary for extension of solar events. manned mission capability to geo- 9, A single-deck crew module is synchronous orbit. This study empha- preferred over a two-deck crew sizes manned geosynchronous-orbit module. sortie missions and associated crew- system concepts.

In phase 1 of the study, a broad range Figure 1 .--A Manned Orbital Transfer Vehicle accomplishing transfer to geosynchronous of generic missions was selected from Earth orbit. which Manned Orbital Transfer Vehi- cle (MOTV) requirements were derived. These generic missions were divided into five categories as follows: inspection, service, and repair; operation of a large space system; debris removal; construction; and unmanned cargo transport. The missions range from short duration, two-man crews, and low mission-hardware weight to orbit to long duration, three-man crews, and heavy mission-hardware weight to orbit. The main objective was to develop a versatile MOTV concept that would encompass most of these generic missions with a minimum of modifications. The concept that was selected was an all-pro- pulsive MOTV using a 1-1/2-stage propulsion system and a 25.0-cubic meter crew capsule. This concept can

34 Fiber Optics Multiplexing The optical multiplexer/demultiplexer The primary emphasis has been on is an advanced technological instru- the demultiplexer development and The monolithic integrated fiber optic ment that provides for simultaneous demonstration. Currently, the de- terminal is being developed to use transmission of multiple channels over multiplexer (fig. 1) has been guided-wave optical technology to a single fiber. The approach is developed and is undergoing refine- produce a passive optical wavelength wavelength multiplexing using "n" in- ment. Emphasis is also shifting to the multiplexing/demultiplexing system jection laser diodes biased to the las- optical multiplexer. This activity has with a single-mode optical fiber serv- ing threshold and modulated by the in- required significant technology ing as the transmission medium. The put data. The lasers, each of which developments in manufacturing proc- use of fiber optics for data handling differ in output wavelength by an esses and techniques for integrated and transmission is expanding rapidly amount _X. = 17 nanometers, are optics construction. This includes ion- in military and aerospace systems and coupled into the integrated optical beam milling of diffraction gratings, in commercial applications. Signifi- transmitter/multiplexer chip that uses optical lenses, and fiber-to-waveguide cant advantages of using fiber optics a chirped waveguide diffraction grat- coupling. for aerospace vehicle design are coming to combine the spatially separate plete channel isolation, wide band- laser beams to produce a single- width, reduced electromagnetic inter- wavelength multiplexed beam. The ference susceptibility, small terminal multiplexed beam is coupled to a size, low weight, reliability, and an single-mode fiber for transmission. ultimately lower cost. The output of the fiber is coupled to the integrated optical demultiplexer that separates the input beam into "n" separate beams that are absorbed by "n" P-I-N detectors. The detector output is an electrical signal representing the original input signal to the transmitter.

Figure 1 .fiber optics multiwavelength demultiplexer.

DIFFRACTION GRATING

TEST JIG

/ / FIBER COUPLING // \ \.

LUNEBERG LENS

35 High-Power Traveling-Wave- A program was initiated to build a The result of this project is a 300-watt Tube Amplifier high-power high-efficiency traveling- traveling-wave tube (fig. 1) that is both wave tube using heat pipes in the electrically and thermally efficient. To increase the capability and range base of the tube for cooling. Velocity- Testing at the Johnson Space Center of spacecraft communications opera- tapering and multistage collectors indicates that this efficiency is action, higher power levels are needed. were used to provide a high overall complished without sacrificing other For manned spacecraft that require a efficiency. Integral heat pipes with performance criteria such as low noise cold plate interface with the environ- stainless steel wicks were chosen power density, low AM/PM conversion, mental control system, the radiofre- using ammonia as the working fluid. low voltage standing-wave ratio, and a quency power output has been limited Ten heat pipes were used in the low level of harmonic and spurious to approximately 120 watts. This baseplate, six transverse and four signals. The traveling-wave tube is limitation is due to inefficient methods longitudinal. The majority of these capable of producing more than 321 of dissipating heat produced by the heat pipes were placed near the hot watts output at more than 54 percent tube at higher power levels. Attempts spot of the tube, the collector, which is efficiency. This efficiency is ac- to overcome this problem have located at the output end of the tube. complished with a maximum base- generally led to decreased reliability plate temperature of 121 ° F by using a and excessively heavy packages. The small blower on the cold plate. Heat purpose of this project was to design a pipes will be used extensively in tube highly efficient high-power S-band design in the future not only for in- traveling-wave tube that is both light- creased power capability but also for weight and highly reliable and that improved reliability. also demonstrates a "state-of-the-art" approach to cooling design.

Figure 1.--Traveling-wave tube.

36 Office of Significant Tasks Aeronautics and Space Technology

41 Shuttle-Launched Research Vehicle Funded by: Aeronautics Research and Technology Base (UPN-505) (Subauthorization from Langley Research Center) Aeronautics System Studies (UPN-791) Technical Monitor: J. T. Visentine/ED4 Task Performed by: General Electric Company Reentry Systems Division Contract NAS 9-15977

42 Orbiter Experiments Project Support and Integration Funded by: Space Technology Shuttle Payloads (UPN-543) Technical Monitor: J. M. Sanders/ED4 Task Performed by: Rockwell international Contract NAS 9-14000 Lockheed Engineering and Management Services Company, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15800 Bendix Communications Division (Aerodynamic Coefficient identification Package) Contract NAS 9-15588

44 Solar Power Satellite System Definition and Critical Support- ing Investigations Funded by: Energy Systems Development (UPN-775) (Reimbursable funds provided by the Department of Energy) Technical Monitor: T. E. Redding/EB Task Performed by: Boeing Aerospace Company Contract NAS 9-15636 University of Texas (SPS Microwave/Ionosphere Interaction Experiment) Contract NAS 9-16086

46 Electrochemical Orbital Energy Storage Program Funded by: Space Research and Technology Base (UPN-506) Technical Monitor: Hoyt McBryar/EP5 Task Performed by: General Electric Company Contract NAS 9-15831

47 Space Constructable Heat Pipe Radiators Funded by: Supporting Development (UPN-906) Space Research and Technology Base (UPN-506) Technical Monitor: W. E. Ellis/EC2 Task Performed by: Grumman Aerospace Corporation Contract NAS 9-15965

37 48 Space Plasma Interaction Experiments for Large Power Systems

Funded by: Space Research and Technology Base (UPN-506) Technical Monitor: J. E. McCoy/SN3 Task Performed by: Northrop Services, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15425 Lockheed Engineering and Management Services Company, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15800 Houston Baptist University Contract NSG-9076 Rice University Contract NAS 9-15796 Contract NAS 9-16206 Lee Parker, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15934

5O Advanced Manned Vehicle Onboard Propulsion Technology Funded by: Space Research and Technology Base (UPN-506) Technical Monitor: M. F. Lausten/EP2 Task Performed by: Aerojet Liquid Rocket Company Contract NAS 9-15724 Contract NAS 9-15958

51 Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar Technology Funded by: Space Research and Technology Base (UPN-506) Technical Monitor: K. Krishen/ED6 Task Performed by: Jet Propulsion Laboratory Contract NAS 7-100 Texas A&M University Contract NAS 9-16102 Environmental Research Institute of Michigan Contract NAS 9-16135 New Mexico State University Contract NAS 9-16092 University of Texas Contract NAS 9-16171 Lockheed Engineering and Management Services Company, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15800

38 52 Large Space Systems Technology Funded by: Space Systems Technology Program (UPN-542) (Subauthorization from Langley Research Center) Technical Monitor: L. M. Jenkins/EB Task Performed by: McDonnell Douglas Corporation (Advanced Space Platform Technology Study) Contract NAS 9-16001 General Dynamics, Convair Division (Forming and Welding of Graphite Composite Materials) Contract NAS 9-15532 Northrop Services, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15425

53 Application of Advanced Electric/Electronic Technology to Commercial Aircraft Funded by: Aeronautics System Studies (UPN-791) Technical Monitor: J. P. BighamlEH Task Performed by: Lockheed California Company Contract NAS 9-15863

54 Nonterrestrial Materials for Space Use Funded by: Space Research and Technology Base (UPN-506) Space Systems Studies (UPN-790) Technical Monitor: R. J. Williams/SN7 Task Performed by: Lockheed Electronics Company, Inc. (Handbook of Lunar Materials) Contract NAS 9-15800 Lunar and Planetary Institute Contract NSR 09-051-001

55 Fire-Resistant Low-Smoke-Generating Thermally Stable End Items for Aircraft and Spacecraft Funded by'. Aeronautics Research and Technology Base (UPN-505) Systems Technology Programs (UPN-534) Technical Monitor: E. E. Supkis/ES5 Task Performed by: General Electric Company Contract NAS 9-15763 Contract NAS 9-15533 McDonnell Douglas Corporation Contract NAS 9-15591 Northrop Services, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15425

39 56 Toxicity Testing and Evaluation of Candidate Aircraft Materials

Funded by: Materials and Structures Systems Technology (UPN-543) Technical Monitor: Carolyn Leach Huntoon/SD4 Task Performed by: Northrop Services, Inc. Contract NAS 9-15425 Southwest Foundation for Research and Education Contract NAS 9-15690

57 Adsorption Pumping Cryogenic Refrigeration

Funded by: Space Researchand Technology Base (UPN-506) Technical Monitor: R. R RichardtED6 Task Performed by: University of Texas Contract NAS 9-14491

40 Shuttle-Launched Research The SLRV concept provides a common Significant program activities ac- Vehicle electronics "core" system to which complished this year at JSC include various aeroshell or fuselage con- initiation of an SLRV applications and The initiation of operational Space figurations can be attached. This cost-benefits study and completion of Shuttle Orbiter flights in the 1980's "core" will provide all normal avionics, two interagency reviews of the will provide the aerospace community control, data, communications, power, preliminary study conclusions, candi- with many unique opportunities to and maneuvering capability for un- date applications, and proposed vehi- demonstrate and evaluate advanced manned subscale reentry vehicles. Ex- cle configurations. space vehicle design concepts. The periments selected for these vehicles The purpose of the study is to con- narrow entry corridor of the Orbiter and would be designed to provide duct a cost-benefits analysis of various the inherent limitations of ground- research data to support the Office of combinations of SLRV's and research based laboratories to simulate entry Aeronautics and Space Technology and technology experiments. The and aerothermal flight environments research programs in advanced space results of the analysis wilt be used to dictate a need for a separate category transportation systems and planetary define a flight test program to advance of entry research vehicles. The fre- entry technology. Aeroshell and hypersonic reentry and cruise-flight quency of flights into space by the fuselage configurations would satisfy technology required for the develop- Orbiter will provide a recurring specific experimental objectives and ment of advanced space transporta- capability to carry advanced un- would fall into three categories: tion systems. manned aerospace vehicles into Earth ballistic, medium lift-to-drag (L/D) This study has resulted in the iden- orbit and perform research and tech- ratio lifting bodies, and high LID ratio tification of 28 research and technology demonstrations in many re- lifting bodies. nology experiments and 3 candidate lated disciplines while these vehicles The SLRV development program is vehicle configurations for the SLRV. maneuver, enter, and fly in the upper designed with primary emphasis These vehicle configurations include atmosphere before initiating a land- directed toward cost-effectiveness. ballistic, fixed-trim, and variable-trim. based recovery. This program employs a phased pro- The variable-trim vehicle (fig. 1) pro- The Shuttle-Launched Research grammatic approach whereby vides the greatest versatility. This Vehicle (SLRV) program will enable development of the flight vehicles will vehicle will use split windward flaps to the NASA flight research centers to ex- be initiated on a modest scale. Major fly at various angles of attack during pand their knowledge in entry and hy- decisions for subsequent growth will entry. It will flight test both windward personic technologies for future follow technical advancements made and leeward advanced thermal pro- developments in the Earth and plane- during earlier phases of the flight tection system design concepts and tary space programs, and will provide research program and will include the advanced flight control systems in principal investigators with a dynamic research data obtained from the Or- severe reentry environments within flight research facility that will lead to biter Experiments Program. reentry corridors that are unattainable new generations of operational space using the Shuttle Orbiter. flight vehicles. The SLRV would be used to demonstrate new technology concepts in hypersonic flight environments that lie outside the operational envelope of the Shuttle Orbiter. These concepts Figure 1.----Maneuverable Shuttle-launched research vehicle (split windward flap configuration). include aeromaneuvering systems for TRANSMITTER AND I PARACHUTE PACKAGE reusable orbital transfer vehicles, ad- SIGNAL CONDITIONER • DROGUE CHUTE AND MORTAR • DECELERATION CHUTE vanced thermal protection system POWER N TANK • MAIN CHUTE materials for planetary entry probes CONDITIONER 2 DROGUE CHUTE AND MORTAR and Earth-to-orbit vehicles, and BATTERY ROCKET • DECEL CHUTE

IMU HELIUM TANK MOTOR • MAIN CHUTE control-configured designs for heavy- IN-FLIGHT lift launch vehicles. BALLAST 7 + __ _ DISCONNECT The SLRV program uses the Or- biter's payload capability for advanced 1:)+ technology research and development and extends the aerodynamic and 15 = ROCKET aerothermodynamic research that will MOTOR be conducted from the Space Shuttle FLAPS IN NOMINAL during the Orbiter Experiments Pro- FLAPS IN MAX POSITION RETRACTED r , p LAPS IN 25 ° , MAX gram. AUTOPrLOT OSITION EXTENDED POSITION MULTICODER ZLES -YAW, 2 PLACES- -PITCH AND ROLL, 4 PLACES-

DAT_ _I_(_'E S-- VEHICLE PROPERTIES

SYSTEM _ WEIGHT: 2298 LBS

r --..._2_o W _CLA; 138 AT'" _ 20 + LENGTH" 180 IN FLAPS SHOWN AT MAX BASE DIA" 75 IN. EXTENDED POSITION RN: 5.6 IN

41 Orbiter Experiments Project To capitalize on the opportunity to use All experiments in phase I have Support and Integration the Space Shuttle as a means of ac- been "prioritized" from a flight quiring flight data for a wide variety of spectrum that includes launch, orbit, As a pioneer (launch to landing) space technology disciplines related to vehi- and entry maneuvers. The experi- vehicle, the Space Shuttle Orbiter cle design, the Office of Aeronautics ments are selected by using the prin- has the potential of providing cost- and Space Technology has estab- ciples of development and succes- effective research and technology lished the Orbiter Experiments Pro- sion. This unique approach has been data needed for the development of a gram, which uses the Orbiter as a cost-effective because of the max- broad spectrum of future aerospace flight research vehicle (fig. 1). JSC imum use of in-place hardware. vehicle designs or enhancements. continues to support the Orbiter Ex- To obtain aerodynamic data during Although the Orbiter includes instru- periments Program by providing (1) launch, orbit, and entry, the Aero- mentation necessary to perform overall integration management and dynamic Coefficient Identification design verification and to monitor program planning, (2) technical Package (ACIP) has been installed on select operations functions, the development for specific experiments, the Orbiter at Kennedy Space Center. baseline Orbiter flight test and opera- and (3) integration of experiments into It is expected to fly on all Orbiter tions program does not include plans the Orbiter. The Orbiter experiments flights through 1983. The ACIP hard- to collect specific research and tech- are designed (1) to augment the ware has undergone post-installation nology data relevant to the design of research and technology base for functional tests that included elevon future vehicles. verification or enhancement of the calibration and dynamic stability tests. operational efficiency of current and An underflight of the Shuttle Orbiter future aerospace vehicle design by is planned during entry of the first Or- collecting Orbiter flight data in all re- biter flight to obtain an infrared image lated technology disciplines, and (2) of the thermal protection system of the to correlate ground-based data with Orbiter. This project is known as the flight data by developing procedures Infrared Imagery of Shuttle (IRIS) ex- to accurately extrapolate ground- periment. Flight experiment testing of based facility results to flight condi- the hardware mounted in an aircraft tions. continues.

Figure 1..--Orbiter ExperimentsProgram.

SHUTTLE INFRARED LEESIDE AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENT SHUTTLE ENTRY AIR DATA TEMPERATURE SENSING IDENTIFICATION PACKAGE SYSTEM (SEADS) (SILTS) (ACIP)

IR SCANNER

STAGNATION PRESSURE CGPITCH AXIS LOCATION

INSTALLATION COMPLETE IN DEVELOPMENT CYCLE IN DEVELOPMENT CYCLE

DYNAMIC, ACOUSTIC AND THERMAL ENVIRONMENT )DATE)

PAYLOAD WITH ENVIRONMENTAL SHUTTLE UPPER ATMOSPHERE SENSORS MASS SPECTROMETER (SUMS)

CA._

ADDED TO DEVELOPMENT CYCLE NOS_-

_JAS S!f_E AM IN DEVELOPMENT CYCLE THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEM THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEM INFRARED IMAGERY OF )TILE GAP HEATING) )CATALYTIC SURFACE EFFECTS) SHUTTLE )IRIS)

iR THERMOCOUPLES TELESCOPE #* CONTROL L E D GAP TOL E R &NCE APPROVED FOR FLIGHT APPROVED FOR FLIGHT INSTALLATION COMPLETE .=

42 The thermal protection system ex- For the experiments in phase I, a Materials and structures periments (Catalytic Surface Effects transportable Orbiter experiments 5. Structural Temperature Experi- and Tile Gap Heating) have been ground data processing station for use ment assembled in kit form and are ready to at the Kennedy Space Center is being 6. Photogrammetric Structural ship to the Kennedy Space Center for validated (fig. 2). Data processing re- Monitoring Experiment installation. Hardware for both experi- quirements for all hardware and 7. Advanced Nonmetallic Thermal ments is scheduled to be flown on six analytical experiments for the first Or- Protection System Materials flights starting with the second Orbiter biter flight have been published. In 8. Effect of Orbiter Flight Environ- flight. addition, 1 7 new phase tl experiments ment on Bearing/Lubricant System Three experiments in the develop- in four technology disciplines have 9. Metallic Thermal Protection been approved for definition and are ment and checkout cycle include the System Experiment Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature listed below. 10. DATE II Sensing (SILTS), the Shuttle Upper 11. Space Applied Thermal Pro- Atmosphere Mass Spectrometer Aerodynamics/aerothermodynamics tection System Materials Experiment (SUMS), and the Shuttle Entry Air Data 1. Shuttle Windward Entry Aero- 12. Catalytic Effects in Stagnation System (SEADS). A volume fit check thermodynamic Experiment Regions of the SUMS hardware in the Orbiter 2. Data Quality Enhancement for vehicle and the SILTS hardware in the Stability and Control Technology Electronics and human factors pod, which will be mounted on top of Research the Orbiter vertical stabilizer, has been 13. Advanced Autopilot Experi- 3. ACIP/Pulse Code Modulator II ment accomplished. Electrical checkout of 4. Programed Test Input Software 14. Shuttle Altitude Measurement the SILTS hardware is continuing. for Stability and Control Technology The Dynamic, Acoustic, and Ther- System Research 15. Free Drift Attitude Modes Ex- mal Environment (DATE) experiment has been added to the development periment 16 Orbiter Flying Qualities cycle. The DATE experiment for STS-1 will use data from the existing Development Flight Instrumentation Propulsion and power (DFI) system. Development of DATE 17. Particle Energy Detection Ex- hardware for Orbiter flights 2 through 4 periment includes a composite of Air Force and sponsoring NASA center requirements.

Figure 2.--Transportable Orbiter Experiments ground data processing station.

• i]]_ _qq :i 1

43 Solar Power Satellite System DOE/NASA SPS evaluation and During fiscal year 1980, system defini- Definition and Critical development program was completed tion studies were continued with Supporting Investigations with the delivery of the Reference emphasis on determining reference Concept Document in October 1978 system costs; defining alternative con- The possibility of generating large Figure 1 shows the configuration of the cepts; and conducting workshops in quantities of electrical power in space SPS Reference System that used op- the technical areas of microwave and transmitting it to Earth by tional silicon or gatlium-atuminum- power transmission, space structures satelhtes was first suggested in 1968. arsenide solar cells for energy conver- and construction, energy conversion The solar power satellite (SPS) con- sion. The reference system document and power management, and space cept would provide an almost con- was prepared by JSC and included transportation. Summary reports were tinuous supply of power to utility data developed by both Marshall also submitted in support of the Pro- systems without consuming non- Space Flight Center and JSC. It has gram Assessment Report prepared by renewable fuels. During the years been used as a reference point for the the DOE. following 1968, several studies of the DOE in conducting their studies within The alternative systems investi- SPS concept were conducted by the joint program. The DOE has made gated included laser power transmis- NASA and industry. The energy shor- extensive use of this document in per- sion, reduced-size payload launch tage of 1973 spurred interest in the forming environmental, comparative, vehicles, and solid-state microwave concept and in early 1976 the Depart- and socioeconomic assessments. systems. Studies of laser power ment of Energy (DOE) (then the Beginning in fiscal year 1979, the transmission showed high satellite Energy Research and Development funds for this program have been pro- mass (more than twice that of the Administration) and NASA initiated vided by the DOE. The funds at JSC reference system) and atmospheric the Solar Power Satellite Concept were used for continued system absorption of the laser energy as major Development and Evaluation Program. definition studies and critical support- concerns relative to microwave This evaluation program is guided by a ing investigations. systems. A breakthrough in laser tech- joint DOE/NASA plan that covers the The DOE/NASA SPS Concept nology, however, could change this period from mid-1977 to mid-1980. Development and Evaluation Program conclusion. The reduced-size payload The basic objective of the SPS system will be concluded in 1980 with the is- launch vehicle study indicated that a definition studies is to define and suance by DOE of the Program 120-metric-ton payload vehicle would characterize environmentally accepta- Assessment Report. Continued efforts be more cost-effective and would ble and economically competitive SPS will depend on program recommenda- have less environmental impact than systems. tions following the completion of this the reference system 420-metric-ton The first milestone of the joint report. vehicle. The solid-state microwave system satellite concept using antenna- mounted converter devices optimizes at a lower power than the klystron tube systems and should have a higher Figure 1.---Solar Power Satellite Reference System. reliability; however, the cost per kilowatt would be about 25 percent greater than for the reference system. j_. :'_52 O0 m Critical supporting investigations were completed in the areas of solid- SILICON J _. _f'::'_i)!'':_ ._"_470 ,,, state combining device assessment, fiber optics investigations (for phase control system circuits), and retrodirective phase control bread- 1°s°2 2 som board system evaluations. A space structures control analysis effort conducted by the Jet Propulsion Laborato- ALUMINUM 5 m ry for JSC was continued with comple- ARSENIDE . tion scheduled for early 1981.

I0 ,500 rn Investigations were also continued in the area of ionospheric testing. The GALLIUM microwave beam transmitting energy ALUMINUM from a proposed solar power satellite SILICON ARSENIDE in geosynchronous orbit to a ground receiving antenna (rectenna) will in- SOLAR BLANKET AREA 52 km 2 26 km 2 teract with the ionosphere by heating the free electrons in the ionosphere. A TOTAL AREA 54 km 2 55 km 2 beam power density of 23 mW/cm 2 was originally proposed as a threshold SOLAR CONCENTRATION RATIO 1 2 for nonlinear interactions with the

44 Astronomy Observatory in Socorro, In addition to the DOE studies on SPS ionosphere.A numberof theoretical New Mexico. Thirteen sets of inter- andexperimentalstudies,sponsored impacts to communication and ferometers, each using two 25-meter navigation systems, NASA conducted by the Departmentof Energy,using antennas, yielded data indicating the the 1000-footantenna(fig. 2) at tests to determine the effects of errors introduced into the SPS phase control phase fluctuations through an un- Arecibo, Puerto Rico, and the heated ionosphere should be less than system by a heated ionosphere. The ionosphericheatingfacility(fig.3) at 1° during the 0.25-second period of uplink phasing signal is transmitted Plattville,Colorado,havebeencom- the uplink/downlink signals. The final pleted.Thepurposeof thesestudies directly through the center of the results of this analysis will serve as a heated ionospheric region. The NASA wastoascertainionosphericthreshold comparison with phase fluctuations in- tests used polar-orbiting NAVSAT levelsandtodeterminetheassociated duced by a heated ionosphere, as satellites transmitting two coherent impacts on communicationand measured in proposed 1981 tests signals in the 150- to 450-megahertz navigationsystems.Theresultsindi- using the Arecibo, Puerto Rico, heating catethattheoriginal23-mWlcm2 limit frequency band through an ionosphere heated by the Plattville, Colorado, facility. was conservative and can possibly be raised. Effects produced by simulated facility. Differential Doppler measurements were made to map electron SPS heating are many times less than density profiles. A phase perturbation those from natural ionospheric disturb- model will use these profiles to predict ances as introduced by solar flares. The ionospheric power density limit is phase perturbations on a 2.45- a critical SPS system sizing parameter gigahertz uplink signal. An analysis of phase fluctuations on and has a significant impact upon the a radio star signal through an unheated cost of electricity. A higher limit allows ionosphere has been made using data more power to be delivered to a obtained from the National Radio smaller rectenna.

Figure 3.-- Plattville, Colorado ionospheric heating test. Figure 2.--Arecibo, Puerto Rico, observatory ionospheric heating test.

-R-EARTH-ORBITING ...... :" NAVSAT SATELLITE

MOraLE #-"f- DIAGNOSTIC RADAR GROUND GUADALUPE ISLAND RECEIVER

45 Electrochemical Orbital Energy become a substantial portion of the lift The outstanding features of the Storage Program capability of launch vehicles. The solid polymer electrolyte concept in- solar-powered space station definition clude the extremely long-life capa- The separation of water into hydrogen study of 1971 showed a weight and and oxygen by the passage of an bility of the electrolytic membrane, the cost advantage using a solar-powered electric current through an aqueous superior efficiency of the electrolysis regenerative fuel cell system inte- medium is essentially the reverse cell, and the ability to operate at high grated with the life support system for pressure. The alkaline capillary matrix reaction of a fuel cell. The fuel cell has a six-man, 25-kilowatt space station. concept is presently superior in fuel been the primary electrical power Subsequent detailed design and source for all U.S. manned space pro- cell efficiency and shows promise of analysis studies expanded the results improved efficiency in the electrol- grams (except Mercury) because of and established definitive concepts. ysis mode with recently developed superior flexibility, weight, and cost More recent studies associated with catalyst/electrode configurations. factors and continues to be the most solar-powered space construction viable candidate for 1 to 2 week mis- facilities indicate the potential of in- sions to be conducted using the Shut- tegrating certain propulsion require- A program was initiated in 1979 with tle. Since the Shuttle transportation ments into the system. Thus, the the objective of bringing the regenera- system will probably be the space regenerative fuel cell concept could "workhorse" throughout the remainder tive fuel cell energy storage concept serve as an orbiting utility substation. It into technological readiness by 1986. of the 20th century (perhaps beyond), is anticipated that this concept will be fuel cell electrochemical devices and One task was to perform an in-depth proven with a field test of an engineer- state-of-the-art study to define the derivatives (electrolysis cells) will ing model in 1986 and that the tech- various elements of the system. That have a major role in the conduct of the nology will be available for orbital task was completed with the publica- missions assigned to NASA. emplacement by the late 1980's or In a regenerative fuel cell con- tion of a state-of-the-art report in early 1990's. Figure 1 illustrates how November 1979. figuration, the role of fuel cells -- in this system integrates electrical and addition to providing electrical power life support functions. to the vehicle and to the experiments The responsibility for this tech- on the dark side of the orbit -- is to nology development is shared by JSC provide potable water for the crew and and the Lewis Research Center for certain thermal control require- (LeRC). JSC has the acidic technology ments. The role of electrolysis cells is with the solid polymer electrolyte to recycle fuel-celt-produced water membrane and LeRC has the alkaline (and makeup water) using solar-array- technology that is derived from the produced power on the light side of Shuttle capillary matrix fuel cell. LeRC the orbit and thus provide power for is developing an alkaline "bread- extending mission duration and/or board" article for testing at JSC. enhancing mission flexibility.

Recycling of water in a regenerative system is an increasingly important consideration in space missions. In Figure 1.--Integrated regenerative energystorage, addition to regenerating the hydrogen and oxygen required for the fuel celt, anticipated propulsion system propellants are almost exclusively hydrogen and oxygen, and space manufacturing may use large quantities of hydrogen and oxygen for various processes. Thus, metabolic waste water that may be undesirable for recycling for metabolic use may be diverted to propulsion and/or to manufacturing requirements yielding multiple uses from a single commodity. The expendables required for electrical power and propulsion and the life support systems required for long-duration manned space missions, such as work crews for space station or satellite construction, will

46 SpaceConstructableHeatPipe substituting new ones. The damaged capability. The high evaporation and Radiators pipes could be returned by the Shuttle condensation film coefficients are pro- for refurbishment and later reuse. The vided separately by circumferential The primary means for rejecting heat relative simplicity of this design could grooves in the walls of the vapor chan- from orbiting spacecraft is through a lead to the eventual manufacturing of nel without interfering with the overall space radiator system that rejects heat the heat pipes in space for use on very heat-transport capability of the axial from a fluid circulating through it by large-scale structures. grooves. radiation to the space environment. Results of thermal bench tests of Current systems use a mechanically The initial effort of this task has been small-scale (30-inch-long)laboratory pumped coolant circuit to transfer heat concentrated on a feasibility demon- elements have confirmed the basic over the radiating surface. Because stration of the simple dual-passage operating characteristics of the dual- system operation is vulnerable to com- high-performance heat pipe design passage design and indicated its plete failure from a single meteoroid that forms the basic component of the feasibility for the desired application. penetration, reliability over long mis- system. This design permits high Current effort calls for the fabrication sion durations is low. High reliability in heat-transport capability without im- and testing of a breadboard model a pumped fluid system can be pacting heat-transfer efficiency. It (approximately 20 feet long) of the achieved, but the system is generally combines the advantages of axial heat pipe to further demonstrate its heavy because of the required redun- grooves, such as simple construction heat-transport capabilities, followed dant plumbing, pumping, and valving and large liquid and vapor areas, with by a demonstration of the manufac- hardware. Long-duration high-power the high heat-transfer coefficients of turability and performance capability space missions wilt include ex- circumferential wall grooves. of a full-scale (approximately 60 feet cessively heavy heat-rejection sub- The basic design of the improved long) heat pipe. Development of the systems unless significant technical high-performance grooved heat pipe heat pipe will be followed by a improvements can be made. contains two large axial channels, one preliminary design of a complete Therefore, a long-life heat-rejection for vapor and one for liquid (inset, fig. radiator system flight prototype during system that can be constructed and 1), that permit the axial transport and calendar year 1981. Design, fabrica- deployed onorbit is required to support radial heat-transfer requirements to be tion, and checkout of a prototype test future tong-term high-power missions handled independently. The small slot article comprising a representative such as large space structures, separating the channels creates a portion of a complete system is geostationary platforms, or space- high capillary pressure difference that, planned for calendar year 1982, habitable modules. coupled with the minimized flow resis- followed by thermal-vacuum testing in tance of the two separate channels, January 1983. The solution to this problem is to results in the high axial heat-transport develop a radiator system that can be assembled from a small number of relatively large elements (limited only Figure 1 .--Mockup of onorbit assembly of heat pipes with high-performance groove concept for by the size of the Orbiter payload bay) efficient large-scale heat rejection. so that overall system complexity is minimized. A space-constructable radiator system, the keystone of which is an innovative high-capacity heat pipe design, will fulfill this requirement. This design, if successfully developed, will allow future large heat-rejection systems to be built up to virtually any desired size (heat load capability) using a relatively small number of components. The large heat pipes with radiator fins attached would be "plugged in" to contact heat ex- changers that provide heat from a centralized heat-transport toop (fig.1). Such systems would be relatively in- sensitive to the micrometeoroid environment of space as the puncture of any module would cause only the loss of that module's 2-kilowatt capability, rather than the loss of all or a significant portion of the entire system. This type of system would lend itself to onorbit maintenance by simply unplugging damaged heat pipes and

47 Space Plasma Interaction The program employs the unique 20- From April to July 1980, the large Experiments for Large Power meter-diameter Space Plasma vacuum chamber at JSC was used to Systems Laboratory facility at JSC to provide perform several experiments in a simulated space plasma conditions for simulated low-Earth-orbit/ionospheric testing large models. Adequate room space plasma environment. In addi- The interactions between the space is available for free-space develop- tion to extending earlier studies (1977 plasma environment and surfaces element of the high-voltage plasma and 1979) of large-scale plasma in- vated to high voltage (especially com- sheaths without the usual limitations teractions with lO-square-meter high- binations of conducting and insulating inherent to laboratory testing due to voltage test panels, initial engineering surfaces such as solar arrays) are com- wall effects and scaling errors. The verification tests were performed plex. These interactions must be un- work is conducted in close coordina- using a prototype Power Extension derstood to develop the design criteria tion with existing laboratory and flight Package (PEP) solar array module in necessary to build large high-voltage projects at the Lewis Research Center "flight" configuration. The 15- by 80- power systems for space. and is one part of the proposed joint inch array, consisting of 174 ultrathin In determining design criteria for Air Force/NASA Environmental In- 6- by 6-centimeter solar cells mounted space development testing, the large teraction Technology Investigation. on a 2-mil Kapton substrate, is vacuum chamber at JSC can provide a Plasma may be generated either designed to produce 75 watts from vital intermediate "quasi-space" test stationary or with a flow velocity to each module. Each module weighs with scaling parameters intermediate simulate the proper motion of a less than 3 kilograms and is designed between the large ratio of object size satellite through the ionosphere with for mechanical mounting by means of to sheath size for testing associated the magnetic field variable from 0.1 to 40-mil hinge pins along each long with large space systems such as the 3 gauss. The large sizes involved (both edge, allowing series or parallel con- solar power satellite (SPS) system and the test object and the high-voltage nection of successive modules to ob- the small ratio testing in the small sheath) wilt allow direct measurement tain 10 to 25 kilowatts total power. chambers. The technology to be of variations of plasma parameters The prototype PEP array was per- developed is important to an increas- within the sheaths for detailed formance tested under conditions of ing number of programs presently verification of analytical model solar thermal-vacuum and low-Earth- being identified for Shuttle era opera- behavior predictions. The Space orbit plasma, both separately and in tions. Large-scale high-voltage in- Plasma Laboratory experimental pro- combination, to fully explore and verify teractions with the space plasma en- gram is intended to provide a direct its response under actual space opera- vironment are inherent in such diverse link between smaller scale experi- tional conditions (fig. 1). The results systems as electric (ion thruster) pro- mental data, analytical models, and verify satisfactory performance under pulsion, the various SPS subsystems space-flight systems. The intermedi- combined solar and plasma conditions and large-scale space energy ate scale experimental capability is with plasma leakage current losses systems, geomagnetic induction important to avoid the large errors less than 2 percent at array voltages power supply, and various high-energy often encountered when attempting to up to +280 volts (+80-volt solar array electron/proton beam experiments scale hypothetical plasma behavior output plus 200-volt bias). Arcing to proposed for magnetospheric and beyond an existing smaller scale data the plasma was observed at voltages space manufacturing studies. In addi- base. over 500 but was shown to cause no tion to these intentionally exposed high-voltage devices, it has been observed that many supposedly passive surfaces acquire high-voltage poten- tials from time to time due to space environmental interactions, particularly in geosynchronous orbit. Figure 1.---Power Extension Package solar array under combined solar, thermal- vacuum, and simulated low-orbit plasma test exposure in chamber A.

48 Atotalof100hoursofexperimenttime An existing computerprogram damagetothearray(fig.2).Insulation (PANEL)wasadaptedto allowcom- of the exposedelectricalintercon- wasconductedusingthree10-square- nectsto reduceplasmainteractions metersimulatedsolararraypanels putationofhigh-voltagespacecharge wasobservedtobecounterproductive, biasedup to severalkilovoltsin a sheathparametersaroundlargearrays simulatedlow-Earth-orbitplasmaen- in a low-Earth-orbitplasmaenviron- resultingin increasedarcingandtotal ment.Thegoalis for the resulting plasmaleakagecurrentsforoperations vironment.Measurementswere ob- above100to 200volts.Furtherin- tainedofthefollowing: computerprogramto provide the 1. Totalelectriccurrent/powerloss analyticalpartoftheplannediterative vestigationis requiredto determine analytical/experimentalapproachto why insulatingthe conductingsur- totheambientplasma facescausesincreasedarcingto the 2. Spacechargelimitedplasma developingdesigncriteriaandcom- sheathsize,development,andcurrent putationalcapabilityfor designing plasmaathighvoltages. limitation largehigh-voltagesystemsforusein 3. Ion-currentfocusingby panel low Earthorbit.Applicationto test high-voltagesheath resultsin chamberA showgoodcor- 4. Transientarcdischarges respondencein previouslyunex- 5. Effectsof insulationofexposed plained"focusing"patternsobserved conductorareaonpanelsurfaceonthe onthelargearrays. totalcurrentleakageand arcingto plasma An additional20 hoursof experi- menttimewasusedtoobtainsimilar measurementsusingthe0.75-square- meterPEP(flight)solararray.Thisin- cluded10hourswiththearrayunder activeilluminationat1 solarconstant.

Figure2.BSolarilluminationhasbeenturnedofftoallowlow-lighttelevisioncamerastoview thefaintplasmaarcing.(a)ElectricalarcingtoplasmafromthePEPsolararrayat-600volts bias.Theextensivepointarcingshownresultedinnopermanentdegradationofelectrical performanceorphysicaldamage.(b)PEPsolararrayat+600voltsbias.Notechangeinnature ofdischargetoawidespreadcorona-likepattern,ratherthanthepointdischargebehaviorseen atnegativepotentials.

49 Advanced Manned Vehicle over a wide range of operating condi- petlant impingement angle, and Onboard Propulsion Technology tions. unlike spray impingement elements Resistance-heated tubes that as opposed to coherent jet elements. The present man-rated spacecraft pro- simulate actual engine operating con- The same mechanistic model de- pulsion systems use a toxic, corrosive, ditions have been used to characterize veloped for hypergotic propellants is and expensive hypergolic propellant the thrust chamber regenerative cool- postulated to explain the trends ob- combination of nitrogen tetroxide/ ing capability of propane. served with liquid oxygen/hydrocarbon monomethyl hydrazine. For future Subscale injectors of approximately propellants. In this model (fig. 1), the highly reusable manned spacecraft 1000 pounds force will be tested to reaction of oxidizer and fuel vapors propulsion systems, such as a second- characterize the combustion perform- before the impingement of the main generation Space Shuttle auxiliary ance and stability of promising pro- body of the injected propellants coun- propulsion system, the hypergotic propellant combinations. teracts the hydraulic forces of the pellant combination will probably be unlike propellant streams, thus affect- phased out in favor of a noncorrosive, ing the subsequent mixing process. nontoxic, and less costly propellant Single-Element Combustion combination. Preliminary studies indi- Photography cate that the liquid oxygen/hydrocar- Subscale Combustion and Heat bon propellant family provides the Liquid oxygen was tested with rocket Transfer most attractive alternative and that an propellant-1 (RP-1), propane, meth- increase in system complexity will be ane, and ammonia in seven different Twelve heated tube tests have been unavoidable with these cryogenic pro- single-element injectors. A total of pellants. conducted with propane. The resulting 127 hot-fire tests was conducted over forced convection heat transfer coeffi- The present spacecraft auxiliary a chamber pressure range of 125 to cients were 30 to 50 percent higher propulsion technology data base is too 1500 psia. Different basic element than predicted. The nucleate boiling limited to allow selection of an op- designs were evaluated including (1) heat flux capability of propane was timum system and propellant com- unlike coherent jet (fuel on oxidizer) shown to be 80 to 100 percent higher bination. The objectives of this effort impingement and (2) unlike spray than originally predicted. Propane are to identify viable auxiliary propul- (preatomized) impingement. coking of the inside of the heated sion system designs and propellant Striation of the propellant spray pat- tubes occurred at lower wall tem- combinations to replace hypergolic terns (reactive stream separation) was peratures (--500 ° F) than originally propellant systems and to develop the apparent for all of the fuels and injec- predicted (--800 ° F). technology base that will allow an or- tors except ammonia. The degree of Future efforts will include fabrica- derly and cost-effective selection and reactive stream separation was ob- tion and testing of subscale injectors subsequent development of a second- served to increase with increasing and a preliminary system design and generation Shuttle auxiliary propulsion chamber pressure, increasing fuel trade study. system. temperature, decreasing unlike pro- Initial analytical and subscale experimental efforts will be conducted over a wide range of operating conditions to provide basic propellant combustion and thrust chamber cooling Figure 1 .--Vaporization-controlled liquid oxygen/hydrocarbon reactive stream separation characteristics for promising pro- model. pellant combinations. Preliminary system design and trade studies will involve (1) determining the inherent // design, performance, and operational OXIDIZER,./, -' -. , /_-ATOMIZATION AND characteristics of promising propellant combinations and system concepts, . ox (2) providing a common basis to com- pare the weight, mission performance, / cost, and operational characteristics of promising propellant combinations y__ 0 and system concepts, and (3) iden- ox ox" -:e'*C.:" ' , tifying critical areas where full-scale component level technology efforts would be most beneficial. High-speed color photography of single-element combustion has re- / " '"r"r'" / cently been used to qualitatively characterize the basic combustion L--RSS-6AS PHASE REACTION trends of different propellant combina- OF PROPELLANT VAPORS tions and injector element designs

5O Advanced Synthetic Aperture parameter controlled (fig. 1) and fabri- Phase II will consist of the detailed Radar Technology cated to provide design approaches design, fabrication, and tests of the that are flexible and automated and system. This phase will include com- The 24-hour nearly all-weather high- that can be adopted for the antici- prehensive design reviews to assess resolution features of advanced syn- pated missions in the 1980's (fig. 2). the detailed design of the subsystems thetic aperture radar (ASAR) provide This technology can also be used in prior to final commitment to fabrica- an Earth resources applications tool designing ASAR for spacecraft that tion. not available with any other remote will satisfy multimission objectives at Phase tll will consist of the integra- sensor. The need for an orbiting ASAR substantial cost savings; e.g., Earth tion of the ASAR system with the for monitoring of surface water, soil resources and ocean surveys in the aircraft and of the aircraft test flights salinity and moisture, vegetation same mission. and data acquisition. This phase will classification, ocean surface winds One of the goals of the the ASAR also include the detailed analysis of and waves, and snow and ice has program is to identify technology areas the test flight data and the system per- been identified during several meet- for future development. Some effort formance assessment. A comprehen- ings sponsored by NASA. An L-band will be expended during the system sive final report will be prepared that ASAR was flown on the Seasat and a development period to study the areas will include recommendations for the modified L-band radar is planned for for future capability expansion includ- spacecraft system design. the Office of Space and Terrestrial ing wide swath, real-time onboard The user community will be in- Applications+l Shuttle payload. processing, pixel elevation, and com- volved in the system specification and Single-frequency ASAR with swaths plex polarization signature. data evaluation phases of the project. up to 100 kilometers typifies today's technology. The envisioned ASAR mission set for the 1980's includes The tasks associated with the imple- The ASAR was a fiscal year 1980 new Shuttle imaging radar, Venus-orbiting mentation of the project will be ac- start and is scheduled for completion imaging radar, ice-monitoring complished in three phases. in 1983. In fiscal year 1980, a survey of satellites, and Earth resources syn- Phase I will consist of the following Earth observation user requirements thetic aperture radar. The functional tasks: was completed. Based on these re- requirements for this mission set in- 1. Mission requirements survey quirements, a conceptual design was clude swaths in excess of 150 2. System trade-off studies: multi- developed. A review of technology kilometers, multifrequency, multi- antennas (time sharing), multibeam development was also undertaken to polarization, and multi-incidence scan ASAR, arrays versus reflectors, survey the state of the art in subsystem angle capability with amplitude long antennas and beam shaping, development. Subsequently, a spec- calibration to approximately 2 calibration techniques, transmitter ification document was prepared for decibels. The purpose of this program survey, and computer simulations the system and the computer simula- is to demonstrate the technology for a 3. System implementation trade- tion program for the design verification multimode ASAR that can be operated offs was updated. In addition, studies were at selectable frequencies, polariza- 4. Multimode aircraft ASAR spec- conducted in the area of wide-swath tions, and incidence angles and can ification and functional design transmitter and antenna design and generate imagery with the required A design document will be data processing. The detailed design accuracy. A multimode aircraft ASAR developed and a formal functional and control logic software develop- will be fabricated and flight-tested for design review will be held at the con- ment has begun and plans for antenna this demonstration. The system will be clusion of this phase. procurement have been made.

Figure 1._arameter-controlled advanced synthetic aperture radar system. Figure 2.--Advanced synthetic aperture radar development programs.

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51 Large Space Systems recognizing that requirements would The approach adopted was to build Technology be limited in scope, conceptual a prototype test truss from caps formed designs could be generated for from strip material and joined by The Large Space Systems Technology berthing mechanisms, umbilical inter- ultrasonic welding. Extensive modifi- Program is concentrating on future faces, and end effectors for the RMS. cations to an existing bench test space systems that are larger than the A list of berthing system require- machine provided a forming capa- Orbiter cargo bay and will therefore re- ments was derived based on Orbiter bility. Commercial ultrasonic welding quire the development of new tech- constraints, platform interface require- machines were used to join the nology, techniques, and components ments, and RMS performance. From material. to enable onorbit construction or these requirements, the design re- Ultrasonic welding of the composite deployment. Some of the conceptual quirements for a berthing-latch inter- material was achieved with excellent requirements for large space systems face mechanism were generated. Six results after initial failures with are large deployable microwave concepts were developed and evalu- vacuum welding. The prediction was antennas, multipurpose science and ated. A hexagonal frame concept (fig. that the commercial welder would applications platforms, and large 1) was designed and a full-scale func- operate successfully in a vacuum even reflectors for missions such as the nar- tional model was fabricated for tests in though it was not designed for that en- rowband communications satellite ex- the coming year. A preliminary design vironment. The welding failure was periment, the passive microwave for an umbilical interface mechanism caused by a corona effect in the receiver, the very long baseline inter- was completed and fabrication of a transducer and was corrected by ferometer, and the satellite power demonstration model of the adaptive removing a label from the vent hole. system test article. end effector is underway. The effect of gravity on the weld JSC has been developing the over- was evaluated by welding 45 ° and 90 ° all capability to construct large angles. Some reduction in strength systems in space. This capability is Forming and Welding of that could have been corrected by a complementary to the space construc- Composite Materials change in weld schedule was noted. tion plans of the system as directed by Cap elements were roll-formed for the Large Space Systems Technology Graphite fiber reinforced thermo- the building elements of the prototype Program Office at Langley Research plastics have many desirable material truss. The truss was assembled on a Center. The activities at JSC include properties for the fabrication of struc- jig using ultrasonic welding. Valuable platform systems studies, simulation tures in space. As well as having a data on torsional stiffness, transverse of the assembly of erectable struc- high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness, structural damping, and tures, and subsystem technology for modulus of elasticity, the material compressive strength were obtained automated fabrication in space. shows very little thermal distortion. in tests at JSC. Simulation of the assembly and The capability to form and join the erection or deployment of space ele- material is a new technology. ments under zero-gravity conditions can be performed in the Manipulator Development Facility at JSC. From Figure 1 .---Hexagonal frame concept for the berthing-latch interface mechanism, previous platform system studies, the following two areas for follow-on work were identified.

ALIGNMENT_ Advanced Space Platform

Technology Study GROOVES :APTURE GUIDE A number of significant technical IAPTUREAND FRAMES issues are involved in the buildup of a STRUCTURAL large space platform. Some of the key LATCH mechanical problems include berthing _LIGNMENT KEYS of the servicing vehicle or assembly modules, handling the assembly modules with the Remote Manipulator ACTIVE HALF] System (RMS), and connecting electrical or fluid lines between assembly modules. The approach was to formulate requirements for mechanisms based on SUPPORT STRUTS platform system concepts. The platform configurations have similar requirements for berthing platform segments and payloads. Although

52 The principal results of this study for Application of Advanced A study to define the potential payoff from the incorporation of these ad- the wide-body advanced transport Electric/Electronic Technology aircraft (ATA) are summarized in figure to Commercial Aircraft vanced technologies into commercial aircraft has been completed by the 1. The net value of technology (the difference between the cost of tech- Advanced electronics technologies JSC. Three types of aircraft selected nology and the savings resulting from similar to those used in the Space for the study included a commuter transport weighing 28 606 pounds, a it) and the total percent reduction in Shuttle have potential application to direct operating cost for each tech- commercial transport aircraft. These short-haul transport weighing 40 427 pounds, and an advanced wide-body nology are shown for the ATA with and technologies include (1) redundant without reduced airframe stability. digital fly-by-wire flight control and transport weighing 459 437 pounds. Five candidate electronic tech- These data are based on an assumed stability augmentation, (2) com- fleet of 300 aircraft and a fuel cost of prehensive computer monitoring and nologies that were applied to each vehicle included digital fly-by-wire S1.80 per gallon. Current industry esti- management of vehicle systems, and mates project fuel prices between S2 (3) digital data multiplexing. Electric flight control with and without reduced stability requirements, data multiplex- and S3 per gallon in the early 1990's. actuation for aircraft control surfaces, As can be seen in figure 1, the all- ing, ring laser gyros, an integrated although not currently in use in the electric secondary power system ATA Space Shuttle, is suitable for aircraft avionics/data processing system, and an all-electric secondary power shows the highest cost savings, total- applications as are fiber optics coming more than S9 billion over a 16-year munication and data transmission, ad- system. Baseline system designs were period. This is a large payoff and sup- vanced sensor concepts such as laser defined for the three aircraft and ports further work by NASA in the gyros, and high-voltage electrical weight, cost, and reliability estimates were made to establish a valid basis development of these technologies for power systems. These advanced aircraft applications. The benefits, electric/electronic systems are poten- for comparison. Preliminary designs of the advanced technology systems when realized, will result in higher tially more energy-efficient than cur- productivity for the airplane industry, rent mechanical, hydraulic, and were similarly defined for each vehicle. Investment, research and tech- lower airfares for the passenger, and pneumatic system designs used in nology, and operating costs of the significant energy savings for the commercial aircraft. For example, United States. A contractor's report, reductions in aircraft "bare-airframe" aircraft with these advanced systems were then derived and incrementally "Application of Advanced Electric/ stability can be permitted if a digital Electronic Technology to Conventional fly-by-wire rather than a mechanical compared to similar costs for the baseline vehicles. Aircraft," summarizing the results of flight control system is used. Reduced this study has been published. stability requirements will, in turn, decrease aircraft weight and aerodynamic drag, resulting in lower fuel consumption. Also, fluid transmission losses in hydraulic systems will increase as the size of the airplane and length-of-line runs increase. Electric actuation systems using high-voltage electrical transmission offer a significantly more energy-efficient weight- Figure 1.--Net value of ATA technology. reducing alternative, particularly for the large wide-body transports.

10.0 10.0 FUEL $1.80/GALLON I RSS - RELAXED 300 AIRCRAFTATA I_ 9 04 STATIC STABILITY 16-YEAR PERIOD _ ] [.L.c_ 8.0 8.0 WITH RS S-_,_ EJ FUEL

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53 Nonterrestrial Materials for Nonterrestrial Materials for Large- Space Use uses hydrolysis and electrolysis to Scale Space Construction separate and concentrate the products from refining dilute ores was de- Future space activities may involve the Large-scale construction activities in construction of very large structures in veloped. The study results are pre- space might benefit if metals, sented in a contractor report, "Ex- space. Because significantly less ceramics, glass, and other materials traterrestrial Materials Processing and energy is required to launch materials could be produced from lunar rocks Construction." from the Moon than from the Earth, and soils. These potential resources The fiscal year 1980 efforts were these large-scale space activities may present significant technical chal- directed toward (1) preparing a more benefit from the development of lenges, particularly in the area of refin- detailed design and definition of the manufacturing industries in space that ing. The low-grade and nonspecific obtain the bulk of their raw materials fluorosilicic acid process, (2) holding a nature of these "ores," the necessity from the rocks and minerals of the workshop on applied electrochemis- to close all chemical cycles, and the Moon. Two activities have been com- try, and (3) determining the use of desire to construct chemically effi- products and intermediaries in the pleted and a third has been cient processes that produce as much redirected. fluorosilicic acid process for ceramic as possible from as little as possible manufacture. The study results, are the sources of these technical workshop reports, and all technical Handbook of Lunar Materials challenges. The focus of this study has papers are included in the contractor been the definition of the chemical report. The physical and chemical properties and physical processes that could be of lunar rocks, soils, and minerals are used to produce construction materials Refining of Nonterrestrial Materials basic data needed for feasibility and from lunar "ores." design studies of advanced processes Prior efforts concentrated on the for refining lunar materials. This need Although processes used to extract quantification of the mining and ore useful materials from lunar ores may has been filled by the preparation and beneficiation processes and on the publication of a document, "Handbook be defined on paper by using ther- screening of various chemical proc- modynamic and engineering com- of Lunar Materials." It is available as esses for refining lunar materials. A NASA Reference Publication 1057. putations, the actual viability of a proc- fluorosilicic acid process (fig. 1) that ess can only be tested in the laboratory. Two aspects of such testing have been explored this year. The first aspect relates to the extraction of oxygen by high- temperature electrolysis of gaseous process effluents, especially the extraction from carbon dioxide, which is an effluent from some types of refining. Previous research has shown that thermal decomposition followed by oxygen pumping across the solid Figure 1._chematic diagram showing the major process elements and flows in the fluorosilicic acid process proposed for use in refining lunar materials. electrolyte appears to be the limiting step. Therefore, a new test design that permits the use of ultraviolet light ...... -f ...... 7 stimulation has been designed and I I built. Tests are planned for the fall of 1980. I I The second aspect relates to the I definition of the dissolution and phase separahon steps of the fluorosilicic acid process (fig. 1) in terms of experimental variables. The process steps were mapped onto a pF-pH diagram and compared with known solubility data. These were then reduced to a hierarchical set of unknowns that need to be specified to define the process better. A set of alternates for the process elements was also defined as were figures of merit. An in-house status report of the results is available.

54 Fire-Resistant Low-Smoke- tion of the foam is expected by early developed Fluorel/fiberglass laminate Generating Thermally Stable End summer 1981. The latest formulation did meet the acoustical require- Items for Aircraft and Spacecraft of the resilient foam has the lowest (90 ments and also showed promise as a percent) compression set. It has been wallboard. The combination of The general objectives are to apply tested by a prime aircraft seat Fluorel/fiberglass laminate and fire-resistant materials technology to manufacturer for indentation load polyimide foam as the thermal- crash and ramp fires in commercial deflection and processability and was acoustical insulation in a wallboard aircraft and to conduct systems testing found satisfactory. The vendor has will be tested for effective thermal- of new and modified fire-resistant now requested two different densities acoustical fire-barrier properties. materials in configurations such as of the seat foam to make several pas- Multiple-density foam wallboards still aircraft lavatories, galleys, seats, senger seat backs for flight tests. This require further development in the fuselage sections, and the general resilient seat foam has also been sent area of edging compounds with good cabin area. The basic objectives of the to another prime aircraft seat manufac- screw-withdrawal properties before program are as follows: turer for fabrication into prototype they can be produced commercially. 1. To demonstrate that the in- seats to be fire tested by two research Two rigid polyimide-foam-filled hon- troduction of fire-barrier materials in centers. eycomb floorboards with improved the exterior wall will prevent an exter- adhesive to bond the face sheets are nal "design" fire from entering closed being fabricated for functional testing and intact habitable areas for the The recent advances in the polyimide in a 747 jet aircraft. A previously in- minimum 5-minute period needed for resilient foam technology resulted stalled panel failed after 2633 hours passenger evacuation from increasing the power in the 6- by because the face-sheet bond was 2. To demonstrate that a closed 6- by 12-foot microwave oven from 15 inadequate. and intact cabin will not reach a tem- to 20 kilowatts. This power increase The aircraft fuselage panel burn- perature of 400 ° F (considered a lethal permitted production of large-size through test program was modified to temperature level for humans) nor foam "buns" and also accomplished fabricate and test standard wide-body contain smoke or toxic gases at tem- foaming and curing in one process. In jet aircraft fuselage sections. These peratures up to 400 ° F for a specified addition, the spray-drying time for the will be tested over a pit of burning fuel "design" fire base resin has been reduced from 18 previously calibrated to give a burn 3. To demonstrate that a "design" hours to 30 minutes and the quantity of time of specific length and thermal fire in the area of a cabin opening will resin produced has been increased to output. The jet fuel characterization not propagate throughout the cabin 39 pounds per day. fire for these tests is shown in figure 1. area during the minimum 5-minute Formulations of polyimide thermal- The test stand includes an instru- period acoustical foam insulation incorporat- mented stainless steel panel used to ing 20 percent milled fiberfrax fibers calibrate the jet fuel quantity for a burn The program was initiated to identify, did not shrink in length or width but time of specific length and thermal develop, and characterize fire-resis- ablated in thickness without burn- output. If the wide-body jet materials tant materials to meet the spacecraft through and gave a satisfactory fire- perform satisfactorily, these materials flammability specification require- barrier time. The acoustical properties, will be fabricated in a narrow-body jet ments of the Federal Aviation Admin- however, were not met. A newly aircraft fuselage panel and retested. istration, the aircraft manufacturers, and JSC. A fire-retardant rigid polyimide foam system was developed for Figure 1.---Jet fuel characterizationfire. internal applications. Using this technology and expanding the program to include other applications, significant progress was made in developing fire- resistant low-smoke-generating thermally stable polyimide end items.

Concurrent with the polyimide developments, a program was formulated to fabricate 8- by 12-foot aircraft fuselage section panels using baseline and advanced materials and to test them for burnthrough properties over a pit of burning jet fuel simulating a postcrash fuel fire. Fire-resistant low-smoke-generating resilient seat cushion polyimide foam is available in laboratory quantities for flight tests. Pilot plant produc-

t Toxicity Testing and Evaluation As a part of NASA's fire-retardant- The results of this experiment indi- of Candidate Aircraft Materials materials engineering program (FIRE- cated that the behavioral toxicity of MEN) at JSC, operant behavior tech- these two polymers varied differen- Each year in the United States, thou- nology has been used in the toxicity tially with pyrolysis temperature. At sands of lives and millions of dollars in testing of aircraft cabin materials. A re- the lowest temperature, the greater property are lost by fire. To reduce this cent experiment illustrates how this resistance of the polyimide foam to loss, new fire-resistant materials and technology could be employed in the thermal decomposition resulted in chemical additives have been screening of materials for potential lower off-gas concentrations and con- developed that significantly reduce toxicity. sequently in fewer behavioral effects. the flammability of conventional Small uniform samples of either a At the highest pyrolysis temperature, materials. Recent evidence, however, conventional fire-retardant polyure- just the opposite effect was found. indicates that materials containing thane or a newly developed polyimide These results help to identify some of fire-retardant additives may produce foam were pyrolyzed at three different the complexities involved in ranking severely toxic gases in a fire. These temperatures in a chamber housing materials according to potential gases could be extremely critical test animals trained to press a lever to behavioral toxicity. The ranking of because of their potential to induce terminate brief electric shocks (fig. 1). these two polymers based only on behavioral incapacitation and thus During each pyrolysis test, air samples either the high or the low pyrolysis prevent escape. Therefore, the were withdrawn from the chamber and temperature would not have been screening of materials for fire safety analyzed for carbon monoxide and hy- accurate. has been expanded to include not only drogen cyanide. Throughout the test, In addition to the behavioral toxicity tests of flammability but also of the lever-pressing behavior of the tests of these polymers, the JSC behavioral toxicity. A major difficulty animals was monitored by computer. FIREMEN program has included (1) facing material manufacturers is that To ascertain the relative toxicities of comparisons of the susceptibility of there is no standardized test for the two polymers, the behavioral different behaviors to toxic incapacita- behavioral toxicity. effects induced by their pyrolysis tion, (2) full-scale fire tests of mate- products at each temperature were rials in a 737 fuselage, and (3) com- compared and analyzed. parisons of full-scale and laboratory toxicity tests.

Figure 1 .--Experiment setup to test pyrolysis toxicity of candidate aircraft materials.

56 The Molecular Adsorption Refrigera- accomplished using a naturally occur- Adsorption Pumping Cryogenic tion System is capable, in the current ring zeolite, called mordenite, as op- Refrigeration design, of producing 5 watts of cooling posed to the original synthesized zeolite. The apparent superior proper- The objective of this project is to power. To date, principles of operation and attainment of goals have been ties of the new zeolite, along with the develop and demonstrate operation of demonstrated in the laboratory using verified theory, mathematical model, a new type of cryogenic refrigeration and experimental insights gained in called the Molecular Adsorption an engineering evaluation model that is the culmination of the development the accomplishment of the project, Refrigeration System (MARS). The effort. This model, the design of which will permit significant increases in device (fig. 1), which uses an adsorp- is based on the theory and the models performance with corresponding tion pumping cycle, is nonmechanical developed in the course of the work, decreases in power, weight, and (has no moving parts) and will provide volume of future designs. This system provides proof of the Molecular Ad- a highly reliable source of cryogenic will be evaluated as a potential air- cooling. This cooling could be sorption Refrigeration System concept and the availability of valuable design conditioner for automobiles using cryogenic cooling for long-wavelength waste heat from batteries or from an infrared detectors for long-term orbital, tools for future effort. A limited amount of investigative work has also been internal combustion engine. deep space, or aircraft missions. This system could also provide conventional cooling for spacecraft and/or terrestrial uses such as automotive air conditioning where waste heat could be the power source. Figure 1 .--Schematic diagram of a two-stage nitrogen liquefier using adsorption pumping.

The adsorption pumping cycle is similar to the better-known liquid absorb- -RMOELECTRIC HEAT ent cycle that makes use of the am- PUMP monia absorption properties of water. In the liquid absorbent cycle, the application of heat to the mixture NITROUS OXIDE ZEOLITE ZEOLITE releases the ammonia through an ex- STAGE ADSORBER pansion valve and lowers the tem- AND DESORBER perature. Conversely, the MARS cycle uses a mineral called zeolite (also called molecular sieves) that has a crystalline structure with storage cavities that electrostatically attract charged gas molecules to the inner walls. The refrigerant is subsequently REGENERATIVE driven out of the zeolite and pres- HEAT EXCHANGER surized by the application of heat, (_ SOLENOID VALVE which may be waste heat or solar energy. Expansion through a Joule- @ CHECK VALVE

Thomson valve liquefies the gas and SECOND STAGE produces cryogenic temperatures. HEAT SINK Closed-loop and continuous operation NITROGEN is effected by the use of other con- ADSORBER tainers of zeolite, one of which ad- COOLING

sorbs the cooled refrigerant while CIRCUIT_ another is preheated to be switched in EOLII"E 1 _ZEOLITE _ (HEAT SOURCE ' NITROGEN SECOND when the gas is exhausted from the FOR DESORBING STAGE ADSORBER container in use. NOT SHOWN) AND DESORBER

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Office of Significant Tasks Space and Terrestrial Applications

61 Forest Resource Information System Funded by'. Resource Observation, Applied Research, and Data Analysis (UPN-677) Project Manager: R. E. Joosten/SH2 Task Performed by: Purdue University Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing Contract NAS 9-15325

64 AgRISTARS: Supporting Research Project Funded by: Resource Observation (UPN-691) Project Manager: William E, Rice/SA Task Performed by: NASA, U,S. Department of Agriculture, and U.S. Department of Commerce

66 AgRISTARS: Foreign Commodity Production Forecasting Project Funded by: Resource Observation (UPN-691) Project Manager: William E. Rice/SA Task Performed by: NASA, US. Department of Agriculture, and U.S. Department of Commerce

68 Wildland Vegetation Resource Inventory Funded by: Resource Observation, Applied Research, and Data Analysis (UPN-677) Project Manager: K. J. Hancock/SH2 Task Performed by: ESL Corporation Contract NAS 9-15740

7O Texas Natural Resources Inventory and Monitoring System Funded by: Applications Systems Verification Test (UPN-658) Project Manager: Leo ChildstSK Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Lockheed Electronics Company, Inc. Contract T-6984G

71 Orbiter Camera Payload System Funded by: Shuttle Experiments (UPN-666) Technical Monitor: B. H. Motlberg/ED8 Task Performed by: Itek Optical Systems Division Contract NAS 9-15671

72 Extended Scene Radar Calibration Funded by: Resource Observation (UPN-677) Technical Monitor: R. G Fenner/ED6 Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

59 73 SIR-A Antenna Integration to OSTA-I Pallet

Funded by: Resource Observation (UPN-666) Technical Monitor: Harold Nitchske/ED6 Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Ball Brothers Aerospace Corporation Contract NAS 9-15512

60 Forest Resource Information A cooperative agreement between St. The past year established several System Regis and NASA is the instrument of highlights: (1) the transfer of the record that defined the responsibilities LARSFRIS software to a St. Regis com- The Forest Resource Information of both parties. NASA shares in the puter system, (2) the establishment of the FRIS Center in Jacksonville, System (FRIS) was initiated as an Ap- project management by providing for plication Pilot Test in October 1977 to the contractual support (the Laboratory Florida, by St. Regis, and (3) the im- demonstrate and verify the utility of for Applications of Remote Sensing plementation of the FRIS design as es- Landsat computer-aided classification (LARS) of Purdue University) to tablished by the project. The LARSFRIS software was technology to industrial forest man- develop specific quantifiable forest agement problems in the South- resource information from Landsat transferred to the St. Regis National eastern United States. The primary multispectral-scanner (MSS) data and Computer Center in Dallas, Texas. goal was to implement and establish correlate this to the inventory data fur- This software consisted of two main an independent operational informa- nished by St. Regis on specific test elements: the LARSYS preprocessing tion system in which Landsat data is a sites. The contractor wilt develop software and the classification pro- viable component and also to deter- classifications analysis procedures grams for the analysis of remote-sens- mine if space technology is financially and software and provide for the tech- ing data. The preprocessing programs attractive and easy to use and can nical training of St. Regis project per- consist of three major processors. maintain the confidence of manage- sonnel. NASA will also provide for the These processors convert the standard ment for operational functions by an technical coordination of St. Regis and Landsat MSS digital tapes to a LAR- industrial user. The Southern Timber- contractor project personnel during the SYS format, perform systematic land Division of the St. Regis Paper four-phased project (fig. 2). geometric corrections, and provide the Company owns or controls over 2.3 The technology developed for this capability to register temporal scenes million acres throughout Florida, project will be documented and of Landsat data sets and to register the Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Loui- transferred into the public domain for Landsat data to a map base. siana, and Texas (fig. t ). By participat- possible use in the wood products in- ing with NASA in the Application Pilot dustry. St. Regis will also furnish a final Test project, St. Regis made a report on the usefulness of the system philosophical and fiscal commitment and a cost and benefit analysis study. to share in the overall management responsibility and in the total cost to implement such a system.

Figure 1.----Landholdings of the Southern Timberland Division of the St. Regis Paper Company. Figure 2.--The four phases of the St. Regis Project.

LAND HOLDINGS - 2.3 million acres I All ]I-TECHNIOUES PHASE H PHASE _r DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTATION FOREST RESOURCE

LANI)SAT INFORMATION "t _L SYSTEM TECHNOLOOY

TEXAS :i MISSISSIPP_ '_ GEORGIA • DEMOI,_rRATE _ 3 !

r :'" ' _'_ " ALABAMA , SYSTEM :_

• , rj • EVALUATE i ANALYSIS COST

,, LOUISIANA *, : FLORIDA . _L_,,- _, LANDSAT DATA i I _ ...... _- -_ _,,.

J _,_ ,:ip_ 1 LO_ER COASTAL PL_._N h 2 MIDDLE COASTAL _LAIN i "\\ 3 UPPER COASTAL PLAIN,'PIEDMONT ] AtLUWAL BOTTO_ LANOS _' INDU8TRIAL ACRES LAPPROi i ' 4"_ ,j FOREIrrRY 1 2_S 00D _ _00oe _o oDD I !

61 A totalof 20 processingfunctions Figure 3..--Landsat forest-type map of St. Regis Paper Company, Fargo, Georgia, Test Area, has beentransferredto the Dallas prepared in 1979 from 1976 data. facilityforconvertingLandsatdatainto informationusefulformonitoringand COLOR CODE CLASS LEGEND

inventoryingforestresources(figs.3 RED I PiNE

and4). Thisimageprocessingsub- PINK MIXED YOUNG PLANTATION systemcomprisesasubsetoftheLAR- CLEAR CUT SYS3.1-versionsoftwarepackagethat [)ARKBLUE I PURE CYPRESS PONDS LIGHT currentlyresidesinNASA'sComputer BLUE SLASH PINE CYPRESS STANDS SoftwareManagementand Informa- tionCenter(COSMIC)of theUniver- GREENTAN R BOTTOM LAND HARDWOODS sity of Georgia,the LARSYSDV WHITE _ NOT DWNED BY ST REGIS (development)modules,andtwonew functionsdevelopedduringthispro- ject.Thetotalsubsystem,whichwill . "- t be identifiedasLARSFRIS,wascon- vertedtooperateontheSt.RegisIBM 3033system. In January1980,the St. Regis PaperCompanyprovidedtheofficial acceptanceof the projectdemon- 4 ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS strationphase.Thisactionprovided thenecessarycapitalexpendituresto implementtheFRISin a production modein the SouthernTimberlands

Division.In April1980,theSouthern Figure 4.---Example of a change map showing the areas that changed between the 1977 and TimberlandsDivisionestablishedthe 1979 classifications. FRISCenterin Jacksonville,Florida. 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 TheFRISCenter'sobjectivesare to 4 8 2 6 0 4 8 CLASSES completethe developmentof the 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 system,to implementit onanopera- _ _ _ _. _ _ I 4. _ 4, _ _ _ 4, ANY CLASS CHANGE tional basis,and to maintainand 080 -_ _'_R TO NONSTOCKED enhancethetotalresourceinformation systemtomeettheneedsof thedivi- 120 * sion. NONSTOCKED 160 * SAME BOTH DATES LOW DENSITY PINE__ SAME BOTH DATES

200 PINE AND SLASH/CYPRESS SAME BOTH DATES

240.

MIXED PINE/HARDW00D SAME BOTH DATES

360 *

440 -' NONSTOCKED TO ANY __ VEGETATION

480 * 1 f t t 1" "r _ I 1" 1 1" 1" 1" I" 0 1 1 2 2 2 8 2 6 0 4 8 0 0 0 0 0 0

62 systeminJacksonvillewillprovidethe The FRISwill havethreemajor cludesaminicomputerforintegrating interactiveinterfaceforthedataman- components(fig.5) basicallyrepre- inventory,map,and satellitedata bases.Theminicomputerwillaccom- agementandretrievalfunctions.Most sentingtheinvolvementoftwomajor modatelocalusersandserveasater- of the basicinventoryandplanning technologicaladvances.Theimage- modelsthatusesimulationandlinear processingsubsystemrepresentsthe minaltothecomputercenteratDallas. roleofsatelliteremotesensingfordata Theminicomputerwill alsosupport programingtechniquesare on the collection, land cover analysis, futureremotegraphicstationswithin Dallassystemandwill becompletely the SouthernTimberlandsDivision. compatiblewith theLARSFRISsoft- monitoringof changesof forest ware.Thetotalsystemwill perform resources,updateverificationandin- The interactivegraphicsterminal clusterconsistsofadigitizingtableto variousfunctionalactivitiesandwillbe putsto landacquisition,long-range establishandupdatemapdatafiles a dynamiceasilyaccessiblemanage- planning,and forestinventory.The andtwocathode-raytubestobeused menttoolformeetingoperationalre- secondsubsystemis a new com- quirements. puterizedmappingcapabilitytoestab- forediting,manipulation,anddisplay ofmapandtabularinformation.Adrum Documentationof the software lishthedatabaseandreviseandup- transferredbyLARSto St.Regiswill dateforestresourcedatamapsandis plotterwill be used as an output mediumfor all mapsanddrawings. be availablethroughCOSMIC.Final an interactivemethodologyto merge reports,currentlyin progress,from digital-,polygon-,andtabular-typein- Also,a color-imagedisplaywill be LARSandSt.Regiswillalsobeplaced formationtoproduceoutputproducts. usedasaninteractivedeviceforLand- The third subsystemconsistsof satregistrationactivities,classification inthepublicdomain.InMay1981,St. analysis,anddisplayofresultsinclud- RegisandNASAwillconductaSpace descriptiveinventorydataandsimula- TechnologyandIndustrialForestMan- tionandplanningmodelsthatwere ing a mapoverlaycapability.Addi- alreadyestablishedbySt.Regisand tionalequipmentincludesalphanu- agementconferencein Jacksonville, mericterminalsanda lineprinter. Florida,to presenttheFRISApplica- arenowpartof thetotalinformation tionPilotTestconceptanddiscussits system. TheIBM3033computerin Dallas Newhardwarepurchasedby St. willprocessmostof themoretedious attractivenessto privateindustryfor Regisfor theJacksonvillecenterin- applicationsina batchmode,andthe managingforestresources.

Figure5.---ForestResourceInformationSystem.

rFOREST RESOURCEINFORMATION SYSTEM] I I i ,NTERACT,VEI PROCESSING MAPPING I TABULARiNVENTORYDATAANDlI LIMAGE-SUBSYSTEM 1 SUBSYSTEM J SUBSYSTEM J

• LANDSAT • MAP DIGITIZING • OPERATINGAREA SUMMARIES PREPROCESSING • MAP INTERACTION • CLASSIFICATION AND • WINDOWING • VOLUME/GROWTH MENSURATION • SCALING INFORMATION • SHADING • POST PROCESSING • SITE INDEX CONVERSIONTO • CREATION OF IMAGE VECTORS DIFFERENT • BASAL AREA BOUNDARYLAYERS • POLITICAL • ETC. • CADASTRAL • OWNERSHIP

63 AgRISTARS: Supporting wheat) to be recognized on the basis tify all pixels in the Landsat MSS im- Research Project of their temporal spectral develop- age ("sampling variance") while pro- ment. Even this approach, which was pagating the effect of other analyst- The Supporting Research project is the basis of the Large-Area Crop In- induced errors. In the past year, one of eight projects in the ventory Experiment (LAClE) efforts, however, several machine processing AgRISTARS Program. The purpose of does not allow lO0-percent accuracy approaches have been identified in the project is to provide an integrated in crop recognition, both because of which other analyst-induced errors are research effort that supports several the significant overlap of the individual substantially attenuated. The first such other AgRISTARS projects. Directly crop temporal spectral development technique has been delivered to the supported are the Foreign Commodity patterns ("signatures") and because Foreign Commodity Production Production Forecasting, the Early of the visibility in crop signatures due Forecasting project. All these tech- Warning/Crop Condition Assessment, to such factors as planting date, niques have been enabled by the pre- and the Yield Model Development pro- variety, and weather. The approach to jects. Indirect benefits accrue to the vious development of computer this problem has been predicated on algorithms capable of automatically Domestic Crops and Land Cover, the the following judgments. isolating and characterizing the Soil Moisture, and perhaps the 1. The requirement to assess the statistical crop signature distributions Renewable Resources Inventory pro- crop identity at a sufficiently large present in a segment of MSS data. jects. The Supporting Research pro- number of locations to make an accur- Further improvements in this area are ject continues the previous focus on ate estimate of crop proportions can- anticipated. techniques related to production not possibly be done economically Analysis of multidate MSS data has estimation of wheat, barley, corn, and unless it is automated. been a cumbersome process for soybeans in foreign regions with 2. The current lack of quantitative several reasons: (1) Each Landsat ob- planned extensions to rice, cotton, understanding of how crop signatures servation contributes four distinct sorghum, and sunflowers in future are affected by external factors re- measurements on each pixel, (2) years; the project also contains quires the .use of a human analyst to different segments of data have enhanced efforts in agronomic remote adjust the parameters of ("train") the different acquisition histories, and (3) sensing. automated processing system to the variations in planting date from field to local conditions. field cause substantial variations in in- In practice, the analyst has dividual crop signatures on each ac- The technical effort in this project is manually identified ("labeled") train- quisition date. Simplified representa- divided into the following areas. ing samples from the Landsat image to tions of multidate MSS data that offer 1. Area estimation research: in- be machine processed. Several impor- new insights into the crop identifica- cludes machine processing, manual tant accomplishments in this area tion and assessment process, sub- processing (labeling/image interpreta- have occurred in the past year. stantially reduce the cumbersomeness tion), and preprocessing (image Previously, machine processing has of the data, allow us to eliminate the registration and image display) been used primarily to reduce the error planting date influence, and reduce 2. Agronomic remote sensing: in- in an analyst-based estimate because the sensitivity to acquisition dates (fig. cludes crop development stage the analyst cannot economically iden- 1) have been developed. These tech- estimation and spectral inputs to yield estimation Figure 1.--Multidate multispectral scannerdata. O's andX's are Landsat observations on over- 3. Supporting field research pass dates. (a) Typical crop profile. (b) Variations due to planting date, (c and d) The effects of The area estimation research plan shiftingall observations to a single crop emergence date. includes the development of technologies for estimating crop proportions in small (5 by 5 mile) segments O'3 of Landsat multispectral-scanner c.O _3 W (MSS) digital imagery, for estimating Z Z Z crop proportions in larger areas such I.IJ LU W I,Ll as Landsat MSS full frames, and for (.0 segment estimates in Landsat D i i _ i i i Ii_ i i thematic mapper data. Currently, ac- (a) tive research is aimed at the MSS full- DAY OF YEAR (b) DAY OF YEAR frame estimation; research on use of thematic mapper data is at a background level but a substantial effort' ,,/3 I.l.J ,..,"3 will begin in fiscal year 1981. z I.LI V 0 z X z Many crops appear spectrally simi- I.iJ z X V lar in Landsat MSS data at a given t_ L.U point in time; separations of these crops are only possible by use of I I d'l [ I i l t i | I I I l I I I ¥ J J J I ! J l j° I I I I multidate sequences of MSS imagery, (c) DAY OF YEAR (d) DAY OF YEAR which allow individual crops (e.g.,

advanced yield model in which MSS In LACIE and in the Multicrop niques are regarded as being the foun- Research Program, research was data are used to determine the crop dation of a probable breakthrough in leaf area index and, hence, the frac- MSS processing in that it will be possi- largely concentrated on crop area tion of incident sunlight intercepted. estimation techniques, with a ble to characterize a crop by This yield model would be combined relatively low level of research agronomically meaningful descrip- with Metsat (meteorological satellite) directed at agronomic remote sensing tions (e.g., planting date and growing- measurements of insolation to derive through fiscal year 1980. A major goal season length) rather than by a se- solar inputs required by process-level of the Supporting Research project is quence of MSS observation values. to advance the state-of-the-art tech- yield models (fig. 3). Previously, the labeling process has The remaining major technical area nology in agronomic remote sensing to been a highly labor-intensive process in the Supporting Research project is in which the analyst has been called a quantitative rather than qualitative level; resources directed to this area supporting field research, which con- upon to make not only those decisions will be substantially increased in fiscal ducts experiments involving the ac- which he is uniquely qualified to make quisition and analysis of data sets con- but also a large number of relatively years 1981-85. Despite the limited level of resources in fiscal year 1980, taining both spectral and agronomic mundane decisions. Many of the more measurements, frequently under con- two significant accomplishments have mundane have become sufficiently ditions of controlled variability. Major occurred. The first was the discovery quantitative to enable their automation recent accomplishments include (1) that, at least for corn and soybeans, in the labeling procedure. This will an experiment that shows the effects the crop development stage is closely have the major advantages of both related to the accumulated versus the of various factors (e.g., row width, row reducing the cost of labeling and mak- direction, solar elevation angle, and projected area under the crop ing it possible to objectively study the soil color) on corn and soybean reflec- development curve and that we could effect of variations in the labeling pro- tances, and (2) the development of a project backwards in time along the cess. low-cost radiometer system that will crop development curve to determine permit substantial expansion of the In LACIE, registered multidate MSS the emergence date (fig. 2). The importance of this is twofold: (1) when supporting field research program data were provided by the Goddard without an equivalent cost increase. the spectrum of the crop development Space Flight Center LACIE processor. In summary, the first-year 1980 stage can be measured, rather than This system, which provided registra- effort in Supporting Research has simply estimated from meteorological tion to a 1974 state-of-the-art value of resulted in substantial technical or historical data, the performance of a 1 pixel rms (a marginal value for many meteorologically driven yield model progress and has placed the Support- of the applications), is now being can be substantially improved; and (2) ing Research project in a good posi- phased out. The technical design of a tion to initiate the work to be per- the crop development stage models new JSC registration system that will formed in subsequent years. can now be run on a per-field basis to replace the LACIE processor and provide the foundation for a sequence of improve the accuracy of labeling. The second significant accomplishment improvements in registration accuracy was the conceptual development of an has been completed.

Figure 3.--Remote sensing inputs to yield models. Figure 2..--Spectral profile crop development stage estimation.

BEST FIT

40 CURVE _ 5_'_, z_ GREENNESS / _5/MEASURE OVER

5/_ FIELD NO. 5

5\ 5f _- STANDINGRIPE BARE B L., 2o SOIL 5 I \_ LINE ----_ / 'l EXTRAPOLATION w _TO BARE SOIL - -5 _ 5._./_ -- .u CROP 5 ...... _I, 10 EMERGENCE_ f ESTIMATION i / _ II DATE _I DATE o 3 6 9 _z _5 _o T-,ERO,--.J iI _ ii R_FLeCIANCe L% 06 to o ;, 0 I I I I l J i STATUS, ACCOmPLISHM[NTS IO DATE 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 • COnCeptUAL _pPRC_CH TIME (CALENDAR BAYS) • _E_O UEV(L _St_BL_SHM_N_ OF POt EN_AL • CROP DEVELOPMENT STAGE IS LINEARLY RELATED TO CORN

AREA A AREA A AND B

65 AgRISTARS: Foreign research in the United States where Commodity Production 6. The considerable research detailed ground truth is available; (4) Forecasting Project already conducted by LACIE and the provided understanding of real prob- LACIE Transition Project to isolate the lem areas, quantified their impact, and The Foreign Commodity Production wheat/barley/small-grains issues and developed generalized approaches for effect solutions Forecasting project of AgRISTARS their solution; (5) provided an under- builds on 6 years of joint experience 7. Experience in development of standing of the need for improved corn and soybeans technology based by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, spectral, spatial, and temporal resolu- NASA, and the National Oceanic and on the Corn Blight Watch Experiment tion of satellite sensors and systern_: 8. The Crop Identification Tech- Atmospheric Administration in foreign and _'_ ohown that data loads ass,.,,..;- _utogy Assessment for Remote Sens- crop production forecasting and _,,..u wan the technology can be remote-sensing research and ing (CITARS) experiment over Illinois handled. In addition, at the outset of and Indiana development and on more than 15 the AgRISTARS, the Foreign Com- 9. The USDA research in Illinois and years of crop-related aerospace modity Production Forecasting project Iowa remote-sensing technology in the has the following advantages of pre- United States. Previous triagency vious research: 10. An 18-month experiment during fiscal years 1978 and 1979 over the research of the application of Landsat 1. Teams of scientific personnel ex- multispectral-scanner and weather US. corn and soybeans belts perienced in this technology and its data has established a suitable basis application within the participating for the Foreign Commodity Production agencies Forecasting project (fig. 1). For exam- The Foreign Commodity Production 2. Universities and industries that Forecasting project will build upon the ple, previous accomplishments have can now perform a more significant technical capability of this previous (1) shown that regression-yield role in research and development models for wheat have worked well research to further advance the ap- 3. In-place research and develop- plications of remote sensing to foreign under both average conditions and ment data systems production forecasting through under important conditions that sig- 4. Existing data bases that will nificantly departed from the average; research and development. It will be allow the effective use of retrospective test oriented toward resolving the re- (2) shown that small grains can be data in the development and evalua- reliably estimated in important areas; maining issues in direct observation of tion of technology over many of the wheat and barley in the presence of (3) demonstrated the value of ex- crop regions to be investigated ploratory experiments in foreign areas other small grains; extending the tech- 5. Components of technology that nology to additional crops and regions; to identify each region's unique com- will serve as building blocks for further modity characteristics in addition to research using improvements in spectral, spatial, and temporal characteristics of satellite sensors such as the seven- band 40-meter-resolution Landsat D thematic mapper; developing im-

Figure 1 .--Spectral separability of corn and soybeans, Pottawattomie, Iowa, 1978. provements in early season production estimation technology; developing ap- POTTAWATrOMIE, IOWA 1978 proaches that tend to be more cost- .41,_ effective; and quantifying the value of still further improvements in the technology (e.g., sensors, crop identification, pattern recognition, registration, etc.).

LANDSAT MSS DATA IDENTIFICATION

CORN SOYBEANS

_SJULY 23 JULY ._ 31 JULY SEPT SEPT ::, <,I LU

LU • i i

-- m

8R_HTNESS

66 beans decision logic procedure The scope of this project involves beans classification technology and the JSC Earth Observations Division developed in fiscal year 1979 and in- wheat or barley or both over selected corporating the use of spectral and regions within Canada, U.S.S.R., India, assumed the lead in wheat and barley technology. spatial transformations developed by Australia, and Argentina; corn and soy- the supporting research and tech- beans over selected regions within At JSC, the principal classification effort was to translate transition-year nology community. These develop- Argentina and Brazil; beginning tech- mental efforts have been continuously nology extension to rice in India; and corn and soybeans crop identification and classification techniques into reviewed by JSC, and JSC has con- exploratory investigations in the ducted a preliminary review of the United States for cotton, sorghum, and wheat and barley techniques. The systematic objective labeling logic corn and soybeans labeling logic. The sunflowers. Production estimation first end-to-end test of the procedure developed for corn and soybeans was technology will be developed and and logic developed by ERIM and UCB evaluated for each crop and region modified for wheat and barley and the is planned for early in fiscal year 1981 combination. Technique development increased use of spectral aids was in- as part of the 1981 U.S. Corn and Soy- and problem solving will be carried out corporated into the logic. The techniques developed during the transition beans Pilot Experiment. in "similar" US. crop regions (where In the area of sampling and ag- year for wheat and barley were also in- good ground truth is available) in gregation, a new weighted aggrega- parallel with the foreign crop regions, corporated into this new labeling logic approach. The "new" wheat and tion approach has been developed where independent data and statistics and tested that establishes a more are not as timely or reliable. The barley logic and procedure were tested twice during the fiscal year. The valid technique for handling the "non- quality and availability of government response" areas, or areas not ade- statistics vary from country to country first was a six-segment "shakedown" test to identify procedural and logic quately represented because of poor and from region to region within a satellite acquisition histories. Poor problems; the test results were en- country. Assessment of achievable satellite acquisition can result from performance in foreign regions will de- couraging and only minor modifications were made. Using the new pro- cloud cover, operational constraints, or pend on the performance assessment equipment malfunctions. Simulated in similar U.S. regions as well as com- cedure, called the "reformatted" wheat and barley procedure, the US. aggregation software was developed parison to independent foreign esti- to permit simulating the performance mates. wheat and barley exploratory test was then conducted using 11 segments. in area and production estimation over The results indicated some previously a region, assuming different values for undetected problems with the pro- within-stratum variance and for non- AgRISTARS during fiscal year 1980 response. Sample frame development continued those activities that were cedure and modifications are currently for foreign areas to be addressed in carried out in the LACIE Transition Pro- being made before its use in the fiscal year 1981 U.S. Wheat and Barley Pilot later AgRISTARS experiments is ject. In particular, efforts were con- progressing well. Indicator regions tinued on advancing techniques to Test. Simultaneously with the U.S. wheat and barley exploratory test, an have been selected in Brazil, Argen- perform crop identification and tina, the U.S.S.R, and Australia and classification on corn and soybeans evaluation of a second wheat and sample segments have been selected and wheat and barley. During the fis- barley procedure, the "integrated" procedure, was conducted; this less to support the exploratory experiments I cal year, the supporting research and in these countries. technology community, primarily the systematic more labor-intensive pro- Environmental Research Institute of cedure was also evaluated. Michigan (ERIM) and the University of The corn and soybeans efforts of California at Berkeley (UCB), was ERIM and UCB have involved modify- given the major role in corn and soy- ing the JSC-developed corn and soy-

67 Wildland Vegetation Resource The Alaska phase, May 1977 through conditions. An example of a classifica- Inventory July 1978, mapped vegetation types tion of the Alaska Test Site is shown in and developed accuracy relationships figure 1. BLM resource personnel were The joint NASA and Bureau of Land using various scales of aerial photo- trained in the theory and application of Management (BLM) Application Pilot graphy and ground data applied to resource measurement and estimation Test was accomplished through an off- Landsat digitally processed data. procedures and how, when, and where site contract (ESL Incorporated of Sun- Landsat spectral classes were remote-sensing techniques should be nyvale, California) to NASA to test and developed with a maximum likelihood applied to provide cost-effective implement an interactive Wildland classifier; these classes were then de- resource inventories and assessments. Vegetation Resource Inventory System scribed through photointerpretation of The second phase, September based on remotely sensed data and large-scale (t :1 200) color aerial 1978 through June 1980, modified the oriented to the BLM state and district photography coupled with selected system developed during the Alaska office management requirements. The plots of ground-truth data to correlate phase and tested it in the desert project was planned in three phases the photointerpretation with ground ecosystem of Northwestern Arizona. with test sites in Alaska, Arizona, and Idaho.

Figure 1 ._Landsat vegetation classification of the Alaska Test Site.

:;:: ,

_,_.._L _ \k

m ....

m ...... _ ._

Q mmm,m_

68 Figure 2.--I_andsat vegetation classification of the Arizona Test Site. This phase went one step further by demonstrating a multi-resource inventory with productivity estimates for range forage, timber production and woodland volume (fig. 2 and table 9. "[raining of BLM resource personnel continued. Concurrent with the contractor Phase II activities, BLM tested its in-house expertise, with assistance from the Earth Resources Observation Satellite (EROS) Data Center, by accomplishing a Landsat vegetation resource inventory over the same test site in Arizona. The final phase of the NASA support began in December 1979 and involves project documentation, implementation and documentation of software, and support for a final project conference in early 1981. The Ap- plication Pilot Test is scheduled for completion in March 1981. BLM purchased a minicomputer system in the fall of 1979 and established a Remote-Sensing Branch at the Denver Service Center for opera- LANDSAT tional support of ongoing projects. _,,. VEGETATION BLM is presently using these *- CLASSIFICATION capabilities during the final project test phase at the Idaho Test Site. The results of this remote-sensing effort, to ARIZONA STRIP DISTRICT, ARIZONA be completed in late 1980, will pro- LEVEL 111 CLASSIFICATION vide inputs for preparation of an en- MAPPING UNIT: IOACRF, S t4 HECTARES} vironmental statement.

SOURCE DATA: AUGUST 26, 1977 "[he overall success of the Application SCENE I.IX.2947.17074 Pilot Test is evidenced by the remote- sensing processing and analysis capabilities established at the Denver eARE| LAmD |ItlIAHVllIIA]Ill N{{{li(! *|VIIT|I_ {TSTIM Service Center and the inclusion of IASA/|LM APPLICATI0m Pttet rtS_ PNJ$[ II i ws?fm remote-sensing requirements in the AIAtTSlW |V ISL IKOP0|_TCe BLM budget submission.

TABLE I._ JUNIPER CUBIC VOLUME ESTIMATES a FOR SELECTED ARIZONA TEST SITE ALLOTMENTS

ALLOTMENT TOTALAREA, TOTAL VOLUME, STANDARD RELATIVE AVERAGESIZE, ACRES VOLUME, FT3/ACRE ERROR STANDARD FT FT3x 10_ ERROR

Wolfhole 13 308 2215 178.4 45.9 0.26 t 4.0 b(1479, 2951) b(119.1, 237.7) b(8.9, 19.1)

Wolfhole 14 727 2770 188.2 53.5 .28 15.6 Mountain (1756, 3785) (119.3, 257.1) (9.8, 21.5)

Blackrock 37 323 4831 147,2 40.6 .28 12.4 (3119, 6543) (95.1, 1994) (6.6, 18.2)

Total 65 358 9817 163.7 16.7 ,10 13.6 (8533, 11 101) (142.3, 185.2) (7.8, 19.4)

aEstkmales apply 1o BLM rand only bNumbers in parentheses are 80-percent confidence bn[er,,'als 69 Texas Natural Resources This project is a joint effort of the JSC To carry out the responsibilities of Inventory and Monitoring System Earth Observations Division and a con- both parties, a Memorandum of Under- sortium of 13 Texas agencies known standing was instituted. Responsibility The purpose of this project is to as the Texas Natural Resources Infor- for management of the project is develop, test, and evaluate ap- mation System. The project started in shared by a Texas Project Manager proaches and procedures for integrat- June 1978 and is expected to span 3 and a JSC Deputy Project Manager. ing Landsat and other remote-sensing years. The project will develop, test, data with more conventional data The technology developed for this and evaluate a Texas Natural project will be documented for transfer sources (e.g., census, maps, and field Resources Inventory and Monitoring to the public domain through NASA's surveys) to augment and make more System based in part on information Regional Technology Transfer Centers effective the existing information data derived from remote sensing. The and the Computer Software Manage- base supporting Texas natural system will consist of three compo- ment and Information Center (COS- resources management agencies. The nents: a remote-sensing information MIC). Texas will also furnish a final re- major goal is to integrate the use of subsystem, a geographic information port on the utility of the system and a Landsat and other remote-sensing subsystem, and a natural resources cost and accuracy analysis study. data into the day-to-day decisionmak- analysis subsystem. Figure 1 illus- ing processes of the Texas resources trates the type of output products that management agencies. To ac- will be produced. Accomplishments during the past year complish this goal, the utility and cost- The major responsibility of NASA is are as follows. effectiveness of the information to assist Texas in upgrading its exist- derived from remotely sensed data t. Development of remote-sensing ing experimental remote-sensing data data analysis software and procedures must be evaluated in an operational analysis capability and to interface to support use of the color graphics environment using ongoing manage- this capability with other sources of terminal for the display and enhancement requirements of selected state natural resources information available agencies as evaluation criteria. ment of Landsat multispectral-scanner to the state. The software capability is (MSS) digital data. The system is being developed in two parts. The first capable of displaying raw or classified part was completed by NASA in early Landsat 1,2, and 3 MSS digital data as fiscal year 1980. The major respon- well as performing limited data enhan- sibility of Texas includes developing cements including contrast stretching, the remaining remote-sensing soft- band ratioing, and edge sharpening. ware; expansion of the existing 2. Applications were identified by geographic information subsystem; state agencies for the five test sites in development of the natural-resources the areas of coastal zone manage- analysis subsystem; and preparation, ment, forestry, water resources, testing, and evaluation of output pro- mineral resources, and wildlife man- ducts. agement. Remote-sensing data were collected at four test sites. This broad- based application testing will help demonstrate the statewide applicability of remote-sensing technology. 3. Development of the geographic Figure 1.---Computer classification. information subsystem and the natural resources analysis subsystem was in- WATER itiated. These subsystems will provide

Slightly turbid water the means for integrating and analyz- Clear water Moderately turbid water ing the information to support the specific state agency applications. UNCULTIVATED LAND

Brushland I

Bru'_hland II

Range,Woodlan(lland I Rangeland II

BARREN/WETLAND

H HI IV v

OTHER

Suburban lawns and streets

VegetatedBarren/welland clayey IVsubstrateV boundaries ] F -bTo] ,q,2 ],3I" 1,51'61E Industrial complex and unclassified

7O A tentative mission assignment for the Orbiter Camera Payload System During fiscal year 1980, all development and manufacturing tasks were Orbiter Camera Payload System has been made using the space available The Orbiter Camera Payload System completed and all phases of testing on Space Transportation System (STS) was a fiscal year 1978 new start and is were nearly completed. Factory testing and calibration of the cartographic mission 26. This mission is planned for funded through fiscal year 1984. This a launch to a 280 inclination in Sep- camera system is composed of a lens assembly (fig. 3) was completed. The final two quarters of fiscal year tember 1984. For this mission, the large-format camera, an electronics camera system will be configured as control assembly, a high-pressure gas 1980 have been devoted to subsystems verification and full system part of the proposed Office of Space supply system, and a flight support and Terrestrial Applications (OSTA-3) structure. The system is designed for environmental and functional testing. A thermal-vacuum retest has been payload. This mission will be con- operation in the Orbiter cargo bay (fig. ducted as an engineering evaluation 1) to obtain high-resolution vertical scheduled for the first month of fiscal flight of the Orbiter Camera Payload stereoscopic photographs of the year 1981, and delivery of the fully System and will derive mission plan- Earth's crustal and surface features operational flight system and ground- ning and postmission data analysis from orbital altitudes. The large-format support equipment is scheduled for support from the Large Format Camera camera (fig. 2) produces photographs November 1980. Interagency Working Group. of high geometric fidelity for cartographic applications where precise height and position of surface points are required. In addition to the cartographic applications, the stereoscopic photographs will be of particular value to the geological explorer (fossil fuels and minerals), the Figure 1 ..--Orbiter cargo bay. engineering geologist, and other investigators of renewable and non- renewable resources.

Figure 2.--Large format camera (LFC). Figure 3.--Cartographic lens assembly. L i

71 Extended Scene Radar The experiment approach was to The effort was initiated in 1977, with Calibration carefully measure the radar reflectivity test sequences performed in 1978 and of large homogenous test areas (ex- 1979. In 1979, the effort was ex- The extended scene radar calibration tended scene) with a highly calibrated panded to cover the effects of row effort was initiated to verify the preci- ground scatterometer system. These spacing on radar reflectivity or back- sion and accuracy of scatterometers test areas were then overflown by the scatter curves. In fiscal year 1980, a and imaging radars used for remote- aircraft sensors and the two data sets test series was again performed at sensing investigations on JSC aircraft. analyzed with respect to precision and Northrup Strip, White Sands Missile The precision and accuracy of accuracy to provide a measure of Range, and Jornada Experimental microwave sensors must be verified to calibration to the aircraft sensors for Range in New Mexico. The Northrup ensure that day-to-day variations in extended scenes. Data sets are taken Strip data will be used as baseline their data sets are truly remotely at 1.6, 4.75, and 13.3 gigahertz. data for radar calibration. The Jornada sensed phenomena rather than sensor variations. data were gathered to study the effects of row height on radar reflectivity. Figure 1 is a plot of the back- scatter difference between cross-row and along-row radar data of t.6 gigahertz for two different field conditions. The first data set was taken over rows that were 25.4 centimeters high. The second set was taken over rows that were 15.0 centimeters high. Row spacing was the same in both sets. The peaking effect caused by the rows is present in both but gets smaller with reduced row height. Analysis of the aircraft data also showed that the peaking was not present in cross- polarized data. Figure 2 shows the new configuration of the ground scatterometer system. During fiscal year 1980, a new tower/trailer combination was integrated into the system, providing a greater degree of transpor- tability.

Figure 1,--Comparisonof angularresponseof themodulation function, Figure 2.--Ground scatterometer system.

DATA SET 1 (NOV 16, 1979)

X--_--i( DATA SET 2 (DEC 11, 1979)

2O 1.6 GHz VV

_o= 15

I I I I I I 10 20 30 40 50 6O

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE, DEG

72 The SIR-A antenna, manufactured by The 400-pound antenna system was SIR-A Antenna Integration to installed on the OSTA-1 pallet in the OSTA- 1 Pallet Ball Aerospace Systems Division, consists of seven microstrip array panels Operations and Checkout Building at the Kennedy Space Center in January The Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR) A-- mounted on a triangular support structure. The antenna is attached to the 1980. Verification of proper fit was developed to evaluate the potential of made. However, the planned course OSTA-1 pallet by an aluminum truss spaceborne imaging radar as a tool for alinement was deferred because of an structure (fig. 1). The nondeployable geologic exploration and, in general, out-of-plane condition of the pallet for mineral exploration, petroleum ex- 9.44- by 2.1-meter antenna is mounted in the payload bay in a fixed caused by the pallet support method ploration, and structural mapping--is used in the engineering model stand. position at 47 °. Thermal protection is part of the Office of Space and Ter- Course alinement is anticipated to be restrial Applications (OSTA) 1 payload provided by the multilayer aluminized mylar covering the support structure completed when the OSTA-1 payload to be flown on the Space Shuttle (SS) is located in the cargo integration test 2 mission. The SIR-A antenna was and by the Beta cloth covering the total system. equipment stand. Electrical testing of developed by the JSC to be used with the antenna has been successfully the SlR-A electronics developed by completed. These tests consisted of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. (1) a continuity check of reflection and loss through the antenna and (2) a coupling check of antenna/electronics and the interface by injecting a signal into the antenna and monitoring the radar system output.

Figure 1.---SIR-A antenna installed.

Office of Significant Tasks Space Sciences

77 Martian Weathering Simulation Funded by: Planetary Geology (UPN-151) Technical Monitor: R. V. Morris/SN7 Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

78 New Results from a Lunar Core Funded by: Planetary Materials (UPN-152) Technical Monitor: D. S. McKay/SN6 Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

80 Complexity of the Lunar Crust Funded by: Planetary Materials (UPN-152) Technical Monitor: P. Butler/SN2 Task Performed by: Northrop Services Inc. Contract NAS 9-15425

81 Meteorite Types in the Antarctic Meteorite Collections Funded by: Planetary Materials (UPN-152) Technical Monitor: D. D. Bogard/SN7 Task Performed by: Northrop Services Inc. Contract NAS 9-15425

82 Young Meteorites From an Earthlike Parent Funded by: Planetary Materials (UPN-152) Technical Monitor: Laurence E. Nyquist/SN7 Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

84 Moon Rock Curation Funded by: Planetary Materials (UPN-152) Technical Monitor: P. Butler/SN2 Task Performed by: Northrop Services Inc. Contract NAS 9-15425

85 Origin of the Earth's Continental Crust Funded by: Planetary Geochemistry and Geophysics (UPN-153) Technical Monitor: Jeffrey Warner/SN Task Performed by: Lyndon B, Johnson Space Center

86 Role of Anorthositic Rocks in Early Evolution of Planetary Crusts Funded by: Planetary Geochemistry and Geophysics (UPN-153) Technical Monitor: W, C. Phinney/SN6 Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

75 87 The Dynamic Crystallization of Basalt Funded by: Planetary Geochemistry and Geophysics (UPN-153) Technical Monitor: G. Lofgren/SN6 Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

88 Antarctic Dry Valleys: Terrestrial Analog of the Martian Surface

Funded by: Mars Data Analysis Program (UPN-155) Technical Monitor: E K. Gibson/SN7 Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

89 The Chemistry of Micrometeoroids Funded by: Spacelab Payloads (UPN-834) Technical Monitor: F. Horz/SN6 Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

90 Remote Sensing of Lunar Rock Composition by Thermal Infrared Measurement

Funded by: Planetary Astronomy (UPN-196) Technical Monitor: A. E. Potter, Jr./SN3 Task Performed by: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

91 Advanced Hyperthermia System Funded by: Life Sciences (UPN-199) Technical Monitor: SD and ED Task Performed by: Memorandum of Understanding Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Stehlin Foundation for Cancer Research

92 Linear Accelerator for Human Vestibular Research

Funded by: Life Sciences (UPN-199) Technical Monitor: M F. Reschke/SD Task Performed by: University of Michigan Contract NAS 9-15663

93 Nuclear Cardiology Imaging System Funded by: Life Sciences (UPN-199) Technical Monitor: D, L, Teegarden/SN Task Performed by: Lockheed Engineering and Management Services Co., Contract NAS 9-15800

94 Mobile Biological Isolation System Funded by: Life Sciences (UPN-199) Technical Monitor: A, Mandel/SD Task Performed by: ILC Dover Contract NAS 9-15946

76 A Martian Weathering Simulation Martian Weathering Simulation Data on planetary surface materials obtained remotely (such as from Facility (MWSF) is operational at the Earth-based telescopes or spacecraft Johnson Space Center (fig. 1). The Weathering is a surface process that is apparatus in this facility can simulate universal to all planetary bodies. The imagery), in situ (such as by the Viking landers), or directly (such as by superficial conditions on Mars in terms difference among planetary bodies is of temperature (below -10 ° C), at- in the form weathering takes in analyses of returned surface samples) have been influenced by weathering mospheric pressure and composition response to its energy source. For (mainly carbon dioxide at -- 6 tort), planetary bodies having atmospheres, processes. Only when the extent and nature of weathering processes (and electromagnetic radiation environ- such as the Earth, the energy source is ment (ultraviolet through infrared), and the secondary dissipation of of other surface processes such as erosion, transportation, and lithifica- the normal Martian variations in these electromagnetic radiation that arrives parameters. One of the studies per- at the surface and heats the at- tion) are sufficiently understood can the data on surface materials be prop- formed in this facility is that of the mosphere. For planetary bodies hav- kinetics of magnetite oxidation in the erly interpreted and used to construct ing virtually no atmosphere, such as presence of ultraviolet radiation. Pre- the Moon, the energy source is the models about the constitution and evolution of a planetary body. The ac- viously, researchers thought that mag- direct transmission of energy in the netite would efficiently oxidize to ferric form of meteorites, radiation, and curacy and predictive capability of the oxide phases under Martian conditions atomic and nuclear particles imping- models are directly related to how well the changes introduced by weathering of ultraviolet radiation. This process ing on the surface. For planetary are recognized and understood. was thought to be the dominant one bodies having thin atmospheres, such that has resulted in the apparently as Mars, the energy source embodies At the present stage of the scientific study of Mars, it is of primary im- high-oxidation state of the Martian sur- aspects of both of the above limiting face. However, experiments per- cases. portance to establish to what extent the remote sensing and Viking lander formed in the Martian Weathering data on surface material reflect prim- Simulation Facility revealed that this ary versus secondary (weathered) sur- process does not proceed at a percep- face material. One important avenue tible rate. What appears to happen is to use in determining and evaluating that Martian surface materials are the nature and influence of weathering heated by the infrared in sunlight and on Mars is through laboratory simula- the oxidation proceeds rapidly under the effect of this heating. tion experiments. In such experiments, terrestrial materials, including both primary and secondary rock types and synthetic materials, are weathered in a simulated Martian environment.

Figure 1.---Martian Weathering Simulation Facility. _JP

77 New Results from a Lunar Core The dissection revealed nine separate fragments of highland rocks are pre- stratigraphic units which differed sent throughout the core and are An Apollo 15 lunar core recently slightly in color or texture. The core surprisingly slightly more abundant analyzed in detail has revealed some contained a number of small rocks, toward the bottom. Figure 2 also interesting results. This core especially toward the bottom of the shows a whitish fragment which is (15010/15011 ) is a double-drive tube core (fig. 2). probably an anorthositic breccia. Such that was taken by Astronauts Dave This core has several interesting fragments are probably derived from Scott and Jim Irwin at Station 9A about features related to its sampling loca- the Appenine Front some 4 kilometers 20 meters from the rim of Hadley Rille tion near the edge of the rille. Most of away from the core site. (fig. 1). The 55-centimeter-long core the rock, mineral, and glass fragments The soil in the core is relatively was carefully dissected, described, are derived from basalt, reaffirming the coarse-grained with a mean grain size and photographed at JSC, a process interpretation that basalt flows under- of about 95 micrometers; it is slightly which took nearly 2 years. Samples lie much of the site and comprise the coarser toward the bottom. The fer- from the core were then analyzed by edges of the rille. The largest rock romagnetic resonance profile for the principal investigators at JSC and fragment shown in figure 2, for exam- core reveals that whereas the core is elsewhere by a variety of techniques ple, is a basalt fragment. However, and instruments. slightly more mature in its upper half

Figure 2.---Photograph of the bottom of partly dissected core 15010/15011. Three rock fragments are visible. The lowermost is apparently an anorthositic breccia; the other two are basalts.

Figure 1.--Map of the Apollo 15 site showing the location of the four cores. When completed, analyses of these cores will provide three-dimensional control for the Apollo 15 re _olith.

STA _15010115011 .,o, _R_ APOLLO 15 CORES

/ST OEOROE\ "_--',_.-"O_.l

km CRATER STA 6

78 The unusual features of this core in- mal thickness of about 5 meters on the (fig. 3), it does not have the welt- fiat terrain near the Lunar Module. The developed maturity profile commonly clude the relatively immature state of the entire core, the lack of well- thinness of the regolith near the edge found in other lunar cores. This limits of the rille causes a relatively rapid developed maturity profiles, the the time the core material was in place turnover, prevents maturity profiles to 100 million years or less. Further- relatively homogeneous characteristics of the core throughout its from developing, and prevents the more, rare-gas data reveal that the development of very mature soils core does not have a significant pro- length, and the relatively short period of time that the core material resided because they are rapidly diluted or duction profile of cosmogenic species covered by fresh ejecta. The sampling such as 3helium, 21neon, 3aarg on, in its present position as sampled by the astronauts. These features require location, therefore, is the cause of the 8Okrypton, and _26xenon. This means core's rather unique properties and it that the core material was not irradi- an unusual set of circumstances, and provides new insight into lunar regolith ated by cosmic rays for very long, cer- the explanation is probably closely tied to the unusual location of this processes. This core may also be the tainly no longer than 1O0 million years. core. The steep Hadley Rille has ap- best prototype for some types of Yet individual samples from the core asteroidal regoliths characterized by were exposed to cosmic rays for 300 parently acted as a sink for regolith that has been stirred and ejected by extreme thinness and may help to ex- million years or more. This indicates plain the lack of mature soil features in that most of the core material was meteorite impact, preventing the regolith from becoming very thick near most regolith-derived meteorites. Core preirradiated somewhere near the 15010/1501 1 is consequently an ex- lunar surface before the material was the edge of the rille. The regolith at the core site is estimated to be only about tremely important part of the Apollo incorporated into the stratigraphic sec- sample collection. tion sampled by the core. The forma- 1-meter thick compared to a more nor- tion of the present stratigraphic sequence occurred less than 1O0 million years ago, which is a short time compared to the age of the basaltic bedrock (approximately 3.3 billion years). The lack of a well-developed soil profile shown by the ferromagnetic Figure 3..--Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) profile of soil maturity throughout the length resonance data (fig. 3) is also sup- of core 15010/15011.No part of the core ported by grain-size data, solar wind contains mature soils commonly found in gas data, and agglutinate abun- other cores. dances. FMR MATURITY'--["

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79 Complexity of the Lunar Crust breccias (the impact-produced broken The conclusion is that the mag- and melted rocks that dominate the nesium-suite rocks and the Much of the Moon's evolution has in- highlands) suggest that they are a very anorthosites are not very closely re- volved igneous processes; i.e., those substantial part of the crust. These lated, but that the magnesium-suite in which silicate liquids (magmas) are rocks are more magnesian than are rocks are related to each other produced by the melting of the Moon. the plagioclase-rich ones (anortho- because they have the same peculiar These liquids can crystallize to their sites) and hence are known as the characteristic of low titanium/ own compositions as many lavas do on "magnesium-suite" rocks. To under- samarium, unlike terrestrial, Earth; or the crystals that form can sub- stand the crust and its evolution, it is meteoritic, or other lunar rocks. The sequently accumulate and form rocks, necessary to understand the relation- scandium/samarium ratios show a at the same time changing the com- ships between all the rocks. The similarly perplexing depletion of position of the liquid. Different crystal titanium/samarium ratios of the rocks pyroxene in the magnesium-suite types affect the liquid in different (fig. 1) show that the anorthosites parent liquid. ways, influencing the minerals that crystallized from a liquid from which il- later crystallize from the liquid. For in- menite had not crystallized. However, stance, the mineral olivine, which is the magnesium-suite rocks cry- Because the magnesium-suite rocks magnesian, depletes the liquid in stallized from liquids from which il- are too dense to have floated over a magnesium and subsequent minerals menite had at some time been silicate liquid, the formation of the are less rich in magnesium than they removed. This makes the origin of the lunar crust must have involved a more would otherwise have been. Even magnesium-suite rocks complex complex origin than simply the flota- though the olivine may no longer be because ilmenite is a mineral that tion of rocks over a magma "ocean" seen, its effects can be inferred by in- crystallizes only at an advanced stage (although this probably did happen to specting the rocks that accumulate of the crystallization of a silicate liquid; produce the anorthosites). There are from the later minerals. Magnesium is yet all the other characteristics of the several possibilities, but none yet a major element and olivine is a major magnesium-suite rocks suggest that seem to be quite right. Further work phase, but the same kinds of effects they crystallized at an early stage of with trace elements will probably can be seen for trace elements and crystallization (including the fact that solve the problem rather than just trace minerals. The ratios of they are rich in magnesium) and cer- demonstrate its existence. titanium/samarium and scandium/ tainly earlier than the anorthosites. samarium have been used as tracers of the history of lunar-highlands igneous rocks. Samarium is not easily absorbed into any major minerals; hence, as crystallization proceeds, its abundance in the liquid increases. If

ilmenite crystallizes, then the titanium Figure 1 .--The titanium/samarium ratios of Moon rocks. in the liquid decreases and rocks

accumulating later have low 10000 i __._ i i 1(__ - j titanium/samarium ratios. Scan- dium/samarium is a similar indicator of 20 pyroxene crystallization. (_A12 ilm source Chondrites 61224'_ _A12 ol-pig source "0 The Moon does not have the same 6,91,sFG so '© O 8 composition throughout its depth; in- ,20 A15 GG O 1 1 stead, like other planets, it has a crust 20"_11 different from the interior. It was 6o 2 realized early in lunar sample analysis that the Moon has a plagioclase-rich crust (an unexpected result) and that this crust had formed not long after the

formation of the Moon itself. 26_ 1 1 24

Plagioclase is a light mineral and the 18_Pg_ ) 14_15 general interpretation is that the concentration of plagioclase in the outer ,.a.. e6 .,02 regions of the Moon was a result of its Vs crystallization and flotation from a massive "ocean" of molten silicate. We now know that there are many ig- 100 I I I neous rock types in the lunar high- 20 30 40 5O ,'o o ,oo lands other than the very plagioclase- Mg-X- rich ones, and the compositions of the 24

8O chondrites (L group). The carbon- 49 H-group chondrites, and 39 L- or Meteorite Types in the Antarctic LL-group chondrites. Achondrites Meteorite Collections aceous chondrites are generally characterized by a high content of represent five individual classifica- volatile elements and compounds that tions: mesosiderite, ureilite, diogenite, During the past year, meteorites with eucrite, and winonaite. One petrologic masses greater than 150 grams col- include water, sulfur, and rare gases. The most widely accepted classifica- type 2 and one petrologic type 3 car- lected by the joint Japanese-Ameri- bonaceous chondrites are present. can Antarctic expeditions for the field tion of petrologic types of chondrites is based on their chemistries, The 1978-79 collection of 69 speci- seasons of 1977-78 and 1978-79 have mens has been classified and in- mineralogies, and textures. This model been classified at the JSC and at the cludes 31 L- or LL-group chondrites, was proposed in 1967 by VanSchmus Smithsonian Institution. Traditionally, 19 H-group chondrites, 10 irons, 8 meteorites have been classified in the and Wood and assumes a progressive thermal metamorphism (type 6 being achondrites, and 1 carbonaceous broadest sense by the amounts of chondrite. Achondrites are repre- metal and silicate they contain. Thus, the most highly metamorphosed) to account for the textural and chemical sented by 5 polymict eucrites, 1 irons are composed chiefly of metallic aubrite, and 2 ureilites. The car- variations. nickel-iron but may contain silicate in- bonaceous chondrite is petrologic clusions. Stones are composed mainly Stony meteorites without chondrules are termed achondrites. type 2. The histogram (fig. 1) shows of silicates but may contain more than the distribution of the ordinary The achondrites are generally divided 24 percent nickel-iron. The stones can chondrites in the 1977-78 collections be divided into two groups based on into two groups based on calcium con- by chemical group and petrologic their textures: chondrites and tent. Calcium-poor achondrites include the aubrites, diogenites, type. achondrites. Chondrites contain The distribution of chemical groups chondrules, which are spherical to chassignites, and ureilites. The calcium-rich achondrites include within each petrologic type of ordinary subspherical bodies composed mainly chondrites is similar for both collec- of silicates, and range in size from less eucrites, howardites, angrites, and nakhlites. The shergottites are con- tions. The petrologic type 6 specimens than 0.1 millimeter to more than 0.5 are dominated by the L-group sidered to be eucrites by some centimeter. Chondrites are classified chondrites, and the petrologic types 4 researchers but the majority believe by their chemistries and mineralogies. and 5 meteorites are overwhelmingly The amphoterites (LL group) are that they are sufficiently distinct to re- tain the term shergottite. represented by the H-group regarded as a subgroup of the olivine- chondrites. Because of the distinct hypersthene chondrites (L group) by groupings and similarities between in- some researchers, but others regard The complete classified collection of traspecimen and interspecimen com- them as a separate type of ordinary parisons, it is believed that the sam- chondrite with equal stature to the the 1977-78 season consists of 103 meteorites including 7 irons, 2 car- ples represent a limited number of olivine-bronzite chondrites (H group) falls. and the olivine-hypersthene bonaceous chondrites, 5 achondrites,

The 1979-80 collection is comprised of 83 meteorites including 1 iron, 75 chondrites, and 7 achondrites. The Figure 1.--Distribution of Antarctic meteorite collections. chondrites are estimated to range in 2,2 mass from tess than 20 grams to more than 3 kilograms. The iron has a mass r-] 1977 28 of approximately 10 kilograms and is known to have silicate inclusions that O9 • 1978 H are believed to be of orthopyroxene 24 composition. Of the seven achondrites, one is classified as a eucrite, 20 L one as a howardite, and three as either polymict eucrites or howardites. Their masses range from 86.4 grams to 7.1 kilograms. One achondrite (2.8 12 kilograms) is classified as an anomalous diogenite based on its 8 petrographic characteristics. The last H achondrite (7.9 kilograms) is classified as a shergottite and is one of 4 the four known shergottites in the world. It will certainly be of great in- 0 6 5 4 3 terest to the scientific community because much speculation about its PETROLOGIC TYPE origin still remains.

81 Young Meteorites from an have cooled enough so that basaltic Earthlike Parent really formed about 4.6 billion years volcanism has ceased. The Moon is an ago, like other achondrites, and have example of such an object; basaltic simply had their radiometric clocks Meteorites have long been objects of volcanism on the Moon ceased about reset by the heat accompanying curiosity. Centuries ago, stones that 3 billion years ago. Most basaltic asteroid or meteoroid collisions in fell from the sky created sufficient in- achondrites have ages of about 4.6 space. terest among observers to ensure their billion years, showing that their preservation as evidence of a poorly parents were hot near the beginning of understood natural phenomenon. Only the solar system but cooled very Work directed towards solving the relatively recently have scientists rapidly. The early heat source remains nakhlite/shergottite puzzle is currently possessed the analytical tools with a matter of some speculation; underway at the JSC and elsewhere. which to understand the origins of however, rapid cooling is consistent The emphasis has been on the these visitors from space. As a result of with the widely accepted concept that shergottites, only two of which were intensive laboratory studies, it has the asteroid parents for these been shown that most meteorites are known to exist at the beginning of the meteorites are small planetary bodies. study. One, called Shergotty, fell in In- both ancient and primitive. Chemical Some basaltic achondrites, the dia in 1865; another, called Zagami, analysis reveals that the majority of nakhlites and the shergottites, have fell in Nigeria in 1962. A third shergot- stony meteorites are undifferentiated; young radiometric ages. Identification rite-like meteorite was found in the i.e., the relative abundances of non- of their parent planets remains a tan- Antarctic in 1977; it is called Allan volatile elements in these meteorites talizing puzzle. Young basalt ages nor- are close to the relative abundances of Hills 77005. A fourth shergottite-like mally imply a large planet. But which meteorite has recently been identified the same elements in the Sun. Such planet, and how were rocks hurled among meteorites found in the Ant- meteorites are said to be primitive. from its surface into space so that they arctic in 1979; it is called Elephant Radiometric dating of primitive un- might later fall on Earth? The natural differentiated meteorites shows that Moraine A79001. Radiometric dating transport of rocks from the surface of of the first three meteorites has they are nearly 4.6 billion years old. one large planet to the surface of Most other meteorites and some lunar repeatedly yielded young ages. Figure another seems so improbable that 1 shows results obtained by the rocks also are about 4.6 billion years most scientists have sought other ex- rubidium-strontium method. In the old. Although no terrestrial rock is this planations. A favorite alternative hy- representation of figure 1, the rock old, "model ages" can be calculated pothesis is that the meteorites were for the bulk Earth; such ages are also ages are proportional to the slopes of about 4.6 billion years old. Thus, 4.6 billion years is believed to be the age of the solar system. Figure 1 .---Geochronological results obtained by the rubidium-strontium method. Meteorites tell us more about the .73 I I solar system than just its age, however. Each meteorite type was SHERCOT]-Y

formed by a specific set of processes. T = 164£ 12 m.y. Some of the most interesting I 0.72261 _+ 13 meteorites are the basaltic achondrites. They are called basaltic because they are texturally and ZAGAMt chemically similar to terrestrial .72 f 184 ± 8 basalts, which are solidified melts I 0.721:.39 +_ 5 from the interior of the Earth. Spacecraft exploration has shown that ,.ig, basalts occur on the surface of the oo Moon and on the other terrestrial if} r_ planets as well as on Earth. Because Co ALLAN HILLS 77005 basalts are melt products from the in- T ]83__ 12 m.y. teriors of planets, their chemical com- I _ 0.71039 i 5 positions vary with the variations in the bulk composition of their parent planets. The ages of basalts are also controlled by the properties of their parent planets. Thus, large planets that contain large quantities of heat- TBABI : 4.8AE producing elements and that cool slowly have produced basalts over .70, most of the solar system history. Earth, Mars, and Venus are examples of such .5 1 1.5 planets. Smaller planetary bodies 87Rh/86Sr 82 scientific consideration, particularly in the lines and correspond to the data same age has been obtained by the view of a remarkable chemical received when each meteorite was rubidium-strontium, samarium- similarity between the shergottites measured for the various minerals. The neodymium, and 4°argon/39argon tech- and the Martian soil analyzed during rubidium-strontium ages (T) of all niques. The nakhlite age must be con- tile Viking missions. three meteorites are identical within sidered as representing an igneous analytical uncertainty. An average age event. is 177 million years. The slope of the line labeled TBABI = 4.8 AE is close to that expected for a "normal" meteorite The most direct interpretation of the with an age of -- 4.6 billion years (1 radiometric age data for the nakhlites AE = 1 billion years). and shergottites is that igneous melts Ages obtained for the shergottites were formed on a planetary body by the 4°argon/39argon and samarium- about 1 billion years ago. The only neodymium method (two other known objects that produced melts of radiometric techniques) are older than about the right age and composition the rubidium-strontium ages. These are Earth and Mars. The volcanism results, in addition to petrographic evi- presently observed on the Jovian dence of shock metamorphism of the satellite Io is too sulfur-rich to be mineral phases, strongly suggest that linked to the achondrites. Although the the rubidium-strontium age has been nakhlites and shergottites have reset by a major collision. This conclu- chemical affinities to terrestrial sion does not solve the shergottite basalts, they cannot be terrestrial puzzle, however. The samarium- rocks because they have been ex- neodymium model ages of the posed in space for about 2 million shergottites range from 2.8 to 3.6 years as shown by the presence of billion years. These model ages give nuclear reaction products formed by an upper limit to the time since the exposure to cosmic rays. Indeed, the concentration ratio of two rare earth "cosmic-ray exposure" ages of the elements, samarium and neodymium, meteorites are typical for stone was last significantly changed. meteorites, suggesting origin in the Because the chemical behaviors of region of the asteroid belt, i.e., be- samarium and neodymium are very tween Mars and Jupiter. The three similar, it is extremely difficult to possible alternative origins are as change the samarium/neodymium follows. ratio of rocks except by special ig- 1. A giant "asteroid" was totally neous processes. Thus, if the shergot- disrupted less than 1 billion years ago. tires were really 4.6 billion years old, 2. The meteorites were somehow blown off the Martian surface, they should have 4.6 billion years samarium-neodymium model ages. presumably by the impact of a giant Thus, whereas the rubidium-strontium meteoroid on Mars. ages clearly suggest a "metamorphic" 3. The meteorites came from resetting, the samarium-neodymium Phobos or Deimos, the Martian model ages also clearly suggest a satellites. "young" igneous event. Exactly when Hypothesis 1 is ad hoc and not the igneous event occurred is not pre- easily tested. Hypothesis 3 is sently known with certainty. A lower dynamically more plausible than hy- limit of 6 X 108 years ago is obtained pothesis 2; furthermore, the Viking from samarium-neodymium analyses mission has shown that a significant of minerals from the Shergotty portion of Phobos has been blasted meteorite. Geochemical considera- away by a single meteorite impact. A tions suggest that the "whole rock" Phobos origin for the nakhlites and samarium-neodymium age of the shergottites would only push the prob- three analyzed shergottites, about lem back one step as Phobos is far too 1.35 billion years, is both an upper small to have produced late-stage limit and a good approximation of the melts. Perhaps tiny Phobos is a "late" shergottite age. This interpretation will satellite of Mars, having been ejected be strengthened if analyses of the from and subsequently captured by newly recovered shergottite also yield the parent planet. In this case, hy- the same whole rock age. Perhaps potheses 2 and 3 merge, suggesting coincidentally, the nakhlites also have that Mars is the ultimate origin of been dated as being 1.3 billion years nakhlites and shergottites. This old. In the case of the nakhlites, the possibility is now receiving serious 83 Moon Rock Curation the collection are moved into the than 0.0001 millimeter have been vaults on the second floor and the filtered. Employees working in the The prime physical legacy of the vaults are sealed with special water- clean room wear special lint-free gar- Apollo Program is the lunar sample tight covers. The ultimate precaution ments and enter through a succession collection. That collection is not only a to protect the Apollo treasure is the of progressively cleaner change rooms symbol of a major national achieve- storage of a representative 14 percent (fig. 2). ment but is also a scientific resource of the collection in a vault at Brooks Air As a further precaution against that continues to be studied by scien- Force Base in San Antonio, Texas, 320 chemical contamination, materials tists around the world. The 382 kilometers west of JSC. Storing the touching the samples are carefully kilograms of lunar material is the collection in two places assures that controlled. Only objects made of responsibility of the JSC Lunar Sample scientific study can continue should aluminum, stainless steel, or Teflon Curator. Caring for the collection in- an unforeseen disaster strike either of are allowed to come in contact with volves considerations for protection the two repositories. the samples, and the amount of other from natural hazards such as hur- To prevent pilfering and to keep materials inside the cabinets is held to ricanes and tornadoes, theft, vandal- track of the geometric relations be- a minimum. ism, and chemical contamination that tween individual sawed pieces of All the tools, bags, and metal con- could produce subtle changes that rocks and of the depths of individual tainers that enter the glove boxes are would invalidate time-consuming strata in core samples, an elaborate specially cleaned to remove all dust scientific experiments. system of documentation is used. and oily residues. The lunar samples Each step of the splitting up of a rock have tiny amounts of lead (tess than a or core is recorded photographically few parts per million) with an isotopic Protection from natural hazards, theft, and samples are repeatedly weighed composition that is critical in deter- and vandalism is offered by the 18- during processing. The magnitude of mining the age of many rocks. All the inch reinforced concrete walls and the this documentation has grown as the chisels, tweezers, and other steel tools 15-ton vault doors of the Lunar Sample collection has grown, from the 2169 used with the samples are specially Building completed in 1979. To pro- samples actually brought back from washed in diluted acid to remove any tect the samples from the most signifi- the Moon to over 66 000 current sam- adhering lead, in addition to the dust cant natural threat to the Gulf Coast, ples. Each sample must be con- and oily residues. hurricane-induced storm tides and tinuously tracked and accounted for. flooding, all samples are stored in con- Using weight as a guide, 74 percent of tainers on a specially elevated second the collection has never left JSC In the last 2 years, simplified versions floor of the building, 42 feet above sea curatorial custody, 14 percent is stored of the techniques used to curate the level. As an added precaution, when a in San Antonio, 3 percent is currently lunar samples have been applied to hurricane threatens the Houston- loaned to scientific investigators, 5 the meteorites collected from ice Galveston area, key records describ- percent was loaned to investigators fields in Antarctica. ing the processing and subdividing of and then returned to the curator, and 2 percent is on display in various museums and traveling exhibits. Only Figure 1.--Lunar samples are placed inside 2 percent has actually been consumed a series of concentric barriers and con- by scientific investigations. tainers. Lunar samples typically contain significant amounts of metallic iron, virtually no water, and only a fraction of a percent of alkali metals (such as potassium and rubidium found in Figure 2.---Employees working in the clean natural terrestrial materials). room. DASS- qOUCH Therefore, the samples must be con- 'CEL / tinuously protected from the Earth's at- PURE NI[ROGEN mosphere and dust. A series of con- AP_)LLO 1_:,CLOVE BOX centric barriers and containers is placed between the sample and the il A _,_, 30 !mr3 CL EAN R(H3M environment (fig. 1). When stored, each sample is enclosed in three Teflon bags or in a combination of FROM LAB [O SHOW[_ three barriers made of Teflon bags and gCI[ NTIS[ CHANG[ metal containers. The bags are filled ROOM with high-purity nitrogen gas and are 3tl inside stainless steel glove boxes filled with nitrogen that is continuously measured for oxygen and water. The ON AIR ] t'OL'S T cabinets are in a clean room supplied J with air from which all particles larger

84 continental rocks is that the ages form Although typical Archean rocks yield Origin of the Earth's Continental ages of 2700 to 2500 million years, Crust several well-defined peaks (fig. 1). This result has been interpreted as many rocks have been discovered during the past two decades that yield The formation of a differentiated crust evidence for the sporadic growth of the continents; i.e., each peak in the ages as old as 3750 million years. appears to be a commonality in the These older rocks have been dis- age histogram records an episode of development of all rocky and icy covered by the skill of geochronol- continental growth. The age planets. This process is driven by the ogists that enables them to "see tendency of each planet to rid itself of histogram, and thus the continental through" the 2700- to 2500-million- excess internal energy. The origin and growth record, has been traced back year event to an earlier event in a development of the differentiated to a major event between 2700 and rock's history. There are two alterna- crust on Earth, represented by the con- 2500 million years ago. This event tive models (fig. 2) to explain ages tinents, is being investigated. The ex- marks the end of the period of Earth's greater than 3000 million years. In cess internal energy that drives the history known as the Archean. model A, nuclei of continent material formation and development of the The Archean is the time interval existed at 3750 million years and the Earth's continents is the latent heat from the oldest known rocks (3750 common 2700- to 2500-million-year released by the continuous crystalliza- million years ago) to the major conti- ages represent later additions of conti- tion of the inner solid-metal core from nent-making event between 2700 and nental material. In model B, most of the outer liquid-metal core. 2500 million years. Examination of the oldest rocks suggests that continental the 2700- to 2500-million-year-old material existed even earlier. The time terrain existed at 3750 million years interval of continent formation that and the younger age represents a time The two extremes that may be con- when that terrain was thermally predates the oldest rocks known is sidered as working hypotheses for the modified. In a modeI-B world, a Earth's continental crust are (1) the called the Proto-Archean. geochronologist would be able to dis- mass of the continental crust sepa- Evidence has been assembled that cover pre-3000-million-year-old rocks rated from the mantle early in Earth's indicates that the mass of continent in most places in the Archean that history, and (2) the mass of the conti- that separated from the mantle during were investigated in detail. In a nental crust has been separating from the Proto-Archean and the Archean is modeI-A world, geochronologists the mantle in a continuous manner all approximately as great as the mass would expect to discover pre-3000- through Earth's history. The truth must that has separated since the Archean. million-year-old rocks in only a few lie between these two. The objective One important line of evidence is the places in the Archean terrain. The ex- of the ongoing research has been to distribution of rocks that suggests the measured ages do not record the time perience of geochronologists is that, in define the history of the separation of most Archean regions studied in mass from the mantle to form the con- a mass of continental rock was sepa- detail, pre-3000-million-year-old ages tinental crust. This task is complicated rated from the mantle but rather record were discovered. This suggests that because once a continental crust the latest modification of that mass of model B is correct. Thus, the 2700- to forms, it is modified and remodified by continental rock. This is illustrated for Archean rocks in the following argu- 2500-million-year event is one of subsequent geologic events. modification of existing continental A well-known but surprising result ment. material and not one of separation of derived from a histogram of the ages of continental material from the mantle.

Figure 1 .---Distribution of ages in time of Earth's continental crust.

Figure 2.--Two alternative models display- >-b'h AFTER GASTIL, 1960 ing event sequence ages. L_Z ZO

O'< _z

LLc_: LJJ L,J C_L,J ,;"L2k,P_ ,,_ ,"-, ..Jw uJLO

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

AGE (MILLION YEARS) 1 3 4 5 EVENT SEQUENCE

85 Role of Anorthositic Rocks in The work of the past year indicates Studies have demonstrated an unusual Early Evolution of Planetary that anorthositic rocks are common Crusts and consistent average composition in Archean terrains although vol- for several Archean anorthositic com- umetrically minor. At least seven plexes (table 1) suggesting that they Significant contributions to the growth anorthositic complexes occur in the formed from either an unusual source of early planetary crusts are made by Superior Province of the Canadian material or as cumulate complements extrusive and intrusive melts. These Shield and similar units occur in simi- of associated volcanic sequences that melts generally are derived from man- lar settings in Archean terrains of other are derived from more typical mantle tle material and provide the major con- continents. Nearly all of the complexes materials. If the former is true, then the straint for the thermal and chemical have an unusual and distinctive unusual source material may represent history of the mantle during early feldspar texture in the anorthositic heterogeneities in the mantle caused crustal evolution. Formation of melts rocks in which ptagioclase occurs as by very early separation of the Earth's apparently occurs on all planets as in- roughly equidimensional grains rang- crust and mantle. If so, a better under- dicated by samples from the Moon ing from pea to grapefruit size (fig. 1). standing of the early evolution of and Earth and as interpreted from In some cases, various grain sizes are planetary crusts may be gained. remotely sensed data from Mars, mixed; in others, grain size is Venus, and Mercury. On Earth, the oc- homogeneous. This texture is dis- currence of early crustal rocks is tinctly different from that of younger limited only to the Precambrian shield rocks in which plagioclase commonly areas of the continents. The earliest occurs in elongate laths and suggests preserved rocks derived from melts a significantly different history. are the Archean volcanic and associated anorthositic intrusive rocks that formed primarily over the period between 3.7 and 2.7 billion years ago reaching a peak at about 2.7 billion years.

Figures 1 .---Large equidimensional crystals in anorthositic rocks. (a) Golfball-size crystals from the Bad Vermilion Lake intru- sion. (b) Grapefruit-size crystals from a TABLE I.--AVERAGE COMPOSITIONS: ANORTHOSITIC thick sill in Manitoba. COMPLEXES

Fisken- Limpopo, Bad Vermilion Shawmere Sittampundi aesset Messina Lake (OGS (OGS maps (Ramadurai (Windley) (Barton maps and and map, et al.) analyses) analyses) Subramaniam analysis)

S_O 465 49.9 48 4 499 4452 TIP:, 4 3 4 2 .11 AbO, 23.2 24 3 235 241 25 77 FeO* 53 49 6 3 3 8 595 MnO 1 1 3 1 10 MgO 63 5 3 51 57 6 79 CaP 141 126 137 135 1454 Na:O 1 6 20 18 20 1.16 K_O 2 5 1 2 04 P_O_, 05 05 1 05 HI,O ± 9 59 MgO/ 68 66 58 73 MgO + FeO*

86 and then cooled at 2° C/hr, the product Experiments conducted in the experi- The Dynamic Crystallization of contains only olivine and pyroxene in a Basalt mental petrology laboratory at JSC confirmed that the lunar porphyritic matrix of glass (fig. 1). The plagioclase did not crystallize and its chemical When the first basalts were returned basalts did indeed crystallize com- components are still contained in the from the Moon, it was evident that they pletely at or near the lunar surface. glass. If the basalt is melted at a lower were much like terrestrial basalts. The phenocrysts did not represent a temperature so that not all the olivine There were differences, however sub- preeruption phase of the magma histo- and plagioclase have melted before tle, in both chemistry and texture. One ry. Continuation of those initial experi- cooling is initiated at the same 2 ° C interesting difference was that the ments has provided further insight into the histories of lunar basalts and now /hr, the resulting texture is very roles of pyroxene and plagioclase in different (fig. 2). The plagioclase is the texture were reversed in some into terrestrial basalts as well. One of the most important results of well crystallized into elongate crystals rocks. In terrestrial basalts, certain tex- that are somewhat skeletal. The tures are defined by a fretwork of this continued research is the effect of heterogeneous nucleation on the sub- plagioclase forms a fretwork and, plagioclase laths enclosing either because the pyroxene is very fine- glass or pyroxene (intersertal to in- sequent textural development. When cooled at the same rates from a com- grained, the texture is intersertal. To tergranular). In some Apollo 11 obtain such radically different textures plete liquid, terrestrial basalts do not basalts, pyroxene formed the fretwork at the same cooling rate helps to ex- and plagioclase was interstitial or crystallize as readily as do lunar basalts. This is another manifestation plain the greater variety of textures in poikilitic (enclosed the pyroxene). of the chemical differences between terrestrial basalts compared to those This reversal is a direct result of a near on the Moon. This phenomena will reversal in the model amounts of the two groups of basalts. The lunar basalts are far less viscous and also help explain the existence of very pyroxene and plagioclase in the thick basalt flows on Earth that have basalt. therefore crystallize more readily. Thus, it is for terrestrial basalts that the finer-grained textures than they should Some Apollo 12 and 15 basalts are have based on cooling rates that can porphyritic basalts; i.e., large crystals presence of heterogeneous nuclei is so important. These nuclei need not be predicted from thermal-cooling of pyroxene and/or plagioclase models. Either a very high density of enclosed in a finer grained matrix of be large and in most cases are below the resolution of the ordinary preexisting nuclei or a total absence of more plagioclase and pyroxene. This nuclei (should they be reluctant to was an important difference from the petrographic microscope. Their presence can be strongly argued, nucleate) will result in fine-grained Apollo-11 basalts because pheno- however, based on the textures ob- textures at slow cooling rates. crysts definitely indicated a more complex preeruption history for the served in the experiments. basaltic magma, much like basalts on Plagioclase, even though it is usually the dominant mineral in ter- The study of the crystallization Earth. The phenocrysts, however, were behavior of rock magmas is continuing not like those commonly seen in terrestrial basalts, is the most reluctant mineral to nucleate. In the basalt with the hope that at some future time restrial basalts. They were skeletal to the histories of rocks can be read from dendritic and showed complex and studied most extensively, olivine is the their textures; i.e., the physical path extensive chemical zoning. Such first mineral to appear on cooling from their birth to their current resting features were not compatible with the (1198 ° C), followed by plagioclase (1187 ° C) and pyroxene (1133 ° C). If places as well as their chemical evolu- slow growth typically associated with tion. phenocrysts at depth in the Earth, but the basalt is melted above the liquidus rather implied that the crystals grew at, e.g., 1215 ° C, so that all crystals rapidly on or near the lunar surface. (whether visible or not) have melted

Figure 1.--Basalt melted above the liquidus Figure 2.mBasalt melted at a lower tem- so that all crystals have melted and then perature so that not all the olivine and cooled at 2° C/hr, resulting in a product plagioclase have melted before cooling, containing olivine and pyroxene. resulting in a very different texture.

87 Antarctic Dry Valleys: Terrestrial In order to better study the properties Preliminary findings indicate that the Analog of the Martian Surface of planetary regoliths, a large suite of samples collected from regions sur- soils, rocks, and cores was collected rounding evaporite ponds show sulfur The Dry Valleys of Antarctica probably from Wright and Taylor Dry Valleys lo- abundances similar to those observed represent the best terrestrial analog of cated in southern Victoria Land, Ant- on the Mars surface at both the Viking the surface of Mars. The Dry Valleys arctica. The suite of samples was col- 1 and 2 landing sites. The soils are are similar to the Martian surface in the lected using techniques developed for enriched in sulfur (up to 4 to 6 per- following manner: low temperatures collection of the lunar samples. Frozen cent) immediately beneath the sur- and humidities, diurnal freeze-thaw samples were returned to JSC and face and depleted above and below cycles (even during daylight hours), their initial characterization is under- the enrichment zone. It is believed low annual precipitations, desiccating way in the geoscience laboratories of that the enrichment in sulfur repre- winds, oxidizing environment, high the Planetary and Earth Sciences sents deposition of evaporite minerals sublimation and evaporation rates, Division. during the percolation of ground high-radiation environments, tow waters toward the surfaces. Similar magnetic fields, absence of higher life processes are believed to occur on the forms, and irregular distribution and Martian surface resulting in the salt tow abundances of soil microorgan- deposits observed by the landers. isms. The Viking landers have shown Thus, there is good reason to expect that the surface of Mars is similar to that further study of the collected suite those surfaces observed in the Dry of Dry Valley soils will provide impor- Valleys of Antarctica (fig 1). tant information that will assist in the understanding of the data returned from the Viking landers.

Figure 1.--Surface observed in the Dry Valleys of Antarctica.

88 inert substrate. Furthermore, a sub- The primary objective of the chemistry The Chemistry of strate material that is not an important Micrometeoroids of micrometeoroids experiment is to characterize the chemical composi- element in cosmochemical modeling tion of interplanetary dust. Secondary and meteorite studies had to be A significant dust population exists in selected. Finally, a ductile material re- the inner solar system, prominently objectives focus on the total particle flux and some selected physical prop- tains proiectile remnants much more manifested, for example, by the zodia- efficiently than do brittle substances. cal cloud, visible meteoroid showers, erties such as the bulk density and shape of individual particles. For an anticipated exposure time of and small-scale impact phenomena about 15 months, a total of approx- on lunar surface materials. The origin Gold surfaces totaling approximately 10 square feet will be exposed imately 50 microimpacts are ex- of these particles is of great planetary pected, ranging in size from 20 to 100 interest and current studies include to the natural micrometeoroid environment onboard the Long Duration Ex- micrometers in diameter; the projec- time-of-flight spacecraft experiments, tile remnants may be as small as posure Facility (LDEF) (fig. 1). Upon astronomical observations, lunar 10 -_° to 10 -_2 grams. They will be microcrater analysis, and dynamical impact, the dust particles will create a hypervelocity crater and remnants of analyzed primarily with scanning studies relating to the evolution of their electron microscopes and energy-dis- orbits. the projectile will reside in the crater bottom. Upon return to Earth, these persive X-ray techniques. projectile remnants will be analyzed Assembly of the experiment is by a variety of microanalytical tech- completed. Parts of the flight accept- The planetary interest is based pri- ance tests were accomplished and the marily on the fact that a significant niques. The primary reasons for using gold as a collector surface consist of experiment should soon be flight- fraction of these particles originated rated. The Long Duration Exposure from comets. Another prominent the requirements to have a high-purity substrate to maximize the signal-to- Facility launch is presently scheduled source area may be the asteroid belt for late 1984. and a small fraction may even be of in- noise ratio during the analytical in- terstellar origin. Each of the above vestigations and to have a chemically sources may yield materials that are mineralogically and chemically different from all other extraterrestrial materials currently available for analysis in terrestrial laboratories. Although exact proportions of these three sources in the makeup of the interplanetary dust population are pres- Figure 1.---Schematic layout of the chemistry of micrometeoroids experiment. A clamshell-type ently unknown, it is generally agreed arrangement is used to open and close the collector doors that house the gold plates. One that comets must be the major con- clamshell is illustrated in an open position; the second is in a closed position. Electronic se- tributor. On close solar approach, com- quencers will initiate opening and closing of the doors a few days after Shuttle deployment and ets release gases as well as solids; the a few days before redocking for retrieval. This assures maximum protection from various con- taminants during ground handling, launch, deployment, and retrieval. Part of one opened door solids are manifested in "dust tails." shows rows of small collectors made for experimental purposes. These collectors consist of Because comets primarily consist of high-purity graphite, aluminum, beryllium, and various plastic products. frozen volatiles, they must have originated at different pressure/temperature conditions during solar nebula condensation than did the inner planets, which are characterized by relatively refractory elemental composition. Therefore, comparison of cometary "solids" with materials from the inner planets becomes fundamental in defining boundary conditions for the early solar system.

89 Remote Sensing of Lunar Rock differences between the two sites at 1 centimeter -_ and the region Composition by Infrared were emphasized. Measurement around 1050 centimeters-_ is com- The difference spectrum between pletely screened by atntospheric the central peak of Tycho and the ozone. The existence of weak reststrahlen Apollo 1t site is shown in figure 1, Of particular interest in this bands in the 8- to 14-micrometer along with a laboratory spectrum of a spectrum is the weak band near 820 spectrum of the Moon was demon- feldspar-rich lunar soil sample. centimeters -_. This band is not found strated during the previous reporting Apollo 11 was chosen as a in bulk samples of feldspar but does year. This past year, additional reference site because the old glass- appear in feldspar powders when the measurements were made to verify rich powder at this site should have particle size is reduced below approx- the results and to develop improved few, if any, spectral features. Tycho is imately 50 micrometers. methods for the detection of the weak a relatively fresh crater and young bands. crystalline rocks should be exposed there. Hence, most of the structure in Thus, the lunar infrared spectra are the difference spectrum is assumed to determined not only by mineral com- The best technique was found to be a be from Tycho. position but also by particle size. More differential measurement. The This lunar difference spectrum was laboratory and theoretical work on the difference spectrum was measured measured at a spectral resolution (1 emission spectra of powdered between two lunar sites when the centimeter -1 ) high enough to permit minerals is needed before lunar local lunar Sun angle was such that the lunar continuum spectrum to be they were at the same calculated tem- spectra of this kind can be fully in- seen between the water lines. terpreted. perature. In this way, spectral However, ozone lines are not resolved

Figure 1 .---Spectrum of difference between two lunar sites.

2.0

1.8

1.6

ARONSON etal. (1979) 1.4

1.2 DIFFERENTIAL RADIANCE 1.0 W/cm2ster cm -1 x 10 6

0 750 850 950 1050 1150 1250

WAVENUMBER or. -1

90 human system involved concern about Advanced Hyperthermia System NASA technology could be applied, and the Foundation contributed funds safe and reliable performance. A team for the purchase of the necessary of engineers, scientists, and represen- The advanced hyperthermia system tatives of the JSC Safety, Reliability, was a joint program involving NASA hardware. In mid-1978, JSC signed a and Quality Assurance Division helped and the Stehlin Foundation for Cancer monitor and review the overall design Research. The objective of the project Memorandum of Understanding with and performance. In January 1980, the was to employ NASA expertise toward the Stehlin Foundation for Cancer Research at St. Joseph's Hospital in team delivered an experimental the development of an improved heat- human treatment system to St. ing system that would be used by the Houston, Texas, outlining the responsibilities of both organizations and Joseph's Hospital. Foundation in the treatment of certain The radiofrequency system for types of cancer. defining the technical support of JSC. The challenge for JSC engineers human treatment uses a gradual was to improve radiofrequency heat- buildup of power to a preselected value. Two pairs of sequentially driven Over the years, it has been demon- ing techniques used at the Stehlin electrodes provide more concentration strated that hyperthermia has been Foundation. The first step was to of radiofrequency power at the tumor successful in certain cancer therapies. develop a machine for treatment of and disperse heat at the skin. A feed- Tumor cells were found to be more small animals (fig. 1). The small- back control that allows regulation of sensitive to killing than normal cells animal experimental system that was temperatures within a specific area to when heat was applied. There is less developed provided valuable data on an accuracy of 0.2 ° C was also blood flow (for heat transport) in solid applicator size and shape in addition designed. One area of concern was tumors than in normal tissue, leading to determining tolerable temperatures. A notable feature of the system was the heating of the skin below the to greater heating for these tumor electrodes that, in some cases, cells. Even partial regressions of the ability to apply up to 50 watts at caused burns. The solution was to cir- tumors were observed where they five frequencies from 3 to 30 culate temperature-controlled water were previously inoperable. The megahertz. The small-animal system through metal tubing soldered onto the Stehlin Foundation for Cancer also assisted in establishing human back of flexible electrodes. A data Research has been using hyperther- protocols and studying the effects of printer added to the system records mia over the past 15 years with dra- hyperthermia at the cell level. temperatures and power levels as a matic results. However, the present function of time. The human radiofre- systems have several basic disadvan- quency system has been used suc- tages. The Foundation solicited After a year of tests on mice, JSC cessfully on several cancer patients. NASA's support toward reducing or developed an advanced radiofrequen- eliminating these problems. Prelimin- cy hyperthermia system for treatment ary background efforts indicated that of humans (fig. 2). Developing the

Figure 1 ._mall-animal experimental Figure 2.--Advanced radiofrequency hyperthermia system for treatment o! humans. system.

91 Linear Accelerator for Human Dr. David Anderson of the Kresge Actual experimental use of this linear Vestibular Research Hearing Research Institute at the acceleration system has been limited University of Michigan, because of his during the period from July 1979 to the NASA has long been interested in experience in the design and fabrica- present. During this time, considerable developing tests that assess the tion of moving platform systems for the effort was expended in implementing effects of extended zero-gravity space measurement of posturat mechanisms the various system improvements pre- flight on the vestibular system of in man (fig. 1), was contracted to viously defined and in conducting flightcrews. On the basis of limited design and develop a human linear various functional checkouts. The flight data and fairly extensive ground- accelerator for use at JSC The linear system has also been used to conduct based laboratory data, it is widely ac- accelerator system was delivered to pilot studies to evaluate the effects of cepted that alterations in the otolith JSC in June 1979. The system con- linear acceleration on vestibulo-spinal receptors of the inner ear are primarily sists of several fundamental compo- reflexes in man. Plans for ever- responsible for the vestibular disturb- nents. A platform upon which the sub- increasing use of the system will be ances (including space motion sick- ject seat or restraint system is located made to conduct linear acceleration ness) observed in about 40 percent of rides on two parallel steel rods. The experiments with humans. These ex- U.S. astronauts and Soviet cos- platform is connected via a cable- periments will directly support the im- monauts. Therefore, investigations of drive assembly to a dc torque motor plementation of Spacelab 1 Experi- otolith function, both in the terrestrial mounted at one end of the frame. The ment 1NS-104, "Adaptation of and weightless space flight environ- system incorporates an electronic Vestibuto-Spinal Reflex Mechanisms ments, will probably significantly package that contains a power During Space Flight," as will a similar enhance our understanding of vestibu- transformer, a power supply, a ser- flight experiment tentatively planned lar function in zero gravity. Such voamplifier, and a controller interface for the first dedicated life sciences studies should also provide insight for connection to a LSI-11 micro- Spacelab. Certain phases of these regarding the etiology of space sick- processor. The frame of the accelera- ground-based support experiments ness and contribute to the develop- tor is 12 feet long and 3 feet wide and will be conducted during parabolic ment of methods for controlling this the displacement of the accelerator flight, representing the first time that a potentially debilitating syndrome. platform is approximately 8 feet peak- precision linear acceleration device Different testing procedures have to-peak. It is capable of achieving ac- has been flown in such an environ- been used to apply meaningful stimuli celerations up to 0.5g over a frequency ment. The linear accelerator will also to the otolith receptors in man. These range of approximately 0.18 to 5.0 be evaluated for its ability to evoke include static tilt, the use of four-pole hertz. The accelerator can be pro- symptoms of motion sickness. If early swings, and short periods of altering g- gramed to deliver constant g (ramp), studies of this type are successful, the forces achieved with parabolic flight. sinusoidal or.pseudorandom linear dis- device will be increasingly used to Although much can be learned by placement. Following delivery to JSC, evaluate susceptibility to motion sick- these techniques, it is of great value to the linear accelerator was "rug- ness and to evaluate the efficacy of use precisely controlled and program- gedized" for use on the KC-135 zero- antimotion-sickness medications. In mable linear acceleration. It was with gravity airplane and a number of sub- general, the human linear acceleration this objective in mind that the ject/operator safety devices were device has added a significant dimen- Neurophysiology Laboratory at JSC added. Several computer programs sion to the JSC Neurophysiotogy elected in March 1978 to develop a have been written for controlling the Laboratory's ability to investigate man-rated linear acceleration device device in various operating modes. vestibular function, especially otolith for ground-based vestibular research. receptor function in man.

Figure 1.-.-Linear accelerator system for human vestibular research.

92 volts) and its less-abundant high- Nuclear Cardiology Imaging bar at the right. An on-line computer was used to locate the wall perimeter energy photons can be resolved. In System of the phantom. Computer software collaboration with Baylor College of has also been developed to determine Medicine, good quality images have The multiwire proportional counter been produced by tantalum-178 using (MWPC) is a modern instrument used the stroke profile (volume versus time correlation) and ejection fraction. The both multicrystal and Anger cameras. for detection of ionizing radiation. It is These cameras are the imaging accuracy of these measurements has widely used in research applications devices most used in clinical nuclear for accurate high-speed position been validated for various ejection fraction values, pulse rates, and stroke cardiology. The tantalum-178 studies measurements of ionizing radiation. A included static and dynamic imaging, volumes. sophisticated yet simple technique for ejection fraction, and wall motion and electronic readout of this instrument A method was recently developed for production of a radionuclide sensitivity measurements. The quan- was developed for space research at titative results have been compared generator that provides a continuous JSC and is currently being adapted for with those obtained using tech- medical imaging applications. The supply of the short half-life isotope tantalum-178 (T_/2 = 9.3 min). This netium-99. Technetium-99 (half life, 6 very high rate capability of this tech- makes possible the application of this hr) is the commonly used radionuclide nique, combined with its simplicity in clinical angiocardiography studies. and low cost, offers the possibility of a isotope as a nuclear medicine tracer. Tantalum-178 is nearly optimum for significant advance in certain areas of nuclear medicine where high-speed use with the multiwire proportional counter. Tantalum's attractive intrinsic Collaborative agreements have been imaging of dynamic radioisotope dis- features include its short half-life, made with E R. Squibb Research In- tributions within the body is required. stitute and Harvard Medical School to A prototype device currently in opera- which permits repeat studies at short intervals, and very low radiation ex- test NASA-produced tantalum-178 to tion at JSC has demonstrated this po- improve the safety, reliability, and tential and a refined device is nearing posure compared with currently used clinical radionuclides. A 100-millicurie yield of the tungsten-tantalum genera- completion and should allow medical tors. These studies will validate the testing on human subjects in 1981. tantalum-178 generator has been produced at JSC from tungsten-178 (the use of tantalum in human studies with generator parent isotope) which was particular emphasis on nuclear medicine research uses. Applications of the JSC multiwire pro- furnished by Lewis Research Center. Eluent from this generator was used to It is expected that combined ap- portional counter in the field of nuclear plication of MWPC imaging tech- cardiology are particularly promising. perform the phantom tests. In addition to the MWPC applica- nology and tantalum-178 to the In the nuclear cardiology technique, a nuclear cardiology field will open new radioactive tracer is injected and the tion, tantalum-178 has potential application for use with commercially areas of diagnostic capability and im- passage of the tracer through the heart prove techniques already being exten- is viewed with the MWPC imaging available imaging devices if inter- ference between its low-energy pri- sively used with existing cameras and device. By making rapid sequential isotopes. images that are stored and manipu- mary photons (54 to 65 kiloelectron- lated by an on-line computer, the device can obtain measurements of great diagnostic value, such as determination of ventricular stroke volume and ejection fraction and observation of heart chamber wall motion ir- regularities. The dynamic imaging capability of Figure 1.--The MWPC camera produced these stop-action views of the phantom as it con- the prototype device has been tested tracted and expanded through one cycle. (a) Radiation intensities observed by the MWPC using a cardiac phantom. This phan- camera. (b) Wall perimeter of a cardiac phantom. tom was specially designed and constructed at JSC; it consists of a fluid- filled rubber bag with a volume that can be rapidly modulated to simulate the human left ventricle. Tests have been conducted in which a radioactive tracer was injected into the bag, which was pulsed at 60 beats per minute from a diastolic volume of 140 milliliters to a systolic volume of 0 milliliters. The MWPC camera was used to produce 16 stop-action views of the ,phantom (fig. 1). The radiation intensities observed by the camera are interpreted by using the color-coded 93 Mobile Biological Isolation The mobile biological isolation system System taches directly to one of the patient's consists of a bioisolation unit or suit isolation bubbles. This allows the pa- assembly and a pushcart transporter tient to don and doff the suit without tn January 1974, a request was (fig. 1) that carries a life support ever coming in contact with the non- received from the Baylor College of system. The mobile biological isola- sterile outside environment or outer Medicine outlining a need for a germ- tion system is divided into three sub- surface of the garment. A 2-foot free suit system for use by a 2-1f2- systems: suit and air supply, mechani- sheath was fabricated on the back of year-old child who was afflicted with a cal, and electrical power. the garment. After subject entry, the severe immunization deficiency and The suit and pressure-retention as- sheath is simply rolled shut and strap- had lived in a germ-free carefully con- sembly is of one-piece construction ped in place. structed room (bubble) since birth. and consists of a neoprene-coated A lightweight overgarment of The objective of the ensuing program nonporous nylon bladder to which are porous nylon (Nomex) -- similar to was to develop a mobile biological permanently attached a soft that used in certain outer layers of the isolation system for use by patients transparent plastic helmet, rubber Gemini space suit -- is worn over the with immunization deficiency or gloves, and boots. The configuration suit and affords additional protection aplastic anemia or who were undergo- supplied to the Texas Children's Hos- against abrasion, puncture, and fire. ing chemical therapy or organ pital, Baylor College of Medicine, in- The tunnel is sheathed with a material transplant, requiring their confinement cludes a permanently attached tunnel to laminar-flow isolation facilities. identical to that used for the pressure and adapter ring assembly that at- garment and this sheathed configuration serves as a tether during patient excursions. Ambient air, filtered to 0.3 micrometer via a high-efficiency particle-accumulator filter, is blown into the helmet by one of three (two redundant, one emergency backup) ventila- Figure 1.--The mobile biological isolation system consists of a suit assembly, a pushcart tor fan assemblies, circulated over the transporter, and a life support system. body for cooling, and exited at the ankles under positive pressure. A typical lawnmower frame, wheels, handles, and brakes serve as the basic transporter unit on which mechanical and electrical equipment is mounted. A seat is provided together with a swing arm to allow the patient to ride on the transporter or to walk alongside within the l O-foot radius of the suit tunnel

94 The electricalpowersystemin- Twonew largersuitsare being growthand permittinghim to wear cludestwoblowers,twomotors,two developedfor the patientat Texas betterfittingshoesorsneakers.Anew Children'sHospitalandareexpected helmetmaterialanddesignincreases 12-voltbatteries,andthecircuitryre- opticalqualitiesandvisibility.Theair- quiredtoutilizepowerfromastandard tobecompletedbylate1980.Results householdelectricaloutletora motor ofgrowthstudieswereincorporatedto spraydesignisalsoimprovedtoallow increasetheoverallweartimeof the betterdispersionof carbondioxide vehiclecigarettelighter.Duringnor- and to eliminatevisorfogging.The maloperation,thebatteriesarecon- suits.Newmaterialsarebeingused nectedin parallel.Thesystemwas thatallowstrongerseamsandeasier outergarmenthasbeenredesignedto designedto supporta 4-houroutside fabrication.Glovematerialhasbeen giveacasualdenimlookwithpockets excursionasaminimum(fig.2).Addi- changedfromneopreneto dipped largeenoughto accommodatemany tionaltimeis permissibleaspatient latextoallowgreatertactilityanddex- articles.Perhapsthegreatestimprove- comfortandenduranceallow.(Addi- terity.Bootsarenolongerpartof the mentisachangefromthepreviousex- legassembly.Thenewconceptpro- haustportstoamorereliabletypethat tional emergencyequipmentand iseasilyreplaceable. reconfigurationoptionsareavailableto videsatubesockaspartofthelower thequalifiedoperator.) leg, allowingthe subjectroomfor

Figure 2.---Supported by the mobile biological isolation system, the patient is able to go on an excursion.

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