SAR I N I A

I N ANCIENT TIMES

I - IER M A E S . OUCI I . . j , . “ AUTHOR op S PAI N UND ER ms ROMAN E MPI RE S YRI A As A ROMAN PROV I NCE

OXFORD

B . H . BLAC KW E LL , BROAD STRE E T

1 9 1 7 NEW YORK

D NGM NS GR D URTH V U O A N AN CC . FO A N . EE . E E. AND THIRTIETH STREET CONTE NTS

CHAN T" INTROD UCTION

THE pRE meRI c AGE

D Y — P P II . LEGEN AR HIS TORY NATIVE EO LES

TH III . E CARTHAGINIAN S UPREMACY

I U P D U AND M V . NAT RAL RO CTS COM ERCE

' THE P B pR N V . RE U LICAN v cE

VI . CARALES

V I I Y MP E . THE EARL E IR

O S D V III . THE CHIEF CITIES F AR INIA

MP IX. THE LATER E IRE

U AND S X . ARCHITECT RE THE ART

XI G . RELI ION

BIBLIOGRAPHY IND EX

S A R D I NI A I N A NC I E NT T I M E S

INTROD UCTION

THE features of interest presented by a small and poor provincenecessarily differ from thoseof one O

ERRATA.

’

. 22 or atrr éi read p , f e em rea d Pa ro m. . note1 or Para p 5 5 , , f e last l n in er t beoreootnot . . i e s p 7 5 , , 3 f f

ea d S evins. . 1 0 note1 or S ervius r p 4 , , f 1 n e or r 0 . 0 o t 1 ea d p 9 , 3 , f 3 3 . 1 lin 1 r r 8 e 2 ead 0 . . o 80 p 4 , , f 5 59 eontolo ia read aletno . 1 8 1 last lin eof first a ra ra h or al p , p g p , f p g p lo ia g .

1 2 firs lineof s c n ara ra h or mediaevaleread medioe . 8 t eo d p , p g p , f vale .

' pn rmn vc m m o r wmc n t n c arc i n t cC Lu r cu a rm ar s c rema ns arenumerous and var ed for the ti ti i i , flourishing Phoenician colonies which fringed the sou ern and western s ores dur n several centur es th h i g i , and for theproof heregiven of thestimulating and consolidating effect Of Roman ruleeven amidst n r mis n s d s or ar h sland rs u p o i g urroun ing . N et ei e

S A R D I NI A I N A NC I E NT T I M E S

INTROD UCTION

THE features of interest presented by a small and po or provincenecessarily differ from thoseof one f o f thegreat and profitabledependencies o Rome. NO l ter r sc ool h ad its or ns in ard n a no l ne i a y h igi S i i , i o f emperors; n or did any religious or other in flu ences eend from ereover the oman orl xt h R w d . Fr omtheend Of thePunic wars down to theVandal c o n ues theml ar hi s or is uneven ful and the q t i it y t y t , ar chaeological remains areso far fromimposing that therecent historian of theRoman municipal system remarks: NO possessions ever held by Romeshow ’ - f to day so few traces o her ascen dency . Yet Sardinia merits theattention which has been [ a d al an and o er arc aeolo s s ali efor the p i by It i th h gi t , k primitivecivilization Of which thearchitectural and ar s c remai ns arenumerous and var ed for the ti ti i , flourishing Phoenician colonies which fringed the s u ern and wes ern s ores dur n several centur es o th t h i g i , and for theproof heregiven of thestimulating and consolidating effect Of Roman ruleeven amidst un romis n s rr und s or ar th slan r p i g u o ing . N e ei des Introduction

ms wor d h u lders of the elves un thy of stu y . T eb i thereat fortresses and seulc res thedes ners Of g p h , ig theua n ron efi ures an mal s and vo ves s q i t b z g , i , ti hip , r meresav s h d n nc l weenot age. They a an i vi ib e loveof freedom an d for cen ur es w s ood vas l , t i ith t t y su er or armes disla n a mar al s ri ch p i i , p yi g ti pi t whi has again characterized theSardinian regiments in thestruggleto redeem their coun trymen from r n r s n s ld in s in Aust ia Opp esion. Evewhen o gang the oman slave- mar e t e ma n ta ned er R k t , h y i i th i fieceand un end n demean r I n h M r b i g ou . t e iddle Ages their local republics wereamong thefew examples of that typeof government then in exist l ence. ast ard n a theonl remnan of free L y, S i i , y t Italy during theNapoleonic régime,gaveits name to the n dom h c en foren nd do es ki g w i h, wh ig a m tic ran s had een eelled was to em racetheen re ty t b xp , b ti nation . For thephilologist theisland dialect has a special n eres as reservin man a n forms nd i t t , p g y L ti a words ess corru ed t an omeor en l ve lorencesel pt h R F it f . Sardinian history was first put on something of a scientific basis by Manno and sometwenty years later thetravels of La Marmora led to the den ifica on of a rea num er of oman s es i t ti g t b R it , an d thecataloguing of theremains of antiquity of Th s as c var ous nds. een u anon ano i ki th i ti C Sp , ed or of thelocal ma a neBulletino Archeolo ico it g zi , g do for man ears carr ed on thesames ud ar . S , y y i t y Nearly 600 Latin inscriptions wereready for the tenth volumeof theCorpus I nscriptiomcm Lati n . 2 Introduction amm This number has been greatly in creased su seen d scover es em d ed for the by b qu t i i , bo i

' ’ most ar in theNotzz iedei S cam and oen c an p t , Ph i i scr s l is in iption havereceived c oseattention . It unnecessar d ell on thela ours of ais a roni y to w b P , P t , Nissa rdi n a Taramelli and er al ans , Pi z , , oth It i , besides representatives of theBritish School at Th c r m a en car Rome. eprehistori eains h veb e e ull eam ned and o ra ed and a c vl a on f y x i phot g ph , i i iz ti has been brought to light contemporaneous with

at -of the cenaean eles and a ar en l th My p op , pp t y o s ss n a h m eer p s ei g sometraderel tions wit the. Wh th s c vl a n was s a c fr can or er an is thi i i iz tio A i ti , A i , Ib i , still disputed ; and as only theconclusion of a trained arc aeolo s is of an we averefrained h gi t y ight , I h from e r ss n defin eo n Th m xp ei g a it pi ion . e ost ro a levew is er a s a ard n a was c l n p b b i , p h p , th t S i i o o iz ed a s ccess n of mm ran s fr m fr ca by u io i ig t o A i , who had been previously brought into contact with the as ern ed erranean races lethes r n E t M it , whi t o g Iberian tradition may b edueto early connections with therich commercial tribeof Tartessians who ccu ed ou ern n Thealanc of a r o pi S th Spai . b e utho ity is now rather agai nst theidentification Of the Shardina (a body of mercenaries who fought at first a a ns and af er ards in the a of ameses g i t t w p y R II . of Egypt in thefourteenth century with the

ard n an s e er eforeor after er selemen , S i i , ith b th i tt t

' in theisland . Their costumeand arms areclearly

ortra ed in ean an monumen s b ut I ' p y xt t Egypti t , ( O not closely resemblethoseof theSardinian bronz es 3 Introduction

For theh s r c er od our nf rma ion is scan i to i p i i o t ty , es ec all en a er theclose theec nd p i y wh , ft of S o Punic W ar ardin a ceased to avem r , S i h uch st ategic im portance; and under theEmpireits history is l nscr o largey a blank . I ipti ns and excavations of buildings havedonesomething to provethat the coast districts werethen theseats Of activecom mercial and mn n o ula ns i i g p p tio , with public and r va eed fices of somes eand eau and at p i t i iz b ty, th the s er ell d elo e rr art w ew ev p d . I haveca ied the narra ed n to a ou A D 600 v . . a er od e ti ow b t , p i wh n theleers of o e reor the rea wh o c tt P p G g y G t , om leted theevan el in of thesland llus ra ethe p g iz g i , i t t working of Byzantineadministration in a province which long remained themost westerly outpost of m theimperial real s. is er a s wor recallin how cer a n It , p h p , th g t i a r c slanders el eved b econnec ed h p t ioti i , b i to t wit d ssa sfied w thescan record of Oristano, i ti ith ty o mes o ards themddleof thelas cen R man ti , t w i t tury produced a number of pseudo-mediaeval es in a n or thear d d alec chronicles and po m L ti S i t .

’ ollec n named theCodici dz Arborea from This c tio , , thetitleof a mediaeval j udgeship in theterritory e rofessed to or na ewas ub of which th y p igi t , p lished in a splendid quarto volumewith facsimiles 86 and v a ed muc of the s or cal or in 1 3 , iti t h hi t i w k ardin an oes and s or ans of the of that era . S i p t hi t i e ere en firs made nown unex Roman ag w th t k , pected light was thrown on thebuildings and an ti uities Of var us c es and r m theseven h q io iti , f o t 4 I ntroduction century of our era theislan d was proved to have een thesea of an advanced cul ure its own b t t , with l i n 1 8 0 did a com art er and s r . n , po t y , hi to y O y 7 mitteeOf theBerlin Academy definitely establish the or hlessness of eser duc ons hic w t th p o ti , with w h somereal mediaeval legal papers had been cleverly mixed up. To turn to other deceptions: theearly bronze figures began to attract theattention Of art students ef retheend hee eent cen ur and the b o of t ight h t y, oen c an ma es as e ere en ou to Ph i i i g , th y w th th ght b e ereea erl s af er ama eurs so muc , u , w g y o ght t by , t h so that a considerabletradegrew up in forged fi r s s r s l r a s r gu e. Theea edistingui hab eby thei b t use s m ol m d di r ed r r on en n y b is an sto t p opo ti s. G ui e fi ures arecoarsel and noran l eecu ed b ut g y ig t y x t , arenot n en nall ro es ueand do not for i t tio y g t q , , eam les o add nal eads on the reas s or x p , h w itio h b t l rs e an s u de or nec s s a ed l ea sna . of ho , k h p ik k M y thefor en es ares ll in es enceand is l le g ti xi t , it itt over thirty years sincea number wereremoved fr m themuseum of a l ar thec ef res or o C g i i, hi po it y f r s an d an e o i l tiqu s. Thediscovery of supposed relics of local saints and mar r s and thecom os on of leends c ty , p iti g on cern n em o far er ac and erees ec all i g th , g th b k , w p i y revalen in theseven een cen ur en the p t t th t y, wh paucity of trustworthy in formation about theearly rc cam t Chu h eo b erealized . I n this sketch I haveavoided controversial sub ects nd thec a er on the rehis r c A e j , a h pt P to i g is 5 Introduction littleb ut a description of someof thechief classes f n Th s i r O a tiques. eearly hi tory of theMed te ranean orld is onl slo l en evlved and the w y w y b i g o , placeoccupied by Sardinia cannot b eregarded as er a For th un c and oman er ods c t in . eP i R p i I have alluded to mos of therec rded s or cal even s t o hi t i t , no c n s meof themorem r an nscr ons ti i g o i po t t i ipti , and descr fe r s art O urc ibing a w wo k of . n Ch h s or avesa d li leece as an llus ra on hi t y I h i tt , x pt i t ti f nd t o r l r o co i i ns undetheateempire. I n thefoo no es a num er w ou an refi t t , b ith t y p x refers to theinscriptions in thesecond part of the

’ tenth volumeof theCorpus I nscrzfitiomcm Lati n m dited mm S heNot z i m e sen N. a . t i edei , by Mo ; , to ’ S cam an arc aeolo cal ma az ne l s ed m n l , h gi g i pub i h o th y m d m d i by theRo an Acca eia eLincei .

a ea a to an Mr . . G v n endrew . I h g i th k W K , MA l s nin a a for kind y deig g m p. CHAPTER I

THE PR EHI STOR IC AGE

Conderecm erun t ur es a rcem uelocat e p b , q ’ Praesidiu rees i si s i erfu ium ue m g p ib p g q .

LUORE r rus.

BEFORE considering thehistory and civilization of ardin a in anc en t mes ma b edes ra le S i i t i , it y i b , without entering on a technical discussion of the remai ns of the eol c and ron e es to ve N ithi B z Ag , gi a short description of theprincipal classes of early monumen s add n a few conclus ons s to the t , i g i a s c al s f l m o i tateO thepeop eto who they weredue. Themost striking artificial featurein theland scapeis theseries Of conical towers with accessory uild n s Of en 60 eein e t en com lee b i g , t f t h igh wh p t , ra i o stan d h useof man known asma gh . N twith ing t e y Of em as uarr es ne our n vlla ers e th q i by ighb i g i g , th y s ll num er eeen t reeand four ousand su ti b b tw h th , g s a l r geting a geb ut scattered population in earlytimes. Thetowers weresufficiently conspicuous to attract theattention of Greek travellers beforetheRoman ccu a on and em e wereattr u ed o p ti , by th th y ib t to 1 l d r l r olaus and aedal us theegen a y Greek sett es I D . uc u ld n s ereused as s re uses were S h b i i g , th to ho ,

1 Ari M b usc 1 00 iod . . 2 st ira . A . B [ ] ; IV 9, Position of theNuraghi

4 observed by theGreeks on thecoast of Africa and very similar structures occur in theBalean c

slands. ere earereac ed u s des a rs I Th th y h by o t i t i , and are nown as tala otes a corru on of the k y , pti ‘ ’ s ano- oor s a ala a - r Themos t wa c owe. Hi p M i h y , t h t t likely derivation of nuragheitself is from the ’ oen c an nur fire the un c selers avn Ph i i , , P i tt h i g either compared theforts to their own beacon owers or fo nd a des etheradual d sa ear t , u th t , pit g i pp anceof thenura o ulat on t ewereused ghi p p i , h y by ena ves for ur oses of s n ll th ti p p ig a ing . Thetowers areal mos alwa s s ron l laced t y t g y p , sometimes on an artificial mound or on a hill or luff commandin a deros ec out of reac b g wi p p t , h of oods et near to a er- su l es and in s t of fl , y w t pp i , igh e our n nura n ighb i g ghi . Each was surrounded by a plot of ground suffi cient for thesu or of a faml and round a ou pp t i y ; , b t , litters of artificially broken stones with remains of tools and vessels point to theexistenceof a de enden amle not u l s ron l enou to res s p t h t, b i t t g y gh i t r a es m theavg of ti e. ome ro a l theOldes ere lac ed S , p b b y t , w p high o su er s l enou t vew o ed s r c s and he. ve gh p i h i t i t , t y gi theimpression of being thehomes and fortresses of nvadin race ress n u from thesou and an i g , p i g p th es amon theearl er caveand hut dwellers b ut w t g i , never very firmly established in thewildest moun a n d s r cts Of theeas mdl ands or in thealmos t i i t i t i , t d ma s o henor - eas no no as ll ra solate s t t w a u . i th t , k wn G 1 111 D io . . d 49 . 8 V Construction and Ground- Plan

r und hut w h Theplan resembles that Of theo , it of of ranc es and mud and a cen ral ear ro b h , t h th , still in use; b ut thefierceand continuous winds c reva l over muc f thesland and c ec whi h p i h o i , h k o an mal and veea ledevelo men led the b th i g t b p t , to enclosing of thetop of thenuraghein a thick cone

Of s onew c occurs in a undancein mos ar s. t , hi h b t p t a er as mores acewas reu red oneOr even two L t , p q i , er s or es ereadded and er a s o n upp t i w , , p h p wi g to rea s fromforen naval owers a moredefin tel th t ig p , i y military form was given by theaddition of various ou or s en r owers etc tw k , t y t , . Nuraghi wereusually built of unhewn stones laid dr thes aces eeen fille u t ear or y , p b tw d p wi h th , , in later eam les of s ones r l dressed on one x p , t ough y e ron ens T roof as mos l sid with b z i trumen ts. he w t y l ed someme f r An ou er vau s O ood or ea . t , ti w th t d or led a c rr dor from w c on ones de o to o i , hi h i , usuall thelef a s a rcasein the c ness of the y t , t i thi k all av c s heend w g ea ces to theupper stories. At t Of thecorr dor was entral a ar men i a roun d c p t t , unl ed ece r m theoor from c on the ight x pt f o d , whi h other threesides opened small rooms or store cu oards in the c n ll Theu er pb thi k ess of thewa . pp rooms wheref und areenclosed nner alls , o , by thi w an he asemen he o er s ll a er n th t b t , t t w u ua y b tt i g considerably ; and they stand over both thecentral and thes dea ar men s recevn l rom loo i p t t , i i g ight f p T holes. hebuilding terminated in a truncated c nesurr unded a alle o o by g ry . Much moreintricateplans aresometimes come 9 Interior of theTowers u n and a uildin suc as theonedescr ed po , b g h ib m berea ed l ea med eval ee and b e ight t t ik i k p, surrounded by an enclosed cour tyard having a ser es of as ns and o ers l i b tio t w along thecurtain wal . Sometimes theentry Of themain tower is several feea vetheround-level en n o dou reac ed t bo g , b i g bt h by wooden stairs; elsewhereit could b eclosed with a s n sla Th corrid r l din r m ereto to e b . e o ea g f o h thecentral chamber was so nar row that two or t reem ld reel rm n c ein the h en cou p an a y . A i h hollow of thewall j ust within thedoorway probably s el ered a sen nel and thedefenceof theu er h t ti , pp floors was facilitated by theuseof steep narrow s a rs w firs s e t i ith a high t t p . Various recesses for stores and arms arecon s ruc ed a u the loom cen ral c am er an d t t bo t g y t h b , thereareoccasionally stoneseats projecting from f d l r Theu the ll and races O a omes c a a . er wa , t ti t pp oors hic erero a l therdinar res dence fl , w h w p b b y o y i ’ f hec ef s aml werel g ed and had ear s o t hi f i y, i ht , h th - l i t roof a ov at thecentrewith a smokeho en he b e. Bronzefigures of thetypes to bereferred to below n henura and a cruc lefor or n occur amo g t ghi, ib w ki g them has been found in oneof theseearly settle rear also ma fl t nd o s dian ments. The e ny in a b i s rumen s and as es con a n remnan s of in t t , h t i ing t r Th arl s food onceprepared at thehea th . ee iet typeof nuragheapparently coincided with thelater el hic A eand eol c ea ns and ools N o it g , N ithi w po t af er hear t Of or n me s remained in use t t w ki g tal , r had becomefamilia . I Q

Fortified Hills

lacea sal c sle romon or es alm s p , ba ti i t with p t i , o t enclosed r vers has n o less an seven een by i , th t nura alon its ed es in somecases reac ed ghi g g , h by The easily defen siblestaircases cut in therock . l eau a then a reof a for fied cam p at w s thus in tu ti p , and ou someof thelo es could b ecul va ed , th gh S p ti t , it was probably primarily a citadel in which the inhabitants of theneighbouring plain could t ake

refu eand w ere er valua les weres ored . g , h th i b t At err thefo fica ons arest ll moreela orate S i rti ti i b , with rough basalt walls filling up gaps in thenatural defences and formn a ro ect n an lew erethe , i g p j i g g h ro f thecliff c r es uc setlemen s nclude b w o u v . S h t t i traces f or s o s stonem lemen s n ves o w k h p with i p t , k i and arms al so reservo rs and rel ous shr nes two , i igi i , f ll s r r o which wi b edecribed in anothechapte. Thetwo main classes of tombs areapparently coeval i then ra e areroc - ewn w th u ghi . Th y k h seulc res in two or morec am ers o ularl p h h b , p p y ’ ’ no n as domus deiamrs c es houses an d k w g , wit h ; thetumbas de3 03 i antes a la er develo men g g , t p t probably used mainly for thechiefs and their faml es and l n in closeu a s on to the i i , yi g j xt po iti r nu aghi . Of therock tombs therearetwo principal var ees: a c rcular c am er a concaveroof i ti i h b with , preceded by a short rectangular corridor ; and a rec an ular c am er flat r f als reac ed t g h b with oo , o h a corr d r Th n r r o h r by i o . ei ne o m as lateal niches

for theod es and is usuall . reac ed a do r b i , y h by o way sed T d s clo with a slab. hecorri or ha at theouter 12 Rock Tomb s

end a similar b ut larger doorway with a slab fitting i nto r ves and of en s el ered a r ec on i g oo , t h t by p oj ti n er th oc a ve. er var a ns ccur and the k bo Oth i tio o , inner chamber sometimes gives access to two or more er round or s u rero oth q a oms. Thehewing Of therock seems to havebeen performed with s ron a es of s neb ut meal ar cles areOf e t g x to , t ti t n found w n su es n t a theom s n nue ithi , gg ti g h t t b co ti d r l r in usefor sevea geneations. olmen tom s c ns s n of rec an ul r c a ers D b , o i ti g t g a h mb enclosed by slabs which wereplaced edgewisein ther und and s or ther f areless comm g o upp t oo , on an i ors ca ereis a ood am leat th n C i . Th g ex p ror near acomer w ere ereareseven lar e Bi i , M , h th g s ones over a ard t a r on al cover n t y high, wi h ho iz t i g

slab of unworked lava . Such monuments areeasily s l ce and e erero a l oncenumerous d i p a d, th y w p b b y , ’ a nd provided thestarting- point for thegiants c ran amon them s s ri n re t ombs, whi h k g o t t ki g p

historic relics. ’ Thegiants tomb consists essentially of a pro r f t is d lmen c am er or cell so as longa ion o h o h b , to r n an a se Thes de-walls ar mos l temin atei p . i e t y r ed of coursed masonr ncl n n n ards and fo m y i i i g i w , theroof is a series of covering slabs buried under eart b ut ca a leof en removed for add onal h , p b b i g iti an eens on of thewalls f r ards interments. By xt i o w is f r T and outwards a semicircular space o med . he a f theom suall faces sou and is d oorw y O t b u y th , ll rel ef I n o filled a sla of en aneed in . s me with b, t p i c ases therearein addition traces of a curved wall 13 ’ — Giants Tomb s Sacred Pillars

n the n s Of thesemcircular area so a j oini g poi t i , th t an enclosed Open spacewas provided for ritual servances and of ano er all encl sin theen re Ob , th w o g ti Th l n Of thecell var es b ut nume . ee mo nt gth i , it f e 0 0 fee an avera eread of is o t n 3 to 4 t , with g b th us over a ard and odies erelaced n in j t y , b w p withi s d thencl sur ave a squatting position . Out i e e o eh een und eam les of rou s necircles er a s b fo x p gh to , p h p thefoundations of mounds used by thepoor as

- burial places. ’ Thegeneral plan Of thegiants tombs is more ons sten an at of thenur a and seems c i t th th ghi , it s th s d I r ar unknown out ide ei lan . n Spain thee e alo es b ut erethecell is r und ns ead of l n an gi , th o i t o g

and straight. Various sacred pillars arefound in proximity to suc m s occas onall s w n an a em as h to b , i y ho i g tt pt , by thecu n of reas s on thesur aceto ve em tti g b t f , gi th f m a roughly human orm. I n so ecases they may f thedeceased and t ereareo er races in typi y , h th t this prehistoric ageOf a betylic cult such as pre va led in surround n co r s s ar i i g unt ies. Such tone e sometimes placed in a circlein front Of theentry to a m er a s to mar Off th lc r r ese al a ea . to b, p h p k pu h O er ver cal s onemasses or men rs somemes th ti t hi , ti n ed in c rcles ccur in var ous ar s b ut m s a rra g i , o i p t , o t may b eregarded as thework Of earlier tribes which preceded thecomparatively advanced builders of ’ r and s om thenu aghi giant t bs. ur als in na ural caves arealso free t B i t qu nt , b u most belong to an earlier datethan thenuraghi I 4 Bro nzeVotiveOfferings

l me d eam les ccur in thecaverns peop es. So goo x p o l meo near a liar ere l a and . ar o of S . E i S B t o , C g i , wh t earms ools o er and ornamen s arefairl h , t , p tt y, t , y representativeOf thecultureof thelater Stone aves l eha Of elid near les as A e. a g C , ik t t M , Ig i ,

' weres ll theord nar a a ons as ell as the ti i y h bit ti , w

- f l burial places o theis anders. Without going into detail over thearms and lemen found in eseclasses f monumen s imp ts th O t , it may b ewell to glanceat theremarkablecollec tion Of bronzes preserved from theBronzeand earl ron es— t at is thelast few cen ur es y I Ag h , t i f re esetlemen f oe eo th O the n c ans. eare b t t Ph i i Th y . found principally in therubbish- heaps round d i rox m s nuraghi an n p i ity to ancient shrine. From theseshrines they wereapparently removed to ma ewa for neer offer n s and s ored in ts k y w i g , t pi r ells w c t emselves had a certa n sacred o w , hi h h i r ll s m s off r n arac e. A ee de ned as vo ve e s ch t ig ti i g , and haveeither a bronzebaseworked in thesame eceor moreOften a ro ect on a thef w c pi , p j i t oot hi h was used to a ac t em means of lead solder n tt h h , by i g , to a s elf of stonew thin l um h i thetemp e. H an fi ures arethecommones a ou nc es lon g t , b t 3 i h g, ard s ar l cut ou l nes and d s la n li le with h , h p y t i , i p yi g tt

om l d Th is flan an anat ical know ege. ebody ky d c l ndr cal w t lar eead and l m s and the es y i i , i h g h i b , to r ear d r l l s Theovrt of th a es p ateby pa al eline. p ey e art contrasts with theemphasis laid on every trivial detail of accoutrement and every token of the ’ fi r r worshipper s profession . Monstrous gu es a enot 1 5 Costumeof theFigures ver c mm n b ut theees areOf en m dever y o o , y t a y romnen and somemes du l ca ed m . e p i t , ti p i t So fi ures avefour arms an d several areandro g , too, h , nous The rns w c ad rn the - f gy . ho hi h o head dress o certain warriors probably connect with thecustom Of ear n le des as c ver n s and arenot w i g who hi o i g , dueto a den fica on ull di ny i ti ti with a b vinity . an fi ures avea s or s r er a s a r ual M y g h h t ki t , p h p it armen rn at rel ous ceremon es an d oneand g t wo igi i , h l l fted f ra h is frequent y up i as i in p yer . Even t e rmed fi ures arenot in c m a an a t udeb ut a g o b t t t it , avether and ou s rec ed an d lon la ed h ight h t t t h , g p it esses of a r fallin on thec es a fas n s ll tr h i g h t , hio ti serva lein some ar s b ut unsu ed for and ob b p t , it h — fi n or o h r to han d ghti g . M eften t ehai is short and arted and thema or thefi ures unl ethe p , j ity of g , ik ardina Of an monumen s re ear Sh a dless. Egypti t , b Thefeeareusuall areb ut s met mes ereare t y b , o i th oes or sandal s fas ened s ra s and a ers sh t with t p , g it , r ic r probably Of leather o felt . A th k od held by somewarr ors serves deno ecommand an ma i to t , d y theem lem of a c ef or r ce b e b hi p in . r is eas l re l H r Thehunte i y cognizab e. ewea s a a er in fron eld in lace a road cr ss- el d gg t , h p by b o b t , a low ca a clu on his ac and oo ed on t p, b b k, h k i a ames n His clo squareb ag with g howi g . thing con s of a s r un c and a ovea c eav sist ho t t i , b , thi k , h y ' r d nwards An old s d capewith thehair tu nei . hepher has a o n ed eard a s or s r t rdleand p i t b , h t ki t wi h gi , heleft and leheleans on a a short stick in t h , whi 1 N . S . 1 0 2 . , 9 4 , 9 1 1 6 Equipment of Warriors ll l f a c u a or ed ead . us c ans er a s t b with k h M i i , p h p em l ed in some f her es r re o t aree sen ed . p oy it , p t ’ us we avea orn- lower w a lar e ull s Th , h h b ith g b 1 orn and an andro nous erformer la n a h , gy p p yi g dou le u ethefi ureen ac as if eecu n b fl t , g b t b k x ti g s m r l d nc Uta was found a rou o eeigious a e. At g p of two wres lers theoneros ratetheot er lean n t , p t , h i g over him er a s a an - Offer n from thevc or , p h p th k i g i t Thecommones and es eam les arewarri ors t b t x p , armed swords et er s or an d road o with , i h h t b r ’ lon er and end n in a ull s ead and Of en g i g b h , t bows a d rro T r r l n a s es des. he o ned ca o a Of w b i h p, p b b y leat er or fel is a common fea urea dou let n h t , t ; b u ic r u at thewa s is worn and theusual s rt gi t p i t , ki , s all r la ed r r occa ion y ep c by sho t d awers. Thereis often a d ou leec laceand nstead of the orned b n k , i h

- res s memes a lum d ca an a head d s o ti p e p. M y w r r ors aveclu s and a es and round conves elds i h b x , x hi o heac so t at theands arelef free fas ened t t . t b k , h h t r ers aren umerous and ela ora el eu ed A ch b t y q ipp , vn for eam lea s uarelateof meal con ha i g, x p , q p t , veat thes deto ro ec thec es from ressure ca i , p t t h t p en theb ow was drawn and a c arm ece wh , thi k pi ,

a aren l of lea er a ac ed t on s. love pp t y th , tt h by h g A g is orn helef a d and theb ow is s own w on t t h n , h fi r equal in length to theentire gure. Theeis usuall a u ver an n from thes oulder some y q i h gi g h , times so small as to suggest that it contained only bronzearrowheads which could b eaffixed to wooden ow w en reuired small vasealso c r arr s h q . A a ried 1 N S . 1 0 2 . , 9 7 , 35 . I 7 — FemaleFigures A nimals by thearcher perhaps contained greaseto lubricate hes r n and heis usuall ro ec ed o er t t i g, y p t t by th ea ns as s ord a d fe orses seem to ave n n . w po , w k i H h een lit leused in theer od b ut ereis a ec men b t p i , th Sp i of a mounted archer ; and a chariot polewith a air Of eels occurs in a mn ature ron eas p wh i i b z , also in thes onereliefs to b ereferred to elow t b , t h f - r pointing o t euseo war cha iots. l fi r f m l ema e u es areew. e ear an es F g Th y w t , omemes dra n u in theform of a ood a t s ti w p h , tigh fittin un c or od and somet mes a lea ed g t i b y, i p t t oa etendin to thea l T f h pet ic t x g nk es. wo O t ebest examples arethewoman from Nuragus believed to 1 b ea r es ess and thesea ed fi re oldin a p i t , t gu h g malenfant et er a oddess or moreli el the i , i h g , k y fferer of an ex- vo o li ether t O t k es . Weapons an d animal s in bronzeweresimilarly er d ro a l for success in ar n e w a d n . Off , p b b y hun ti g lls in ron earecommon and t ereis reas n f r Bu b z , h o o hin n at theull was a d vnes m l om t ki g th b i i y bo . S e times figures Of animals areshown on thepoints of s ords or a tac ed to a ron e ear and a rs w , t h b z Sp , p i an mal eads areOf en con o ta an of i h t j ined . S gs d mouflons occur amon thefi ures t var ous g g , wi h i omeer a s duc rds s s. ron e oa s areno bi , p h p k B z b t t ncomm n o as vo veoffer n s and in om s u o , b th ti i g t b . es memes avean mals wor ed on thero Th y o ti h i k p w , Of rds al on thes d r i l d or rows bi g i es. Thees a gril e r e and at thecen rea loo for s a us ens on . pa p t , t p p i t therea restor c centre aul la no oneof A g t p hi i P i ti , 1 1 6 Cf . p. 7 . 1 8

' Degreeof Development Attained

ha similar car b ut the eels avee t s es w t , wh h igh pok , and thepoleis represented as on onesideOf the le ere ereis a uma fi rew veh c . n u t i H , too, th h g i h f a r m rudimentary etu es. It ay b esupposed that thefi ures reresen theersons ur ed the g p t p b i , by ar-c ar s sides of their w h iot . To sum up our knowledgeof theSardinians of e r n eA ewe aveevdenceof a soc et th B o z g , h i i y thecas n of meals sses sed of familiar with ti g t , po C sels c m s mles and dou le- laded saws, hi , o b , gi t , b b r o er d i ron eo c . ronz ec a ns an axes , O b z pp B h i es ereused as ornamen s as ell as man plaqu w t , w y er ances from earlier mes suc as s ell nec inh it ti , h h k ’ es and or ed ars us s es des suc im le lac w k bo t k , b i h p ees les and fl n ed es Theeo le ments as ston p t i t w g . p p memar t meradeand ma aveserved a t had so i i t , y h h a f udal overn times in foreign armies. They ad e g ment under a number of allied b ut independent ncestor ors ro a l reva led and chiefs. A w hip p b b y p i , r of m r ance rchi ec ural burial rites wee high i po t . A t t c ns dera le ou u ldin s eres ll skill was o i b , th gh b i g w ti n n and fis n ro plain and massive. Hu ti g hi g p vided f er livel d b ut domes c an mals ere much O th i ihoo , ti i w

reared .

erem ter ar s es ec all o ards theeas I n th o p t , p i y t w t wereless or an ed commun es l vn and north , g iz iti , i i g recesses of thefores not necessar l in caves or t , i y ein racefr m thenura hi d ellers b ut very divers o g w ,

resent n an earl er nf Of settlers ro a l rep i g i i lux , p b b y Thedateof t s nura c vli a n ma African . hi ghi i i z tio y beplaced from towards theend of thesecond 20 End of thePrehistoric Civiliz ation mllenn um eend n to a ou theseven cen i i , xt i g b t th eer r m tury I ts fateis unknown . Wh th f o eernal a ac or n ernal deca was alread xt tt k i t y , it y l m n I n declining when Phoenician sett eents bega . thearea occupied by thenew colonists many of the res r c m numen s erecleared a a and p hi to i o t w w y, an serfs ere r u ver ll thes l Liby w b o ght o to ti oi . se eretheold c vl a n las ed on for a me El wh i i iz tio t ti , and Phoenician Objects found among thelater n uraghi and other buildings point to a certain of rad e herac s amount t ebetw en t e. Yet theold populations never madeany mark r c m s I n ar r a l am l in histo i ti e. p t they p ob b y a ga mated with theLiby Phoeni cian settlers on the coas ers ned thew ld m un a n ri es t , oth joi i o t i t b which lo res s ed theadvanceof the ma As ng i t Ro ns. mysterious in their origin and their civilization as theTartessians a n e l e eseailed o of Sp i , th y, ik th , f t reserv r den As thesava e er ans O p ethei i tity. g Ib i f theinterior werethetypical Spaniards of theera of oman c n ues so then rac a les - l R o q t , i t t b kin c ad ards filled the al an slave-mar es ere S , who It i k t , w left to represent a racewhich had attained a fairly high civilization when Ital y was still sunk in ar ar sm b b i . CHAPTER II

LEGEND ARY HI STORY—NATIV E PEOPLES

” - Aé‘ ov¢n 86 f on "new dr efl a éfl ' ol E e° 6? d in 6 d. am x ws a r , y ' xa l 86a 6 4 0 "o n 0 c a M v ' m— 0 6: 7 6 r t H x o s hé ov. 1 p p y HE RODOTUS .

I T is s ll er a s muc theedenc en ti , p h p , too h t n y, wh ther ns of a eo lear eun no n to ns s on o igi p p k w , i i t an rec rded mm ra ons and f ren set lemen s y o i ig ti o ig t t , and to derivethenational char acteristics from such l d co n es. s was theme d of the rees an o i Thi tho G k , our s s ll vemuc s aceto er an ruscan book ti gi h p Ib i , Et , oen c an or ellen c elemen s in ard n a all of Ph i i , H i t S i i , c ma avees ed ou eerc s n a whi h y h xi t , with t x i i g hema f th sl nd rs lasting effect on t ss o ei a e. It is clear that sometraderelations with the as ern ed erranean es ed not onl in E t M it xi t , y cenean mes b ut a ain en reecol n z a on My ti , g wh G k o i ti he es was ac v r r s at in t W t ti e. WhethetheG eek this timeever Obtained an actual foothold in S ar d n a is d s u ed b ut is cer ain a e ere i i i p t , it t th t th y w established for a timein Corsica in thesixth cen r l a l n in an sola ed os n tu y O bi , too, yi g i t p itio then r -eas c as of ardin a its s r n on o th t o t S i , with t o g Greek tradition and retention of Greek artistic m dels was ver r a l a selemen of Massiliot o , y p ob b y tt t 1 H t . 1 d I . 65 . 22 Early Relations with Greeks

rees al s or na n in thesx cen ur at a G k , o igi ti g i th t y timewhen Phoenician influencewas temporarily deress d For so m ef rethe omans p e. meti eb o R appeared in theisland Olbia had been a possession of ar a eand the rees had een eelled or C th g , G k b xp a sor ed ea ol s near Tharros on the es b b . N p i , w t coas m ave een a small ree em r um t , ay h b G k po i which theCarthaginians allowed theMassiliots to s l I s r found an in etab ish . n thi dist ict has been scr n in thearc a c reeof thes cen ur iptio h i G k ixth t y, S with two Obsoletesymbols and retrogradeletter 1 ing ; and in theneighbouring cemetery of Thar ros Massiliots er a s r ers arecom two , p h p b oth , 2 m mor e ated . Exaggerated reports of thesizeand fertility of ard n a s read to the ast mu nfid n S i i p E . Not ch co ece can b eplaced in thestory that thedefeated Mes senians in theseventh century meditated a migra 3 tion thither ; b ut such a possibility was seriously considered by theAsiatic Greeks when Persian rule de r n en Har a s heeer l een d ve a . u t n a xt o Io i Wh p g , g of rus ver re the n an c es in the Cy , o th w Io i iti 5 45 , adviceof thesageBias of Prienewas that the on ans s ould m ra en a d ard n a I i h ig t i bo y to S i i , ’ lar est all slands and found a comrno c g of i , n ity, 4 c r of His i a theent e a new empire. t aeus gave n empty promiseto reducetheisland on behalf of 5 ar us and was a a n loo ed on as a ss le D i , it g i k po ib

1 S t . I . d Filo} . u tal . l ss . C a III 3 7 3 . 1 I S a 0 -1 0 a bel nscr . t etc . 6 . K i , t}. 9 3 4 H 5 Pans. . 2 . t . . 1 0 I d . d . . 1 06 . IV 3 , 5 I 7 V 23 Origin of Greek Legends refugefor theGreeks after thefailureOf theIonian 1 revolt . ruscans Thealliancebetween Carthageand theEt , which resulted in theexpulsion of theGreeks from ” ors ca c ec ed an furt er ellen c en er r ses C i , h k y h H i t p i , and ard n a ecet for s meof the ldes dis S i i , x p o wi t ricts fell en rel n o the ands of theCartha t , ti y i t h r as om rade ree ginians. Though theew s et with G k lands— reevases for ns ance en len ful in G k , i t , b i g p ti — thePunic cemeteries and isolated settlers may aveeen adm ed it is not t ll oman mes a h b itt , i R ti th t l Greek inscriptions or names becomeat al common . It may hereb econvenient to gather together the c ef leends rela n to earl ard n a and a hi g ti g y S i i , translation is added of certain Greek and Latin as es l n t s l nds as we p sag dea i g wi h them. Theeege havethem probably grew up among theGreeks of

l n hef u ceur C . w n er was a Sici y i t o rth nt y D . heth e ” sl s certai n amount of tradebetween thetwo i and . e at cles a cen ur later on s us of Lik Ag ho t y , Di y i racusewho t en en o ed a naval su remac Sy , h j y p y , may havecontemplated theexpulsion of the Cart a in ans from ard n a and it would us be h g i S i i , th to theinterest of theSiceliots to insist on any r l traditional G eek sett ements in theisland . Theauthority from whom extant writers drew most Of themateri al for thesestories was theear ly 4 rd-cen ur c lian h s ori an Tirnaeus and er thi t y Si i i t , oth

° 1 Hdt I I 8 1 . . . x v. 2 d 1 . B . v 66 o 1 . 4 , i d . 63 1 C . Pol b . . and thed s ussio n Of P is in La f y XII 4 , i c a ’ ’ ’ S ardena r zma del do zmo R o g p m mano . 24 Authorities for Legendary History

rm n wasdeved from orus ra s enes info atio ri Eph , E to th , d Theaccoun s of D iodorus an Silenus Of Calacta . t , thepseudo-Aristotelian demirabihfbus ausculta

’ ti ombus and us nus areall ro a l ased on , J ti , p b b y b maeus ausan as er a s u li ed a d fferen Ti . P i p h p ti z i t rad on als reresen ed thefra men s Of t iti , o p t by g t ’ allus and derived ul ma el from a s Ori i nes S t , ti t y C to g and theAmzals of Ennius; b ut thecloseacquain t ancewhich Pausanias shows with theisland sug ’ s r s ra s s r gest a pesonal vi it as well . St bo ho t acc un is m rerus or an the ers and o t o t tw thy th oth , is er a s der ved in ar fr m s donius a it p h p i p t o Po i , r s f c r ell d G eek hi torian o about 60 B . . who t av e del in esere ns wi y th gio . It is impossiblenow to decidewhat element of trut ereis in eseleends b ut ma b e or h th th g , it y w th no n a leeernall e re ree the ti g th t , whi xt y th y a G k, fr can rad n is s r n l mar ed and eseem A i t itio t o g y k , th y to represent vaguestories of successiveAfrican mm r l r l an a ons. us o aus is o a a i ig ti Th , I p b b y Liby od osenameccurs in var ous fr can lace g , wh o i A i p n s S d o ame. ar us is described as theson of an ther od Maceri s r s aeus is theson of renea g , A i t Cy , n m l ved in fr ca and advsed him y ph who i A i , i to selein tt Sar dinia . 1 Thefacts recorded b y D iodorus may b etaken first :

‘ W en Heracles had ended his la ours and the od h b , g h ad ann ounced t at it was ro er for him eforehis h p p , b deartureto eaven to send a colon to Sardo and to p h , y ,

04 1 2 an 82 1 . d . . IV 9 , V 5 2 5 Story of I olaus and Aristaeus

ma ketheson s whom thed aughters of Thespiu s b oreh im ’ theleaders t ereof heresolved to send h is rot er s son h , b h

olaus wit the o s ecauset e were uite oun . I h b y , b h y q y g es ius was Of n o leancestr Of Athen s theson of Th p b y, , E rectheus and heruled over thecountr n amed from , y imself h rs wh o h . Iolaus took theseboy s an d man y ot e w is ed to s arein thesettlemen t and sailed to S ard o . h h , Havin g con quered then atives in battleh eallotted th e est ar t Of theislan d es eciall thelam countr w ich b p , p y p y h is still call I ola on B r laimin thereion an d lan t ed . y ec g g p in g it with fruit-trees hemadeit an object of rivalry ’ for thereputation of th eislan d s fertility spread so widely th at theCarth a in ian s w en t e later ew to ower g , h h y gr p ,

sou t to ossess it . After or an iz in thecolon olaus gh p g g y , I sen t for D ed alus from S icil an d con struc ted man reat y, y g wor s w ic a velasted to theresent timecalled deeda lea k h h h p , fro a r H a so uil lar an ex en sive m their m ke. e l b t ge d p mnasia and set u law-cou rts an d oth er a u rten ances gy , p pp of prosperity ; an d hecal led th epeopleI olaean s from h is own namewit thecon sen t Of th eTheS iad s wh o ave , h p , g fa r W r for t osewh o him this hon ou r as to their the. hee eh

offer sacrifices to this god call h im fath er I olaus. They sa y that Arista us a fter thedeath Of Actmon ’ cameto h is father s oraclean d t at A ollo warn ed h im , h p t at hes ould o over to theislan d of eos an d th at h h g C , o o h oul h n h n l avi n n u rs s d b eaid im th eCea s. T e e h p by , g his Offs rin in Ceos h ereturned to Lib a an d advised p g , y , , h is moth er th en m h set out and sailed to S a rd o by y p , , and settlin t erean d admirin th eislan d for its can t , g h g y, o n b eplanted it and ch an ged its wildness for cultivati . Heeot t eretwo son s Ch armus and Callica r us an d b g h , p , aft rwa r s it th ot r a e d vis ed e heisl nd s. Theislan d is inh a ited ar arian s called I olaean s b by b b , whom they regard as descen dants of thosewh o settled w an th Th ia Th oracl r la tin to ith Iolaus d e esp ds. e ee g thecolon y further stated that thosewh o too k part should retain their liberty for ever ; and it camea bout unexpec tedly that theoraclepreserved thefreed om of theinh ab i 26

Pausanias on Early Settlements

’ A evil never seen aforeh is sirefled o er th ewaves t , , An Aristmus refu efound wi t in S ardoan ca vs d g h e. His mot er first C ren e adeto see t at un n o wn h , y , b k h k strand W heresnakes ha rm n ot n or poisoned herb can grow throughout th eland .

Themost systematic narrativeis that of 1 Pausanias:

Libyans aresaid to havebeen th efirst to sail to the island t eir leader was S ardus theson of Maceris wh o ; h , H racle theE was also called e s by gyptians and Libyan s. I ch nussa c an ed its n a mein on ou r o f t s r u s h g h hi Sa d . However thecom an of Li an s did n ot ca st out th e , p y by natives b u t thelatter received t em as associates more , h , - N r of necessity than good will . eitheth eLibyans nor the n ativeraceknew h ow to ma kecities; b ut they lived scat r n r an i in h u an v teed a d diso g z ed ts d ca es. S omeears after theLi ans Aristaeus and h is com y by , n n r Th us pa io s ar ived from Greece. ey sa y that Aristae was son of A ollo an d C ren eand t at feelin ecessive p y , h , g x rief at thecalamit of Actmon an d con seuen tl loath in g y , q y g

B oeotia an d all Greecehemi rated to S ardin ia . Ot ers , g h thin k that at th esametimeD aed alus fled from Ca mion s A ri en tu m ecauseth eCretan s sen t an e edition ( g g ) , b xp a a inst it and s ared wit Aristaeus in theS ardinian g , h h olon Y t n r a t a c . et i is u esona le t D edal us wh o lived y b h , at thetimew en (Edi u s was rei n in in ees could h p g g Th b , havetaken part in a colon y or an ything elsewith Aris ’ taeus wh o was ma rried to Au ton o d au ter of Cadmus. , e gh At an ratet esesettlers also founded n o cit ein I y , h y, b g, w ima inetoo few and ea for theur ose. g , k p p After Aristaeus erians crossed to S ardinia wit , Ib , h Nora x as theleader of their company ; and thecity of Nora f n r was ou ded by them. They elatethat this was the

1 1 X . 7 . i u (Ed p s was fourth in descen t from Cad mus. 28 Trojan and African Colonies

earliest cit in theislan d an d t at h ewas theson of y , h r r n H E theia dau ter o f Ge o an d of ermes. y , gh y , Thefou rth party which arrived was thecompan y of ola i n f T s ian s n n ro tt a us con s sti o e a d me f m A ic . I , g h p efounded th ecit of Ol ia w ilea art fromth eo t ers Th y y b , h , p h , th eAt en ian s foun ded O r le reservin th en ameof one h g y , p g of their demes; or elseOgry lu s himself sh ared in theex eition E n o r t lac s call I olaaa r p d . ven i u imep e ed emain in S ar n o o r th e itan 1 din ia a d olau s is n u ed b in a ts. , I h y h b W en liu m was ta en ro an fu itives weresa ved ’ h I k , T j g , includin g thosewh o escaped with E neas; an d someo f t ese ein ca rried thewin d s to S ardin ia min led wit h , b g by , g h he r l Th n r t G eeks previous y established . ebarba ria s wee prevented from wa rrin g on theGreeks or Troj ans by the fact th at all wereon equal terms as regards all wa r equip ment and t at theriver Th rsu s w ic searated th e , h y , h h p res ectiveterritories an h a to b ecrosse ins ire fear d d d d . p , p Man y years later Lib y ans again crossed to theisland wit r r an wa w th r s a la ecom an and be a r i th eG ee . h g p y, g k Thelatter all eris ed o r at least t erewerefew su rvivors p h , h w ilethe ro an s fled to the i hl an d s and occu in h T j h g , py g themountain s w ic wereard o f access owin to ro ws , h h h g of sta es an d steeroc s t eretain ed th enameof lian s k p k , h y I to Y t r b l Li ans in fo rm th epresent time. et hey esem e by i n thema eof t eir a rms an d in t eir w olemodeo f life. k h , h h s Thepseudo-Aristotelian treatisehas an early referencet o thefamous nuraghi :

They say that thesetowers werecon structed by Iolaus son of icles w en ta in theTh es iad s son s of Hera Iph h , k g p , cles hesailed to t ose arts to settlet ereh oldin t a t , h p h , g h

1 2 h sta s at a mnas u m o f olaus was In IX . 3 e teth gy i I still visi leat ees b ut t at the h ean s a reed t at b Th b , h T b g h , - li eh is fellow settlers hedied in S a rdin ia . k , TheTroj an settlement is evidently an in feren cefrom s arit of I lian ses an I Ii theimil y d um.

Mirab . Ausc. roo . Reconstruction of Early History

t ebelon ed to h imin virtueof h is in s i wit Heracles h y g k h p h , wh o h ad made imself lord of al th e arts of h l p thewest . Sardin ia is said to a veeen on cefertilean d roductive h b p , sinceArista us reuted the reatest a ricu r n , p g g ltu ist amo g th eancients is descri ed in leen d as avin ruled o ve , b g h g r it w en it h ad reviousl een occu ied numerou s , h p y b p by lar e r ow ars n o u i d s. I t n e s c lar e arvest ecause g b b h g h , b , it ein under th eruleof th eCart a in ian s all cro s b g h g , p suita blefor food arecut d own and deat is theen alt , h p y ’ if an of th na v tr to r lan y e ti es y ep t them. 1 ThelateLatin writer S olinus adds a few details: I t is un n ecessary to say h ow S ardus theson of Hercules an d No rax theson o f Mercur onefrom Li a th eoth er y, by , from Tartessus in S a in ca meto t ese arts S ard u s p , h p , ivin his n ameto thecoun tr Norax to th etown of g g y, Nora or h ow afterwa rd s Aristaeus wh o rei n ed n ext to ; , g t em oin ed theraces w ich h ad it erto lived a a rt h , j ( h h h p ) in to onesociet in thecit of Ca rales w ic heh ad foun ded y y , h h . W ema also ass over olau s wh o occu ied terr itor in y p I , p y ’ th eisland as well as theIlien ses and Locren ses. ,

As far as theearl stor can b erecons ruc ed y hi y t t , thesequenceseems to havebeen somewhat as follo s: al ael c man if hees ed at all lef w P o ithi , xi t , t no races u t esearecommon in S c l and t , tho gh h i i y North Africa ; and much of theSardinian lowlan d ars en s ll su mer ed at t s er d appe to havebe ti b g hi p io . I n el c mes the ards cr ssed from Afr ca N o ithi ti S o i , s or dar racew dar ro n ees and a r a h t k , ith k b w y h i ads es w rec e un ers and long he . Th e e hi fly h t nd s eerds l vn in u s or caves amon a h ph , i i g h t g o ns w r follow d thef orests or m un tai . They ee e owards the ron eA e ano er nflu of t B z g by th i x , ’ fr emen of thenura hi and an s om s cans th . A i , g gi t t b

1 1 IV . . 30 Physical Characteristics of theRace

d a rela vel c vli a n en a n They ha ti y high i i z tio , g gi g meeen in a ri cul ureun der theruleof to so xt t g t , feudal chiefs whosedominion extended in most ll a er a f w oen c an cases over a singlevi age. L t e Ph i i or es re u on thecoas r an merc an s fact i g w p t , Ty i h t exchanging themanufactured goods and ornaments r d d of Phoenicia and Egypt for thep o uceof theislan . Small Greek and possibly Etruscan settlements may r or es I the havebeen founded in theno th a t . n sixth century thewholeof themorefertileparts fell n o theands of thear a n ans rou i t h C th gi i , who b ght over moreAfrican settlers to till thefields and work

themines. It will thus b eseen that t heSardinian racewas essen all r fr can and s ll resen s a ti y No th A i , it ti p t r eneral un f rm ai r a r and lu r vey g i o ity. F h i b eo reees arerare ccurr n c e in thenort g y y , o i g hi fly h , whereimmigrations fromNorthern Italy havetaken lacein m rerecen mes eroid es ou p o t ti . N g typ , th gh not ver comm n arefirml m lan ed es ec all y o , y i p t , p i y in thesou erethe c l s s ff curl a r th, wh thi k ip , ti y h i , and ro na us aw areseen not nfreuen l p g tho j , i q t y . TheSardinian population is regarded as not only thedar es all alians b ut al s themos dol k t of It , o t i chocehalic thel n ead en an er fr p , o g h b i g oth A ican f r Th l r ro or on f r f eatu e. ea gep p ti o pesons o very l s a ur nd er c t of t ow t t e(a 3 0 p en . heannual recruits r lo m leads some r l a ebew . ) anth opo ogists to assumean earl ncurs on of fr can mes w o y i i A i pig i , h b y mingling with theother inhabitants havelost er mos mar ed charac er s cs th i t k t i ti . 3 1 Strab o on NativePeoples

Thelongest description of thenativepeoples in oman mes is ven tra r in erl in R ti gi by S bo, w it g a y 1 theEmpire:

Theisland is un ealt in summer es eciall in the h hy , p y fruitful districts an d t esearecon stan tl rava ed the , h y g by mountaineers wh o a recalled D ia esb eis formerl named , g , y I olman s for olaus is said to a vecome it er rin in ; I h h h , b g g theson s of Heracles and to aveoin ed wit theba r , h j h i h i i i r b ar ans w o nhab ted thesland ; thesewereEt uscan s. Later theP oeni cians from Cart a e ained ossession h h g g p , an d el ed thenatives carried on wars with th e , h p by ,

R oman s. On th edefeat of th ePh oenician s all fell to th e

n r ar fou r r of moun tain rs -Parati R oma s. T ee e t i es ee h b , , S ossina ti Balari Acon ites wh o livein caves and t ou , , , ; h gh t e avesomeland t e d o not cultivateit wit ca re h y h , h y h , b ut illa ethelan d s of theindustrious artl on th e p g , p y island artl ma in in roads on thein a itants of the , p y k g h b o ositecoast es eciall t oseof Pisa h n rals . T e ee pp , p y h g wh o aresent to S a rdinia offer someresistan eb u of en c , t t overloo t eir con duct feelin it useless constantl to k h , g y n a r r for mainta in a my in unhealthy dist icts. I t remain s to a verecourseto certain evices us t e them h d . Th h y keep in mind thecustom which thebarbarian s haveo f festival for several a s after t eir fora s e holding d y h y . Th y il e an an a t t r then assa th m d captu rem y . R ms exis hee ’ wh ic h ave oats air in stead of wool and arecalled h g h , us ones t eir s ins ein use as rea s e m m d t lates. , h k b g b p Th y ’ u c er s el an a n also sea wi k hi d d a j veli .

es des thefour moun ai n r es erenamed B i t t ib h , er eo les arealluded to theeo ra ers oth p p by g g ph , l d fficul to laceo n hel c of usual y i t p , wi g to t a k nscr ns in thewilder ar s w erethee i iptio p t , h thnic m revailed over them l l syste p unicipa . A ong list 2 s i ole Th l occur n m . e ces mhedescr es Pt y Si , who ib

1 Stra . . 2 . 2 b V , 7 III . . 3 2 Position of Chief Tribes

as ccu n thesou -eas corner ere ro a l o pyi g th t , w p b b y a branch of theSouth Italian tribewho gavetheir nameto c l omef henames as Noritani . o t Si i y S , , Tib ulatii ulc an Nea olitani evdentl deno e , S it i, p , i y t merelocal d vs ons com r s n a rou of vlla es i i i , p i i g g p i g deenden on somec ral m nic l I n th p t ent u ipa ity . e eremenort lived theCors rad onall mm xt h i , t iti y i i grants from Corsica who left through in ternal 1 d l l n n ar s o ssens ons. ese eo e v ee t the i i Th p p , i i g t s res of al were ro a l the ira es ho It y, p b b y p t who r d s r ct no ava ed theo os ecoas . er g pp it t Th i i t i , w called allura is covered fores b ut rovdes G , with t , p i littlecorn or w neand is cut off from theres of i , t ard n a ru ed mou ains is s ll in a S i i by gg nt . It ti h bited c e sca ered s eerds and theoneown hi fly by tt h ph , t , em o its nameer a s c mmemora es some T pi , by p h p o t ral s r f th r TheP lliti or s cen neo e e. e n t h i t ib , ki clad ards er ca al ornus from w c S , with th i pit C , hi h esome es a ethen ameof Corn nses l ved th y tim t k e , i Th alar elieed owards thewes c as . e v t t o t B i , b to descend in ar fromforen mercenar es of Car a e p t ig i th g , occupied thenorth midl and distri ct near Monte Th fi r I li s s ho lon o d cu o . e ece en e w ose A t , g pp a deermned res s anceto the oman arms inh a ed t i i t R , bit themoun ain ous eas mdland d s r c thew ldes t t i i t i t , i t 2 ar of thesland famil ar to readers of an e p t i , i D t n d r f a Thecon ec ural u e thenameo Barbagi . j t ’ position of theother tribes is given in La Mar mora s l ea la arg t s. As amon o er r mi veeo les old men g th p i ti p p , who

1 1 Fans. . I . P ur . 2 . X 7 g 3 , 9 4 33 3 C haracter of thePeople had becomeuseless to thecommunity ar esaid to aveeen clu ed dea nd en ur ed h b bb to th, a th b i , to which thecredulous added that a son would drive 1 s f m Th hi own father into a pit ready dug or hi . e Greeks al so believed that habitual idlers werecited eforea r al assem l and un s eif e a led b t ib b y, p i h d th y f i 2 to show that they pursued a useful occupation . Sardinian sorcerers and witches had a certain 8 no or e and ma cal ual e erea r u ed t i ty, gi q iti s w tt ib t to s r n s many p i g . Many of theancient traits of character arestill no cea leand thena ureof he easan s t e ti b , t t p t , sembling theSpanish temperament rather than the al an includes o thevr ues and defec s of a It i , b th i t t lf - l d r a c vz e ace. eareraveand so er et h i i i Th y g b , y s c a leand s a led c le sron faml o i b ho pit b , o i , with t g i y affec ns and res ec ful b t demandin res ec tio , p t , u g p t in return ; noi trattiamo benesesiamo trattati ’ f m s u vnd r eneas oneo e aid . eeea e b , th Tho gh tt less s s ema c an in rs ca e area t y t ti th Co i , th y p to r vereven eful and o n to theover c p o g , , wi g p ty whi h resul s rom an of seled or e areu l t f w t tt w k, th y g i ty f man ef s and frauds av a na ural o y th t . They h e t a udefor er and the f of em r n e . ptit po t y, gi t xt po izi g n ecal c n es s area favur eas mef en Lo g po ti o t t o it p ti , o t r n l alleor al lan a eand c an s suc in st o g y g ic gu g ; h t , h

’ therami nati m or s n n at the ool-c m n as g g , i gi g w o bi g, s relievethetedium of rural occupation . Thearmen m s f en men ned and rearded g t o t o t tio , g

1 1 V r . H . . . E l . o . a . IV I : f p 5 4 1 o n . l o r Marc . I . I . i . . S l I ; Ammian XXVII , 5 34

CHAPTER III THE CARTHAGINIAN S UPREMACY

Ben irun t ipsos Fenikos cum ipsas naves ipso ro et b iderun t ipsa n ostra in sula abundantedeomni gratia dc D eo dear ores lantas er as montes retiosos rivos et , b p b , p fontes h ab un dan tes et omnes estias et uantu D eus h at , b , q ’ ’

ro o O U o Tm os. creatu p ipsos h mines. ANT NI S r uuz

DI RECT evidenceof Phoenician colonies in Sar dinia prior to theCarthaginian conquest in thesixth r s r t th aic arac r centu y i vey scan ty . Ye earch ch te of someof theworks of art discovered in Punic cemeer es and thea rac n h c ard n a t i , tt tio w i h S i i would offer as a halting- placeon theway to Gaul n ain ma e r a le a a few ac r es and a d Sp , k it p ob b th t f to i small mercantilesettlements had been planted on themoredefensibleheadlands and islands of the s ut - es suc as ra ulc Tharros and o h w t, h No , S i, , s ese lac s Garale. Th p ewould giveaccess to the emn n area and the ar s r c es in sal chi f i i g , to p t i h t t , nd c rn r is n r ce l l a . ee o a a m ar woo , o Th t of i it y u at n ll thear a n ans er a alarmed occ p io ti C th gi i , p h ps ther ress the rees had lan e a at p og of G k , who p t d colony in Corsica and werethreatening thenorthern c as s ar d n a deermined on a reular occu o t of S i i , t g

pation. 36 TheC arthaginian Conquest

Thefirst e ed on 60 roved a fa lur a ou e. xp iti , b t 5 , p i ea ds r a l ssess n heacc trements Th S r , p ob b y po i g t ou c er r nz es avemadeamil ar to us whi h th i b o h f i , deea ed the unic eneral or Maz aeus f t P g Malchus , an des r a r f rm 1 meears d t oyed lar gepa t o his a y . So y later theCarthaginians strengthened themselves by an all ance rur a and the rees were i with Et i , G k defeated by thejoint fleets Corsica now passed into theundisputed possession of theEtrus a s secomm nd f eseseas las ed for a c n , who a o th t n l Th f r d c n ard n a was cetury onger . etask o eu i g S i i resumed asdr and amlcar sons of the by H ubal H i , d s n u s ed eneral a had donemuc i ti g i h g M go, who h to strengthen thepower of Carthagein theMediter r 2 h r m anean . T ecoast dist icts see to havebeen anneed eseb ut asdru al receed a m r al x by th , H b iv o t i h f h m 0 und n t ec urseo t eca a n . wo o p ig By 5 9 , to 3 which datePolybius ascribes thefirst treaty ’ eeen meand ar a ethela er s nershi b tw Ro C th g , tt ow p of ard n a w s a n led ed a d is m l ed S i i a ck ow g , n it i p i a no ren selemen s eer ree or th t fo ig tt t , wh th G k ru c s ill m m rc n s er s an emained . an e a e Et , t r Ro h t w allo ed radein ar d n an or s and the un c w to t S i i p t , P i government becameresponsiblefor satisfying such traders as parted with their goods without immediate a e p ym nt . Many of thenatives withdrew to theinaccessible n er and in s eof freuen mili ar eed i t ior, pit q t t y xp i tions theCarthaginians never really subj ugated

1 ust . Oros. . 6 . J . XVIII 7 ; IV 2 3 ust . . 2 2 . J XIX I . III . 37 Administration of theIsland

1 s rt d d for h ro a l ee a s. n ee t e me e th p I , ti th y p b b y had no des reto reducethe olesland b ut onl i wh i , y sought to punish themarauding tribes and to r ec r l p ot t thei own sett ers. Thegreater part of thesouth and west was securely occu ed and colon es ere lan ed or develo ed pi , i w p t p fr m el r r - omeof o ar iePhoenician t ading stations. S ese ns ossessed a cer ain li er of ac on th tow p t b ty ti , and in theory wereperhaps only allied States. am areas eredr ained and madefer lemnes Sw py w ti , i e lo ed and fri can cul va ors rou ver to xp it , A ti t b ght o d lo h a r l ural s s I f ca d eve t e cu reource. n r an p g i t A i , ro a l in ard n a too suc wor ers erein the p b b y S i i , , h k w s n of serfs a n a four of thecr as po itio , p yi g th op r u eand en l a le su l recru s for the t ib t , b i g i b to pp y it r f r s ard n a or as s d to Ca thaginian o ce. S i i n c n w u e rovs on theun c armes as ell as ar a eself p i i P i i , w C th g it 2 when revolt or invasion cut off theAfrican supplies. a ves eredrafted n o thearmes of ar a e N ti w i t i C th g , a firs er a s as volun eers as in thewar the t t p h p t , with Sicilian Greeks in 480 b ut by thenext century someconscriptivesystem seems to havefollowed 8 r on themo ecompleteorganization of theprovince. ercenar es of foren or in nclud n fr cans M i ig ig , i i g A i nd an ar ds ereused arri son thefor fied a Sp i , w to g ti s b ut e r ved res less nd insu rd na e post ; th y p o t a bo i t , nd s memes rea n loosefrom er alleance a , o ti b ki g th i gi , h l they went to join t ewi d tribes of theinterior .

1 1 B iod . V . 5 . 1 - I 0 . 1 82 6 . d . . 2 . 6 P ol h . . XI , XIV 7 7 , XXI ; y I , 7 1 Hdt. . 1 6 D iod . . S tra . . 2 . VIII 5 ; XIV 9 5 ; b V , 7 38 History in theFourth Century

Thetribeof Balari was by theGreeks supposed to 1 aver n ed from d s r r h o igi at such eetes. ' Thearea under direct Punic rulewas appar ently un ded ther vers rsus and S aerus exclud bo by i Thy p , ing thenorthern and eastern parts except for a few c as s a l Th na r o t t tions such as O bia . e tives weeon thewholeunsympathetically treated by theCar tha inians who had not as in c l to fear an g , , Si i y, y rival power which could b emadea rallying- point rl i th fo r r for thedisaffected . Ea y n e u th centu y heoccas on of a es lenceat ar a eaccom t i p ti C th g , nied a revol of her an su ec s was pa by t Liby bj t , seed the ards morel el thea ri cul ural iz by S , ik y g t serfs an thefreemoun aineers for an a ac on th t , tt k l r r ol thePhoenician sett es. Thei c onies wereover run b ut ar a ewas s ll s ron enou to t e , C th g ti t g gh rieveher os on and o ans and ar ds t p iti , b th Liby S ? werereduced to obedience At thesameperiod (37 8) wehavethefirst referenceto an attempt of the omans selein thesland 00 col n s s R to tt i , 5 o i t ben des a c ed b ut a aren l fa l n to es a i g p t h , pp t y i i g t b l A o vr is d l l emseves. s ee u u eer ish th , h w , it o btf wh th theRomans would b eready for transmarineven ures so s n af er theavc of the all c nvas on t oo t h o G i i i , someeditors wish to substituteS atricum or Ardea for ardon a in theassa eof D iodorus our onl S i p g , y ? authority The un c ns c no d u ncluded a P i tow , whi h o bt i veelemen en ed a cer ain local ndeenden a ce. n ti t , joy t i p es d under er own su etes or ud es Th y too th i f , j g , and

1 1 1 1 D io . . . I Pans. . . d 2 b . 2 X 7 XV 4 7 . 39 Growing Oppressiveness of Carthage

ould des c am assadors foren o ers as c pat h b to ig p w , to Alexander at Babylon after his return from 1 nd a his em ass ma aveeen dueto the I i . T b y y h b terror inspired by theMacedonian conquest of ni Phoecia . A changefor theworsein Carthaginian ruledates from l s of thefour cen ur Thena ves thec o e th t y. ti of theinterior wereprohibited from engaging in a ri cul ural rsu s and er rees an d cro s g t pu it , th i t p werecut down er a s to com el emto ec an e , p h p p th x h g theproceeds of their hunting or their flocks for ? thecorn and fruit of thePunic coast- dwellers Romans werenow forbidden to tradewith theisland ? or establish any settlement They might only take in r vs ons at a ard n an or or refi e p o i i S i i p t , t th ir shi s and if carr ed s orms thesland were p , , i by t to i ,

to depart in fivedays. It was even reported that thecrews of foreign ships sailing in this direction wereseized by theCarthaginians and thrown into 4 thes a rs ca also was now in ssess n of e. Co i po io

' ar a eand its su lies of shi t m er mus ave C th g , pp p i b t h roved as useful as the ard n an c rn on c p S i i o , whi h thePunic capital largely depended during Aga ’ ho l t c es invasion . W enow cometo theera of thefirst war with ome en the omans set emselves to re R , wh R th b ak

1 1 Oros. . 2 0 . Just . XII . 3 ; III 1 t o o h r M usc. . T f r n an r b . A on [A ist . ] ira eeeecec l y b e t o th edisafiected tri es t ou assumed theGrees b , h gh by k to relat t h slan eo t ewholei d . 3 P l o b . 2 y III . 4 . 4 S tr . a : r . b XVII , 9 40 TheFirst Punic W ar through theisland barrier with which their rivals d heged them off from access to thesouth and west . Strong Punic forces weresent to Sardinia at the 1 enn n of thewar er a s to set u erean b gi i g , p h p p th anti Roman baseand so forcetheevacuation of c l r f r . his arm was o ever an s er ed Si i y T y , h w , t to c l and ereis no referen eto os l es in Si i y, th c h ti iti Sardinia till after thegreat naval victory of the om d R ans at Mylaein 260 . This was followe by cam ai ns now nvolved in rea scuri two p g , i g t ob ty, in the - s north ea t and south of Sardinia . Two d s nc rad ons ared scern le a of Philinus i ti t t iti i ib , th t , the c l an ree his r an rereseed now Si i i G k to i , p nt by on ras d t a f heS i i f l hilinus Z a an o t c onic am . P , h t p i y , who follo ed thefor unes of ann al na rall w t H ib , tu y s o s no as on eal of omeand ol us h w bi b h f R , P ybi , who des ehis admira on for thec os does not , pit ti S ipi , del era el fals f s or asses over nno ced ib t y i y hi t y, p u ti theundistinguished part played by their ancestor in ar d l o r of the n a . is a so n eo in ve S i i It t w thy, i w exa era ns of la er oman r ers a the gg tio t R w it , th t contemporary epitaph on Scipio2 claims no success in ard ni S i a . TheRomans in this year 25 9 decided to divide er orces eeen ors c rd n a and c l th i f b tw C i a, Sa i i , Si i y, 0 n no d u to des ro un c ra e the h pi g, o bt, t y P i t d with

two former ic ere en eakl arri s ned . , wh h w th w y g o

. c o theconsul for 2 landea small force L S ipi , 5 9 , d in ors ca and occu ed ea thec e r on C i , pi Al ri , hi f po t

theeas . er a s leavn a arr s n erehe t P h p i g g i o th , 1 Z n 1 o . . 1 0 r . C . I . L . . 2 . VIII , I 3 41 Campaigns of Scipio and S ulpicius

r ceed d ard n c ee c a e a. un p o to S i i A P i fl t , whi h my aveeen n uar d du off ard n a fled on his h b o g ty S i i , a roac and s eewas laid l a en eld pp h, i g to O bi , th h by a un c rr Th aranceof a more P i ga ison . eappe powerful Carthaginian fleet under H annibal com elled c seland forces erefew to ra se p S ipio, who w , i thes e r o al s accoun now eand eurn t . i g t It y Thi t , reserved in onar s seems b etheldes and p Z a , to o t most trustworthy ; and to it later ages added 1 romantic stories about stratagems by which the enem erenduced to sall fr m er c whic y w i y o th i ity, h was en ccu ed a oman am us and a ou th o pi by R b h, b t ’ Scipio s magnanimity in having buried from his own u r ers th un c ommander ann who q a t eP i c H o, had f ll n i l a e n batt eoutsideOlbia . Thec ns l f thene ear ul c us o u o xt y S pi i , was sen out eer eu ed and hecarr ed on t b tt q ipp , i os l ss lar e h ti ities against H annibal with succe. A g ar of thesland ncludin r a l l a was p t i , i g p ob b y O bi , overrun the omans who ean urn er by R , b g to t th i ou s ri ca self th ght towards theinvasion of Af it . s ec theeeof ul c us set out from With thi obj t , fl t S pi i oneof thes u ern ar ours and ann al also o th h b , H ib sailed in n to con order to intercept him. Owi g f rary winds both rival s werecompelled to retur n t ar n o f r l s means of o d . n a e c u S i ia So t Su pi i , by ’ a ruse a ac ed theenemes s uadron under , tt k i q cover of a ms and af er s n n several vessels i t , t i ki g

1 8 1 6 Frontin . Max . . 1 2 Flor . . 1 Liv. E . 1 Val . p 7 ; VI , ; I , ; o r celeb rab at funera . 1 0 2 Si] . . 6 1 : Sci i ducto is III , ; VI 7 p ’ Poeni Sard oa victor terra . , 42

Revolt of Mercenary Garrison

ei ri ca in c n unc n man of he th n n Af , o j tio with y t

subject Libyans. This mutinous spiri t spread to the arr s n ardi T n v r g i o of S nia. hePu ic go erno s ar was s u u in oneof thefor resses r a l Bo t h t p t , p ob b y Carales and even uall ut dea thes ld ers , t y p to th by o i ,

' all his c un r men l f d with o t y who cou d be oun . Reinforcements sen t out from Carth ageunder anno deser ed thensur en s a d eir com H t to i g t , n th r mander was captu ed and crucified . This was f ll e a fur er assacreof ar n ans and o ow d by th m C thagi i , the o ns erevr d 1 t th na vs Punic t w w o eawe. Ye e ti e s werenot satisfied with thechangeof ma ters. n n eir rces e dr vethe a iards U iti g th fo , th y o Sp n nd fr cans out of thesland and li e e a A i i , ob g d th mto s l l seek an a y um in Ita y . At first theRomans had refused to aid therebels 2 in an wa no s and n er offer cedethe y y , twith t i g th i to

sland . en o ever the ar a n ans suc i Wh , h w , C th gi i ceeded in su ress n therevl in fr c and pp i g o t A i a, it seemed l el t a ard n a al s ould berec vered ik y h t S i i o w o , thesena eres lved n ot let sl the r un t o to ip oppo t ity . Theconsul for 2 8 r . acc us was des a c ed 3 , Tib G h , p t h to ard n a and oo ossess n at n ra eof S i i , t k p io , a y t ? t ec as d s r c s o s h o t i t i t , with ut oppo ition Themixed population of thesepar ts had no doubt found their commerceand agri culturehampered therecen r u les and uld elcomea s a le by t t o b , wo w t b

vernmen . everal cam a ns ere ever go t S p ig w , how , needed befo rethemountain tribes werereduced to a semblanceof obedienceto Rome

1 1 Pol h . . . I 8 y I 7 9 b . 3 . 44 Romans Seiz etheIsland ThePunic government protested against the sur a n b ut ea ened therecen revol s u p tio , , w k by t t foll n o thel n war me avewa owi g n o g with Ro , g y rene l es ar a e beforea threat to w hosti iti . C th g agreed not only to abandon all claims to Sardinia and Corsica (which was occupied about thesame me me b ut to a an add onal fine ti by Ro ) , p y iti of talents as a penalty for outrages on Roman 1 r ari s merchan ts during thewa with themercen e. Theconduc f thesenateeven in thelen en t o , i t ud men l us 1 was ver d scred a le j g t of Po ybi , y i it b , and resentment at theloss of Sardinia was a leading s of he l c ears la er cau e t Hanniba i war twenty y t . Theeffects of thethreecenturies of Phoenician u a n erenot on the lever far- reac in occ p tio w who y h g. This peoplenever exerted itself to civilizeits sub jects except in so far as their services could b e u ili ed as mercenar es mners or a r cul ural t z i , i , g i t ser s Yet the unic lan ua eand meod f . P g g th of writing took a strong hold on themoreadvanced ar s and erewas s me ar er eeen the p t , th o b t b tw Liby Phoenician coast-dwellers and thenatives of r theinteior . The un c nscr ns num er a ou fif an P i i iptio b b t ty, d someof them arereferred to in thechapters on the ti s ere e erefound r ldo ci ewh th y w . They a ese m ear l and alrnost all ar ewr en in h fr y, itt t at A ican script which prevailed in thelast years of Car

thaginian independence. In Sardinia few areprior

1 o 88 8 P l h . . . 2 A . I b . ib an L . 2 d 86 . y I , III ; pp 4 , , 5 1 Pol h I I I . 1 0 an 2 8 . y . d 45 Trilingual I nscription of Pauli G errei

he oman con ues and er occurrenceat to t R q t , th i this timeis a proof that thelanguagelong main ained self and a oman a on under the t it , th t R iz ti

eu lic was ver su erfic al even in theo ns. R p b y p i , t w Four examples from different places may be f th mo t n eres n is ther l n ual taken . Oneo e s i t ti g t i i g . s r on found in 1 860 at aul erre near the in c ipti P i G i,

- w r ver S aerus in thesou eas of thesland . as i p , th t i It set u oneCleon a servan of the oman p by , t R company which farmed certain salt- works from thecensors a ou themddleof thesecond cen ur , b t i t y B Th a n vrs on is Cl on th sal - or r . e e e e w e L ti i , t k , servan of thecom an madean offer n to t p y, i g ’ [Escula ius et rew ll n l and deservedl the p M i i g y y , ‘ ree To scleus et re leon who is ver the G k, A pi M , C , o sal -wor s set u an al ar as an offer n com t k , p t i g by ’ mand Th unic is f ll : To l rd shmun . eP u er o E mearrich of l fe an al ar in ron ein e ( i ) , t b z w ight 1 00 oun ds ded ca on of Cleon son of a p , i ti , ( un c nameuncer ai n of thecom an of sal P i , t ) , p y t or er a d his h l d i . r vo e e ea s He e e h m. w k h ic , h I n theyear of thej udges Himilkat and Ab d ’ E shmun son of Him l k ee. , This is engraved on thebaseof a bronzecolumn onceformn ar of a em leof uncemen ed s one i g p t t p t t , and is surr unded a l urel r it o by a w eath . Cleon had apparently been healed after a warning conveyed in a dream in s em leof Eshmun- ZEscula ius thi t p p , and hewas doubtless a Punic agent of theRoman

1 8 ' 6 i l 608 C . I . Ka b e S . 1 R a Mus. 1 86 7 5 ; , ; 43 ; h rn . 5 D er alts Orien t 1 0 2 , 9 7 , p. 5 . 46 O ther Punic Inscriptions c m an u l eman r en als in al o p y, tho gh, ik y O i t It y, heas s - r sumed a Western name. The alt wo ks ma aveeen near theem leor morel el y h b t p , ik y at Garales c c wema er a s a r u e , to whi h ity y p h p tt ib t thesu etes or ud es ffic al s who lased on at fl , j g , o i t a er Carthageitself far into theRom n a . ThePunic inscription long known as Naransi s 1 rima und in the all of a monas er at ora p , fo w t y N T in 1 has ven r se lon d scuss ons. he 7 7 3 , gi i to g i i interpretations which makeit a memorial set up on thearrival in theisland of themythical S ar dus r l rd m s oen c an m n a eobvious y absu . Like o t Ph i i o u men s in s ne is funerar : onumen of t to , it y M t d l osc theson of No ed of ar n a . ee R h, g , S i i M k a an son of osc son of No ed of s has j t , R h, g , Lipi , ’ carried out what belongs to its erection . At Sulci thereis a bilingual inscription? Punic and a n record n how in eecu on of a decree L ti , i g , x ti thelocal au or es a sanc uar was erec ed of th iti , t y t one the oenic an oddesses Himilco to of Ph i g by , in ose on ur a s a uewas set u his son wh h o t t p by . fi C s is from earl in the rs cen ur B . . an Thi y t t y , d weseein as in fr ca an d r a an eam le it, A i Sy i , x p of theadaptation of theold Semitic city Stateto Roman mun c al ns u ns i ip i tit tio . 1 A long Punic inscription on a block of Greek mar le er a s da n from earl in thesecond b , p h p ti g y C f d in c m er at a l cen ur B . . was oun theee ar t y , t y C g i i . kea few er eam les in ard n a seems Li oth x p S i i , it to 1 1 I 1 I b 1 C . . . 1 I . S . . . L C . 44 49 , X . 7 5 3 . 1 S . 1 1 8 . N . 9 3 , 7 47 I nscriptio n of C arales

Th n f belong to a votiveoffering . eameo thet e ci ient od er a s Eshmun is mssin b ut ere p g , p h p , i g, th is a lon l s cal un c names as Adonib aal g i t of typi P i , , s and Th l s d elcart r a n . e a d o Bo m , A i , M go t on r ’ as Ar s thec ief of ther es s who madethe w i , h p i t , offering becausethegod choseas priest his son ’ d Theson ma aveeen n a from Si on . y h b eg ged in s ness in r a and reurned to a eu s me bu i Sy i , t t k p o appointment in a Punic templeat CHAPTER IV NATUR AL PR OD UCTS AND COMMERCE

ua vet I t ia saxoso torr a orso Q id al m, id d E xercet sco ulis latefreta allida ueintus p , p q Arva co uit nimium n cro fumantib us Austris q , Ca ; ’ t r r ri r Ceea p opensas Cet es nutrita favo e.

S ru us I n u cus.

THE d mens ons of thesland c is in thef rm i i i , whi h o of an rreular lon are1 60 mles from nor i g ob g, i th to sou 68 fr meas to es an area of th , o t w t , with s u r mle s 1 0 ml s from th c as of q a e i s. It lie 4 i e eo t l 1 8 r m fr o thelen is less a 2 o ca . u It y, f A i Th gh gth an reederees of la udethed vers es in th th g tit , i iti " thesurfaceproducevariations in theclimateand flora such as on themainland extend over fully ° ten degrees (38 to Thec ief r vers run es and s u - es and in h i w t o th w t , s uar er is them s fer leerr r c thi q t o t ti t ito y, whi h , en m s access lefr m thesea and con a n n b i g o t ib o , t i i g sele d ar ours earl a rac ed foren rs. goo h b , y , tt t ig tt Then r ern and es e coas s on theot er and o th a t rn t , h h , er formda lel nes of ru ed cl ffs did not with th i i b i gg i , , l roac from al etheeas of ors ca nvea . ik t C i , i it pp h It y l a thenl ar ur in h s ar was s u O bi , o y good h bo t i p t , h t off from therest of Sar dinia by steep mountain 49 4 Chief M ountain D istricts

Thenor n alf the es c as is ranges. ther h of w t o t simlar to theeas b ut thesou ern alf is re i t, th h mo ro en sand a s ac ed e er low lls b k by y b y , b k ith by hi or s vela oon s forma n con inues by exten i g s. Thi tio t r un d thesou - es an le ccas nal s urs o th w t g , with o io p of r c lls ll thedeulf of a l ar is reac ed o ky hi , ti wi g C g i i h , rdered in ar sal la es in ar some d bo p t by t k , p t by goo l l s arab eand . Nine- tenths of thearea ar ecovered with hills or moun a ns vei' rreularl laced and ormn t i , y i g y p , f i g f n r e l ew defi e an s. The r nc a linerunn n it g p i ip , i g nor an d sou is evden l a on n o f th th, i t y c ti uati n o theC rs can ran eand ro s off several rans o i g , it th w t verseran es or l e T a au . he e ea Genn r g p t x chi f p k , a en u in the ar a a or cast cen ral d s r c is g t , B b gi , t i t i t , ver feeand a ers er fromthea ru o t , pp a high b pt e of it s n ss s lopetowards theinterior . It is snow d f r r lf r m ll r s cla o oveha theyea . Thes a t an verse rangeof Limb arra in thenorth attains nearly f er m or an rou eendin ee. n t A oth i p t t g p, xt g l os to the es coas is a of theMar hi i a m t w t t , th t g n nd Lussur i a oun ai ns Th nl ran en m a g M t . eo y g a ed ' theanc en s is theI nsam Mantes and ac or by i t , c ding to theordinary view thesewould betheMontiferru e s not far from osa on the es o t h ight , B , w t c as . s area o ever elon ed to ther eof the Thi , h w , b g t ib Pelli ti and racc us in his cam ai n of 1 , G h , p g 77 a ai ns theI lienses is said avecarr ehis g t , to h i d arms n o the nsa o e s s l d r i t I ni M nt s. Thi ea t mid an o ar a a d s r c ere a s uld lacethe B b gi i t i t , wh P i wo p m un ains so named the mans is muc the o t by Ro , h 5 0

Prevalenceof Malaria is erha s theresen inas near as el ardo p p p t Cogh , C t S and a river near Turres (fiumedi Porto Torres) is s an ned b a ell- reserved oman r d p y w p R b i ge. TheSacred River mentioned by Ptolemy is now unknown . It may havebeen a stream oncenavi a lenow lar el sil ed u in thes er al g b , g y t p, outh n h f of the es coas recevn its lefrom head w t t , i i g tit t o n n s r neof thena onal od S ardus and ass j i i g h i ti g , p f rm d ing thetown o Neapolis. Wa an curative springs wereabundant in this largely volcanic sland and thes deof em relar a n i , by i th gu b thi g es a lis men s re u as at the sal ne a ers t b h t g w p, hot i w t T of Forum rajani. All reons avem reor less mal ar a an evl gi h o i , i w c has ardl a a ed s nceanc en mes in hi h h y b t i i t ti , spiteof theadvanceof scienceand distributions n ne the r - of qui i by Italian Govenment . Low lying m s the aun of mos u oes form read l swa p , h t q it , i y theflat coas areas and themoun ain orren s on t , t t t r lar la o s spread out in many parts into egu g on . n thes ore esearemos l sal somemes O h th t y t , ti communicating with thesea by a narrow arm; elsewherethey arecut off by sand- dunes which have ’ er r s am al so occur at blocked th ive mouth . Sw ps

r l - l l uc fr a consideab eheight abovesea eve. S h e entl dr u in summer remain n covered qu y y p , i g with esal cr s al s or deca n eed and shining whit t y t yi g w , nc en they areoften shrouded in densefogs. A i t eso emes found wells impregnated with brinear m ti , 1 s and may havebeen used in thecuring of hide.

1 1 8 2 . N . S . , 79 , 33 5 2 Varieties of Flora

That thesummer exhalations from thesemarshes aggravated themalaria was recognized by the a n c en s 1 who also rearded as a c n r u or i t , g o t ib t y a uset efierce fr can sc rocco lethen r ern c h A i i , whi o th mountains kept off thehealthier wind now called ’ a The d of the easan r must t ramontan . foo p t y always havebeen insufli cient ; and whiledeaths from o er diseases areewer an in al the th f th It y, victims of mal aria and resultant maladies exceed r r s 1 r annuall the l in recent etu n 1 pecent . y of who e o p pulation . Thevarious zones or climatic regions exhibit a flora ranging from theproducts of Central Europe r t n r l to thoseof No th Africa . Much of hecet a mountainous district is overgrown with trees and us es c es nu s alnu s ar u us c s us m r le b h , h t t , w t , b t , i t , y t , mas c and ea er Thenor rn ar s c . e ti , h th th p t , whi h resem le rovenceand en ral al aresu ec b P C t It y, bj t to fees clima c c an es and ares ec all ada ted w t ti h g , p i y p for The ar r l s la ns of th s u olives. b et eees p i eo th and es arel ethene our n c as of fr ca w t , ik ighb i g o t A i , rich in corn b ut towards thecoast thesoil is much m rena ed sal th r s . ere r w e e i p g t with t H g o h b , sal r sea-lavend r l t e asswort orac ec . se two t , , g , h, , who erness was ro er al in a bitt p vbi Rom n literature. Thepeculiar herb which caused thosewho tasted to e re er faces onvlsed sar o it xpi , th i c u by d nic lau er has not n d li ee en fied . was eevd ght , b i ti It b e to resem le arsle acc rd n to ers to be b p y, o i g oth a

1 Paus. . 1 o Ma . rt . . 60 6 an D anteI n . 2 X 7 ; f IV , d , f 9 . 8 i Maremma e ’ 4 , d di Sardign a i malr.

53 . Sardonic Laughter

n ranunculus an r r u d t em u hs ki d of , d to g ow o n h o t r ers 1 v the a ers hic rema ned unaffected . of i , w t of w h i Therearetwo chief traditions concerning this des read m ree r ers enera l descri e wi p yth . G k w it g l y b thelaughter as that of old men who wereslaughtered er sons en e er drive n dee renc es by th i , b i g ith n i to p t h or r s off all cl ffs or a a n is thelau er th u t t i , g i , it ght of thevictims immolated to Saturn-Molech by the oen c an l rs i r I n man mes Ph i i sett e n Sa dinia. Ro ti theexplanation that sardonic laughter was dueto er r d ne a h b was theeceiveo . An extract from theproverb collector Zenob ius may givean idea of theinterest which this subject . aroused among theGreeks

E schylus in thet reatiseabout proverbs speaks thus of the ren on Th a n ts of Sa rdin ia in set e. ein ita e p h b , b g colonists of theCart a in ian s sacrificed men of o ver h g , sevent ears to Cronos lau in an d reetin oneanot er y y , gh g g g h , for they thought it shameful to weepand mourn so affected la r sa r on But Tima us sa s t at t e ughtewas called d ic . y h h y set up their parents in thetren ches into which they a re a out ‘to b eun and stri et em wit s linters or t row b fl g, k h h p , h them down headlon g ; whilethey in theact of perishing lau owin to thein usticeof t eir c ild ren an d t eir gh g j h h , h n belief that their en d is a fortu n ateand hon ourableo e. Somederivethee ression from theisland of Sardo fo r xp , theregrows in it a herb th etasteof which makes pe0p1e

1 u d s v. Za S i . . Plin . . Paus. l . c. Solin . . 1 XX 45 , , IV , p aim éh w and ot er references in Pai s Atti dei . y , h ( Lined 1 880 wh o connects thee ression wit the , , xp h mmolation voluntaril under one devotees of S and an i y g by , Th r aut orities mostl asso a god of Asia Minor . eG eek h y r sel ciatethis sardonic Laughter with such volunta y f

54 —L Climate TheCampidano d iein con vulsions and laughin g ; b ut others say that affected laughter is called sard onic from theword to ' rin c at o B t mon id s sa s t at alos for he . u S i e e e g , p y h T b a rrived in Cretein a ited S ardo an d destro ed man o f h b , y y the eo let erean d t at t esew iled in ri nned p p h , h h h y g g , ’ w n n 1 hececameth eexpressio .

The ldes form of the ree rase c o t G k ph , whi h

’ occurs alread in theOd sse is sardamon evi y y y , , ’ dentl con nec ed c a o o to dr a ac the y t with p , w b k ’ l s l n s ip in convu sivelaughter . Whe thi became assoc a ed ard n a e er o n the i t with S i i , ith wi g to unfilial conduct of thenatives or thebitterness of the er s falseemolo roduced thes ell n h b , ty gy p p i g i sardon c”.

lethes r n is cold and c ec s veea on the Whi p i g h k g t ti , lains aree osed to an almos tro cal sun and p xp t pi , theherdsmen areobliged to migrateto themoun tain as ures l vn in u s an d caves or merel s el er p t , i i g h t , y h t in in anc en om s an d dolrnens a nomad sm g i t t b , i rea l d i m mes which no doubt p vi e n Ro an ti . Thechief settled agricultural population was es a l s ed in the am dano a la n s miles t b i h C pi , p i ixty lon and ten road reac n nor - es fr g b , hi g th w t om l ds thewes coast s l Cara es towar t . Thi inc uded im ortant latz undia o m er al and r va e p f , b th i p i p i t , a d i st ll do ed t remai ns of oman u ldin n s i tt wi h R b i gs, which suggest that theinhabitants weremostly red in small rou s al n themain r ads scatte g p o g o .

1 e - m L . 1 . e a Gr u h . eon o P ar m. ed tsc D u ted , I 5 4 5 ; , q by 0 2 02 adds t at th eP oenician s t rs Sc ol d . etle sac h , 3 , 3 , h h rificeto 01 01103 not onl theold men b ut th efairest of d y . a tives their c p . 5 5 ExtensiveC orn Trade

Thepresenceof many nuraghi proves that it was Thecorn a populous area from prehistoric times. r m ere uld berou in r ad Carales f o h wo b ght by o to , t l and therestored till ready for despatch o Ita y . Under theEmpiretherewereimperial granaries in thecare s ec al su er n enden s a ded a of p i p i t t , i by . An ih ml ar s aff who d rec ed thee r . i it y t , i t xpo t scription recording theconstruction of such a build ing by a governor about thetimeof Caracalla has 1 een f und in thesu ur nar a and ere b o b b Bo i , th existed regular companies of Sardinian shippers ? who raded s T e orn radew c t with O tia h c t , hi h had alread een rofi le he ar a nians y b p tab to t C th gi , remained eens veall r the oman a e xt i th ough R g . I n 0 B C l dan su l es 2 . . weareo d suc a un 4 , t , h b t pp i werebrought to Romethat it becamenecessary ? to build fresh storehouses to receivethem Oc tevian was forced into an agreement with Sextus Pompeius through theinconveniencecaused by ’ hela er s s a e is radeand oraceat t tt topp g of th t , H thesameperiod speaks of thefruitful crops of ’ ‘ r c ard n 1 a r th rvs s of an d i h S i ia. L te eha et Egypt r ca eamethefirs cons der n and the Af i b c t i atio , Sardinian grain was found to b elight and inferior 5 r s Y t a of to someothe sort . ein thedec y the m re en an ra n was or ed E pi , wh Egypti g i abs b by

1 . N . S . , 1 9 09 , 183 . 1 V 1 2 w er ters of Afr a C I . XI eth mas ic n . C . L e f . . 4 4 , h and S ardinian vessels set up a statueto oneof theoflicials o f Ostia in 1 7 3 . 1 v 1 Li . . 6 04 1 . XXIX 3 . . I . 3 , 4 1 Plin . XVIII . 7 . — F lowers and Trees Animals

t e ew m er al ca al and r can su lies h n i p i pit , Af i pp ereals l a leto b ecut off muc m r ance w o i b , h i po t s a d o s f r wa att chet tho eo Sa dinia . The lain c un r hilelac n in d is p o t y, w ki g woo , c vered d arf lan s and scen ed er s o with w p t t h b , c er f r a is f n r ll an whi h s ve o pastur ge. It o te b i i t w o ers amon c m r le room l l es ith fl w , g whi h y t , b , i i , orc ds and mallo s arecons cu us and in ar s hi , w , pi o , p t i - T sl it s studded with flower covered pools. heopes arecovered wi rees c unl ethes ru s th t whi h, ik h b , r em l ll a enot smaller an oseof th ai n and . o th th Wi w , o lar elm and ash arec m on and several p p , , , o m , var ees of theoak es ec all thecor - reeand i ti , p i y k t l aras las roduced i ex . A p itic growth on the t p a red d ew c was e r ed to al b ut was y hi h xpo t It y , f 1 c rns deemed inferior to thecoccus o Spain . A o of theilex arestill ground by thepeasants and made n o es m ed l r - rees as c es ca ard. u i t k , ix with F it t , h t nu s ol ves and damsons are len ful in man t , i , , p ti y ar s b ut vnes do not seem to aveeen a undan p t , i h b b t in anc en mes and man oflicials referred to i t ti , Ro p ? b ring their own supplies of winefrom Italy Domestic animals arekept throughout theyear ou s alls and s c m ned wt the oor with t t , thi , o bi i h p as ura e r a l accoun s for er small s e p t g , p ob b y t th i iz , fi m c does not o ever am un to d ar s . whi h , h w , o t w Theox ic was un versall used for l u n , wh h i y p o ghi g I sl and dr au is s mlar to a f eral t . ght , i i th t o C nt y T esland h rses in s eof themall s a ure h i o , pit s t t of cer ain reeds erein s medemand amon the t b , w o g

1 2 v 1 . G l] . . r. 2 e v Plin . x . x 12 57 TheMnsmc and Solifuga Romans for riding as well as for moremilitary ? purposes They aremostly dappled whiteand dar r wn and leli leuse for drau k b o , , whi tt d ght , areof rea s d Them s c n mal ee. s c arac er a g t p o t h t i ti i , and a c su lied thena veclo n was th t whi h pp ti thi g , themasma or mouflon a s ee lon s a , , h p with g, h ggy ’ ai r l ea a s ll f und in erds in thecen ral h ik go t , ti o h t 1 and s u - es ern dis r c s ausan as remar s o th w t t i t . P i k on its sw ness and theend its rns w c ift b of ho , hi h curled round theears instead of projecting outwards; and healludes to theshaggy breast which madeit “ resem lethe ld s ee of E i t s a uar b wi h p g nean t t y . rdinar l was also len ful wecan ud e O y woo p ti , if j g from thereadiness with which tunics an d togas wereprocured in theisland for clothing ? theRoman army in theSecond Punic W ar ere erevar ous nds deer es des w ld Th w i ki of , b i i sw nethe areand ra b ut olves ad ers i , fox, h , bbit, w , b g , L c s s mar ens d sna es ereun n n . o u t , an k , w k ow t ver thesou erl inds scor ons werebrought o by th y w ; pi , o arefreuen and ere erensec es s to to , q t , th w i t p t r er f e r er Thechief was which ancient w it s o t n ef . venom us s der called soh u a the omans a o pi f g by R , lur ed in caves and mnes and n cted which k i , i fli ‘1 res serious injuries on thosewho touched it unawa .

’ l s s den f s theM aleodzlus Natura i t i ti y thi with yg f , s der se eis dan er us but thearan ula a pi who bit g o , t t As in ors ca nd muc dreaded . is also common a h C i ,

1 V o . Fir . 6 . . m XXIX 3 , 5 ; p 1 H . . 1 . Var . E l . IV 3 I 2 of 1 8 XXX I . 7 ( 9 1 n 1 . Soli . IV . 58

Extent of Mineral Resources

Thelakes by thesouthern coast arehaunted by flamin oes c arr vefrom fr ca in thesummer g whi h i A i , and by other water-birds; whilethousands of wild duc h ks and geesemigrateherein t eautumn . Thechief mineral deposits consist of lead and c er T s r s w r a o les as opp . herichest di t ict eeb ut Ig i and ulc in thesou - es es ec all thelow S i , th w t , p i y lls wards thesea from ic theorec uld be hi to , wh h o eas l s ed f n m s nder i y tripp to A rica in Pu ic ti e. U theRomans theSardinian mines weremostly u lic ro er or ed ar l convc la ur p b p p ty, w k p t y by i t bo , and su er n end m er al r alla p i t ed by i p i f eedmen . Met us becamea reular ur an cen reand mn r th g b t , i o cen res es ed i s sou - s r r a t xi t n thi th weten a e. They had seara e r d s oflices cemeer es etc . an p t wo k , , t i , ,

' probably took theform of vicz with their own ma s ra es b ut lac n a c m leemun c al gi t t , ki g o p t i ip or a r mm rs scor ae and n a on . ar e on a e g iz ti L g i h , i , ’ leaden l c s theem eror s nameareof en b o k with p , t ound in is ar n n t m er al n er f th p t , poi ti g both o i p i ow ship of themines and to theexistenceof smelting ? works in theisland Several of thelead - mines con ai n a ro or ion of s lver and s was erac ed t p p t i , thi xt t ? in oma imes T us in the em of don us R n t h , po Si i 1 Apollinaris describing theprovinces each bringing a if to er al an ueen is a silver offer n g t th i It i q , it i g rdin a which is homeby Sa i . d r n is also ound b ut themeal d es not Goo i o f , t o seem to havebeen much worked beforetheRoman a ethefew earl m lements und en r a l g , y i p fo b i g p ob b y

1 1 1 N. S . 1 1 8 s . S olin . . 1 . . . , 9 3 , 9 q IV , 3 V 49 60 StoneQ uarries and Precious Stones

Pun c r s i impo tation . Latein theEmpireiron was 1 lar el e r ed u as less a un g y xpo t , tho gh it w b dant an in thene our n lva l a th ighb i g I (E b ) . ard nia is r c in ran eand asal c S i i h g it b t , whi h enablethepoorest houses to bewell and durably o m c f d c ns ruc ed . ran e u o of a re n t t G it , h it ti t , occurs in thecen ral an d n r ern m un ains t o th o t , es eiall in the all ra and is of econ oined p c y G u , it t n j felds ar uar red or vle or r with p , q tz, io t p phy y , l ar le d nes ac m an s en e. rec ous s b k b , y it Of p i to comehan as er a a eand ame s erefairl , j p , g t , thy t , w y comm n and finel cut s ec mens arefound in o , y p i ’ lum and full r s w r ex thetombs. A e earth ee r ed thela er of nfer r al and onl po t ? tt i io qu ity, y l f r clean n mon th suitab eo i g whitegarments. A g e r r l - r s lakes and ma shes weesevera salt wo k . Thenatural resources thereforeconsisted princi ll of corn im er lead co er uild n s one pa y , t b , , pp , b i g t , l nd r the m ree r raderou and sa t . U e E pi xpo t t b ght a ai r amoun of eal n thesland and ere f t w th i to i , th eeeas mmun ca ns sa o ulon a w r y co i tio with Pi , P p i , a T r mains of th coas o ns and Osti . hescanty e e t t w o n to the resence a cer ain luxur p i t p of t y, with ea res and er u lic u ld n s s a ues mosai cs th t oth p b b i i g , t t , , fresc es eelled r n s and er ersonal orna o , j w i g , oth p es nl theol cal c an es and thensecur m nt . O y p iti h g i ity of thetroublous fifth century threw back thecoast

- dwellers into semi barbarous conditions.

1 m N . ua S ard o s . Ru l a at . 2 ceite ti . massa Cf I 5 4, Q p ’ fluit.

1 1 and 2 Plin . XXXV . 7 5 . 61 CHAPTER V THE R EPUBLICAN PROVINCE

D ifi cileest dictu quanto in odio simus apud exteras nationes propter comm quos ad eas per hos anuos cum ’— im erio s n r Cr xo . p misimu i iu ias ac lib idines. cn

THE mans a u 8 s o avn ained os Ro , bo t 23 , h i g g p sess on them reaccess le ar s of ardin a i of o ib p t S i , r ceeded f rm eer rs ca c p o to o it , tog th with Co i , whi h he anneed at thesameime n a r vnce t y x t , i to p o i , thesecond in thelong series which had recently w o o Then a an s begun ith thec nquest f Sicily . i h bit t of thecoast towns wereleft their local independence and ma e in meases reained for gistrat s, who so c t Th w ol a timetheir Punic titleof suf etes. e h e territory becamein theory theproperty of the man eleand cer ain ar s er a s thees a es Ro p op , t p t , p h p t t of ns c had s ded wi ar a e ere tow whi h i th C th g , w fis d l c d 1 th field con cate as pub i lan . A titheof e r ducewas eac ed from land ners and his p o x t ow , t 2 m s as some es dou led in mes of war i po t w tim b ti , though thesecond tithewas properly a purchase r r madeby thego venment . Such corn was eithe conveyed directly to Romeor to theRoman army

1 C c . B l . 1 . i a b . XVIII 4

E ° ° I I L V ° 6 I ° I 8 I 1 g a 9 ( 1 3 : 9 (37 : 9 (3 7 0 7

2 1 ° (4 : 3 l 62 Character of theEarly Government

? n hefield sti endium or d rec tax was also i t A p , i t , levied? probably from peoples not sufficiently settled to beamenableto a regular tithesystem. I n somecases s ma aveeen in ind b ut the thi y h b k , wholequestion of provincial taxation at this tirno r r As in l ereerero a l is ve scu e. c y ob Si i y, th w p b b y f ds n en or custom dues o 5 per cent . on goo et ri g leavn ard n an ar ours an am un reduced i g S i i h b , o t by half under theEmpire; and thereweredues

- on a e as ura es sal r s and mines. St t p t g , t wo k , No d military servicewas imposed . on theislan ers except on thesummons of thegovernor for home defenceand somehin was doneto o en u the , t g p p n er r thecons ruc n of r ads hic i t io by t tio o , w h, how f l ever mostl daterom a a er er od . , y t p i Thereis no direct authority as to thetitleof the ovrn r in h fir r T n ls g eo t e st yea s. heco su werestill res ns lefor all the ossess ons of the ta e po ib p i S t , and nativerisings often called them to Sardinia s r m s in er on . o e e a deu er a p At th ti p ty, p h ps a uaes or c mman ded th r s I e oo . n 22 theeo le q t , o t p 7 p p oo over thea o n men of overnor and the t k pp i t t g , collegeof praetors was enlarged by theelection in thecen ur es of two new offic als oneto over t i i , g n the oman ar of c l onefor R p t Si i y, Sardinia and f ors ca . enceor even en ml ar ex C i H th , wh i it y i encies reuired thedes a c of a consular arm g q p t h y, thepraetor continued his j udicial functions within the r v Th fi p o ince. e rst Sardinian praetor was l 1 . a er us M V i .

1 1 1 2 L v. 1 1 Liv. . i Cic . S olin . . 1 5 , 3 4 , 7 ; V . 63 Attitudeof Ro meto Natives

Under the raer s d a uaes r h e p to too q to , w o sup r vsed thecollec n of a edues and as else ere i tio St t , , wh , thesewereraised by representatives of thetax farming companies to which theright had been allo ed h s Th s f rnm is tt by t ecen ors. eeat o gove ent unkn n b ut thefac a theearl road s s em ow , t th t y y t rad a ed fr m ora revo sl a lead n un c i t o N , p i u y i g P i ’ centre su es s ha s was the overn or s , gg t t t thi g ? res dence thea eof aesar Carales had he i By g C , l cometheca a as has s ncerema ned . pit , it i i Theattitudeof theR omans to thenatives of the interior was much thesameas to thewild beasts of a Th rds m r a ed maraud n Afric . eSa adeepet i g eedi ons lla n the lai n-d ellers ou xp ti , pi gi g p w with t mer Th o rn rs r l a d f ra s n cy . eg veo eta i te by o y i to themountains; thetribesmen werehunted down with 1 loodh ounds er vlla es urned and ewere b , th i i g b , th y s d Yet sold into slavery in Italy by thethou an . they did not altogether lack thepower of combina on and somemes a ered suc lar earmes ti , ti g th h g i as to call for thepresenceof a consul with two or mor leo s t I n c ed a les e gi n o support him. pit h b tt theleonar es ereusuall success ul b ut the gi i w y f , interior was not really reduced even under the ? Empire Thepoverty and unhealthiness of the country did not encouragethesenateto sacrifice thelargeforces required for a thorough pacifica b t in c rseof methe r anda e n tion u ou ti b ig g , i to thensurrec onar s ri deenera ed could which i ti y pi t g t ,

1 1 I 8 Zon . . 1 8 . C . C . . L. . 2 . 6 . f X , p 7 VIII 3 Ta . An n . . 8 . vE ) . c Li . . Stra . . 2 1 XI ; b V , 7 ; II 5 64 Early NativeRebellions

b eeld in c ec a few au l ar c r s c m osed h h k by xi i y o p , o p o f Ligurians or Sards whoseadventurous disposition led em to en er the oman s th t R ervice. er ous na ver s n s secrel su or ed S i ti i i g , t y pp t by art a e ean mmedia el af er thefirs a ea C h g , b g i t y t t nn x on and r um s erecla med reesuccess ve ti , t i ph w i by th i consuls: hus or uatus . an T Car ili s T M q Sp . vu an o nius at d M . P mpo M ho Thelast of thesecarried his arms farther into themountains an his redecessors and ursued his enemes th p , p i and er ca leeven amon thecaves ckl th i tt g , thi y over ro n ood in ic e had a en g w with w , wh h th y t k refuge? Further disaffection was roused by the constant imposition of military governors after thec an eof 2 2 and two ears la er wea ai n h g 7 , y t g ? find a consular army under Atilius Regulus TheSecond Punic W ar was heralded by a series ? of or ents careull reserved v ni p t f y p by Li y A k ght , as hevisited thewatch on thewalls of a Sardinian o n found a thes aff ic heeld was low t w , th t t wh h h g ing in his hand ; flames shoneout on thecoast two shields werecovered with blood ; and soldiers werestruck by hghtning . Thenervousness re flected in thesetales expressed itself also in the main enanceof a erful arrison w c even ave t pow g , hi h g

I riseto thecomplaint at Romethat a praztor and

1 8 E t t iu ell . . n tr . I I I Z n Ac . r m h . . o . p V II 3 ; 3 After thevicto ry of To rquatus thetempleof Janus wa s closed for thesecond time. 1 . Po v. E . l b . . 2 an I . 1 Li 2 C . Zon . d f V II 9 ; p XX y II 3 7 , 1 1 . XXII . 65 Seco nd Punic W ar legion werebeing wasted in a part not very sus ceptib leof attack . hefirs ears of thewar assed uneven ull T t y p tf y, b ut thegovernor found it difficult to keep his military f r l s - r sed and naval o ces supp ied . A thehard p es omeovernmen could not in theear of thedefea h g t , y t of armen send an el hewas o l ed to ave C , y h p , b ig h recourseto the ard n an mun c ali es w c S i i i ip ti , hi h ? generously supplied both victual s and pay The even s of thene ear 2 1 s ow a thesena e t xt y , 5 ? h th t t was wisein keeping up a garrison in an island w ere erewas s ill muc d saffec on l n as h th t h i ti , yi g it did between Hannibal in Italy and relief from

Carthage. Thecontributions of theprevious year h ad not been raised by theRomans without someharsh ness an d secreem ssar es of ar a efanned the , t i i C th g ’ i - h f f h r c vl z d natives ll will . T echies o t emo ei i i e wes -cen ral r es who werealread wear of t t t ib , y y oman rulesen envo s to r ca nv n the R , t y Af i , i iti g Punic government to seiz etheopportunity of re covering Sardinia beforereinforcements from Rome an d t en w r h e raeo . uc ns caevola had ar p t , Q M i S , r rived thee. A largeforcewas accordingly placed un der asdru al surnamed the ald b ut was H b , B , it delayed on its way by b ad weather in theBaleari c slan s aevl r I d . Sc o a on his a rival was attacked by he revalen malari a and therer n overnor t p t , ti i g g , ammula rou to omeso ser ous cco M , b ght R i an a unt 1 v Li . I I . I I . 2 1 V a . ax V 6 . XXI ; l M . 1 L v I I s n . i . P a XXI . 3 2 q . XII . 66

— Defeat of Sardo Punic Army

n v had a r a n r l t ati es. He g theed co sideab e orce in then er or to o oseTor uatus and en on e i t i pp q , th g on a recruiting tour among thetribes of theremoter ar s of thesland leavn his son the - eade p t i , i g , hot h d o i om an u Hostus n c m d . n to thefa lure y th , Owi g i of theCarthagirfian reinforcements to ar rivein meTor uatus fel a leto a ethefield at o ce ti , q t b t k n , an ost s read l o n a l d H u i y j i ed b tt e. Therebels wereu erl defea ed fell and the rec tt y t , , w k o f thearm fled omus ere er leader as y to C , wh th i w

then supposed to be. About thesametimethePunic fleet at last put in ro a l at or near ulc obh in the o n , p b b y S i , g g R ma commander to reurn to Car s ale. The oen ans t Ph ici , including a number of Spanish mercenaries? effected a unc n the ards and er eewas sent j tio with S , th i fl t awa onl to becr led a o av de y, y ipp by R man n al hm nt asdru l as owevr now in sufh tac e . a w e H b , h , c en force marc on the oman aseat Carales i t to h R b , pillaging as hewent theterritory of communities

friendly to Rome. Torquatus did not shri nk from an encoun er and af er somesli s rms es t , t ght ki i h

fo a c ed ' a lelas n f r our Th u u s. e ght pit h b tt ti g , o h ards wereeas l rou ed b ut the ar a in ans S i y t , C th g i resisted with obstinacy un til they wereat last Thesla r t all r i outflanked . ughtein he ied a my s a to aveamoun ed to men over s id h t , with dru an o a r soners. as al himself d a p i H b M g , mem er of theBarcinefaml wereca ured and b i y, pt , Ha a mong theslain was theyoung Hostus. mp

1 1 8 . 8 1. XII . 3 7 68 Naval Activity o f theTime sicora esca ed a few orsemen b ut on ear p with h , h ’ ing of his son s death hepierced his heart with a s ord c oos n theni - meles an ones ould w , h i g ght ti t y h n r him hedefea ed arm oo refu e i ter upt . T t y t k g in rnus whic fell to the omans in a few da s Co , h R y ; and theother revolted communities werecompelled to givehostages and to supply pay and corn for h v ors orn us ecamean m or an R man t eict . C b i p t t o to n b ut as no re- oman rema ns aveeen w , , p R i h b found Tor uatus ma averemoved to a fres , q y h it h s t On th rern of thecon ueror and his r00 s i e. e tu q t p to tal caevola rema ned as ro raetor in com I y , S i p p , m n a d of two legions. ? I n 2 1 0 therewas another Punic inroad A eet of for war vessels arr ved off theeas coas fl ty i t t , and theadmral amilcar la d was ethe l a i , H , i t O bi n ar c f rz or anhus district . O theappean eo thep et M Vulso hesa led sou ards and after devas at n i thw , t i g theneighbourhood of Carales returned to Africa f w muc oo . As ar as our records o s ith h b ty g , thi was thelast timethat a foreign army lan ded in ardinia ill thecomn of the an dal s over six S t i g V , centuries later ; b ut owing to its position between thebelligerent powers it continued for someyears a na l cen r n important va t e. I n 208 reports of extensivehostilepreparations induced Scipio Africanus to detach fifty ships from his forces in Spain for thedefenceof Sar dinia ? Threeyears later a fleet of 1 00 Punic merchantmen des ned to su l ann al en in u hern ig pp y H ib , th So t 1 1 I v 6 d . 2 2 2 . 2 . Li . 7 , 7 , 69 End of thePunic W ar

al b ut lac n a sufi cient c nvo was carried It y , ki g o y, advrs n an o The by eewi ds to theSardini c ast . ov m l ernor Cn . c avus ossess n so enava g , O t i , p i g force sall ed out san several s s ca ured , i , k hip , pt ? s and forced theres to reurn to ar a e ixty, t t C th g I n 202 en thewar had een car r ed n Afr ca , wh b i i to i , theconsul la d s w il c nven nava . u u e Tib C i , h o yi g l renforcemen s to c suffered d sas er in a i t S ipio , i t s orm off thedreaded nsan on es and ut n o t I i M t , p i t Carales therema ns of his ee h a d with i fl t . T edam ge shi s wereeac ed and refi ed b ut thedoc ard p b h tt , ky was ro a l ill eu ed and therea rs o s p b b y q ipp , p i to k o lon a laud us was over a en n er and g th t C i t k by wi t , as his oflicehad expired hereturned to Romewith ? nothing accomplished I n this war Sardinia had roved of rea servceto ome as a naval p g t i R , both baseand as a sourceof supply of corn and other h coas d s r c s r a ar n l necessaries. T e t i t i t wee pp et y fr endl and themal c n en s of thenter or ere i y, o t t i i w madeto feel that no foreign aid could beof any v a ail . For someyears now weonly hear of thesteady success n of vern rs eld officefor one io go o , who h , f en for ears and of theless freuen c an es o t two y , q t h g i on suall an en r l n was ma n of gar r s . U y ti eegio i tained for considerableperiods? b ut sometimes ? allied troops wereconsidered sufficient Thereis to b enoted in this period a possibletraceof Italian

1 H n 8 A . n . Liv. 2 6 a . , 4 ; pp 5 4 1 1 iv 0 I L Zon . 1 d 2 . 3 , 39 ; . IX 4 . . 3 , 1 1 8 I d . 3 , . 70 Prmtorship of Cato

colon z a on ron e a le at th ruscan i ti . A b z t b t eEt town of Falerii contains a dedication to theRoman ’ d ver ad fr m theal scans wh o arein ard n a i in t i o F i S i i , and who formed an or an ed commun or 1110113 g iz ity, , ? under local magistrates Thesiteof thesettle men is un nown b ut ma well ave een t k , it y h b eron a not far from l a as eron a was the F i O bi , F i ? tutelary goddess of theFaliscan district I n 1 8 raer was a o who es des the o . 9 p t M C t , , b i suppressing a nativerevolt? set an exampleof sobriety and moderation rare with Roman 4 overn rs ns a of n th r vnceto g o . I ted putti g ep o i e ensefor a arel edd n and en er a nmen s xp pp , , b i g , t t i t to fr ends hewen on foo from o n to o n i , t t t w t w , with oneattendant who carried a robeand a vess l f r l H adm n s ered s rn ust ce eo a ons. e e ib ti i i t t j i , ani s ed usurers and reduced the n eres on b h , i t t l oans. Thenext important even t is therebellion of the eas -cen ral r es eaded theIlienses t t t ib , h by , who , after giving sometroublein in 1 7 8 attacked sl nd eseI lienses thepeaceful part of thei a . Th , whosedescendan ts seem to havebecometherest less r ar c n of the m rewere rou ou Ba b i i i E pi , th gh t

heout. thefiercest opponents of Roman rule. T b reak was allowed to progr ess for sometimeowing to a est lencein al w c reven ed thera s n p i It y, hi h p t i i g

1 n eses on th ea I . I 0 8 h S atu mia X . . . L T e r c C . 3 7 v b k onnecte relating to a collegeof cooks areevidently unc d 1 1 ’ ill . ict vz r . S tra . . 2 . b V , 9 [V ] 1 1 0 1 an . . v i . 2 l t . ato 6 d v. 2 L Li 3 , 7 ; P u C , 4 , 9 34 7 1 Successes of Gracchus

f I n 1 8 w en the man arr s n of r0 er rces. p p o 7 , h Ro g i o as s all d enfeeled malar a theall ed w m an b by i , i I lienses and alar advanced far thesou B i to th , and a despatch from thepraetor [Eb utius warned s thesenateof thegravity of thesituation . Thi was confirmed by envoys from theSardinian to ns a en t at themorec vli ed d s r c s w , tok h i i z i t i t eren fr ndl o e e o nted out w ow ie y to R m . Th y p i t at ou theO en coun r was o elessl h , th gh p t y h p y rava ed theown s could s ll b esa ed v . g , t ti Oneof theconsuls for 1 . em o s 7 7 , Ti S pr niu racc us fat er of the o ular leaders wh G h h p p , o had served wrth success in a n was rdered to enrol Sp i , o two c z en le ns and a lar ef rceof all es t iti gio g o i , wi h an naval ass s ance h r u re s y i t that e eq i d . Thi powerful army was at onceled into I liensian terri tor w erethe os le r es eremasse d . As y, h h ti t ib w usual in c ed at les the ar ar ans were pit h b t , b b i defeated er cam was ca tured and are ; th i p p , s d to avf l Theca ur d ar s r ai h ea len . pt e m weeheaped ’ up by theconsul s orders and burned as an offering ulcan and the omans assed the ter in to V , R p win ? thefriendl o ns racc us in cons dera o o y t w G h , i ti n f his vc r was rea ned for a sec nd ar su or e i to y, t i o ye, pp t d thef rmer raeor ZEb i s I n by o p t ut u . thenext campaign morenatives arerecorded to have een sla n a fi urew c c ns der n thesmall b i , g hi h, o i i g amount of sustenanceobtainablein this barren i r c mus mmens l ea r d s b e e ea ed . an t i t , t i y x gg t At y ra etherevol was rou hl crus ed ri e t , t tho g y h ; t b s

1 Liv 1 . 4 , 6 . 7 2 Sardinian Slaves at Ro me which had previously been subject to tax were c m elled to a dou ledues o ers had contrib u o p p y b , th umerous os a es tion s of corn levied on them. N h t g werea en and a solemn t an s vin las n two t k , h k gi g ti g s r r d a I n 1 racc us day was o dee t Rome. 7 5 G h returned to celeratehis r um and an offer n b t i ph , i g was set u in theem leof a u a ater cons st n p t p M t t M , i i g of a ta les a ed l ethesland reresen a b t h p ik i , with p t ons of a tle- scenes wor ed on it and an in ti b t k , scription attached ° Under thecommand and aus c s of em ron s r c s ns the pi e Ti . S p iu G a chu theco ul legion and army of theRoman pe0p1esubdued ar n I a rovnc ovr f th S di ia . n th t p i e e o eenemy r r a t red After mana n th u lic weekilled o c p u . gi g ep b us ness w the reates success and res ri n b i ith g t , to g therevenues he rou ac his arm safeand , b ght b k y un armed and re-en ered omein r um a h , t R t i ph second time; on which account heoffered this ’ f r tablet to Jupiter as a gi t . A hugenumbe of ca ves eresold n slaver and the rase pti w i to y, ph

’ S ardz venales becameproverbial for anything 1 c ea and or less for the ard n ans weare h p w th ; S i i , told en enslaved e er do not tolera el fe , wh ith t i at all or if edo l vewe t eir owners , , th y i , ar ou th by ’ t er dulness and ins ns li 1 h i eibi ty . This terriblepunishment resulted in many years of om ara v f c p ti equiet an d growing prosperity . For fi ty ears no consular arm had to b eem lo ed and from y y p y , a u 1 6 theovernor as s ro rae w u uall . a or bo t 4 g y p p t .

’ 1 F ~ est . s. v 0 . Vic vz . l . f [ t ] r i l . 5 7 1 E ustath . Comm. D ion 60 . 4 . 73 restes and G ra hus O C. cc

I n 1 26 owever thena ves h ad a ain ecome , h , ti g b so threatening that Sardinia was madea consular rovnceunder thecomman d of urel us res es p i L . A i O t , who was detained for threeyears by thetask of res r n eace i c s . H s uaes or was C . rac u to i g p q t G h , thefu uredemocra c leader en twen -seven t ti , th ty ears of a ewho not onl d s la ed coura ein y g , y i p y g thefield and cleme t ar s hecon uered ncy ow d t q , b ut surpassed theveterans in activity and temper a nce o f . On theadvent of n er w en lac wi t , h k su l es caused s c ness amon the oman roo s pp i i k g R t p , Orestes called on theprovin cials to providecloth in for thesold ers b ut on er des a c n g i ; , th i p t hi g an em ass to omeeem t on was ran ed . b y R , x p i g t racc us owever nduced theslan ders to ve G h , h , i i gi a voluntar su l w lethe umd an K n y pp y, hi N i i i g Mici sa out of reard for the uaestor sen corn p , g q , t ’ ? ’ for thearmy s use After two years servicethe sena ew ilerel evn thearr son reta ned res es t h i i g g i , i O t and hrs uaes or in t er offices ro a l fear n q t h i , p b b y i g a revival of thedemocratic agitation which had r s died down after thedeath of Tiberius G acchu . a us never eless en unw ll n to b e erma C i th , b i g i i g p nentl s elved reurned to omew t out leave y h , t R i h , and defen ded his action beforetheassembly in a speech of which part is still extant : I havecon ducted myself in theprovinceas I j udged it to b e to our n eres and not in accordancew m y i t t , ith y ’ on oo s s o was ma n a ned in m ambiti . No c k h p i t i y l vs o ecan sa uar ers no andsomes a e. n q t , h No y

1 6 . 1 ll . V ct . i . i v ) 60 lut . Gr cc . r i . P . a i v L B1 . ; C h ; [ ] 5 74

Trials of OppressiveGovernors — f The acquitted against theweight o evidence. firs as Alb ucius thero re r of 1 0 who t w , p p to 5 , with thehelp of a singleauxiliary cohort suppressed an ou rea in thew lder ar of theslan d er a s tb k i p t i , p h p , i i adver caused by his own m sgovemment . H s saries arecontemptuously referred to by Cicero as andi s in s ns and his a l ca on for a ri um b t ki , pp i ti t ph was re He ow vr o his own au or ec ed . ee n j t , h , th ity celebrated a kin d of triumph in Sardinia ? and on his return hewas proceeded against for extortion l an tr al a tracted un der theCa purni law. The i t n fr hecom n n ul us attentio om t petitio betweeC . J i i s f r of the aesar ra o an C11 . Pom eu a e C St b d p , th vir for th r t c Pom eius r u e to roseu e. t i m , igh p t p , avin een uaes or under thedefendan leall h g b q t t , g y s d in a nd of fil al rela ons to him and aesar too ki i ti hip , C was selec d in t r l mn r h s eec te hep ei i ary inqui y . T ep h delivered by thelatter was considered a finespecimen of theelo uenceof themeand was closel s ud ed q ti , y t i his nsman thed c a or mself oneof thefirs by ki i t t , hi t or ors f I n s f h favoura le at o theage. piteo t e b evdenceof nat ve nesses ro a l ired i i wit , p b b y h , Alb ucius was condemned and went nt eleat , i o xi ? Athens About twenty years later may beplaced the condemnat n on a s mlar c ar f a io i i h geo C . Meg 1 b occhus er a s thefa er of theofficer of a , p h p th th t namewho served under Crassus in theParthian

1 Cic . P r 1 mm. 8 ov. P is. 2 7 , 5 , , 9 2 . 1 I D 1 d . I 0 iv. 00 0. 6 I 1 Tns0 1 08 9 , 3 , Q5 . . 4 , 5 , . V. 3 7 , 1 uet . S ul . . C 1 ic . 5 0am. 8 0 . j 5 5 , 4 76 Civil Wars Piracy

f r r o n f War . A u thet ke o themisgovernment of the meis therefusal of an u r raeor ti p ight p t , ro a l L i s a n s r a d fr d of . ucceu o an n en p b b y L , hi t i i cero to acce the ardinian ro rzetorshi Ci , pt S p p p, owing to thehabitual misconduct of provincia l ? officials Thevar ous c vl ars eended to ard n a b ut i i i w xt S i i ,

'

s fi I n 8 . erewas not muc ser ou n . th h i ghti g 3 , L l us a deser er rom thedemocra s was Phi ipp , t f t , entrusted by Sulla with thesafe- keeping of the sland and hedefea ed and sle the ar an com i , t w M i ? B s I n . dus mander . n on us alb u 8 e Q A t i 7 , M L pi , af er fail n over ro the ullan cons u on t i g to th w S tit ti , retired to Sardinia in thehopeof raising further t s en re h ro ra or Triarius r00 . ulsed t e e p B i g p by p p t , hed ed ereof rief an d d seaseb ut his heu i th g i , tenant Perpet ua succeeded in removing part of ? his army. to Spain A few years later thewholeWestern Mediter ranean becamethesceneof thedepredations of l c an rivateers wh o swe thecoas s of c l Ci i i p , pt t Si i y and a n and n erfered t thee or of S ar Sp i , i t wi h xp t d n c Th x G b i onferr n an orn . eLe a nia c i i , by i g supremecommand on Pompey (67 ) enabled him to set representatives over fleets in all thethreatened

1 wh o h a t o b r in L . D ion C . 6 1 s h em ssi le ead 3 , 4 ( i p g

Lucullus) . 1 v h the 86 . Th on us wit Li . E p. ecoins issued by Ant i title rretor were ro a l struc in S ardin ia Bab elon . p p b b y k ( , I

1 ‘ F l. v . 0 L E o . I I 1 0 . I Ruti l r . 1 1 i A . . . p 9 ; ; pp B C . 7 ; ’ Namat . 2 6 S ard oa Led o ra ci tantef am. 9 , m pi p pi ug 7 7 Cicero at 01811 Q. ? areas an d so clear theseas in a fewmonths , I n

6 m e en rdered b theMess an ' law to 5 , Po p y, b i g o y i im rovethecom-su l of theca al ers nall p pp y pit , p o y vis ed thesl a d av i r it i an d? n g eto Q. C ceo a special commission to b uy and ship such corn as was needed

in addi on . ti to theregular tithes. From theseries of letters addressed to himby his brothertheorator at this time? welearn that hewas stationed at l a theneares or to al and hecarr ed out O bi , t p t It y ; i his duties so as to commend himself to thepro vincials for his honesty and good feeling ? Yet theorator does not represent it as an agreeable as dd n u n us remem er theun eal iness t k , bi i g Q i t b h th of t esland and n n a com un ca ons h i , hi ti g th t m i ti omewerenfreuen few findin or h with R i q t , g it w t ? whileto send a special messenger fromthecity I n 5 5 cametheoppressivegovernorship of M ZE aurus had served as uaes r under m. c S , who q to om ein the as and el ed in ther an a on P p y E t , h p o g iz ti n rovnce I n ardinia he of thenew Syria p i . S dis tin uished mself e r n r le es or g hi by xto ti g t ip tith , ree- en s of thecorn cro fr m theland olders th t th p, o h , 1 besides other oppressions; an d also becamein volved in a series of privatescandals of which the echo remains in thespeech delivered by Cicero in

1 I 1 P 1 I ut . o . . Mit . . m 6 A r Pl Ci . Flo . 4 , 9 ; p ; pp h 9 5 : c w r S ardin ia is lac d a on fr n . ee e m u M an il . me XII 3 4 , h p g ’ r taria subsidia eipub licae. 1 t 1 I - . P . 0 I . u . F t. . 1 . Pl om . . Cic Fam I 9 ; p 5 Q ra 3 . 1 1 m. . . . t Cic . S ca Fra . . 2 1 . XVII 39 Q II , 1 ' . . . 1 f a . 6 o . V x . w M rt Ca al Ma . or the ide p V 4 9 ; f VIII , r aract r of h is d r a o sp ead ch e ep ed ti ns. 7 8 TheTrial of Scaurus answer to thecharges of extortion brought after thereturn of S caurus to Rome That the details of a sordid tragedy in an obscuretown of theleast of theRoman provinces should claim the ’ attention of oneof theworld s greatest orators is a token of thecentrahz ation which already charac s s m teriz ed theprovincial y te. Two oen c ans of ora theold un c colon Ph i i N , P i y on thesou coas o men of weal la ed the th t , b th th , p y s r os ar and r s th la er chief part . TheeweeB t A i e tt a namen ot uncommon in thePunic i nscriptions

' f s a h f of r s was r c b ut u l o the l nd . T e e i wi A i i h , g y an d d sa reea leand her us and ou an us i g b , h b , th gh xio

to b erid of her was unwilhn to losehsr d r . , g ow y Hehad furt r ecomeen amoured of a do , he, b wi w , also of ora no n in thes eec as themo er N , k w p h th r solv o lo l o f Bostar . Hee ed t epewith theatter lad to ome o n ereto find somemeans of y R , h pi g th h rr a e ur n er a se o effec n t ema . nce n ti g i g D i g th i b , theday when Nora emptied for theannual festival of thedead ro a l celera ed in thecemeer on (p b b y b t t y, thes mus w c has d sa eared ece for a i th , hi h i pp x pt few raves thedeser ed w feof r s was found g ) , t i A i m s er ousl was vn out a s y t i y hanged . It gi e th t thi was a caseof suicidedueto grief at her wrongs ; b ut therewas a strong suspicion that shehad really een s ran led an a en of er us nd his b t g by g t h h ba . T man was known to havebeen in Nora at thetime of thefest val and hehad t en urr ed awa to i , h h i y meto nformhis mas er who at onceconcluded Ro , i t , thealhancew themo er of s I n ese ith th Bo tar . th 7 9 Murder of Bostar

circumstances it is hard to seehow Scaurus cameto bec ar ed c m l c in thecrimeb ut r s h g with o p i ity , A i at ther al camef r ard s f a a ns t i o w to teti y g i t him. A second accusa on aren l eer sub stanti ti , app t y b tt a ed reresen ed Scaurus as av soned t , p t h ing poi os ar en thela ter was his uest and as avn B t wh t g , h i g urr ed theuneral on ef reeven thefa al d nner h i f , b o t i was cleared a a in order to ehis es a e se . w y, iz t t I n ve thefra mentar condi on of thes eec i w of g y ti p h , l f r s thereation o thetwo cha gecannot b eascertained . Cicero apparently attri butes thesecond mur der to ’ star s m er who was his na ural eress and Bo oth , t h i resented his attitudetowards her relations with uld b mos in acc nc w th Axi s. It wo e t orda e ith e arac er of Scaurus who as Asconius sa s he ch t , , y , ‘ haved in his governorship without much self ’ n r l and ver arro an l su se a he co t o y g t y, to ppo th t took advantageof theabsenceof Aris to try and get ’ he i es d r n o his own ands and forced t w f ow y i t h , her n su c de rea s of s me nd af erwards i to i i by th t o ki , t poisoning Bostar with a similar object It is unnecessary to enter on thetangleof em rar ohtics w c are u l ned in the cont po y p , hi h o t i argument of Asconius and drew general attention h s s . o a to thecaseat Rome T epr ecutor w P . ler us Triarius a son of the vern r of ardin a Va i , go o S i es s ed edus was us a leto who had r i t L pi , who th b poseas an hereditary protector of theprovince; whileoneof his principal witnesses was an islander who had gained thecitiz enship through thegood us h r of offices of theelder Triari . T eunusual numbe 80 Cicero on theSardinian Character six advca es defended Scaurus and r a l he o t , p ob b y t defencea ai ns themain c ar e a of e or n g t h g , th t xt ti g ’ too muc c rn was c e in theands of Cicer S h o , hi fly h o coll a s Th s as w a i i eue. e eec e vet w t ts g p h h , i h sneer n a ude theo ressed rovnc als i g ttit to pp p i i . offers (hketheP ro Fla 0co of fiveyears earlier) a painful contrast to thenobleindignation which roused Cicero in his moreindependent days against the n l vrn r f cil tyra nica go eo o Si y . " 1 The ards weare ld area na on so nu S , to , ti principled that in their minds freedom is only distinguished from slavery through thegreater 2 f r l n roc opportunity it gives o yi g . Hep eeds:

All th erecord s of an tiquity an d every historical work in form us that th ePh cen ician racesu rpasses all in deceit f n Th eCar th a in ian s wh o weres run t er fro ul ess. g p g h e m roved theman occasion s w en t e ro ea ain p , by y h h y b k g into hostilities an d violated or set at naugh t their treaty o li ations t at t e weren o deen erateoffs rin . Th e b g , h h y g p g Sa rd s wit t eir African admi tureweren ot fo rmall , h h x , y escor ted to S ardin ia by th eCa rthaginian s an d established thereb ut were an is ed an d reected immi ran ts. Un , b h j g sound as th eracewas w en still un allo ed h ow reatl h y , g y must it ha vebeen corrupted by all thesetran smigration s "

M ifted associatean d frien d A . D omitius S in caius and y g , v f 11 P om others wh o haverecei ed thecitiz en ship rom 0 . eius will ardon meall of w om weareread to com p , p , h y men d and so will ot er wort men ori inatin in S ardinia , h hy g g , n s a of for I quitebelievethat therearesuch . Wh e I pek th edefects of th erace d o n ot ecludeall ecetion s , I x x p b ut aveto s ea of an en tireclass in w ic it ma be I h p k , h h y thecharacter and good feelin g of in d ividuals havecoun ter fa n s of ir n a an r Y t th v acted th e ili g the li ege d ace. e eery

1 1 1 8 8 1 2 - , 3 . 9 , 4 44 . 8 1 6 Sardinia Declares for Cesar

facts s ow t at a lar e ro ortion of t em lack fidelit h h g p p h y, and haven o allianceo r associa tion with ou r state; for what o t er rovin ceis t erew ic h as n o freestaten or h p h h h , oneon terms of friendship with theR oma n people

Scaurus was ac ui ed in thecour of Reetunde q tt t p , b ut it is satisfactory to learn that hewas soon after convicted of corrupt practices at theconsular elec ons and n e n o ele. ti , w t i t xi theeinn n of the rea c vl war w en At b g i g g t i i , h m e rered to reece esar ef restar in Po p y ti G , C , b o t g on his an s cam a n assured himself of the Sp i h p ig , fideli t of cil an d ard n a seled es ty bo h Si y S i i , tho p g ’ of thec rn- su l as the stor an lorus calls o pp y, hi i F em thedes atc of lea es a ml ar th , by p h g t with i it y f r din w s t n ld thesena r a l o ce. Sar ia a he he by to i v or b ut as s n as thec ens of ern . a go M Cott , oo itiz Carales c now comes f r ard as thefirs , whi h o w t ’ n in theslan d eard of thea roac of esar s tow i , h pp h C reresen at ve aler us accom an ed a le n p t i V i , p i by gio , t eeelled a from thec t and forced him h y xp Cott i y, to rere o fr a is ol c m t w the ti t A ic . Th p i y e ith a roval of mos of theslanders who l eo er pp t i , , ik th rovnc als in thewes ncl ned to thean -senator al p i i t, i i ti i ? ’ leader After Cesar s assumption of thedictator s d us was s n o s o i Se . Peuce e ut a venor h p, xt t g r , ’ and themaj ority of Cesar s few war vessels were used to uard thea roac es of c l and ard nia g pp h Si i y S i , 1 so that thedictator found himself somewhat em harrassed in eflecting thecrossing to Greecein

1 B . 0 n s. o X I 1 8 o r . Ce . D C . i C L . Fl I I . 1 I 3 ; . ; 3 ;

A . B 0 . C . . pp II . 4 82

Characteristics of Republican Age

Sardin ia its headquarters for someyears was re moved in rder o o era ea ns o i s t a Cn . P m eu , o p t g i t p in Spain ? From theannexation of Sardinia to thefinal vc or of esar nearl wo cen i t y C y t turies had elapsed . Archeological evidenceis deficient during this er d and from is or ans onl a ver s adow p io , h t i y y h y idea can b egained of thecondition of theisland er he c und t Repub h . Thehistory of thetime s ws closeanalo es to t a of a n w suc ho gi h t Sp i , ith h modifications as might b eexpected in a much o rer and smaller coun r I n o th oman p o t y . b th eR s found Carthaginian s established in colonies along thesou coast e lo t n themnes and com ell n th , xp i i g i p i g t na ves to servein er s I n s he ti th i armie. both thi southern coast was studded with towns of mixed oen c an and na ve raders and a r cul ur s s Ph i i ti t g i t i t , who displayed littlerepugnanceto Roman sovet eignty ; in both thewild tribes of theinterior could b er u d af er enera o s of ar fi n only ed ce t g ti n h d ghti g . Heretheresemblanceceases; thefew products of Sardinia wereinsufficient to build up a rich com mercial class; a municipal system developed slowly ; few c z en colon es werefounded and t osenot iti i , h l sef theReub hc c for occas onal till thec o o p . Ex ept i raids thew lder d s r c s ere erforceleft to , i i t i t w p mselves the . o no f rmal rea of all anceex s ed Th ugh o t ty i i t , several nativeor Punic cities wereon sufficiently

8 on . 2 . D i C XLIII . 84 Reaso ns fo r Holding theIsland friendly terms to b estyled allied States? giving read el the man vern rs and armes y h p to Ro go o i , and no doubt benefiting by theprotection afforded a a ns th moun a neers Yet th lot of es g i t e t i . e th e c es n s sf c r ha iti was ot altogether ati a to y . They d to satisfy theincessant demands of Roman governors and tax-collec ors and ereat thesame me t , w ti l a leto b e ll a e thest ll un amed r esmen i b pi g d by i t t ib . It was thetask of theEmpireto control theexactions of the man offic al s to eend ther ad s s em Ro i , xt o y t n theruder ar s encoura etheselemen i to p t , to g tt t o I tahans and rees in the nshi s and f G k tow p , to devel thescan ma er al res urces of thesland op ty t i o i , c a ar fr m corn had een revusl l le whi h , p t o , b p io y itt s tudied . It may b edoubted whether theRepublic really profited much by theoccupation of theisland. theexpenseof administering which must have morethan madeup for any taxation which could b rai s d Thefirs seurewas due s ra ec e e. t iz to t t gi needs in thestrugglewith Carthage; its retention may havebeen dictated by thefear that a foreign power or piratical chief might makeit a centrefrom c rr h s r s of al a suc an whi h to ha y t eho e It y . Th t h eventuality was possiblemay b eseen from the ’ his or of theears llow n esar s dea and t y y fo i g C th , from thedifficulty found in evicting such a pirate c e rom cil and ard n a en nce oman hi f f Si y S i i , wh o R f s dissensions gavehim thecommand o theea .

1 n n v e eni n e o tuleru t Li . Civitates soci b g c ( XXIII .

0 XLI . 6 . f . 85 NO E T .

S C MP G on THE G C H ARDINIAN A AI NS RA C I .

THE SE aredescribed so in con sisten tly by ou r meagre authorities that it may b ewell shortly to review th eevi en o r u d ce. Threeperi d s a ein q estion : (I ) Thefirst occu ation of S ar n ia a b out 2 8 B c di . . 2 theSecon d P un ic p , 3 ; ( ) W a r th ca m i n of 1 - 1 B e a . ; (3) p g 7 7 7 5 . c 1 Zo aras I I 1 8 r r s nti . n e e n n Ca h VI . ( p e g D io ssiu s) : T ey too S ardin ia from theCa rth a inians wit out fi tin k g h gh g, an d a further sum of mon e com lain in t at t ein u red y, p g h h y j ’ R n I n r m n oma mariners. a eeet wit th is Pol h . I . 8 8 ; g h , y A ian I . 1 v. 1 b L . 2 8 0 Li . . ib and 6 . III ; XXI ; pp , 4 , , 5 , 8 : ar in a tw n th F r n Vell . II . 3 S d i be ee e i st an d Seco d Pun ic W ars received th esu reyokeof sovereign ty un der ’ lea r of Man lius th on ul Act t f the es i . e d c s . riu h o h p T ( mp . n s Tor u tu eS a r 2 . Ma liu s a d deis . 35 , T q ) Festu s S ardi Ven d es: Sinn ius Ca ito ra mmar an of , p (g i T r th eAu ustan a esa s th at . G acc u s thecon sul col g g ) y h , l f al riu s Fal to 2 8 su u d S ard in ia eagueo P . V e ( 3 bd e and Corsica and n o oth er oo t was ta en t an S laves , b y k h , ’ f w om weresold ver ch l c rowd s o h y eap y . I 2 2 in h is acco n of n 2 or s . u t theSeo P unic . Fl u , , c d : u seiz S a r in a a r W a r Gracch s ed d i . I t g ined n o thin g f om n s of the n san i T th efiercees I Montes. hecities were arried an d Caralis th ecit of cities and man rison ers h , y ; [ y p weret en awa t at t is frowa rd eo lewh o cared n ot in ak y] h h p p , h g for deat h mi t at an ra tebeta med a sen cefro m , gh y by b ’ their nativeland . - Liv . 0 1 descri es a ca m ai n at th is eriod y, XXIII 4 4 , b p g p u T r u in w ic . Manh s o atu s was theR oman en eral h h T q g , an d Ca rales instead of ein a seat of disaffection was , b g , oman r u th f th eR ase. G acc s econ sul or t is ear 2 1 b h , h y 5 , l n nia wa s throughout emp oy ed i Campa . I m of f Liv XL . ives theca ai ns Gracc us at er 3 . y , , g p g h , h 86 Campaigns of theG racchi of thedemocrat leaders in 1 - 1 a ain st theeastern , 7 7 7 5 , g tri es I lien ses and B ari al . b , ict : ir . ill T r n . ib . o r [V ] v . 5 7 Semp ius G acchus con quered theS a r s in h is on i t w d sec d consulsh p [i as really h is first . 1 7 7 ; thesecon d was in an d brought such a number of ca tives th at t rou thelen t of thesalethe rase p , h gh g h , ph ’ S ard s for sal ro e becamep verb ial . I t will b eseen th at th eonl y diffi culties a recaused by Festus and Florus theot er a uth o rities ein in en eral , h b g g a r m n M own on c us on s a r I eeet . c l i e a s to the uota g y , ( ) q tion from Sinn ius Ca ito t at Gracc us thecon sul for p , h h 2 38 did ta kepossession of thecoast dist ricts without O osition in t at ear b ut th at thecrowds of slaves pp h y , res ltefr or es f k man n 1 2 Floru u d omth evict i o h is in s i 7 7 . ( ) s ha s evidently misplaced a passageproperly referrin g to t is sa of H s r f r n c to cru l h mecampaign 1 7 7 . i eeee eties s own towa rd s Carales an d ot er towns if n ot a mere h h , r eto rical ou rish d oes n ot fit in wit t is wa r w ic wa s h fl , h h , h h I t waged again st themoun tain tribes of theinterior . may reall b elon to thecam ai n of Tor uatus in 2 o r to y g p g q 35 , on eof h is successors th etown s o f Punic ori in ein still , g b g li el to ma ecommon cause then atives k y k , later reconciled to R oman rule. CHAPTER VI

CARALES

Ten ditu r in lon um Caralis tenue ueer un d as g , mq p

Ob via dimittit fractu rum flamina collem. ' E ffi citu r portus mediu m ma re; tutaqueven tis ’ n n n nt ta n r Om ibus in geti ma suescu s g a ecessu .

CLAUDIAN .

THE legendary founder of theisland capital was the reeAristeus who was said to aveun ed the G k , h it African colony of S ardus and theIberians brought Norax n a s n lecommun w Carales by i to i g ity , ith ? as thecapital and himself as thefirst king ausan as descr es as a Car a n an c lon P i ib it th gi i o y, and s is n o d u t c rrec even ou some thi o b o t , th gh earlier Phoenician trading-station may havebeen n i corporated . TheRoman town included threemain groups of buildings (whenceperhaps theplural form Carales hic has eer au or t an Caralis , w h b tt th i y th ) , extending along thehollow at thehead of a sheltered ? b a ssessed a fine ar our hic t en y It po h b , w h h

1 ol n . 60 S i I . . 1 N. S . 1 1 r r i C . 0 wit a lon a ticle Ta amell f , 9 5 , 4 , h g by on thetopography of Cagliari in th elight of recen t ex lo ration p s. 88 Position and Earlier Histo ry c m r sed the dela oon to the es and was o p i wi g w t , The both larger and deeper than at present . as ello ll ou not con ta ned in the n C t hi , th gh i tow , r a l h ad a un c c adel w enceer a s the p ob b y P i it , h p h p ’ a - r was n meKereal l laced wn . ee t , high y p to Th also somefortification under theRomans on the sames for ra men s of eir wor arefreuen l pot , f g t th k q t y found among themedieval buildings which were erec ed n o ohs The ll is an t o this natural acr p . hi s la ed mass r c 00 fee and end i o t of o k , 4 t high , b hi it ens theeens vela n oncer c in corn called b gi xt i p i , i h , the am a o o ards th sea s lain b e C pid n . T w e thi p comes mars a d ereereon its order anc en hy, n th w b i t sal - or s Th s rn uar r end n al n . e ee ee t w k w t q t , xt i g o g thela oo l ded n the resen . vendrace nc u g to p t S A , i the r nc al cemeer es ot un c and man p i ip t i , b h P i Ro , and in theearly Empirehad a number of fine ld bui ings. I n the ann al c war Carales w c had ro a l H ib i , , hi h p b b y rea ned its un c cons ut on ecamethe oman t i P i tit i , b R asein thesu ress on of thel cal reellion and b pp i o b , in theC vl war remai ned fai ful to esar who i i it th C , , to j udgefrom themany freed municipal slaves en led ulii ma averan ed c en r s as tit J , y h g t it itiz ight

' a mum i ium n der the m r as far o p . U E pi eit w by themos r s erous c in ard n a and thearea t p o p ity S i i , covered as ell as thes eof theam i ea re , w iz ph th t , suggest a population of nearly I n the la er m re en theseas ecameless secure t E pi , wh b , therearesigns that themoreexposed parts of the town wereabandoned for residential purposes. 89 Lo cal Constitution and Officials

Numbers of Christian catacombs arefound dug in a was ncea r c uar er la er ven u to the wh t o i h q t , t gi p ur ses of a c eer ar l s s o vr em . C a ewa st ll ee p po t y i , h w , thesea of vernmen and its ac ous ar our t go t , Sp i h b la ed so rt i p y mepa n thenaval wars of theperiod . I n theAugustan ageit appears as a Roman

’ ° munz 01 ium elon n to the uirinetr ew p , b gi g Q ib , ith local ordo or sena eand ua tuorviri or annual , t , q , c ef ma s rat f s r ud c al hi gi t es. Two o theeweej i i func onar es and ever fif ear e reared ti i , y th y th y p p theassessment lists on which thedi rect t axation as h o r w had h f nct on s of w based . T e thet o t eu i oman ed les es ec all as reards thesu er R i , p i y g p

vrsron of u l c b u ldin s ames and ohce. p b i i g , g , p erewerealso u us ales an assoc a on c e Th A g t , i ti , hi fly of reedmen c ar ed t thema ntenanceof the f , h g wi h i m er al wors and several rovn c al and c vc i p i hip , p i i i i ll t r m r al or local offic als ar com co eges. O hei pei i e memorated as therecord- eeer ta bularius of , k p , ,

' the rovncedo n to thema ister 01ammlarzus p i , w g , ? or head-gaoler Carales was also thecentrefor theprovincia l ? ounc l res ded ver thesacerdos rovimi ca c i , p i o by p ts du es eremos l formal rela n r maril I ti w t y , ti g p i y to theworship of theemperors and thecelebration of es vals b ut had someowers of o n ac on f ti ; it p j i t ti , an d would takethenecessary steps for theprosecu r o s tion of an Oppressivegoverno at R me. To thi council deputies would gather from all organ ~ iz ed c mmun es in theisland and so lon as o iti , , g

1 - 1 8 6 1 . 1 ° 7 5 3 4 . 7 3 7 5 9 9 . 7 9 7 . 7 9 4

— Town Houses Water Supply a l cal at ba ius as a s me a ll era ein o 0 0r r , o wh t i it t 1 scri n descr es him— a is a mem er of a ptio ib th t , b rou e atea of rofess onal ers wh o ould t p (0 rv) p i box , w b l eet out to amusethepopulace. umerous o n ouses and on the u s r s N t w h , o t ki t ot ers a ro n moreto hevlla e ave h pp achi g t i typ , h een ecava d e avelar a n c am ers b x te. Th y h geb thi g h b ,

an - coed alls d dining rooms with painted or stuc w , and rs in osa c ouses on thel es of the floo m i . H S op ll are r vded w t exedre or eernal l un es hi p o i i h , xt o g

with seats commanding a fineview of theb ay . an i c ens and s orerooms areals comeu on M y k t h t o p , and ela ra es s ems of es en carr ed n bo t y t pip , oft i i to

theousean c mmun ca n ells or cis ern s. h , d o i ti g with w t Thef unda is freuen l of r c and o tion q t y o k , both cisterns and mortars arefound hollowed out in its f sur ace. Other reservoirs and cisterns wereprovided for ells u l c useand erereac ed means of . p b i , w h by w Though Caghari is in summer oneof thedriest and o es c es in uro eno reular a ueduc h tt t iti E p , g q t has een f und and then a an s mus ave b o , i h bit t t h deended ma nl on thes ra e rain- a er p i y to g of w t , c was a ered from h ll nd whi h g th t ehi s behi . The nl ndus r a ar fr m thes n of o y i t y, p t o hippi g a r cul ural r duce of c we avedefin e g i t p o , whi h h it evdenceis themanufac ureof ear en arevases i , t th w , vnefi s ef c r s ood lam s mas s or d ure. Th a p , k , i i g to y t

1 B r s S d . 1 8 . u t m A c . 6 t e s e . ee 6 8 0 . B ull r h ar 7 3 ; f , 5 7 , 4 h somemista ein thea eof th eerson co mmemo rated or k g p , thetitlemay havebecomea personal on e 92 EarthenwareFactory— Cemeteries on a palisaded area projecting into thegreat lagoon to thewes of thec and thealluval mud fr m t ity, i o thela oon self and from ther ver anna c g it i M , whi h erefalls n o ould su l ma er al for the h i t it , w pp y t i ? work Theremust havebeen a regular colony of wor eo lehvin erefor ones of ed lean mal s kp p g h , b ib i , fru nu s and neernels aveeen rec vered it , t , pi k , h b o , as ell as ro c f t er raf — mas s of u er w p du ts o h i c t k J pit , E scula ius and llo models of ar s of the p , Apo , p t body designed as thank-ofierings by persons who

- had een cured nevessels and sacr fic al d s es. b , wi , i i i h omeof thear cles o un c ra s and the S ti Sh w P i t it , factory may havebeen in existencebeforethe man ccu Ro o pation . um ers of s a ues lam s eelled and ot er N b t t , p , j w h ornamen s aveeen rec vered in theecava ons t , h b o x ti of theeal er uses Oneof them s n eres n w thi ho . o t i t ti g , recall n the acc c cult w c seems to aveeen i g B hi , hi h h b des read in his d s r c in them er al a eis Wi p t i t i t i p i g , s e a finemarblestatueof Bacchus about hieiz . Theead is mss n b ut theod is s o n ear n h i i g , g h w w i g a fawn -s n and s and a reea ains c ki t ing by t , g t whi h a ant er is le n p h ani g . Thecemeeries areof rea een and on t g t xt t , both s des of theo e c vndrace n . Th un area at e i t w P i A , to thenor - es has recen tl een su ec ed to th w t , y b bj t 2 a fres e lora n and ou less roduct ve h xp tio ; , th gh p i t an theraves of Tharros it h as su l ed a num er h g , pp i b of rnamen s an d amulets and a few nscr ns o t , i iptio ,

‘ tl f a u thefourt cen ur B c m apparen y o bo t h t y . So e

1 1 8 d 1 . I b . 1 0 2 s . N . S . 1 an , 9 3 , 35 5 5 , 9 9 , 9 3 q 93 Punic and Roman Graves of ese m s aremere allow renc es ers th to b Sh t h , oth aredeeer and reac ed from a nd of well cut at p , h ki oneend a ou feedee and o en n to the , b t 7 t p, p i g sepulchral chamber by a doorway closed with a s onesla I n so a found s all lt i h t b . mere m a ars n t e form of a runca ed ramd theto ollo ed w t t py i , p h w ith oles for l on m n thenscr ons ma b e h ibati . A o g i ipti y mentioned a dedication by Ari s and his wifeto awwat an nfernal oddess also commemora ed H , i g t at ar l ss s fi r of t a e. a ead t an u es C h g G b , Egyp i g ser ents s s ees as er scara s and ron e p , I i y , j p b , b z mirrors all occur amon the un c seulc ral , g P i p h furn tureand t erearesomefines ec mens of i , h p i r-r n s nes ows a rd wo h ea i g . O h bi rked between t e ? suspen sory loop an d thependant jewel There is seldom more an one od in a raveand th b y g , r c emation is very rare. TheRomans preferred excavating sepulchral . c am ers in thes deof a ll and used em for h b i hi , th om o n s o old h entirefamilies. S ec ntain ichet h t e c nerar urns ot ers avelon rec an ular ollo s i y , h h g t g h w , n n to a ar al retent on of n umat on poi ti g p ti i i h i , n perhaps among theless Romanized inhabita ts. Curious forms of monuments arethetombstones

- f f s is som shaped hkea winecask . Oneaceo thi e times planed away so as to present oblong panels ? on which theinscription is cut Another stone in theneighbourhood is marked with a circle con a n n thee a and on eac s deof t i i g pit ph , h i it

Cupid an d Psycheembracing . 1 1 Maltz an . 80 80 6 0 . , p 7 , 7 7 3 94

Epitaphs on Pomptilla s ned for sarco a and in the all at theend ig ph gi, w aretwo sla s no dou for thecoffins of h l us b , bt P i ipp 1 h a n and ree nscr t ons and Pom lla . e pti T L ti G k i ip i , in r seand verse arenumerous en both p o , , b i g vr ons on a s n le eme ro a l con r u ed a iati i g th , p b b y t ib t s h follow n ma b e by a number of person . T e i g y taken as exammes of thematter-oi-fact Latin and themoreimaginativeGreek :

A tem letraveller t ou deemest this p , , h , An d seeest o ft to a th vows et n ow k p y y ; y k , ’ P omptilla s ashes and her bones areh id ’ B n s r ar n a ar eeath thi ocky vault . S di i s eth D oth ress med own wh o truein anis ment p , , b h , ’ o Fa r orts w e for o o (S meep ) ill d my sp uset die.

’ I would P om tilla t at theviolet s loom , p , h b Or ten der lily from th y bones might rise ’ Ma roseleaves o er t eewavean d ma t is tom y h , y h b Be a wit amaran t a n r g y h h th t evedies. Ma fra ran t saffron o r fa ir snow ro sh ine y g d p , Th at as Narcissus h at h is ower and he , h fl , , Themu c -wet H acin t us so ma t ine h p y h , y h ’ Ben a e o til m d P mp la by posterity .

Near this grotto is a curious specimen of a colum

’ ban um two ro s of n c es con a n n ear en , with w i h t i i g th arevases oneof c is an nscr ed mar le w , by whi h i ib b 2 a l h nc l s o s r t b et . T epri ipa Chri tian catac mb a ein a ll to thesou -eas of thec in the onar a hi th t ity, B i 3 d om r s l am rs istrict . They c p i e argech be with n arro en r es and from em ened recesses w t i , th op

1

6 s . E h . i l 60 s E . . 8 Ka b e . 7 5 3 q p p IV 4 4 ; , 7 q 3 3 20 S . 1 8 1 8 . 7 7 . N . , 9 3 , 3 96 I nscriptions of C arales

for recevn t ecoffi r l f h alls i i g h ns. Sevea o t ew 1 retai n frescoes an d theer od seems b eearl , p i to y in thefour th century . Of thenscr ons found in and a ou Carales i ipti b t , the unic arefew and the reefar from common P G k , w ereas t h heLatin considerably exceed 3 00 . Of 2 the unic one rec rds thededica n of an P , o tio altar of ron eto Astoret-Ark the enus- s ar e b z , V A t t of r x in c l thec ef uro ean s r neof E y Si i y, hi E p h i the odd ss o o n d d c on o e. n er c n a s a e a t g A th t i i ti , thelord Baalsamin of Haw slan d of ill ars k I , p an d ot ll- n her offerings. This was a wek own ’ oen c an de lord of eaven also rs ed Ph i i ity, h , wo hipp at ar a ean d as wea er from s nscr on C th g , , g th thi i ipti , on thesland of S an etro called olem i Pi , by Pt y

Hieracon nesos near ulc . omea n nscr t ons , S i S L ti i ip i also show that thePunic cults of Baal- Hercules an d Eshmun- ZEscul apius remained prominent under he t Romans. I nscription s with historical referencecover a er od of man undred ears from theenn n p i y h y , b gi i g 3 of theAugustan ageto thedebased Latin of ’ 4 r am s r r Justinian s timeor later . G eek n ea evey freuen mos l elon n to freedmen or small q t , t y b gi g raders and theearl r s ans ncluded man t , y Ch i ti i y r ral nam s a r to b of na ve G eeks. Seve e ppea e ti 5 or n b ut thenum er of offic als soldiers etc . igi ; b i , , , who eresta oned in thec and ul ma el w ti ity, ti t y

I . S . 1 0 . C . , 4 4 7 7 5 3 . 7 7 7 7 1 7 6 4 . 7 7 69 97 Few Non- Italian Features

Settled down theretended to reducethepopulation n r to a uniform type. U detheEmpirethegeneral aspect and lifeof Carales can hardly havediffered o oseof mos out l n ns fr mth t S h Ita ia tow .

‘ Sardima under Sextus Pompeius

Lut ns eld c mmand la er t c m i , who h high o t a A tiu , droveback thePompeian forces on their first landin b ut avn recklessl ursued theenem g ; h i g y p y, hewas verc meb an une ec he o o y xp ted rally . T Sardinian cities at oncecameto terms with Meno d rus ece one c renforced man fu o , x pt whi h , i by y gi f ves rom the a leonl surrendered af er a i f b tt , y t s ee The s or an descr es s as Aradis i g hi t i ib thi , b ut no o n of thenameis n n and thelace t w k ow , p can hardly b eany other than theprovincial capital Carales w c had alread s o n its devo on , hi h y h w ti to s r s theCaea ean cau e. Menodorus or inall a freedman of theelder , g y Pom eius was of a s ft and self-seein d s os p , hi y k g i p i a s ll ca ai I l on u ed n . n theseuehe ti , tho gh ki pt q r ved reac erous to o s des and on theresen p o t h b th i , p t ccas on released elenus a favour efreedman o i H , it of c avan out ransom a V eto secur n O t i , with , with i w i g

a refugeif compelled to leavethePompeian service. Sextus now controlled thecom- supply of Sicily and ard n a lehis eecould ser ousl nterfere S i i , whi fl t i y i fr o vo s h man o rnmen the can c n . T e ve with A i y Ro g t , finding that discontent was rising in thecapital at thencreaseof r ces and nca a leof financ n i p i , i p b i g

thenaval war fur er cameto erms eus. th , t with S xt is r s to ard n a ors ca and c l for five H ight S i i , C i , Si i y, ears ereac nowled ed and his followers were y w k g , I re n th r at of ran ed an amnes . n ur e e g t ty t , by t y senum heunder oo a theusual su l es Mi , t k th t pp i 1 should reach Rome(39) . 1 B App. . C . V. 7 3 . 1 00 TheAugustan Settlement

From thefrequency of Pompeius as a gentile namein thesland is c ncluded a man of i , it o th t y his slaveor freedmen followers weregiven lands or 1 sel i odorus was lef him tt ed n Sardinia . Men t by as overnor the leof refec aided a g , with tit p t , by 2 rocura or i a s e ear find n h mself b eri nu . p t , T N xt y , i g i sus ec ed his mas er Menodorus madever ures p t by t , o t to ctavan sur ender n thesland and thePom O i , r i g i 3 ean o h ar as soon p i fleet stationed there. Th ugh t ew w ’ renewed ardin a rema ned in ctavan s ssess on , S i i O i po i I n 2 B C n the m rewas ormall in 7 . whe E pi f y augurated by thedivision of provinces between u us us and thesena e ardin a seemed suffici A g t t , S i en tly pacified to b eplaced un der a senatorial ex raeor onsul s in r u l can p t with thetitleof proc . A ep b i mes hewas a ded a uaastor now had a ti , i by q , who certain j urisdiction anal ogous to that of thecurule aediles a i o hi fin t omein add n to s anc al du es. R , ti i ti Thetaking of a regular census enabled thetithe s s em to b ea andoned for a tax on eac estate y t b h , deermned acc rd n to its s ean r eess t i o i g iz d p oductivn . ’ s was ra sed d rec l the uaes r s a en s Thi i i t y by q to g t , theold tax-farming companies being now restricted to o er ranc es of h r n th b h t eeveue. I A 6 l n D . a renewa of theactivity of themountain ’ tr es or r ands led to thesu s u ib , b ig , b tit tion of an

° 1 6 2 2 8 1 6 0 6 N . S . 0 7 5 , 7 9 , 4 ; , 9 3 , 5 3 5 . 3 C . Mar ora La m l . an illu stration of a ron z e f , p 33 , 4 , b inscri ed in silver letters ME NATI S R E b P A F. Trimara n ;

P OC . eseta lets R Th b may havebeen distributed amon g th ec ief islan ders to r ’ h in fo m them o f thenew governor rr va 3 l . a i D ion C . L X VIII . 45 . 1 01 Develo pment of Mu nicipal System

m er al rocura or of eues r an rank in c mmand i p i p t q t i , o of' for of l ar es 1 I a c e au for the r consul . n xi i i , p o virtueof his military authority hewas often de scr r fe ed as a ec ccas nall s roc rat r ib p t , o io y a p u o "3 leatus thelatter en theusual leof theml g , b i g tit i i ar vrn n an r t y go eor i impeial province. TheAugustan agewas oneof considerabledevelop men es ec all in thedirec on of ransformn t , p i y ti t i g themorecivilized nativeor Punic communities into regular municipalities by thegrant of Roman or

Latin rights. Beforethetimeof Cesar only i ndividuals who had donegood servicewerethus 8 enfranc sed . Carales theca al er a s as hi , pit , p h p ’ earl as Caesar s a e ecamea c en mun c al y g , b itiz i ip ity attached to theQuit inetribeand Sulci obtained l s r i om c l n simi ar privileges. Turreeceved a R an o o y eforetheme en l n r eand thec ens b ti wh P i y w ot , itiz oll n t lis sm ll n el n ed to the er e. Use a a b o g C i ib , tow in then erior not far fromTh rros ained colon al i t , a , g i r h s at a la er da eand was fr m earl in the ig t t t , o y Empireprobably a Latin Cornus at an uncertain datebecamea colony with senate and assembly and someself-government must aveeen ossessed alen a ea l s osa h b p by V ti , N po i , B , d thoca thelas of c s d at themou h an 0 , t whi h too t f thech ef ardinian r ver and was ined Carales o i S i , jo to 5 by two roads.

1 3 io 8 E h . E 9 . . 2 . n C . LV 2 . D . p 1 VIII 7 4 3 3 B lb 1 8 1 . 1 . S . 1 u . Cic . ca m 9 , 43 ; , 4 7 9 5 1 r f r n s S veral of t ese is Ric rche6 an d eeece. e C . Pa e f , , 4 , h laces ro a l h ad Latin ri ts wh ic elsewh erefo rmed p p b b y gh , h - a steppin g stoneto full membership of theR oman State. 1 02

Banishments to Sardinia

From early in theEmpire} Sardinia becamea placeof banishment for persons obnoxious to the ovrn theweal freedman emen . nder ero g t U N , thy n cetus who had een theool of someof the A i , b t ’ em eror s cr me ass us on nus a celerated s . p i ; C C i L gi , b ur s who aid un ueres ec to his ances or the j i t p d p t t , mur derer of Caesar ; an d thepraetori an prefect Cris inus who as accused of cons r n a a ns p , w pi i g g i t 2 ero werell a r hea et c verses s ed ee. N , a b ni h h T p th i celera n l s a d his fePom tilla who b ti g Phi ippu n wi p , l ved in elea Carales a ou thesame er od i xi t b t p i , ave lr d eferr d to An e ul s on on h a ea y been r e . xp i a larger scalebrought to Sardinia some r ntals in A 1 Th conserva ve eal of O ie D . 9 . e ti z Tiberius led him to promotea sen atorial decreefor theremoval from Romeof freedmen wh o professed e s or t an enets ro a l ree or J wi h Egyp i t , p b b y G k s o f s ta l a ewereto A iatic proselytes. Th seo ui b eg b eincorporated in a regiment designed to check thebrigandagewhich still prevailed in parts of 3 ard n a and it was felt adds ac us a if S i i ; , T it , th t they perished through theunhealthiness of the clima etheloss would n ot b ser o s f l t e i u ly et . TheSardinian musician Tigellius flourished early in the u us an a eand was on n ma eerms A g t g , i ti t t o Caesar and u us us en referred to with b th A g t , b i g

1 il ar ier xil r 1 00 r ius A st l el e e(pehaps o . was S ev Nican or an aut or an d earl teach er of litera tu eat R ome , h y r

S u t . Gr ( e amm. 3 I V ac . An n . X . 6 I . T 2 XV an d 1 . , 9 7 3 I I I 8 b . . . os A 1 8 o . T b . n t uet . . S . 6 5 ; f J , 3 ; i 3 1 04 — Tigellius LargeEstates

} morethan onceby Cicero and Horace Though l onl a freedman hencurred the s l probab y y , i ho ti ity of several rom nen men at omeand is called p i t R ,

cero in allus n to the ard n an malar a. by Ci , io S i i i ’ i r rac a s morepestilential than h s count y . Ho et xe i elliu l eral to theundeservn and T g s with ib ity i g , sa s a he ould never s n if as ed or st0 w en y th t w i g k , p h not asked ; whileeven Augustus could not induce a ns hi s ll His famesuc as im erform a w . h to p g i t i , h was has nduced theo ns eo leto vehis name it , i t w p p gi to a Roman houseof considerablesizeexcavated s omeyears ago at Cagliari .

’ Though thesystem of latifumlz a never attained suc d mens ons as in themorefer le fr ca ere h i i ti A i , th areallusions to largeestates sufficiently important to ve er name thecoloni or enan s ho gi th i to , t t , w wererearded as ncor orated in a nd of r e g i p ki t ib , and wereseparated fromtheir neighbours by regular 2 n r - s n s The ro r etors bou da y to e. p p i would usually beweal thy Romans who lived in Italy and managed e s a l r eta es r u ai iff . us c ethe th i t th o gh b Th , A t , ree m s ress of ero had es a es in ard n a G k i t N , t t S i i , and freed men or women who had oncebeen slaves 3 on em ar o f en c mmemora th e t o ted . Onesuch freed oman c nduc ed a leac r near l a w o t ti f to y O bi ,

1 C . t i F . At . . Ho . c m . 2 r a S at. . 2 VII 4 , XVIII 49 ; I , 3 ,

. s s n H or . Thec oliast o ace uotes a r I 3 , 3 q h q sa castic ‘ ’ verseof Calvus S ardi Ti elli utidum ca ut ven it w ich , g p p , h oints to his n n v p havin g o cebee a sla e. 3 E E h . . . p p VIII 7 1 9 . 3 6 0 80 8 80 6 N . S . 1 1 1 2 2 Pais . 7 4 , 7 9 , 7 9 4, 4 ; , 9 . 4 ; , 125 s che 60 p y . 5 . 1 0 h . 5 — Imperial Freedmen Road System

l s sla d and ti ewith her mark arecommon in thei n . milarl thenumerous freedmen of u us us Si y, A g t osena es arereserved man of omassumed wh m p , y wh the le ul us and ereof ree or r en al tit J i , w G k O i t r n nce r ed on them er al esta es hic o igi , o wo k i p i t w h fell to theemperor through confiscation or in er re s c all ommon in th h itance. They we epei y c e l d s f r i tricts o Olbia and Ca ales. Nora was theearliest starting- point o f theRoman s h o o r s str c road . ad net Ca ale and a s or e It , h t t h leadin es ards to t a t freuentl men g w tw Bi i , bo h q y tioned in nscr ons and reaired several mes i ipti , p ti 3 i l r m r m h m of a sar n theate e. ro t e e e E pi F ti C , Carales was thec ef road cen reand in rea hi t , dy m l s The com unication with a l theother town . fines roads cons s of lar e l onal stones t i t g po yg , with a layer of small stones or pebbles either aboveor elo em ound eer t cla and sol dified b w th , b tog th wi h y i fi s m s ll ell la d out ear . Onene ec en t with th p i , i w i and 2 fee dein ar s was a c led from 5 t wi p t , th t whi h - I t is men Carales to Turres in thenorth west . tioned in an Augustan inscription } and may have c been dueto theCarthaginians in thefirst instan e. cut across thesout - es c rner from Carales It h w t o , assed not far from harr os and so near the es p T , w t s fork c n c e w l a s urro . A ne d coa t to T o t it ith O bi , hec ef rt in thenorth-eas and a secondar t hi po t , y ver n r m the l a ranc led to la road di o , gi g, f o O bi b h Tib

. ca from which was theshortest crossing to Corsi .

1 3 6 $ 1 N . S . 2 2 . 29 5 ; , 4 7 9 9 1 3 9 I I E . . Eph . 1 V I

1 06.

Military System

n mencla ureis almos en rel man and unic o t t ti y Ro , P n er f h s an a h ames disapp a a ter t eAugu t ge. T e occurrenceof ra as a ro er namededicat ons Sy p p , i to Egyptian deities and to theNorth Syri an war

' god Jupiter D olichenus} and a few Jewish tombs at ulc su es theresenceof a cer ai n r ental S i , gg t p t O i elemen b ut no t ra s dedica ons are no n t ; Mi h i t ti k w , and theEastern mystery religions evidently exer i l n a in tal or ou ern a n c sed ess influeceth n I y S th Sp i . Thegarrison under theEmpirecon sisted entirely of au liar forces two co or s eac as a rule xi y , h t , h num er n 800 to men et er n a ves of the b i g , i h ti 2 f or r roo s would island or o Corsica Liguria . Bettet p n l cl e not b ereadily exposed to theu hea thy imat . o emes theco or s wereof m ed na onal S m ti h t ix ti ity , 2 as ard- ors can or ur an- ors can and con S C i , Lig i C i , 3 s s ed o of orseand foo commanded i t b th h t , , by ’ f f er wen -fiv ars r c preects. A t t ty eye sevi ethe sold ers usuall receved thefranc se w c i y i hi , hi h 4 ss d o t er descendan s er co or s ra s d pa et h i t . Oth h t i e ‘5 h sland weres a on in s en r t n in t ei t ti ed Ea t r Mau i a ia . Therearealso references to islanders who served as leonar es in o er rovnces and reurned gi i th p i , t 6 ef er dis r hom a ter th i cha ge.

1 3 u rres . 88 T 8 0 . 7 9 49 ( ) 7 3 , 7 9 3 ’ N . . 1 8 1 0 n C . S a Olb ian in scri tion o f Nero s f , 9 3 , 5 , p , timeon a decu rio an d rinces in an euestrian detac , p p q h 3 n . 1 met 7 89 . 5 or ei I . . 8 ti s o . C . L . 0 . 2 f t r sta on VIII 9 47 , IX 5 3 ; h f ' lio in N ov t lo G . Fer o u a An za S ee er r o t m 1 1 6 . g g , p b , 9 3 8 1 o 88 fo r a r 7 9 ; f . 7 4 S a dinian trumpeter in a Lusi o tan ian coh rt . 1 08 Naval Detachment : Changes by Nero

1 A detachment of theMisenatefleet was constantly sta oned at Carales and ro a l t t mes ti , p b b y a i al so near eella on thees an d at l a on theeas M t , w t , O bi , t c as is was a necessar recau n for rac o t Th y p tio , pi y ’ even in Strabo s timehad not been entirely sup ressed in ard n a self w lethe r fr can p S i i it , hi No th A i coas s el er n t h t ed ma y raiders. Themarines in this ee ncluded s me ards who l ethes ldiers fl t i o S , , ik o , settled at homeon their discharge; and others served in th f 2 efleet o Ravenna . Therearefew references to misgovernment at s h thi time. Not only did t egovernor receivea reular salar r m o eb ut his s aff ac ed as g y f o R m , t t a oreeflicient c ec and thero of muni i ia m h k , g wth c p s l took somepower out of his hand . A rareexamp e o f misconduct in an imperial provinceis thecon demnation of theprocurator Vipsanius Laenas for extortion in Ten years later Nero again surrendered ard n a to thesena e h eran n S i i t , w il g ti g di n omnal reed mto c a a . He d not ever i f o A h i , how , w t dra thesmall arr son and for a few ears i h w g i , y wefind as revi usl in Afr ca a r c nsul in , p o y i , p o o d ar comman of an my . It is oneof thedrawbacks of our practical limita tion to epigraphic evidencethat theRoman and civilized sideof provincial lifeunder theEmpire ome 00 a n i becomes unduly prominent . S 7 L ti n scri tions aren n es des r or f r ree p k ow , b i thi ty o ty G k ; b ut a great proportion belong to threeor four r nc al ns— ndeed nearl alf Carales p i ip tow i , y h to 1 3 8 3 2 2 . Tao. Ann . 1 7 5 35 . 7 5 9 . 7 5 9 5 3 5 . XIII 3 . Wilder Districts li ttleaffected

l - a ne. Yet as man as wen eles ao o y t ty two p op , c rd n thecalcula n of a s w ll lacked an o i g to tio P i , ho y ur an cen reand lar erac s erereadin and b t , g t t , wh g wri n ereun n n aveno nscr ti ns at all . ti g w k ow , h i ip o

me esed s r c s n n even in theu us an . So of th i t i t , k ow A g t

' a eas ar ar a and reresen n theerr r of g B b i , p ti g t ito y theold I lienses ere laced der thedes c , w p un poti rule a refec the rs can c r of theum le of p t of Co i oho t , h b } rank of an evocatus Thesetribesmen continued to maketheoccupation of someof themorefertile 3 fields unsafeand the oman fficers f en und it , R o o t fo 3 the ses l c r s wi t po i y to igno etheir foray .

” nder es as an ro a l in en reece U V p i , p b b y 74 , wh G was res ored thesena e ardin a was a ain t to t , S i g laced under a r cura r raefec us and so te p p o to p t , m s ained ll theend of thesec nd cen ur . u ti o t y Th , in A f i d nd seers re D . 8 o s r a s a . 3 weread h having o w paired at Caralesoutof both public and privatefunds} : A-translation may b eadded of part of an important 5 nscr n of themeof foun d in thenei i iptio ti Otho, gh llus rates the b ourhood of theriver S aeprus. It i t

w r n of the oman admin s ra on and the. o ki g R i t ti , obstinacy of theinhabitants in resisting magisterial si s s d sl ca n was deci ons. It also how that no i o tio caused thec an eof overnmen under er by h g g t N o , a casepassing successively under thecogniz anceof

1 r : vocatu s D . Au ust I . x us L 2 . u . . S li e C XIV . 9 5 4 e J g s i tatum Ba r aria in prefectu I . coh ortis Corsorum et c vi b

3 3 V arr . R . R . 1 6 2 . Stra . . 2 . . I , b V , 7 3 - 80 2 N . S . 1 8 2 . 3 4 ; , 9 7 , 7 9 5 8 I I H I . 02 I . . 2 o . er es I 1 1 7 5 ; f m , 67 1 1 0’

Proconsular Decreeof Agrippa

Galillenses (wh o man y times brought up thedisputeafresh and would not a ide h is decision b ut out of rea rd b by ) , g for theclemency of ou r migh ty an d excellen t sovereign was content to warn th em in an edict to remain quiet and ad ereto thedecision arrived at an d eforeOcto er h , b b rst n ext to withd ra w from theland of th eP atulcen ses an d iveu vacant ossession w ileif t econ tinued in g p p , h h y contumacy hewo uld severely punish theauthors of such insu bordination ; an d wherea s themost distin gu ished sen ator Cecilius S im le ein a roac ed wit referen ce p x, b g pp h h to thesamecase theGalillen ses wh o decla red th at t e by , h y would producea tab let from th eimperial archives relatin g to theaflair ron ounced t at it would b ein accordance , p h wit uman it t at a dela s ould b e iven for roof h h y h y h g p , an d ranted a s aceof t ree ont s till D ecem er rst g p h m h b , and if theformula weren o t produced by that dateh ewould ob servetheformula extan t in th eprovin ce; a nd wherea s also ein a ro ac ed b theGalillen ses wh o alleed I , b g pp h y , g th at theformula h ad n ot et een rou t ranted a y b b gh , g dela till Feruar rst net en suin an d un derstan d t at y b y x g, h thedelay is acceptableto theoccupiers: th eGalillenses a rehereby required to withd raw from theland of the e Patulcen ses which they haveviolently occupied befor April rst n ext ; and if they d o n ot obey this pron ounce men t let t em no w t at t e will b eamen a leto th e , h k h h y b pen alty for their prolon ged con tumacy which h as been ’ alrea r n dy epeatedly pron ou ced again st them.

The eal would s r c l b e an s men p n ty t i t y b i h t , sedi o e l o ed on as a f rm of ma estas ti n b ing o k o j , b ut probably only a finewas actually contemplated . This is followed by thenames of thepersons form ’ in ther c nsul s counc l w en hessued thedecree g p o o i h i , his leatus ro mtore uaestor ro retoreand six g p p , q p p , o er m is not clear eer theovernor th co ites. It wh th g was volun ar l c osen as an um reor eer t i y h pi , wh th ’ a thelas r cura r ac ed as theem er r s Rix , t p o to , t p o 1 1 2 ’ TheG overnor s ‘Co uncil r eresen a v A als on suc su ec s direc p t ti e. ppe h bj t t

“ theem eror cametheusual rocedure of to p be p ,

‘ which wehavea good examplein the‘ reply of ‘ 1 ini Vespasian to theCorsican community of Vanac . A caseof this kind did not fall within ‘ thecompetence of theovernor as a udic al officer and hecould g j i ,

ssueno decreew u theadvce: of his cortsilium i itho t i , which would naturally includetheonly legate a ttached to thegovernor of a minor senatorial rovnce h l h ad ' no s ec al func ons p i . T eegate p i ti

‘ ‘ a ar from advs n ‘ his c ef b ut unl ethe p t i i g hi , , ik

rovnc al uaes r hew as a lwa s a sena or . p i i q to , y t Of thesix comites a fa er and a son areo men ned , th b th tio ,

’ ' thes n s namecom firs so a hehad ro ab l o ing t , th t p b y

‘ eld oneof the r oman ma s rac es th e h mino R gi t i , r other pesons being only knights.

‘ Such inscriptions show that someknowledgeoi

“ man law es ed u s dethec ef ur an centres Ro xi t o t i hi b ,

' and a the oman d minion was not l e a of th t R o , ik th t the: art a n ans a merecommer c al e lo tation C h gi i , i xp i f th c ts o eoas .

‘ For a cen ur af er theaccess on of Ves as an t y t i p i , Sardinia vanishes from history ; ‘ b ut though the prosperous ageof Tr ajan and ‘ theAntonines is a lan etan rema ns nd catetha rovncial b k , x t i i i t p i l ewas ‘ ac veand well devel ed and ub l c if ti op , p i “ u o m a a uildin s com ara vel numer s. ru r ni b g p ti y o F T i , ' “ a new business centrein then eighb ourhood Of some m r an med c nal a s near the es coa s i po t t i i b th w t t , firs a ears an in thelater m reb ecame now t pp , d E pi

1 th d . 2 . C . B runs Fon tes ar . R c f , j 7 , 5 4 1 1 3 8 Histo ry in theSecond Century

rs a strongly fortified outpost against themountainee. Under theAntonines arethefirst trustworthy a references to thepresenceof Christians in Sardini . I n ther f ur l erewas ano er eign o M . A eius th th

- short lived chan gein theform of government . Owing to incursions of Moorish pirates in Southern ain theem eror found d es ra leto lacea Sp , p it i b p ml ar overnor in aeca and com ensa ed i it y g B ti , p t thesenateby restoring Sardinia to proconsular r le s h f r m ro S timius everus u . u t eu u ee er e Th , t p p S , who had originally been intended to act as quaestor in a n was su rdina ed the overnor of Sp i , bo t to G } Sardinia Under Commodus weagai n find a 2 r cura r who a u theimeof urel an had p o to , by bo t t A i } acquired thetitleof "va ses en everus had ained thehroneand his Wh S g t , African prefect Plautianus was still regarded as ’ all- erful thenum er of the refec s sta ues pow , b p t t at mehad ec meso ecess ve a everus Ro b o x i th t S , ’ alr ead ear of his favour es arro anceordered y w y it g , vr l el d d n hereort of his s read seea to bem te ow . T p t p the r vinces an d cer a n overnors als over to p o , t i g o r s of l i on th ew thestatue thesameP aut anus. Am g esewas theard n an rocura or Racius Constans th S i i p t , , who was subsequently accused beforetheemperor and punished ; for Severus had not yet definitely resolved to cast asidehis fellow-countryman and ’ ‘ fa -in-l of the ror ll the ther aw empe s son Caraca a .

1 a rt . S e 2 . Sp v. 3 eH I X 1 H o] . R . err . . I 1 S i 2 L. 2 1 2 o . N . pp f ; C . . V . ; f 3 8 la s 3 1 2 . C . C s . Rev. 66 D ion C . . 9 7 . 79 f IV . . 7 5 1 1 4

Origin of -No ra s ll ru ns of a unic a c - er er a s the ti i P w t h tow , p h p of f fi c n B . n . eur . C on thec ef s ra ec o th t y , hi t t gi p i t It is a rectan ular u ldin onceof two s r es and g b i g, to i , now lac n an en ranceas hedes ro ed u er ki g t , t t y pp s floor would b ereached by an external stairca e. Roman ruins adj oining show that it continued in useat a la er t date. Thenameof thecity is probably derived from theem c nur lam or li and s or s me S iti , p ght , thi o o er ower ma avehad on it ausan as th t y h a beacon . P i ascribes theorigin of theplaceto a group of Iberia n

' colon sts under Norax son of ercur and r t ea i , M y E y h , and ass ns Tartessus therea commerc al cen re ig , g t i t f erl n h r x I n o a a as t ena veo n of No a . y Sp i , ti t w historic times Nora was clearly Phoenician in the ma n and was ro a l theearl es selemet i , it p b b y i t tt n , n heCart o t on ss le antedati g t haginian ccupa i . A po ib origin of theIberian tradition has been found in a few er an nscr t ons r en in themod fied Ib i i ip i , w itt i em c al a e usual w t an s r es b ut S iti ph b t i h Sp i h t ib , , } l etherecords of thelat er now un n ell le ik t , i t igib eseem of no an u and ma emanate Th y high tiq ity, y from Spaniards settled among thePunic population a u t et r d ce B r C . bo t h hi ntu y . Therea retraces of harbour works and of long s reuses ad o n n lan ed on theroc b ut now to ho j i i g , p t k , ar l under wa er thesea avn rea l en p t y t , h i g g t y roached on the e mes c p ninsula sinceRoman ti . "Clear indications remain of an early nuraghi

’ ’ 1 von Lan au t C . d inM i therl . de ll 1 0 r Vor esr t. ee. f d ra a G s 9 3 , f ~ ' 8 I . an I I 4 d . 1 1 6 P unic and Roman Remains

o ulat on and ecava ons avealso rou to p p i , x ti h b ght l m li r is san c uar an un c recs. ee a ight y P i Th t y , a smel n furnace ro a l enclosed in r c and ti g (p b b y b i k , used for theextraction of zinc from thecalamine which is found in abundancein theneighbourhood) a o er furnacea cemen ed canal r n n wa er p tt y , t b i gi g t n theselemen and a num er of roc t m s i to tt t , b k o b , ncereac ome o hed by short flights of steps. S of

esecon art cles of he cen ur B . C . th tain i t sixth t y , or even earlier and theeeller is earlier and , j w y s m ler t an f h r s h rere ever a o T ar o . e a i p h th t T , how , orna eear-rin s ld la es in thes a eof a leaf t g , go p t h p or a fea er and vases of ruscan and Cam th , both Et i pan an types. Of the oman a ehereis an a ueduc a ea re R g t q t, th t , and f m r l t h eatre a cemeer o ea mes. T e t y i p i i th , l call no n as theLeoniera is small of theusual o y k w , , 2 oman e thesea s ell reserved . R typ , with t w p Nora is held by Mommsen to havebeen theseat of the man overnmen in theearl er er d Ro g t i p io , and it was thestarting-point of roads to Bitia and l as th h r c nts Cara es. It w esceneof t et agi eve ’ descr ed in cer s P r ur and under the ib Ci o o S ca o,

' Empireprobably becamea municipz um with 3 ri is ld referred to Roman ghts. La ter it seom ; thecemeer is r and the d es of omen and t y poo , bo i w r r r ro a l thecom" child en largely p epondeate. P b b y mercial activity of Carales drew away many of the n ab an s and nscr ns of them er al a e i h it t , i iptio i p i g

3 1 o 1 n in La Ma r ora l . Mon . An t. . . Pla m . XIV 47 , p 3 7 3 N . S . 1 1 2 86 7 5 42 ; , 9 0 , . 1 1 7 Inscriptions of No ra

ef w n lon n o theearl m irerecords ar e. O ebe gi g t y E p a n us llis us res a l a reek how M . F vo i Ca t } p um b y G freedman an Au ustalis set u an offer n to , g , p i g un in nour of his dau ter avn a era J o ho gh F o i V , who had presented to thecitizens of Nora a houseat r th d of th on entus or Ca ales. s as e ea ec v Thi , h , assiz ed s r c ould dra man Norenses for i t i t , w w y us ness and the ousema aveeen for er b i , h y h b th i fr n r la eas the res and rees me . no e as t h t A th , t fif cen ur s a es a a cer a n Flaviolus h ad th t y , t t th t t i r 3 restored a public fountain which had run d y . Punic inscriptions aremorenumerous} though nearl all funerar and filled t thelon ene y y, wi h g g alogies beloved by Semitic peoples; and thelanguage seems to havecontinued in usetill theend of the

Republic.

Them or ant ar our own of LBIA now i p t h b t O , erranova la on thenor -eas coast at the T , y th t , ed f d f oun ns The h a o a eep gul flanked by m tai . s on was a s ron onefor themout was eas l po iti t g , h i y l c ed and theown could not read l b ea tac ed b o k , t i y t k by land owing to thering of mountains which makethis Gallura district almost a separateisland . Referencehas already been madeto thetraditional settlement at Olbia of I olaus with a number of Athenian colonists (a tradition which may reflect

1 1 7 5 4 . 3 7 5 42 : Su bductos olim latices patria quenegatos t o u o o n Restitui p p lis pur Fl avi lus am e. 3 I . 1 . Lan u . cit. C . S . 44 sq da . op 1 1 8

— Punic Ornaments Fortifications

B c w en dating from about thefourth century . h n theCarthaginians may haveoccupied thetow . Oneof theseis a round bronzemirror with a short andleonea t n la eof old or ed in a fea er h , hi p t g w k th des n t t s eat small al ar ig wi h wo phinxes ben h . A t in theform of a truncated coneprobably belonged to somePunic sanctuary near thelater Roman

all and has a third- cen r un c nscr on w , it tu y P i i ipti recording an offering madeto someunnamed } divinity by Adon theson of Hannibal Olbia was evidently strongly fortified in theearly reu l can a ean d is recorded t a in 2 1 0 the p b i g , it h t c t was owerfufl f n d 3 or ns of the i y p y deede. P tio es ern all ave een ecava ed cons s n of w t w h b x t , i ti g a d u lel neof fo c 0 feea ar o b i rtifi ations about 2 t p t , uni ed at n ervals ransversewalls and avn t i t by t , h i g rec he an ular o ers t os ern a es t n . T t g t w , wi h p t g t wi hi

outer wall is of . rough graniteblocks well j oined i mor ar thenn er and thetran sverses of w th t , i s ll s nes re o on of a ueduc ma . e ar e r s an to Th p ti q t , and somehundreds of Roman graves havebeen l rs rel ef disco vered con a nin am s t e in . , t i g p wi h flow i l s ves ls e f ns a s s e and num rs o co . g , b i

ULCI thesec nd c t in Sar din a la on the S , o i y i , y l d f sol di t co off the is an o Plumbea (I a S . An io ) - h s l r sem lin sou est c as . T en u ar s n e th w o t i po itio , b g a ades and of re self ma averecom th t of G Ty it , y h mended it as thes eof an earl h oen c an fac or it y P i i t y, a view to someextent borneout by specimens of

1 3 S . 1 1 2 6 N . 1 2 . I L v . . i . , 9 , 9 XXVI 1 20 Topography of Sulci perhaps sixth-century Phoenician art} Thestrait eeen thesland and thema nland as ell as the b tw i i , w ulf of almas to thesout would aff rd s el er G P , h , o h t from nort erl w nds an d ou s deto then or h y i , t i , th , h ould s el er from thesou t eIsola di S . Pietro w h t th and wes ulc as ell laced as a refu efor t . S i w w p g s i s tr vellin fr m araleor fr ca to a n h p a g o C s A i Sp i , and theremust havebeen harbour works for loading and nload n s s on o er nts of hesland u i g hip th poi t i , whencewemay explain thedifferent positions ass h l was igned to t etown by Pliny an d Pto emy . It theem r um for a lar earea r c in ra n and po i g , i h g i as ures and thesland has races of nura hi in p t , i t g several laces s o n thees enceof a res r c p , h wi g xi t p hi to i population which was no doubt cleared out by the un c set lers nder th m irea r cul ural P i t . U eE p g i t roducew lead and co er fromthemines was p , ith pp , lar l gey exported . Theround- lan of the n is now un racea le g p tow t b , b ut s ood on a roc e t of no rea d mens ns it t ky h igh g t i io , r sin fr e r f uni lc r i g om th sho e. O P c Su i theeare few remains b ut its ro a les eis a slo eowards , p b b it p t thesea erea lar ec s ern or reservir of sand , wh g i t o s oneha s een ecava ed and near his on the t b x t , t , estern sl eof thecastle ll s e un o s m c m . w op hi , o P i t b A few of thesemay b eas old as thefifth century and as at ra ereareseulc ral llars w , No , th p h pi ith li f n of ree carving . O e them shows thegoddess

an cl ed in a s or unic an d old an r l T it , oth h t t h ing ast a d v I n disc and a o e. another instancean altar

1 N . . 6 C . S 1 0 1 2 f , 9 7 , .

1 2 1 . P unic To mb s and Inscriptio ns in the rm a b et leis laced es deher an d ere fo of y p b i , th areca als c arac er s c un c des ns a pit with h t i ti P i ig , ead carved eeen thevolutes or an mta n h b tw , i i tio of alml p eaves. num er cameos scara s seals and o er A b of , b , , th ornamen s arenow in themuseum of a liar t , C g i , and thema erials of man of em es ec all t y th , p i y

as er and comelian ccur in s ne ur ood . j p , o thi ighbo h The un c m s aremos l dee and narro P i to b t y p w , of coarser workmanship than thoseof Tharros or l r s nd n a Cara es. Somea ereached by dece i g flight of s es h co r d surrounded t p . T e rpses weefoun by la es ear en arevases o er vessels or ron e p t , th w , th , b z arms; and thereareexamples of niches in thewall c n a n n lam s o eer vases er a s o t i i g p , t g th with , p h p f il or o .

e 1 l fimereal Th un c nscr ns areas usua P i i iptio , b ut oneor two incidentally record gratitudeto somede : onumen of ele aal for the ity M t M k B , lord aal ammon consecra ed r s B H , t by A i becauseheheard thevoiceof his words Bod ’ - Esmun son of a son of ah ar aal thescr e. , Pt h , M b ib ‘ ’ Bod ro a l mean s ar or frac on and p b b y p t ti ,

- od Esmun is thewell known Phoenician healing g . Theson of B d smun w b d Melcart w ose o E as A , h namenc a s a of th fire-l rd of re i orpor teth t e o Ty , elcar or l M th Mo ech . TheRomans united Sulci to themainland by a r d e hic ar s remai ad o n n theresen b i g , of w h p t n j i i g p t r d e r ch s th s n causea c nnec in b i g . St et eof eto e w y o t g

1 C . I . 1 S . 47 sq. 1 22

Position and C onstitutio n of Tharros

rs areall referred to in nscr ons and ere wo hip , i ipti , th r weelocal divisions of thecitiz ens called tribes. ou in thefift c entur ulc was thesea of Th gh , h y S i t a bishop} part of thearea was probably abandoned in he ter r I n th ddle es thein t la Empi e. eMi Ag habitants migrated to a safer position on themain land and the laceis now a mereruin w the , p , ith il r vla eof n c on a of thes e. g S . A tio o p t it

THARRos — s un c colon l n on the es . Thi P i y, yi g w t coas close themou of the rsus was l e t , to th Thy , , ik ra s ua ed on a en n sula the n of c No , it t p i , poi t whi h was occupied by harbour works and thePunic cemer f t o l l r ai ns b ut sand tey . O het wn itt eem c vered f unda o s h l c u ldi s and o o ti n . T epub i b i ng ouses wereused as uarr es en earl in the h q i wh , y ddle es thee0 1eransferred emselves Mi Ag , p p t th to them resecures eof Othoca now r s an o it , O i t o, ther nc al o n of es e a d nia p i ip t w W t rn S r i .

Tharros ereis a an nec urc . At th Byz ti h h , S vann di n s a a c - wer near-b s me Gio i Si i , w t h to y , o cellars and f un da ns and a s onea ea ear o tio , t g t w y b i theem lem of a l on a ueduc has een ng b i . No q t b found b ut o l a s r n of fres wa er r s n amon , ny p i g h t i i g g thes nd-d h d in a unes. T e un c cemeer u P i t y, g thesandstoneand l n u ea ar from thefew , yi g q it p t oman raves has elded a rea s oreof hoen cian R g , yi g t t P i and an n u Egypti a tiq ities. Tharros possessed municipal rights under the mans and several local oflicials arecommemor Ro ,

1 M H . I on . . G I I 1 . . ; 7 3 1 24 1 Discoveries of Phoenician O rnaments a ed in the cr Onewasa tabulafi us t Latin ins iptions. , or keeper of therecords and registrar for thetowns } of Tharros and urres n er h ad eld T A oth , who h theoffices of local censor (quinquennalis) an d director of thecorn -su l uaestor a limentorum end ed pp y (q ) , ow thetown with a reservoir which hefilled at his own eense r r l c slaves in the ssess n xp . Theeweepub i po io 2 of themun c li ereis one r s an i ipa ty . Th Ch i ti eta in la eand ar ar us a n accom a n ed pi ph , t b b o L ti , p i , as of en in fri ca the un c em lems of the t A , by P i b 3 orse d l o r scr ns ro a l an a m. Tw ee n h p G k i iptio , p b b y ef rethe man era commemora etwo Massiliot b o Ro , t 1 selers ‘ and erearea few un c con ainin tt , th P i } t g merel s s of i t names. The un c raves of a u thesameda eas P i g , bo t t seof Carales aremos l or 8 feedee reached tho , t y 7 t p , a ver l nd en more by tica pit excavated at onee . B i g rem el s ua ed an theom s of Carales e ot y it t th t b , th y had een less rifled nd thearc aelo cal finds of b , a h o gi thePunic ageat Tharros wereof greater interest in o er rt of n a s is articu than any th pa Sardi i . Thi p larly trueof thegold and jewelled ornaments dis ’ covered in thecourseof Lord Vemon s. excavations in 1 8 1 and thefinds of thefollo n ears chroni 5 , wi g y ’ cl s uc was d ed in Span o Bulletino . M h damage one to theremaining curiosities by ignorant treasure seeers who rec lessl melted do n ld an t ues k , k y w go iq for thesa eof the el hesmaller ornam n s k m ta . T et end to an an t eb ut oseof rea er s e t Egypti yp , th g t iz

1 0 3 7 9 5 7 9 3 . 7 9 1 4 ' 1 - 3 Kaib el 60 1 0 . C . I S . 1 s , 9 . 5 5 q. Egyptian Features of theWork

areen rel oen c an as als se hic el n ti y Ph i i , o tho w h b o g to th firs cen of n re e t tury Roman occupatio . The areno an maus lea or hiero l e a s Egypti o g yph pit ph , b ut it is clear that thePhoenicians of Sardinia traded extensively with Egypt from thesixth century nw rd on th rn m n r-r n s a s. m eo a es areea o A g t i g , rooc es armles an les mas s and a var e of b h , t , b g , k , i ty laz ed ert enwareor l cara s scarabs in g a h pebb e. S b of earl er da ew eer of as eor enamelled are i t , h th p t , clearly genuineimports from Egypt ; thoseof rock cr stal c alcedon a a eand cornel an all stones y , h y, g t , i , found near Tharros area aren l lo al at ons , pp t y c imit i f t an models of en nar st o c and a r c ous. Egyp i , t i ti i c p i i ero l s w en found at all aremostl mean n Hi g yph , h , y i g l s n t ons oi s m ols On of s es combi a i y b . e theelocal scara s s ows a crocod lew t thefaceof a b h i i h pig , evidently dueto an artist who had never seen the f rmer an mal accom an ed a rd er s o i , p i by bi , p hap s intended for an ibi . art enwareand lass o ects arefairl common E h g bj y , l tter avn a ecul ar metall c lustr thea h i g p i i e. Some of thevases of Tharros avefi ure-wor as re h g k , presentations oi a hareor a rabbit on a black d mon theamulets th s s roun . e eea s ec fic g A g I i y , p i st theevl eea ears in several tom again i y , pp bs. I n somecases special emblems denotetheoccupa

f thedeceased . us in theraveof a old tion o Th , g g t werefound m n atureto ls and a l ances smi h i i o pp i , s files cruc b le touc stone to s W ets one a , i , h , ng , h t , old O f and lumps of g . neo theseoccupation symbols is thegold head-band which formed the 1 26

Local C onstitutio n of Turres in Sardin a thees a lishmen of c lonists t with i , t b t o c z eri s a v n d . iti n ght m y ha eb ee ueto Cesar himself. Tur es was a ac ed to t he ollins theleas t e p tt h C , t uted thef ur ur an r s and as roved p of o b t ibe} , p by nscr ons was cl sel c nnec ed w s ia i ipti , o y o t ith O t , whic el n ed thesa eri rn "was -no h b o g to m t be. Co doub t exported to theharbour town of Romefrom thefer l i l ti epla n s which ay behind Turres. As someof thelocal offices werefilled by freed men the man ulation cann a ve een , Ro pop ot h b

Oner elates to works executed in theharbour ;

' ’ o ers rec rd daou re uaes ors and "aed les the th o q t i , ordinar ma s ra es of a colon au urs a ' cura or y gi t t y, g , t ,

' eeers theshr neof u us us a nd semri Au us k p of i A g t , g or ries s ded ca ed to his cul 2 h v in les . T eo ta , p t i t t t g ni was thecuria and weread of the en u t , tw ty

hreecu riae. un n to set u a s a ue Pudentillus t iti g p t t to , } . an augur . and priest in theimperial temple ereis reas n elieveha Turres was “li e Th o to b t t , k Carales theead of a conventus or ud cial cen re , h , j i t } for thelaw business of a number of minor places Oneinscri ion c mmemora es theres ra on pt o t to ti , under t heem eror l of a rtem leof 2Fertune p Phi ip , p , a r unal . a as l ca an d six c lumns the t ib , b i i , o , by Ul ius c or hr h vernor . u t ea enc f go M p Vi t , t o gh g y o

' 5 a m l ar . trib uneFulvianus at theu lic e en i it y , , p b xp se.

3 N . S . 1 0 1 , 9 4 , 4 .

3 1 1 . Rieer 62 1 . P ais che . 7 9 5 3 , , 1 2 8 E xisting Remains and Sarcophagi

won a num er of vc or es at u lic est vals the b i t i p b f i , } only allusion to such competitions in theisland Two mar rs Gab inus and Cris ulus wererad ty , p , t i tionally contributed by Turres in thepersecution of oclet an and a conven ded ca ed to thefor er Di i , t i t m is men o 2 ti ned . What was b elieved to bethebody of Gab inus was discovered in thecrypt of the cat edral in 1 61 af er c datehecameto be h 4 , t whi h rearded as thec ef sa nt of thenor as E hisius g hi i th , p was of theso o rr uth . A bish p of Tu es is mentioned in a fifth - centur l st y i . Theru ns of Turres arest ll cons dera leb ut i i i b , it a arentl suffered muc from ear ua ean d a pp y h thq k , ar is now su eed s m r . A w t mos c s o s p t b g i h t oa t t wn , the o ulat on ret red nland in the ddle es p p i i i Mi Ag , in s caseto assar now thec ef ur an centre thi S i , hi b for or ern ardin a r aresom roc o . ee e b s N th S i Th k t m , ar of a la n a ueduct races of at s a d an p t p i q , t b h , n m y r r nt I n h ca ral of or b onzes and o names. t e thed P to Torres aresomeRoman sarcophagi with carvings f and r st n s ere o both pagan Ch i ia design . H are r eus and thean mus w c ncl dethefa ulous O ph i , hi h i u b h o iff oll la in thel reand surrou ed ipp gr , Ap o p y g y nd the uses and the ood e rd a m by M , G Sh phe with la b o h s ulder Amon thewen - illar n t eho . g t ty eight p s c u or theroof of theca edral theo dest whi h s pp t th , l wereprobably removed from thetempleof Fortune e scr on a re men tioned in th in ipti . They show g at var et of s leand des n en w e re or i y ty ig , b i g hit , g y,

1 e d r ' Kaib el 6 1 1 ; o omfla wr r ro o lx . , x p p fi p g 3 o . Act. S rah Ma . Gre. E . . 0 g p IX 7 ; f a , y 2 1 2 9 9 General Characteristics of theTowns

lac of rani emar le and r r w b k , g t , b , po phy y, ith r nt an oman or n n r c eri cs a t ec a a s . Co i hi , R , Byz i h t ti some r s an st t a ues area ac ed . To , Ch i ti tt h I n theneighbourhood of thechief Roman buildings is theonl oman r d erema n n in thesland y R b i g i i g i , 2 00 feelon a ou 2 0 fee decr ss n the t g by b t t wi , o i g } river on seven arches Thepavement is of large loc s con nued some eond th roac es b k ti way b y eapp h . Between thebridgeand theharbour areruins o f an m ortan uild n now called ala o del i p t b i g , P zz e R ar aro . is ro a l thetem leof or une B b It p b b y p F t , and rea ns s me llars a s a rcasefoundat ons t i o pi , t i , i , and part of a decorated vault }

will b eseen a theard n an o ns w the It th t S i i t w , ith ece on of Carales canno b esaid to avean x pti , t h y s or and our no led eof emis der ved almos hi t y , k w g th i t entirely from inscriptions and other archaeological n s le erearen si n f rea welt fi d . o s o a Whi th g g t h , they werewell provided with public buildings of ‘ r ar man e neu ld n s onewas theo din y Ro typ . Fi b i i g t read l rocura leand ers nal rnamen s ere i y p b , p o o t w r heo la on l ke a o f ela ora eand va ed . T u b t i p p ti , i th t mos ed erranean c as to ns under them re t M it o t w E pi , fr n was c smo oli an man rees and eedme. o p t , with y G k ecan clearl avehad lit lein common Th y , y , h t with , themoun a neers osea ts even in the man t i , wh h bi Ro ageareprobably better reflected in thefinds of the nuraghi era than in theamphitheatres and temples un c colon st of thetransformed P i ies on thecoa .

1 s ra te . l . u d B al r . I I 8 I I 1 2 ill t A c S rd . 1 I a . . h 3 , 9 ( ) 3 La Mar ora . m l . , p 3 7 , 3 1 30

References in Theodosian C o de

Sard n a from the andals in themeof ust i i V ti J inian . It seems to havebeen left ungarrisoned from the a eof oclean and la s no ar in the g Di ti , p y p t civil ars c a ended therea -u of his erarc w whi h tt b k p t t hy . To this period belong a number of rescripts pre served in theTheodosian Codee er u l s ed , ith p b i h by theSardinian governor at Carales or in other ways rel n to the slan ffic als r ati g i d . O i weeforbidden to seizeplough oxen for j ourneys instead of waiting } for thepublic post Constantineprohibited the ear n of lawsu ts on unda t ou ema h i g i S y, h gh ncipation 2 ss on w re o ed and manumi i e all w . Other regulation s refer to thedespatch of criminals for punishmen t at Romeunder proper escort} and to thechecking of thehabit by which defendants could evade punishment by bringing groundless charges against 4 their accusers. nteres n rou da n from themddle An i ti g g p, ti g i of thefourt cen ur su es s a somehin of a h t y, gg t th t t g ld-fever had ar sen at ract n reasure-seeers go i , t i g t k 5 er rts is ru t a old is found in from oth pa . It t eh t g ard n a b ut not in suffi c en uant t es to rea S i i , i t q i i p y v olidi w r to b a d themas er working . Fi es ee ep i by t of an s who too over miners to ard n a and y hip k S i i , governors of neighbouring provinces wereo rdered a c for and unis suc adven urers who to w t h p h h t , l nterfered w t theenu nelessees and probab y i i h g i , also ar evaded thepayment of Statedues. We he of persons who ren ted lead-mines belonging to the

3 1 3 I 0 I I I I . 8 . . . V . 5 , I . , I IX 4 , 3 1 5 1 2 XI . . 1 6 and . IX . , . 7 , 7 , X 9 , 9 1 32 Earliest Christian I nh abitants

If fa l d to a er dues theem eror a e. e e St t th y i p y th i , p ordered that they werenot to b ebeaten or im r soned b ut er ro er s ould bed s ra ned p i , th i p p ty h i t i on and secur a en An eic of 82 a aren l ity t k . d t 3 } pp t y rela n ard n a reu res a an ress ve ti g to S i i , q i th t opp i overnor talis s ould b eesc r ed ac to the g , Na , h o t b k rovce hic hehad lla ed and ma ef urfold p in w h pi g , k o restitution for thewrongs doneby himself and his servan s As atalis is descr ed as a dux who is t . N ib , not o e se in s cen ur in ard nia th rwi known thi t y S i , and as the rder emana ed from ns an n le o t Co t ti op , is ss le a thenameof s meAs a c r vnce it po ib th t o i ti p o i ,

suc as saur a s uld b esu s u ed for ard nia . h I i , ho b tit t S i I n thesameperiod wehavereferences to an imperial

- stu d of war horses maintained in theisland . A servan of theem eror alen n an was sen t p V ti i , who t to eamnes meven ured to ec an ehem for x i o , t x h g t an mals of an n eri r reed and was rdered i i f o b , o by his mas er who was no ed for thesever of his t , t ity un s men s e d 2 b s neto ea . p i h t , to to d th Though therearereferences to Jews in Sardinia as early as thetimeof Tiberius} Ch ristianity was la ein in o r t arriving and slow Spreading t theinteior . Apocryphal legends of early saints and mar tyrs e s . . aul reac ed in onar a thesu ur of xi t St P p h B i , b b Carales erea ri s an cemeer a erwards re , wh Ch ti t y ft g w u in thec urse his ourneto ain and na us p, o of j y Sp , Ig ti , thebish op of Antioch who suffered martyrdom under ra an was claimed as a ardinian . The T j , S first trustworthy evidenceof thepresenceof

1 3 3 . 2 . mm. . . 0 . A P . 1 IX 7 , 3 XXIX 35 4 1 33 Christian Workers in theMines

ris ans el n s theend thesec nd cen ur Ch ti b o g to of o t y , and t ese erenl r ers in themnes sen h w o y wo k i , t to ard n a un s m nt S i i as a p i h e . A curious story occurs in Hippolytus} a priest livn near mein thea eof the ri i g Ro g Seve. It rela es to a cer a n Callistus a r s an sus ec ed t t i , Ch i ti p t of nos c ves and ill loo ed on theor do G ti i w , k by tho x r r Callis s w ite. tu had been a domestic of Carpo horus a ri st an mem er of them er l o se p , Ch i b i p ia h u old and heset u a nd of an t m e h , p ki b k wi h on y deos ed his mas er an r p it by t d othe Christians. esesums heem eled and fled from ome Th b zz , R to thecoast ; b ut failing to escapehewas imprisoned in theca tal and even uall sen theur an pi , t y t by b refec to wor in theard n an m n s a ened p t k S i i i e. It h pp a arc a a mstress of theem er r mm dus th t M i , i p o Co o , favoured the r st ans and af er n u r n of Ch i i , , t i q i i g thebishop Victor what believers werethen detained in a un ealt s ot nduced theem eror to th t h hy p , i p l I n v of th unsat sfac or order their reease. iew e i t y c arac er of Callistus ctor refra ned from vn h t , Vi i gi i g his name; b ut when theeunuch Hyacinthus had nveed theamnest to theard nian rocurat r co y y S i p o , the ole d nclud n o his own earnes wh bo y, i i g n t en rea Callistus mself ereven er freedom t ty hi , w gi th i It seems to havebeen a regular custom for the Church at Rometo send relief to their brethren 2 o t ese ere suffering in themines. Ab ut 235 h w ned d s n u s ed mem ers a s joi by two i ti g i h b , bi hop

1 H ar . . . Ref . e IX 7 3 H E . 2 Eus. . Cor . a . . . D ion ys. p IV 3 1 34

Ecclesiastical C onstitution

cletian and theseeis referred to reor as , by G g y having long remained vacan t ; b ut it was temporarily in t n filled on his su es n . s o u a us gg tio A bi h p , Q , and a ries of Carales wereresent at theounc l p t , p C i of Arles other bishops at theS ardican council and by thetimeof theCarthaginian council in 484 therearereferences to fiveSardinian bishoprics Carales orum Tra ani ulc Turres and , F j , S i , , } Sena har s las lacew c is also ment oned p Thi t p , hi h i the ant n e eo ra er eor eof rus by Byz i g g ph G g Cyp , is un nown and it seems at thensecur t of the k , th i i y times in thelater Empireled to thedrifting of the n a an ts towards thenter or t er settlements i h bit i i , h i sometimes . proving transitory and not now identifi le Thesland st d r c l d r th f ab . i oo di et y un e eSeeo Romeand someof therevenues from theSardinian impen al estates wereannexed by Constantinefor thesu r of the oman as l ca f r an ppo t R b i i o SS . Pete d 2 ll n m ro n Marcei us. No et polita is mentioned till theend of thes centur w en thenca a le ixth y, h i p b anuar us eld theran of arc s o of Carales J i h k hbi h p , } with six bishops subject to him As in a n and fr ca v rous O os t on s Sp i A i , igo pp i i wa shown in thefourth century by theSardinian C urc to the r an eres w c was t e h h A i h y, hi h h n domnan in the ast and stron l u eld b i t E , g y ph y ns an us thesuccessor of onstan ne Co t ti , C ti . Two slanders eaded s res s ance: uc fer o i h thi i t L i , bish p of Carales and useus s o of Vercellaei , E bi , bi h p n

1 I 1 M n H s . Ger . I I o . i t . . , 7 3 3 h n i I 1 3 s Li . P o t D uc ee b n . 8 . . r X . 8 G e. E 5 I , f 3 g 1 . . 1 36 Luci-fer and Co nstantius

Nor ern tal o aut ors of eolo cal wor s th I y , b th h th gi k n f rt nl s me and leading champio s o o hodoxy . O y o eers rema n of useus who ranslated n o l tt i E bi , t i t a n thecommentar es on the salms his L ti i P by greater namesakeof Ca sarea ; b ut heis also credited with thepreparation of theNew Testament manu r V rc ll n i sc ipt known as theCodex eees s. Of uc fer several rea ses areean mostl L i t ti xt t , y dat n from theer od of his eileand volen l i g p i x , i t y ol l on is a cur ous am leof p emica in t e. He i ex p one-s ded and unreas na leor do c en i o b tho xy , whi h wh pushed to untenableextremes at last landed him in sc sm and set him u as thefoun der of a small hi , p s f n r ns a olics ect o i t a igeant C th . I n 3 5 1 Constantius succeeded in suppressing all ol t cal o os t on in the es and sou p i i pp i i W t , ght by enforcing in that quarter theArian views which alread revailed in the ree rovnces to add y p G k p i , a eolo cal tO‘ a ol cal un fo t r nuous th gi p iti i rmi y . St e res stancewas naturall offered the man see i y by Ro , b ut Constantius succeeded in procurrng thecon demn ation of Athanasius at theCouncil of Arles This was followed by theMilanesesynod of 35 5 whereLucifer and his countryman Eusebius wereamon the a al rer c fer g p p p esentatives. Lu i is referred to anas us as true uc fer who by Ath i L i , , in accordance name r n n thel with thy , b i gi g ight " of trut d ds set on a stand to s neeforeall h , i t it hi b ; and heand his companion showed such determina tion in their championship of theNiceneCreed that theffended em eror decr ed er o p e th i banishment . I 37 ’ Lucifer s Exileand Writings

Lucifer spent several years in exilein Syria an d E ndi n er nvec ves a a ns the r an gypt , i ti g bitt i ti g i t A i ran c erero a l never read and at an ty t, whi h w p b b y , y ra ecaused no a rava on of his un s men t gg ti p i h t , which lasted till theaccession of Julian (361 ) led to ’ th ll s uc fer s a n ereleaseof a exiled bi hops. L i L ti is of a ular nd dis la n l leno led eof pop ki , p y i g itt k w g class cal r ers b ut draw n muc on theearl i w it , i g h y

l ca l vers ns - Thest leis ec ed and the Bib i io . y x it , arran emen o cs defec ve et thewor s g t of t pi ti , y k havea valueas early examples of thehostility felt by Western bishops towards Stateinterferencein

W h at sa ou to t is Con stantius You must surel y y h , y ceasesa in I f m con duct werenot ood s ould n ot y g, y g , I h ” ossess thesoverei nt so lon w en ou o serveh ow p g y g, h y b t at ot er Manasses eaved th us and rei ned for fift h h b h , g y sevn ars An sinc w a v all d ou a second e ye . d e eh ec e y H Man asses o serveh ow ou a veall h is ualities. e , b y h q set up id olatry in th eHouseof God ; y ou haved onejust n r n r H h ad th esa mei th etemplean d sh i es of theLo d . e id ols ad ored and claimed for h imself w at was rearded , h g ’ as theLord s t at afterwards it mi t b erearded a s , h gh g lon in to v on ou wh o e id ols. All t is ou too a ed e b g g h y , , h , y rou t th eArian eres in to th eC u rc and set u ou r b gh h y h h , p y las em to b ead o ted as theCat olic fait o rderin b ph y p h h , g thefait written at Nicaea wh ic we n ow to bea os h , h k p l o s ou aven ow to ic and evan elical t b edes i ed . As g , p y h willed t is so Manasses co mmanded all idols to b eserved h , ’ an o to a an on d G d b eb d ed . is ein so w at elsecan call ou theersecutor Th b g , h I y , p ’ of God s ouset an a wretc wh o follows theur in of h , h h g g our demon andits w oserom tin s led ou to devise y b , h p p g y t esedmds throu h w osea enc ou ladl o astra h ; g h g y y g y g y, with y our sacrilegious thoughts firmly planted in your 1 38

— Claudian Vandal invasion

’ But w ereit lo o s toward theBea r tis fierce h k , Cra -strewn and storm an d thesudden blasts g y, v Her t os Fren z ied Mountains rise R a ewildly . eh e r n r t ll a f o W hereof thema i e es t les o w e. Hen ceswoo s theestilen ceon man and east p p b , Heren oisomeva ou rs men aceand th eS out p , h I s lord for A uilo is eld a a rt , q h p ’ ’ - ls By moun ta in ran ges. Thesewith storm toss d kee ’ TheR oman s sca ed an d b thefa rth er s ore p , y h Past all t osewin in inlets s alon h d g ped g. Someen tered Sulci wh ic in times of ore , h y Knew Cart a eas h er mot er somewit in h g h , h TheOlb ian h a ven sou t safean o gh ch rage.

eresta nd s a cit facin Li an strand Th y, g by , W h ic on cesomemi h t rian reared and turn s h g y Ty , A wi efac seawa rd Ca ral s d e e name. , by Lo w ills u t fort to c ec th ecomin blast h j h h k g , An d ma eth eo en sea a sureretrea t k p , W hilesafefrom every wind th epool lies still ’ Hit r D eep in its hollow. heth armament S eed s ever ar an d b eac in all t eir craft p , y b k ; , h g h , ’ ’ W it eet a t rest t e wait th ez e r s h fl h y phy call . Despitethegrowing weakness of Romein the enerat on follow n theG ildonic war ard n a g i i g , S i i rema ned und s ur ed the erman c nvaders i i t b by G i i , who ereill rovded w n l f r nl w p i ith ava o ces. O y when theVandals werefirmly planted in Africa did it begin to experiencetheravages of thepiratical ee c u l from thewoods of tlas ecame fl t whi h , b i t A , b theerr r of the es ern ed a r l t o W t M iterranen . Sho t y after thedea of alen n an in th . in e th V ti i III , 45 5 , course a naval war the m rethe of with E pi , andal n ccu ed thesland ro a l w the V ki g o pi i , p b b y ith i ntention of cutting off thesupply of corn from 1 40 Settlement of Moorish Exiles

} al I n ve the as ress veaxa on It y i w of p t opp i t ti , separation from theEmpiremay not havebeen al o e r un elc me t g the w o . I n 468 Sardinia was temporarily recovered by arcellinus a oman eneral as ar of therea M , R g , p t g t schemefor ther econquest of theWest formed by h andal s theEas ern em er r Leo . T e eewa t p o V fl t , wever s ll too s r n and on thefailure the ho , ti t o g , of 3 d t o a rt a e a main expei i n gainst Ca h g it was bandoned . us af er thela seof seven cen ur es ardin a Th , t p t i , S i was a a n deenden on ar a eand so rema ned g i p t C th g , i till thedestruction of theVandal kingdom by Beli sar ns thealiena n en ro a l rec niz ed in i , tio b i g p b b y og e e no i thepeacemadewith themp ror Ze n 47 6 .

‘ Sardinia was used as a placeof banishment by theandals as r v sl theem erors di s e u . e V , p io y by p Bo of irrecon cilableMoorish rebels weredeported} both to relieveAfri ca and to providea nucleus of O r l fter em s n to oman u e. esea c n ppo itio R Th , b o i g theterror of thesouthern towns through their reda r e lo s to themoun a ns near p to y xp it , took t i Carales ro a l sein thes u -wes ver , p b b y tho o th t o l k n theam dan and s ared theI lienses oo i g C pi o , h with i n theeast thetitleof Barbaricini .

1 ‘ . b D 68 : E vr s . . v a . . . i t. V t c Sal es Vic i . I 4 ; f G VI S ardinia et S icilia id est fiscalib us h orreis a t ue , , q ab ’ 3 tal ib us vn ie r o . B . V n . scissis vu vi . P oc a d . el t e p I 5 . 3 on wo I b . 1 . Thedistincti b etween t eset classes . II 3 h i Pa f r ni i a . lol . o Barba ic s m deby is (Rivdi Fi VI . ereis n o Mooris element in theeastern districts b ut Th h , thereare eo lestill called Mauredd os round lesias p p Ig , ot i f fr m th at of o r an d their cl hing d f ers o ther islan des. 1 41 Catholic Clergy Banished to Sardinia

heandals had no admnis ra veca ac T V , who i t ti p ity , and only regarded Sardinia as a strategic poin t and s urceof nc meconfined emselves to the o i o , th towns; and theruder inhabitants wereallowed to recover an independencewhich madethem trouble e ec s f e som subj t o th Empireat a later date. A regular governor was maintained at Carales by the n ssess n ml ar and ud c al a or ki g , po i g i it y j i i uth ity, an ar ed a s n r He d ch g with r i i g theannual evenue. was su r ed a d of offic als b ut as in fri ca ppo t by bo y i , , A , mos of the oman mac ner of local vernmen t R hi y go t , ncludin theuseof rovnc al ud es was ro a l i g p i i j g , p b b y ma e intain d . Vandal rulein Africa was marked by a fierce ersecu n of the a ol c urc w c was re p tio C th i Ch h , hi h garded as favourableto theimperial authority and though thereis no referenceto a similar persecu on in ard n a or to an a em to en rcethe ti S i i , y tt pt fo r an f rm of ors thesland receved from A i o w hip, i i Africa several parties of exiled priests and bishops; and theseseem after their arrival to havebeen left unm les ed h firs ro r an s ed in the o t . T e t g up weeb i h ren of K n Hunneric en c ar ed vola n ig i g , b i g h g with i ti g thelaw against Catholic propaganda } and they were foll ed a few ers l er muc lar er num er ow y a at by a h g b , over 2 00 accord n to someaccoun s eled i g t , xi by n hrasamund er cr mewas t a t e Ki g T . Th i i h t h y c n nued to orda n and accet sees c the o ti i , to p whi h t king desired to haveleft vacan . Though African learning b y thebeginning of the

1 ict . Vit . I . V I . 7 1 42

Godas Revolts against theVandals

erereadil d s r u ed and c ens who is ed w y i t ib t , itiz w h to hear theScriptures in terpreted or havetheir differences setled ere elcomed so a the t w w , th t housewas described by thebiographer as the ’ oracleof theC ralitan a c . a er t dr aw n ity L t , wi h i g himsel from theno seof the o n Ful entius f i t w , g ecameat his own eensethefounder of a b , xp , reular monas er on r und ran ed Primasius g t y, g o g t by f i h S turn nus. s es adj oining t echurch o St . a Beid r duc n several eolo cal r s s ll ean p o i g th gi wo k ti xt t , hedid much to encouragean earnest and religious s iri in ard nia un l theaccess on of theoleran p t S i , ti i t t } Hilderic at Carthageled to his recall I n theren of thelas andal n Gelimer ig t V ki g, , the overnors of ard n a was eld das g hip S i i h by Go , an ac veand am us o who as r n to an ti bitio G th, , pi i g ndeenden os t on w eld thesland r u e i p t p i i , ithh i t ib t fromhis mas er and ein su r ed a numero s t , , b g ppo t by u ss hen s n of ro l od uard a umed t a a . The b yg , i ig i y ty Eastern emperor Justinian was then preparing for therecon ues of fr ca and heread l en ered q t A i , i y t n o neot a ons thereel C ef a n offer n i t g i ti with b hi t i , i g to send a forceunder Cyril to help him agai nst

the andals. efore o ever an el arr ved V B , h w , y h p i , Gelimer had despatched a powerful army and twenty

fiveships to Sardin ia under his brother Tz az on . eac n Carales the andals ccu ed theca al R hi g , V o pi pit , an ut da s and his uards to d t The d p Go g ea h . oman c mmander ril en nformed is R o Cy , b i g i of th ,

1 Tunn M t . M H . G. X ul . . Hi . i s ic . in . L a iac st . V ; P .D c

n l t in . 1 E n od . E . 1 ta Fu en . Mi ne tr . . 6 5 ; p 4 ; Vi g g , P a Lat 5 I 44 Sardinia Reconquered for theEmpire d ver ed his courseto fr ca and co-o era ed i t A i , p t with thema n arm under Bel sar us had alread i y i i , which y won a victory over theVandal s and occupied Car thage.

' Gelimer now ound imself in theutmo d s r ss f h st i t e. His es roo s weresola ed in ardin a arid he b t t p i t S i , sen an ur en messa eto his ro er callin on t g t g b th , g him to reurn at onceand add n at thean er of t , i g th g heaven must havecaused theSardinian revolt at r s h l l suc a c s . T e anda s r n to concea h i i V , t yi g er r ef from theslanders returned to fr ca th i g i i , A i in reeda s b ut e wereu erl defea ed at th y , th y tt y t Tricamaron by thehost of barbarians whom the skill of Belisarius had welded into an army worthy of theancient days of Rome After this vc or elisar us des a c ed r l to ard n a i t y B i p t h Cy i S i i , ear n theead of Tz az on who had fallen in the b i g h , a le d accom an ed a stro d f s ld rs an n o o o e. b tt , p i by g b y i firs theslanders not avn et los er fear At t i , h i g y t th i of the andals and uncer a n a ou therealit V , t i b t y of thevc or un ac b ut on en s own the i t y , h g b k ; b i g h features of their former conqueror they again pro t e m ir o ard a fessed submission to h E p e. B th S ini ’ and ors ca c had also formed a ar of the C i , whi h p t andal domn ons werenow reor an z ed as r u V i i , g i t ib } taries of theByzantinesovereign Thelaxity of administration during therecent troubles had permitted therevival of theactivity of reda or moun a n r es to c erenow . p t y t i t ib , whi h w ds of ooris eil s s ec al added theban M h x e. A p i

1 P roc0p. B . Va nd. II. 5 . 1 45 Civil and Military Reorganiz ation expedition against them was directed by theable oman eneral olomon af er his successful oor s R g S , t M i h ca fr a Theem eror ust n an als mpaign in A ic . p J i i o madeadditions to therecently published I nstitu

ons reula n theadmn stra on of ardin a . ti , g ti g i i ti S i s elac d der a c vl overnor called wa r e un It p i i g , reses or ndex i nsa laeb ut his s dewas laced p i , by i p a ml tar da x w osedut was to eewa c on i i y , h y it k p t h theres les ar ar c n The os t ons to b eeld t s B b i i i . p i i h his roo s and t er num ers wereto b edeer by t p , h i b , t m ned el sar us wh o en eld thec ef com i by B i i , th h hi ’ mand in Africa ; b ut thesizeof thegeneral s staff and their rates of pay areminutely laid down by } Justinian At thesametimetheimportant inland own of orum Tra ani s and n at theunct on t F j , t i g j i of several roads and commandin themou of , g th oneof ther nc al valles was reu l and for fied p i ip y , b i t ti , ro a l as theres denceof thedux and ant ne p b b y i , Byz i 2 r l r fort r c ruins a estill observab e. Othe s eeted at thetimeweredesigned to b ar access to thechief asses t rou themoun a ns a o en a n ernal p h gh t i , t k th t i t revolt was ow mor dread or c n e ed than f eign atta k . New towns a ear in eeo ra cal l s s of the pp . th g g phi i t a e as C r so ol s and astrum aron er a s g } h y p i C T , p h p theold un c Tharros for fied as a antine P i , ti Byz military station ; and Byzantinearchitectural re mai ns and nscr o s arefa rl o o i ipti n i y c mm n . Thec vl overnor s nce al was s ll in foren i i g , i It y ti ig ossess on was madesu ec to theer r p i , bj t xa ch o

1 3 ‘ God . ust. I . 2 . Pr O l oc . . j 7 p E d f VI . 3 E . . Geor . C r . ed . r Gelz e . . g , g y p , p 3 5 1 46

Inscriptions of Later Empire

ecl a lena ucia c las h und- lans . T e ro C i i , E , L , Ni o g p o f someof esec urc es as l o or . cc at n th h h , S Ni o o D i , wi its reenaves eas ern a selar eves ule th th , t p , g tib , and races m nas c u ld n s recall theeastern t of o ti b i i g , } r e an has-rel efs an d o er rnamen s w t it M y i th o t , i h ‘ riffin s eac c s and o er rds s w cleai races g , p o k th bi , ho t of an nernamea on r Byz ti o nt ti . G eek epitaphs and ot er nscr ns arenot nfreuen and ree h i iptio i q t , G k res memes e r formula a o ti xp essed in Latin letters. Oneof themost interesting inscriptions of the er d in deased a n el n s to theren of p io , b L ti , b o g ig aur ceda n from a ou 80 an d is cut on M i , ti g b t 5 , it theback of a heathen tombstoneof much earlier da e c was even uall uil n hea ove t , whi h t y b t i to t b o d c urc of fr en ne . cc l not far om m ti h h S Ni o o, 2 l ar evden l refer a . s a mar melace C g i i It i t y to iti p , as ves a ar ff of dues on m r s and ma ave it gi t i i po t , y h n set u in somecus om- usenear heca al b ee p t ho t pit . I t is c n ec ured t a t s was at lmas on the o j t h t hi E , l oon thewes c en reac ed far er ag to t, whi h th h th nland an at resen and was access le small i th p t, ib to n m h ships in anciet ti es. T edues wereno doubt fixed the vernor of thesland and wereleved by go i , i animals ars of necorn veeta les e n tc . o , j wi , , g b , I n laceof cont nu n thenarra vefur er p i i g ti th , from theobscureand scanty chronicles of the dle es ma bewor leto devotea Mid Ag , it y th whi fe a es theletters of rer the rea w p g to G go y G t, o efr m 0 to 60 s nce edo s mehin to P p o 5 9 4 , i th y o t g illustratethesocial and religious condition of the

1 3 N . S 1 88 0 . I b . 1 0 E c. E . 2 1 . . , 5 , 4 5 4 ; pi p. VIII 7 1 48 Letters o f PopeG regory island in thisageof transition fromancient to modern s r hi to y . erew r o at Carales Th as now an a chbish p , with several s i s ewas ur er uffragans n other town . H f th su or ed a deea sor a c vl ofli cial sedu pp t by f , i i who ty it was to uphold therights and privileges of the man urc and eerc seur sd c on ver all Ro Ch h , x i j i i ti o reular and secular cler ma in er dical g gy, k g p io reor s to theo e uc of thesland was d vded p t P p . M h i i i amon r c land olders osees a es ere r ed g i h h , wh t t w wo k s r s r ro r o d m nas c by ef . Othep peties bel nge to o ti commun t es of ic ere erealread several i i , wh h th w y , though in somecases so small as to b econtained h n hel wit i t imits of a privatehouse. ’ ‘ eselet ers llus rate reor s missiohar eal Th t i t G g y y z , which also led to his despatch of Augustineto conver the n l s as ell as his dev n t E g i h , w otio to the as s s em s o s a desireto u old mon tic y t . Heh w ph therights of theclergy whileobliging them to oh servero er d sc l neand d s la s a seolera p p i ip i , i p y wi t on wards theews who had lon een es a ti to J , g b t b lished in thecommerc al cen res i t . Oneof theearl es of theser es ur es Hos ito i t i g p , a leadin man amon the ar ar c n and a recen g g B b i i i , t conver to ri s an t to fur er theevan el z a t Ch ti i y, th g i on of his un a fellow-coun r men who l ved ti h ppy t y , i ’ l eeas s a aveno unders and n noran ik b t th t h t i g , ig t of therueGod and wors n ood and s one t , hippi g w t . For this purposetwo clergy weresent as special deu es theo e r l r p ti by P p . Otheettes of likepurport areaddressed to theml ar dux of ardin a i it y S i , 149 Idolatry to bero oted O ut

Zab ardas and thec vl overnor S esindeo , to i i g , p , calling on them to render all assistancein thetask of converting and baptizing thebarbarians and ro ls e rall a thec vl vernmen p vincia g ne y . Th t i i go t showed no great enthusiasm for themissionary or is su es ed a leer to ons an na fe w k gg t by tt C t ti , wi of theem eror aur cecom lai n n of thecus om p M i , p i g t of eac n a tax from dola ers in reurn for allow x ti g . i t t in em to con nue er old r es vn af er g th ti th i it . E e t their conversion to Christianity such a tax was still continued ; and when thegovern or was remon strated t hehad com la ned a hecould not wi h , p i th t otherwisemakeup thesum which hehad promised to a f r s a o s lar or a on p y o hi pp intment . A imi exh t ti to theisland clergy and aristocracy reproaches s them with overlooking theidolatry of their serf . Lay holders areurged by Gregory to assist in the ’ missionaries labours among their tenants bishops who retain theservices of pagan labourers areto b eseverely pun ished by their metropolitan ; serfs who cling to their errors ought to b ecompelled to a a her ren an nd rec meod of com uls on p y hig t , i i t th p i c d es not commend self to modern no ns whi h o it tio . Yet an d rec o ress on of eccles as cal serfs y i t pp i i ti , es ec ll la s er edes i d a u n n n s rero a e. p i y by y p i t t , p b t Such supervisors should b edrawn from theranks of theclergy and Oppressors of thehumbler classes should continueamenableto thej urisdiction of hedensor Nor s ould serfs on c urc lands be t fe . h h h allo ed to ransfer emselves to r va eowners w t th p i t , a practicewhich often resulted in churches being 1 5 0

— Sardinian Jews Church Government

administration of theByzantineofficials was far fr fli i nt om ec e . 1 n a Two letters deal with theJews of Sardi i . Servan ts of Jews who left their masters and took refu ei a c urc ereto besurrendered unless g n h h w , r s they wereor wereready to becomeCh istian . Theright of Jews to theundisturbed possession of t eir s n a o ues is also reco n ed ou the h y g g g iz , th gh

erect o of fres u ld n s is ro ed . us i n h b i i g p hibit Th , eter a recen conver ri s an had rans P , t t to Ch ti ity , t ferred a s na o ueat Carales of w c hehad the y g g , hi h d rec on to the urc an d laced in a cross i ti , Ch h , p it , a s atueof the r n and the tero eused in t Vi gi , whi b a s eses m ols th o eorder d to be b pti m. Th y b eP p e r h l c re r d o h ws emoved and t e a e s o et t ee . , p t J Another group refers moredefinitely to the management of theisland churches and theconduct f l e reor learned werel a le o thec er . se gy Th , G g y , i b 2 o r la es t s was t b eopp essed by y j udg . And hi partly dueto theincompetenceof thefoolish an uar us who en filled t emero ol an seeof J i , th h t p it Carales an d to w om a lon ser es of or ator , h g i h t y les i dr s d fail d o is u or epist s ad es e. He et exert h a th n d rect o r ts ho had f ll n in ma ns. es w a e ity y " i i P i away from thefaith resumed their functions with out having been rehabilitated ; others madenu or d ecurs ons to thema nlan or to fr c auth ize x i i d A i a . Thechurch-housefor thereception of strangers at Carales was not ro erl su ervsed nor its p p y p i , c n ts am ne v ac ou e d . anuar us had excommun , . x i J i i

1 3 . . 6 . 2 IV 9 , IX IV. 6 . 1 2 . 5 — Archbishop Jan uarius Monasteries

cated a man who used disrespectful languageto himself and had eac ed e r an sums for ran , x t xo bit t g t in d fo r had fur er s nali ed g lan r a g ave. He th ig z himself by going out ploughing beforethecele ra on of ass on unda and had moved his b ti M S y, ’ ne our s l d ar ighb an m k . I n a severedespatch Gregory writes: And since wew s to s are our re airs reurn to our i h p y g y h , t y senses at las old man and restra n ourself from t , , i y s l v f m rs and erver t f c uch eity o anne p si y o a tion . My duty should havebeen to launch thesentence of punishment against y ou ; b ut sinceweknow ur s m l c and our old a eweremain s len yo i p i ity y g , i t ’ for theme Theo e ow er commu c d . ev e n a e ti P p , h , x i t thea eors of anuar us for t o m n b tt J i w o ths. Another series concerns thefoundation and a dmn s ra on of monas c commun es c i i t ti ti iti , whi h reor alwa s d c art h r l G g y y ha mu h at he . T eeation between theseand theimperial officials was not alwa s a fr endl oneand thearc s mself y i y , hbi hop hi seems to havehad no great liking for such institu ons anuar us is reu red to r his ti . J i q i exet authority in effecting theestablishment of a monastery for which money had been bequeathed and wrongfully withheld by theheiress at law} to obligean abbot to reserved sc l neamon his mon s and to p i ip i g k , punish a priest who had embezzled money left to onas er d t eis com a m t y by a evou widow. H mended for interfering to prevent a housewhich stood next door to a nunnery from being converted into a

1 I V 8 . . CO' Adition of Island Nunneries

r r er s . sa s rer thenuns mu a y Eith , y G go y, t moved else ereor themon s mus b elan ed wh , k t p t a deser ed monas er ou s detheo n w ch t t y t i t w , hi ’ would equally fulfil thetestator s wish } Nunneries indeed seem to havebeen in an unsatisfactory ns d t a ou amon the llas on state. Nu ha o go b t g vi theconven ual es ates to ollec ren s and dues a t t c t t , duty which ought to b eleft to agents appointed s sters sreard n er the s o . er by bi h p Oth i , d i g i g th i vo s a andoned thecommun and in somecases w , b ity , 2 marr ed n i t s f l d t ado e . a mna e too a e o t i M y , , i pt h conven ual ro eand as t er s a us us ecame t b , , h i t t th b o en dou m nelef emwas in dan er of p to bt , o y t by th g passing away from thesociety of which they were mem ers he s o is hidden to c ec all suc b . T bi h p h k h a uses and in ar cular to transfer nuns who b , p ti proved unworthy of confidenceto societies where l n r r thediscip i ewas st icte. Gregory exhibits throughout much adminis trativeability and disinterestedness; hefrequently appointed special legates to examinetheaffairs of ar cular dioceses encoura ed conferences amon p ti , g g the sland s o s emselves and summoned i bi h p th , i es en urc ls o ef r in uir . Ch h officia t Rom o q Wh , o ever a resen of corn was sen thefa ful h w , p t t by ith of ard n a as a xenium or en of res ec heat S i i , tok p t , oncesen ac thevalueof order n thedeensor t b k it , i g f to distributeit among thedonors and to obtain } their receipt Themedia val aspect of thesociety depicted in

1 3 3 2 . I X. 2 . 2 . . X . 5 IV 7 1 5 4

CHAPTER X ARCHITECTUR E AND THE ARTS

Theseislan d s en j oyed n oneof thefruits of Italian civiliz ation and remain ed in thetimeof Au ustu s d ar , g k spots of b arbarism on theskirts of opulencean d refine ’ en t — m . ME RIV ALE .

BUILD INGS of theRoman ageareseldom well The reserved and resen few l cal fea ures. p , p t o t mos numer s class cons s s of a ueduc s of en t ou i t q t , t carried on arches and bringing water from the moun a ns of th n er or to the ns am les t i ei t i tow . Ex p occur at Neapolis and Forum Trajani (Fordun gianus) Thetheatreof Nora and theamphitheatre of Carales arereferred to in thechapters on the o ns and races of ano er M hitheatrees t w , t th p xi t at orum Tra F jani. Numerous foundations of villas havebeen ex cava ed es ec all in thene r d of a liar t , p i y ighbou hoo C g i and in the am dano f ll theord n r C pi . They o ow i a y oman lan b ut theatrium is eredevelo ed n o R p , h p i t a reular c ur ard su a lefor n l e he g o ty it b cou try if . T var ous r und-floor rooms O en on and is i g o p to it , it rdered a r co on oneor mores des a lan bo by po ti i , p c s ll reva ls in he l d On suc villa whi h ti p i t is an . e h . in themn n d s r c of acu s in thes i i g i t i t B Abi , outh 1 56 — Plan of V illas Baths

es s on thelef of s cour a rou of es w t , ha t thi t g p gu t rooms; on thesidefacing theentrancearefamily a ar men s eeen c is a c am er a p t t , b tw whi h h b with lar ed r a reac ed s es ro a l the g oo w y, h by t p , p b b y ta bli om or r om for reservin accoun s and m , o p g t o n s s las ro ec s and is encl sed d ume . c t Thi t p j t , it o dou le alls c su es s a su r ed by b w , whi h gg t th t it ppo t m an u er c am er r a l a s rer or ranar . pp h b , p ob b y to oo g y lar er om on theri was r a l the c en A g o ght p ob b y kit h , is s ll of cons d r l si i rd n a fe c ea e en a rm whi h ti i b z S i i , in thereular l vn -r m of theservan s I n g g i i g oo t . somecases therearewine-cellars and storerooms for reservn oil and usuall a ser es of a r ms p i g , y i b th oo , with a special water-supply introduced through r r On r s ro a l pipes from a eservoi . eoom wa p b b y used as a nd of ra or and dedicat ons ccur ki o t y, i o to theeus of thevlla set u thewor - e0 1e g ni i , by k p p p e on thees a ewho l ved in ne ur n co a s. t t , i ighbo i g tt g Therewereseveral curativethermal establish men s s r n s en numer us in s nce t , hot p i g b i g o thi o ol a som of m m r vc nic country . By e the i po tant selemen s re u as ha of ua ea olitana tt t g w p, t t Aq N p , } in thewest Oneof thebest preserved of thesehot aths la on theCarales- l a r ad near rum b y O bi o , Fo 11 ra the of ther ver rs The T ani on an us. j , b k i Thy chief enclosurewas provided with a portico on las ers and was surrounded seara ecells pi t , by p t n - s in s oneand a rou with bathi g tub t , by g p of v l f ollec n thehot a er er a esses or c ti g w t . Oth b th

1 Ball . Arc . S ard . . 20 . Cf . h V 3 aramell in N 1 C . a lon article T i . S . 0 6 . f g by , 9 4, 4 9 I S7 Pu blic and P rivateBaths rooms ad oined and erewas a condu r j , th it to b ing down c ld a er ro a l from thec a ueduc o w t , p b b y ity q t to s meof ther s s th m era ure the o oom . A etep t of spring was naturally about this must have c a l h hot self was en been a cept b e. T e spring it cl sed in a vaul ed cell from c es led to o t , whi h pip th o reare a n evari us bathing apartments. The L ti dedicat ns the m s b ut finds of ro es ue io to Ny ph , g t q s a ues a aren l reresen in the oen c an t t , pp t y p t g Ph i i a ri su es a thes r was n n efore C bi , gg t th t p ing k ow b s Roman times to thePunic settlers of Tharro . Discoveries of Christian tombs show that it remained in favour for man cen ur s y t ie. I n thedistrict of Bonaria (perhaps a corruption of Balnearia) is a bath of great extent and finely ed da f r is ornamen n rom theearl m e. t , ti g y E pi It uncer a n eer was u l c or r va eb ut s t i wh th it p b i p i t , thi part of Carales is known to havehad many richly r i rec a ppointed p ivatehouses. Theres a large t n ular enclosuread rned mosa cs thetwo a g o with i , o s eends er na n in iscim or ath n ppo it t mi ti g p , b i g f c I s i th f f ese o ls oneo n eormo an a se. p o , whi h p Th wereroofed b ut the all was ro a l O en and , h p b b y p , d a ll he r r n mar l l c s ha we at t cent e. G ee b eb o k held together by copper clamps aremuch used in he u ldin and o er a ar men s ncludi an t b i g, th p t t , i ng 1 d o n a od terium a . p y , j i fi ur - or r vr o Frescoes with g ew k a enot ey c mmon . n eres n rural sceneevden l c ed from An i t ti g , i t y opi heever da l feof thevilla ccurs on the alls t y y i , o w

1 N . S . 1 0 1 . , 9 9 , 35 1 5 8

IMosaics of Carales a b rid eand cl se is an er s and a ale g , o by oth hip wh , whileJonah is also represented giving thanks for is oins fo d in seom s su es h escape. C un the t b gg t

- 1 an early fourth century date. A es ca acom ro a l of thesameer d J wi h t b , p b b y p io , on thes eof ulc has ain ed on the las er it S i , p t p t which covers therock theseven-branched candle s c reea ed more an nce to eer ti k , p t th o , g th with n r ns 2 Hebrew and Latin i sc iptio . Thesim ler var ees of osa c emer cal p i ti M i , with g o t i a erns arenot uncomm n b ut not man eam les p tt , o , y x p of fi ure- or arereserved ow n to theru nous g w k p , i g i cond n f mos o s wo eam les itio o t Roman h u es. T x p ma en fr l ar Thefirs is b ea o om a . y t k , b th C g i i t a nOrpheus scenenow preserved at Turin} probably of theearl m reand f und in thesamehOuse y E pi , o as an er mosa c of thea urs of ercules w c oth i L bo H , hi h s s n r us is s o n wa et away to Spain and lost . O phe h w sea ed a ro eover his nees ld n an o lon t with b k , ho i g b g orned lu ein his lef and thelec rumin his ri h t t h , p t ght , whilea bird on an adjoimng shrub turns towards i l f ord r nclu n h m. elvean ma s orm a e di Tw i b , i g fox l on l ness a elle ear uffalo and . i , io , g z , b , b , A specimen still preserved in Sardinia belongs to the

- bath houseof Bonaria already referred to . It consists of polychromemarbletessellations mixed

w luelass asteformn an n erlac n and . ith b g p , i g i t i g b s encloses a ser es of s uares the ell for Thi i q , with w n r eses uares l s thece e. supp ying thebath at t Th q ,

1 3 N 8 1 8 . I d . 1 0 1 0 . . S . , 1 9 3 , 3 , 9 7 , 5 3 B Arc S r a ll. . a d . 1 6 1 h IV. 1 60 Examples of Statuary twe -fiven u er con ain o er a erns or nty i n mb , t fl w p tt

- s w enes recallin theea or wa er owers. u e sc g s t p Th , ave u d w a w r d n a dol u d h C pi ith hip , i i g phin ; C pi and a sea- serpent ; thefabulous sea - stag swimming ; a Nereid on a sea-monster ; somegoddess on a marinebull ; and a fish - centaur with long blue r h fi r - r o ro ea d and air . T e u e o u v us b h g w k , th gh igo , s not eual thedecora n and s o s nelec i q to tio , h w g t l I ts r s l c to fr c or of of detai . eemb an e A i an w k h o o r . t theperi d suggests thesec nd centu y A D . as e probabledateof this mosaic . Several good specimens of statuary and bronze or of theearl m rerema n and someof the w k y E pi i , smaller ron es areof cons dera len erest in vie b z i b i t , w of theearly development of bronzecasting among d o r r s theSar inians. S me ep eent theold heroes whom Greek mythologists choseto associatewith m l fi thesland . us a a e ure ear n a o er i Th , g w i g fl w wrea d avn on his d a num er of n ed th , an h i g bo y b wi g crea ures a arentl ees ma b enteded for t , pp y b , y i n Arista us theb ee- eeer of theour Geo ie } k p f th rg , who n rod ced a r c ltureto thes n r s i t u g i u i la des. Thi . f t Oli i di r was und a n a a s c no ed for ne. o a , t i t t ho y no er ron efrom Stam ace ner Ca lia A th b z p , a g rif shows Hercules standing within an arch formed by nver ed cus s and wear n a wrea of o l r i t p , i g th p p a ’ leves He olds theclu and l on s s n and o a . h b i ki , n his left arm is a c ld ro a l his s n ele hi , p b b y o T phus, whosefeet arebeing licked by thehind which reared hi 3 m.

1 B all Arc . S ard . . 6 . . h I 5 1 61 Figures of Bacchus and Ceres

Among thebest exammes of stonecarving is thes a ueof acc us a favur ede in the t t B h , o it ity oman mes found at a l ar and a island in R ti , C g i i , p are is over pat ently onceadorning somesqu . It li e-s e sl and elean fi ureand ears f iz , with ight g t g , w “ - d the thefawn s in b ut theead is des ro e. k , h t y By er 1 erm r m the sideis a mutilated panth . A H f o h lad and me laceis an f rm s win t e . sa p J i o , ho g g sorrowing Bacchus; and thereis an exampleof an iv- rea ed acc an e ead sm o end y w th B h t h , o th b hi , f ” and evidently onceattached to a head o thegod . acc c scenes arefreuen on ardinian sarco a B hi q t S ph gi , and examples occur of funereal cippi rounded to r l h o o r of - esemb et ec nt u a winecask . Of Ceres thereis a finebronz estatueof thesecond l 3 lds a fro a . h o s en r A D . m ddes c u . T e t y , O bi g ho a era a s c leand a small i for sacr ficeand p t , i k , pg i ; shewears a long tunic reaching to theankles in l av olds and a vea s r ves w ird e. w y f , bo ho t t ith g Her hair is held in by a circlet surmounted by a r o s ad- cu i u he dress. Reliefs on sarcophagi areoften vigorously carved m t olo cal scenes b ut in somecases eseere y h gi , th w , no dou m or ed from al read or ed bt, i p t It y y w k , with lan s a lef for thena s O f som n r s ces me. eo e ee b k p t n i t t, ‘ elon n to then on nea ewas found at Turres b gi g A t i g , , and from thepresenceof a carved panel showing a reus of theo n a a lemeed urre t a b t w , b tt nt t t wi h d a nal and el ma b ea r u ed to l cal i go b b ow, it y tt ib t o

1 2 N . S . 1 0 1 888 608 . , 9 5 , 47 . , 3 Bull . Arc . ard . 1 . I d . . h S IV. 7 7 IX 4 1 62

Punic C oinage

l ked o us finey Wor . At C rn havebeen found glass funerar urns of rea mer and en raved s o es y g t it , g t n , eec all en n roduced n o r n s aven eres sp i y wh i t i t i g , h i t t

i des ns. d s ecimen is thecornel a ng ig A goo p i n , eraved en feed n under a reeel sed ng with ox i g t , nc o 1 a o al r of s lver in a hex g n ing i . T efinds thelas cen ur su es a ile h of t t y gg t th t , wh o reular art sc ool es ed in ardinia and eal n g h xi t S , w th

‘ was not ver del diffused thedevelo men of y wi y , p t natural resources under theEmpirebrought com arativeaffluenceto man of thec ef cen re p y hi t s, and that theupper 'classes could thus import such ornaments as werebeyond thecapacity of island

artificers.

red it at of c l thenumsmat Compa w h th Si i y, i ic ou of ard n a is ns n ficant and theda es and tput S i i i ig i , t origins of thefew pieces tentatively attributed to oards of n d theisland areuncertain . H Pu ic an oman c ns eend far n o the ant nea e R oi , xt ing i t Byz i g , arefrequently comeupon ; b ut they represent the ord r currenc of t eca tals and local mn s ina y y h pi , i t r f I n th un c a somecolo s re weeew. eP i ge nie a n ec ured to avehad mn s and some ro e co j t h i t , b nz s ec mens ear in add t on t theordinar e p i b , i i o y typ f art a ethefemaleead on theo ver e d o C h g , h b s an heorseon thereversecerta n n als erha s t h , i i iti , p p m of t s ave n thoseof mint towns. So e heeh bee to efer to ornus osa and ulc and e thought r C , B , S i , th y i h of correspond to slight differences n t etype head. A gold Specimen with theusual head has theun

1 64 Greek and Roman C oins

common reverse a ull w a s ar a veand of b ith t bo , el a his also is b ow a crescent enclosing disc . T 1 believed to b eof local workmanship . no er r u of c ns o in silver and r nze A th g o p oi , b th b o , a u w c differen o n ons ex s is c mm nl bo t hi h t pi i i t , o o y ascr ed to auromeniumin c l fromthes mlar ib T Si i y , i i of des has l ethecerta n co s of t at n . n ity ig It , ik i i h c t a femaleead a aren l at “of a oddess i y , h , pp t y th g ,

t ear- r n s and a Wreat and on thereverse wi h i g h , ’ a ra l h onl leed is dus ec ster . T e n an g p u y g to S , in ree leers somemes rero radeand the G k tt , ti t g , 2 B th da s l s es ou 00 . C as e e h ty eugg ts ab t 3 . t . Whet er someSardinian community was allowed by Carthage

‘ to usethe auromenium m n or eer the T i t , wh th issuewas madeby or for S ardinians transported to c l for disaffec on or a ai n wheer a c l an Si i y ti , , g , th Si i i reeartificer was em l ed in ard n a canno now G k p oy S i i , t ed b etermined . I n Roman times themost in terestin g examplei s thesecond b ron efound some a freuen l in z , wh t q t y thesland ou rareelse ere ear n thename i , th gh wh , b i g and su osed or ra of Atius Balb us rea pp p t it , g t uncleof Augustus and Govern or of Sardinia in B O h r erseis th ad of a b eard d . C n t eev ee e 5 9 . h arr or w a cur ous cres resem lin a cluster w i , ith i t b g 8 of r f s r nd then ea s o corn and a ea e ec . The , p b hi k

1 ’ - u r z A ri ue . 1 0 M lle e . s . d l um , Numi m f q , pp 7 3 , 7 9 , 1 - 2 7 9 . 3 - a T ra H m S i 200 1 Brit M. C t am ill oin s A . c . , C of " ; ’ mama m 1 2 - 1 , 4 . 3 Mo n Br C at l M. S i mmse Ro a 66 it . m M mm. oi , . 7 ; y ,

n . B ll Arch . S ard . fi ; u . . I . 5 1 65 D oubtful Local C oins legend SARD PATE R shows that this represents the a ron od of thees ern ard n ans and theco n p t g w t S i i , i is found chie in thes u and es es ec all fly o th w t , p i y a u ulc ar ees in thes eleer and bo t S i . V i ti iz , tt ing , s n of thelancesu es t a eseco ns ere po itio , gg t h t th i w s ruc over a c ns dera leer od and fr md fferen t k o i b p i , o i t m ulds I f wecan acce thevew at theem le o . pt i th t p of SardOpator on thewest coast was thecentreof a rel o s lea uesu s s n under the omans igi u g b i ti g R , wemight supposethat it h ad certain rights of c na e c uld d sa ear o theesta l s oi g , whi h wo i pp n b i h ment of theprovincial cult of theemperor at les Cara .

few er ec mens a aren l of local or A oth Sp i , pp t y w k mans b ut ro a l more medals an co ns hip, p b b y of th i , aveeen f und in thenter or b ut not sa sfac or l h b o i i , ti t i y 1 l d h ef es are ale ead c asse. ec T hi typ M h , with threeears of corn and a spear- point in front ; on thereversea plough of theprimitivekind still i sl d d lou used n thei an . (2) Hea with p gh beneath ; h r vr rud r s leem le h l nd on t eeesea etet a ty t p . T eege s ns s of ser es of a n als ot et e la d co i t i L tin i iti n y xp ine. er numsma c finds oneof themos Of oth i ti , t interesting is a set of coins of theNumidian kin g u a in the meof u us us discovered near J b , “ ti A g t , l a su es n a raderela ons t fr ca O bi , gg ti g th t t ti wi h A i d rl ire werestill maintainein theea y Emp .

1 A c . Mommsen in C . I . L. . 2 8 1 0 B ull . r h . S ard X , ; 1 w eresomeareattrib uted to Metalla a I . 7 4 , IX . 7 ( h , min ing centrein thesouth west)

N . S . 1 0 1 8 . , 9 4, 5

1 66

— Incubation W ater- C ults

om in an unnamed ar of ard n a and the t b p t S i i , by sideof it persons went to sleep who weretroubled t t encu us or anno n dr ams s is wi h h i b yi g e . Thi clearly a trait of theanimismwhich impelled primi tivepeoples to believein thesemi- divinepower of eir anceors he rees moref l s . T am ar th t G k , i i with incubation in a holy placefor thepurposeof o a n n d vnevs ons or revelat ns ncl ned bt i i g i i i i io , i i to a r tethelocal cus om s m ve uc a tt ibu t to thi oti . S h usew c is also recorded of the un c em leof , hi h P i t p Eshmun in ard n a ma no dou avedevelo ed S i i , y bt h p 1 r m th earl er f o e i . Wemay next taketheslight referenceto water cults contained in thetaleof themagic fountain s w c s r an out in certa n laces and not onl hi h p g i p , y healed in ur es caused no us nsects b ut j i by xio i , strengthened fractured bones and removed diseases w r fur r i s of theeyes. They ee theeffectiven howing vs ho su ed o an r l I f a up thiee w bmitt t o dea . sus ec ed ef den ed thec ar eon oa heat ed p t thi i h g th , b h his ees thewater and if heerennocen he y with , w i t becamepossessed of clearer vision ; if guilty hewas c w l ndn ss n-wa r was l r stru k ith b i e. Rai te a so e arded as es ec all rec ous and was at ered g p i y p i , it g h in reservo rs w c w uld of en b e rovded i , hi h o t p i them erv s s lt c so l naturally by i p iou ba a i i . Women ereto b efound who had two u ils in eac ee w p p h y ,

1 r f s t . an co nta ies o S u A sc. d i lici N . u m e Arist . a m m XI , p ’

A . o den rt . m 0 and Philoponus Te dc m 49 R h i 1211 131 . ’ 1 an 6 Pe z s d ttaz on i in Rmd1 c. c d . M u . A ca 3 5 , 5 7 , 3 7 , 4 5 ; H 1 Lin a 1 1 0 8 8 an d dt . . 2 for a simila r custom , 9 , ; IV 7 , On amon g theAfrican Nasam es. Human Victims— TheGod Sardus and werecapab leof destroying a person at whom 1 l in a S r of n er ven la ein the they ooked pi it a g . E t m re ard n an s rcerers and necromancers had E pi , S i i o 11 o o somen t riety . er references concern thesacr fice of Oth , i both ca t ves and old men en as or would p i , who b i g p t w k onl urden ther eto someod called b the y b t ib , g y 3 r r r m clineto G eeks Cronos o Satu n . One ight in reard ther eas merel a un c m or a n b ut g it y P i i p t tio , thestory probably represents somefusion of Semitic human sacrificeand thecommon barbarian custom of getting rid of useless mouths by means devoid f fi r ar s ll dar o religious signi cance. Thee e ti k ’ rad ons a women called accabadore fin s ers t iti th t , i h , wereemployed in remoteparts as lateas the eighteenth century to put dying persons out of ‘1 their pain by sufi ocation . As thenames of na veods thec ef ere to ti g , hi w Sardus who had an m rtan s r nenear Tharros , i po t h i , and oseead fi ures on thelocal co na eand the wh h g i g , de fi r o o r ity identi ed with thei wn I laus by theG eeks. S ardus was evidently theeponymous god of some fri can r efrom c thesland oo its name A t ib whi h i t k , b ut hebelonged primarily to thesouth and west

r ons c h ad a cons dera le - oen c an po ti , whi h i b Liby Ph i i ola s r r s n s th od f I population . I u ep eet eg o thelienses in theeas mdland d s r c s and his namema b e t i i t i t , y connec ed the n of 101 in aur an a t with tow M it i . He

1 S olin . . 1 . 1 0 1 . IV , I 1 re E 6 A G . mm. . . . . XXVIII , 5 ; g p IX 5 3 Bresc an i P i . 20 . 5 4 . , II 7 . 1 69 Iolaus A ncestor Wo rship was credited with theconstruction of many of the res r c u ld n s of thesland and rou p hi to i b i i g i , b ght Daedalus from Sicily to design gymnasia and law c o h b u ur s. Not nl did hec vili et ena ves t o t y i z ti , hereclaimed thecountry for agricultureand fruit ro n and is m ecamea cen re rs g wi g , h to b b t of wo hip l 1 and theseat of a temp e. 11 Strabo records thenativecustom of holding festival for several days after a successful marauding eed on a seas n somemes selected man xp iti , o ti by Ro 3 enerals for sudden at ac So cer0 en g t k . Ci , wh describing how thecitizens of Nora left their town ' un n a ed on theccas on of the arentah a or i h bit o i p , festival of thedead adds thewords according to ’ eir custom Thl s s es s a th fes va th . ugg t th t e ti l d ffered from the al an and as ances or- ors i It i ; , t w hip la ed no rea ar amon the oen c ans some p y g t p t g Ph i i , nativeritemay havesurvived among this mixed as l on co t popu ati . Thefirst sourceof evidencethus proves very nadeua eand wema now lanceat a w c i q t , y g th t hi h ma dra fr m usa es ll la l s n y be wn o g ti tey urvivi g . Oneof themost strikin g is theuseof expiatory sacrifices to theshades in order to conj ureaway d seases acc m an ed noc urnal r es and m s c i , o p i by t it y ti f rmula clearl der ved fr m somesuc an mst c o , y i o h i i i theory as that which inspired thesleepers by ’ ravs r as d s heroes g e. A t ench w ug beidea grave ard a hen lled and r wn in and lar es one y , ki th o , a g t

’ 1 ° Ar st . 1 00 M 1 r b . Auso. F 1 o . V i D i I . [ ] a ; an s. X . 7 ; d - 11 3 2 0 S olin . I . 6 1 . . 2 . S car". . 1 1 . 9 3 ; V , 7 VI 1 70

Well Templeof Serri

rather than any adaptation of therites of Mylitta or s ar esu es ed thea er n ear ou s de A t t , gg t g th i g of th t i

’ theouseof a emmz na scostumata and resuma l h f , p b y rodden her to b elaced on thereas of a s c t by , p b t i k erson 1 p . The rd sourceof evdence u moreex thi i , tho gh ens vehas not et led to ver defini econclus ons t i , y y t i ; s is therema ns of anc en na ves r nes o eer thi i i t ti h i , t g th with certain bronzevotiveofferings which are l er everal beieved to possess a divinecharact . S ro a l sacred s es ave een d scovered b ut p b b y it h b i , it may sufficeto mention thetwo excavated a few ears a o on the la eau of err in a wild ar y g p t S i , p t near un ennar en h m r m r an Mo t G g tu . T e o ei po t t is thewell-templein closecontiguity to several nura and evden l el n n thesame ghi , i t y b o gi g to 2 commun ereis erea ves uleenclosed ity Th h tib , arallel arms of s onerecall n thefron of a by p t , i g t ’

an s m and aved el mes one. gi t to b , p with whit i t Along its walls arestonebenches on which bronze ex-vo os erefi ed and theen rancea stone t w x , by t as n for lus ral a r d s a s or b i t w te. At theen i h t s a rcaseleadin to thec rcular ell c is over t i g w , whi h , i 6 feeacr ss enclosed in s ron ll ove a s. t o , t g w Ab it stood a cupola consisting of a series of stonerings narro n u ards and s limes nero unda wi g pw , thi to t . must haveshown out whitefor a great distance a ains thed r roc s and lic s ar theead g t a k k i e. Ne h

1 Bra ciani 1 8 , II . 4 . Ta me n ra lli i N S . 1 1 . 0 2 Peaz z oni n Ran . , 9 9 , 4 ; tt i dic , 1 1 0 88 9 , . 1 72 Relics found in. Neighb ourhood of thestairs is an altar with libation holeand waste e pip carried beneath thefloor . Thesteps do no t reac to the o o and thes ace elow em h b tt m, p b th was r a l filled wa er c e er tr c led p ob b y with t , whi h ith i k through theblocks of stonefrom outsideor was oured i h r I n addi o to n p n by t ep iest . ti n a umber of vo vefi ures ere erefound erevar ous ti g , th w h i o her offer n s: s ords da ers ns vor an t i g w , gg , pi , i y d am er ornamen s lead er a s for a ac n the b t , (p h p tt hi g figures to thestoneshelf) and a limestonepillar ro l o ri ual s fi nce (p bab y having s me t igni ca ) . The ell ma aveeen covered in i ood t ewa er w y h b w th w , h t ’ en used for somer ual suc as the eves b i g it , h thi ordel m n o ed a ove ear thes r ear a eti n b . N h in e ’ remains of rcular dwell s e er r es s ouses ci ing , ith p i t h or shelters for thesick who repaired to themagic h ron s fo nd reno dou an foun . e e u e t T b z w , bt , th k ofierings left by persons who had gained health or recovered sight ; and it h as been suggested that thefour-eed and four-armed fi ures found in a y g , 1 fe reos tor es do not l esome oen c an an d w p i i , , ik Ph i i nd an s ecimens reresen a divne ower b ut I i p , p t i p , persons whosesight or limbs had received double ? s ren at suc s r nes Thefi ures ndeed t gth h h i g , i , r r m his ecul ari areen rel normal apa t f o t p i ty, ti y , t in e ord n dec n un ers warr rs ec . ar pi ti g h t , io , , th ir i y attire. ll i a of S A somewhat similar sacred we s th t ta . 3 r s na near aul la n consis n a c rcular C i ti , P i ti o , ti g of i

1 v . 1 6 . . e 1 0 6 . C a o u . w . . C . E s P r f p I , 3 f b , p 3 f o e 1 . o R m . 6 of Br . S ch . Papers , VI 4 I 7 3 StoneMeeting-placeof Serri

unnel in l mes one denin elow and avn a f i t , wi g b , h i g i s es er a s used en thewa er was fl ght of t p , p h p wh t r d vr en oned ol m low. The ac e e m e S Ri , ti by Pt y as flowing near thetempleof S ardus on thewest r a s l ed somes c well shr ne c as l u u . o t , p ob b y pp i h i Not far off on thesame la eau of err is , p t S i , another building which seems to unitethecharacter 1 - hr is c rc lar of meeting placeand s ine. It a i u encl sure aved r in wh c om s of the o with p floo , i h t b I ts diameer is a ou Roman agehavebeen dug. t b t 0 fee and has c alls of un or ed asal 4 t , it thi k w w k b t h ll s o es er is o n ed sma n . e nl neer mix wit t Th o y t y, r s r s r l ral a er a eces ea fo us w . with by it , p h p t t und the alls ece eren erru ed an Ro w , x pt wh i t pt by al r r u s etheen r runs a sedilef rmed ta g o p oppo it t y, o a r ec on of the aseof the all and by p oj ti b w , it is sheltered by a canopy of largeslabs protruding h al r was a s on sin r from above. T e ta t eba etaining races of car on ed ma er ro a l sacr fices t b iz tt , p b b y i burnt in a stonefurnacestill existing ; and by it is a sacred llar somedec ra vecarvin pi with o ti g , l of h similar l perhaps an emb em t edeity . A emb em occurs in a model of a primitivetemplepreserved in thea liar museum a s uareower w c n cal C g i , q t ith o i cen ral b et lea veand four b et lic illars at t y bo , y p theangles ? Round thebaseof thealtar arepieces of terra c a vases meal vessels and an mal nes and ott , t , i bo ,

1 S . 1 1 1 2 1 Rend . N . , 9 , 9 ; io Hil rech n ni 1 1 v V o . C . Milan in t A . l 0 . 0 f i p , 9 9 , p 3 , whereconnections between Sardinian emblems an d Asiatic ta r-wo rshi s r u s s p a es ggeted . 1 74

Divineand Priestly Figures i er s d d r nt mediariebetween go an man . Thefigu e of Sardus on coins of theRoman ageis merely ha of a cal cres ed arr or and theresem lance t t typi t w i , b of thecrest to ears of corn may point to certain feli was ro l for rti zing powers. This p bab y the m assumed by thegod in thetempleof Sardopator in class cal mes a f rm dou less rero duced in i ti , o bt p thebronz eimagewhich theislanders offered in l 1 theDelphic temp e. Thesameca nn b esaid of thesea ed fi ure ot t g , su osed rerese Sardus in a fifteenth-cen ur pp to p nt , t y

? ‘ ur manuscr Theelderl man n a c lam s T in ipt y i h y , seated lon air and old n a en and o en , with g h , h i g p p ma b ea ree h l so er or ora or b ut book , y G k p i o ph t , certainly not thegod of a primitivetribe; and the hoen c an or ra her Here nscr n elo is P i i , t b w, i iptio b w o r an obvi us forgey . A few of theearly bronzefigures appear to re n r S mefro ini ear a lon r e rese es s. p t p i t o mAb w g ob , a con c l ca and a nec laceof several c rcular i a p, k i r r f s rows of beads covering theuppepa t o thechet . Thefee rearether and u l f ed ilethe t a b , ight h p i t , wh lef olds c l l femalefi ur r m t h a sacrifi ia bow . A g ef o ? Nuragus may bea priestess Her attitudeis di n fied nd s eears a w deman le r a l of g i , a h w i t , p ob b y r was ool in oneiece thefi u e. en w , p with g Wh it erfec ands erera sed and ereis a p t both h w i , th tight t li e cu rass eend n nearl to thean les unic k a i , xt i g y k , s lo r s f with traces of two other tunic bew. Figu eo

1 1 1 Bull . Ara . S ard . . 1 2 Pan s. X . 7 . b I 3 Pin z a l . xii . 2 . , p 1 76 Traces of Punic Worships

flute-players and dancers occasionally found among other bronzes suggest that music and dancing had a laceamon thereli o r f of th p g gi us ites. Theate e r m vereli on is un no n b ut ereis no race p i iti gi k w , th t of us on oman el es and r es as in t er f i with R b i f it , o h rovnces nor ar ean d d u leard d p i , y go s with o b S an man names rec rd Ro o ed . It is unnecessary to enter in detail into thePunic rs s e h d l l r s a a few ca ea u es. e wo hip , th y o f t Th y eremar ed es ec all in theear l er er d w k , p i y i p io , by an E an col ur n and reli ous ar t and gypti o i g , gi s m l sm r l r l c l y bo i weea gey Egy ptian . The u t of Esh E vr mun sculapius was well established . Seeal laces es ec all near thewes coas er p , p i y t t, took th i namefrom ercules theord nar oman eu valen H , i y R q i t of the r an elcar and dedica ons ercules Ty i M th , ti to H ? continuecommon in Roman times Therear etraces of theworship of Venus-Astarte f i c l a hesame dess o r n nd t d a E yx Si i y, go , who s an was a roness of ar a ehad a s r ne T it p t C th g , h i , ? recen l ecava ed at ra is s uarein lan t y x t , No It q p , and rises towards thecentrein successivestages l ll I t on an ar tificially eveed rock . n hemiddleof thearea is a s uare la form of small s ones q p t t , a l used l ethela f rm in theem leof prob b y , ik p t o t p thesameoddess at B b lus in oen c a to su r g y Ph i i , ppo t a sacred n cal s neor b et le Theencl s n co i to y . o i g walls seem to haveformed thebaseof a colonnade c ad rned theal ar I n thene ur whi h o t . ighbo hood

1 E - o 8 8 g . 7 5 5 4. 7 5 . 3 r Pat on i in M011 . Ant. XI V . r 30 . I 77 — Carved Punic Columns Isiac Figures was found an Ionic capital with theSyrian feature of rudefull faceand palmbranches carved between thevolu es as ell as theb et le self a ou t , w y it , b t v er a s of thefif 0 nc es i e . ase 2 i h n h ight A , p h p th ded cat on to an cen ur B . C . a un c t y , with P i i i T it under her usual leof aceof aal el s to con tit F B , h p l 1 firm theattribution of thetemp e. elas carved llars laced over oen c an St , pi p Ph i i raves rea n in several cemeer es as oseof g , m i t i , th Tharros and ora erecon rar to theord nar N , wh , t y i y er l an usa e eareeam es of crema on . g , th x p ti M y of esearecon cal or in o el s form and usuall th i b i k , y fi r r l m i can havegu es o emb es cut n relief under a opy . Sometimes theemblems aresolar or lunar ; in the la er eam les b et les a ear raduall assum n t x p y pp , g y i g an an hr o omor c c arac er and reresen n t p phi h t , p ti g s ar eor oneof her emana ons A t t ti . Thefirm hold taken on thecoast districts by the mixed Phoenician and Egyptian beliefs and symbols facilitated thespread under theEmpireof I siac r es w c werever revalen in tal and ou it , hi h y p t I y S th C ral s l adin c n r ern a n . a ewas a e e Sp i g t e. I n the present Botanical Gardens a largestatueof I sis was found somes ones n es and close with t phi x , by a dedication by thesociety of Augustales to some ? de r a l an ulc thesame ity, p ob b y Egypti At S i s c e res ored in onour of s s and era s a o i ty t , h I i S pi , 3 em le its s a ues and rnamen s an eam le t p with t t o t , x p

1 i i P atron n M n A nt. . 1 62 a . XIV . 8 c . Lin o 1 1 . Ren di Ac. 9 5 , 9 3 1 o . 8 an siac dedication near Castel S ard o 7 5 4 ; f 7 9 4 , I . 1 7 8

Ruined Shrineof Antas

within a res of oak and therema ns sufiice fo t , i to s o a thec lumns ereof the n c rder t h w th t o w Io i o , wi h l s ed ases and ca tals thes af s and corn ce po i h b pi , h t i n s cc ed he l s of f x bei g tu o . T ti e theroo had antefi w ra es of fi ur - r h r h d m sa c with t c g ewo k . T efloo a a o i ’ h emar lecu es and theeras lefa ade of w it b b , t t ty c r ac d s or fli s o s h ala o was eheby h t ght f step . T eP zz del Re ar ar or ru ned em leof Turres h as B b o, i t p , alread een men oned and at ea olis the y b ti , N p ari a d ab ui sems c c church of S . M eN e reonstru ted erema ns f a om l fromth i o R an temp e.

1 80

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Gr T ir E i i n revised b E S . B O C H E ea t . d d t o . U h , y I R , M l h n . A i c t 5 . et. . W th a Ma C rown 8vo o p. , , 5 hes b ec f Bey ond question th eb est introd uction in English to t u j t o ' vi - u ro ncial administration TheG ardian. p . ' Onemust haveMo mmsen onemust h aveB ur s Gib b on and one , y , ’— n em orar R view adds to themW T Arnold TheCo t e . . . . p y

Mr mirab l Theb ib lio ra h is Bo uchier h ehis work ad . . as don y g p y full thea endices ust wh at a endices ou ht to b eand thema , pp j pp g , p h wi ir lear s o ng thedevelo men t of theprovinces of theR oman Emp ec to admiration Times . . " 31

. BL M H G. O FI E LD , M. A . , TheArgon a utica of C a ius Va lerius k I Transl ted into Flaccus S etin us Ba lb us. Boo . a E n li P d i nd N es C rown h . W i n n a ot g s rose th I tro uct o . 8vo l h c ot s 6d . net. , , 3 .

A h i hl a tr tivelittl b o k Mr Blomfield is a co m etent g y t ac e o . . p scholar a nd heb rin s in d i ion to scholarshi other leasant if , g a d t p p li h er f Mr Blomfield is a rel t i t illumin tehis a thor . a g g ts o a u . h uma nist ; and his translation an d his notes arealwa} s fresh and lively hedoes no t shirk textual po ints in his notes and shows himself uiteca ab leof rearin text I t sa s much for thehold of classics q p p p g a . y on themodern mind when a non -profession al scholar produces such a " w rk — o of loveas th is and d es it so well TheTimes. o . f E B E M . S . OUCHI R , . A.

’ (Translator of Aristotles Poetics and theP osterior Analy ticsf)

Lifea nd Letters in Roma n Africa .

r l h d . net. wn 8vo c ot s. 6 C o , , 3 This kind of b ook is un fortunately too rarein En glish sch olarship I t is written with full knowled eof thevarious kinds of evidence g , and gives a pleasa nt and tr ustworthy account of an important groupof man ro vinces — hex ord Ma a ne Ro p T O f g z i . S tuden ts sh ould b e rateful to theauthor for thecarewith g — which hequotes ch apter and versefor every statement a hab it rareat ' it is admir b l — ewS tatesman a e. N The .