A Preliminary Annotated Bibliography on Muskeg Macfarlane, I

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A preliminary annotated bibliography on muskeg MacFarlane, I. C.

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~21b5 no. 11 A PRELIMINARY ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OM MUSKEG c. 2 compiled by ANALYZED

TABLE OF COMTENTS Page Introduction ...... 1 Section A. Extent of Organic Terrain ...... 4 Section B. Origin of Organic Deposits ...... 5 Section C. Classification ...... O...... 7 Seotion D. Surface and Subsurface Characteristics ...... 8 Section E. Properties of Organic Soils ...... 12 Section I. Road Construction over Organic Terrain ...... 15 Section Go Bog Blasting ...... O..24 Section H. Trafficability Problems ...... ~.~~~~..~..~.....27 Section J, Miscellaneous Engineering Problems ...... 27 Section K. Utilizatfon of Organic Soils ...... 30 APPENDIX A Index sf Authors or Sources.

September 1955

Copies of shorter articles Ibted In this Bibliography may be obtained through the photocopying servlce of the National R-ch Council. Rates for this service are as follows: To users In Canada-50 cents for a photoprlnt of any article of not more than 10 pages, an additional 50 cents Is necessa for each additional 10 pages or fraction thereof1 To usem outside Canada-50 cents for any article of not more than 5 pages, an addltion~50 centa la necessary for each additional 5 pages or fraction thereof. Requests for photoprints should be addressed to the National Research Councll, Ottawa, Canada. i Coupon8 are issued by the Council valued at 5, 25, and 50 cents. These can be used In payment for this mice as well as cash (damps not acceptable), money order or cheque ( ayable at par in Ottawa credit Natlonal Research Council). Coupons can be used for the purchase of all Natlonal Researah Council publiootf)ons. 1 INTRODUCTION

This annotated bibliography has been compiled as a preliminary to a research program into'the physical and mechanical properties of muskeg - or "organic terrain" as it has become known - to be carried out by the Division of Buildbg Research. The references included herein are selected as bebg somewhat representative of' the much larger number which is available, and serve to indicate the relatlve abundance or dearth . II of information which exists with regard to the myaspects of organic soils and organic terrain. It was the original intention to consider only that Literature which pertains to engineering aspects of muskeg or peat. This program necessarily underwent some revision as research proceeded and it was realized that the engineering properties of an organic soil are related to those factors giving rise to the formation of the deposit, as well as tci the botanical, ecological, morphological and other features of the soil constituents. The scope of the literature review was broadened, therefore, to include these aspects of ~rganicsoils, which has resulted in a bibliography covering a much wider field than was envisioned initially, These appears to be no paucity of published material on peat and muskeg and associated aspects. It has become evident that whereas certain features have been fairly thoroughly investigated, others have been almost entirely neglected, For the sake of clarity and convenience, the references have been grouped into ten general sections, When I it was f~undthat the broad scope of discussion of a particular paper would warpant its inclusion in two or more sectionsp it has been included in that section which is representative of the I majority of the subJect matter. In a few cageso howeverp a single paper is listed in two sections, and is appropriately noted. Published material on the extent of organic terrain is rather scarce. No accurate figures are at present available on the extent of such deposits in Canada, but the four refekences listed In sectionnA" give an estimate of the extent of muskeg in this country and in Alaska. Papers dealing exclusively with the origin of organic deposits are also somewhat infrequent, although the subject is often discussed iw papers dealing primarily with another aspect of organic soils, The five papers of section"Bn are concerned with a discussion of" those factors which promote the for(matfon of organic deposits, Classification of organic soils and o~ganfcdeposits is characterized by some ambiguity in terminology. A number of systems are used, each country usually having its own system which was devised to fulfil a particular need. The five papers of section"Cf'indicate the philosophies of research workers in this field in the U.S., Canada, Ireland, and Scotland. Section "D", which has been termed "Surface and Subsurface Characteristics", represen&a large amount of available material. The eleven papers included therein are largely concerned with descriptions of a single area of organic terrain - or a number of areas - resulting from investigation8 carried out by individuals or organizations for some specific purpose, In some cases the references represent preliminary information leading up to a system of classificatfon, in others they pepresent information subsequent to a classification system, i Frequently the investigations are carried out to determine the utilization value of the peaty soil. Perhaps the greatest scarcity of useful information is in the field of properties of organic soils, particularly physical and mechanical properties. Except for some work which has been done in Ireland - and a few scattered tests elsewhere - this %s practically a pioneer field of study. The ten references included in section "Etfappear to be practically all that presently exists on this subject. A large number of reports have been published on road construction over organic terrain. The twenty-seven refep- ences of section "Fffgive an indication of the construct9on techniques employed in Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States ahd Europe. Closely associated with road construction problems is bog blasting as a means of expediting constmction. The ten reports in section "G" discuss bog blasting te@hnfquess particularly those in use in Britain and Europe, Little published information is available on trafficability problems of organic terrain. Most of the research in this field has been carried out by the armed forces9 so that reports are generally of a classified natwe. Section "H" includes only one reference which pertains to a new type of tracked vehicle designed to traverse muskeg. The eleven references of section "Jn deal with a number of miscellaneous problems such as railway, pipeline and airport construction on organic terrain; drainage; etc. Published material on dfainage problems and techniques for organic terrain are all too infrequent. Utilization of organic soils represents a field of study practically all its own. The six references of section "K" are but a small representative fraction of the large amount of material which is available on the many aspects of this subject: utilization of peat as a fuel, its use as insulation or packing material, agricultural and horticultural uses, etc. In this regard, the Bord Pla Hone (Peat ~oard)ln Ireland renders an invaluable service 'in that they prepare translations of foreign language papers (including Russian) having to do with organic soils or organic terrain, and make available abstracts and a bibliography, This annotated bibliography on muskeg is only a prellntinary work. As has already been pointed out, the refe~encesincluded herein by no lneans represent all those which are available. It is hoped that In due course further references can be read and abstracted and the bibliography extended. A . EXTENT OF ORGANIC TERRAIN

A.l Brown gold of Alaska muskegs. Scientific American, vol. 166, April 1942, p .198, The 110 million acres of peat muskeg deposits in Alaska are a veritable "Klondike" ff they could be inexpensively packed and shfpped. -Many of the bogs, with a depth of peat of' 4 to 6 feet or more, are ac~essiblefrom the Coast and are easily dug. The short Alaskan summers constitute a serious drawback to successful peat operations,

A.2 Dachnowski-Stokes, A.P. Peat resources in Alaska, U,S. Department of Ag~fculture,Washington, Technical Bulletin No. 769, April 1941. A comprehensive survey of the main peat bogs existing in Alaska. The primary concern of thls paper is with the agrfculturab And industrial aspects of peat. Almost everywhere the peat areas are called "muskegs". These muskegs are grouped into three classes - sloped muskegs, raised muskegs, and flat (or valley) muskegs. The terns woody peat, fibrous peat, sedimentary peat and muck are.defined. A discussion is included of methods of cutting peat, marketing, etc.

8.3 Leahey,A. A survey of the extent 0% organic soils fn Canada. Seminar Abstracts, Experimental Fam Service 1950-51, Department of Agriculture, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Aug. 15, 1951. p.150. Soil surveyors estimate that the extent of organic soils in Canada is 435,000 square miles, ~r L1,8$ of the entire country. This is a,roughestimate based on incomplete informatLon, and includes only that terraln where the organic layer is a foot or more in depth. The classification of organic soils by soil surveyors is lbited to peat, muck, peaty muck and mucky peat.

A.4 Levesin, H.A. Peat moss deposits in Eastern Canada, Mem~Series No. 80, March, 1941; peat moss deposits in Westepn Canada, Memo Series No. 86, Jan. 1944. Bureau Of Mines, Mines and Geology Branch, Department of Mines and Resourcesp Ottawa. A description is given of the geog~aphical location and general features of several peat bogs investigated in Eastern and Weatern Canada, Economic factors are considered, such as market value of the peat, its acsessibility to market and its combustible properties .

B. ORIGIN OF ORGMIC DEPOSITS

B.1 Dachnowski-Stokes, A.P. Peat pso%%lesof the Everglades in Florida: the stratigraphic features of the 'upperf Everglades and correlation with environ- mental changes. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 20, no. 6, March 19, 19309 p .89-107. The primary purpose of this paper is to treat iaa a preliminary fashion the general origin and nature of the upper portion of that large stketeh 0% sedge moor, the rnesglades of Florida, one of the largest subtropical peat areas in the world, extend- ing from Lake Okeechobee to the Gulf of Mexico. Thee distinct but genetically related series of peat profiles are pointed out. The peat profiles show a remarkable dependence upon inundations and oscilla- tions of water level awd corresponding changes in shoae line dwing a time relatively recent,

B.2 Lewis, F,J, and E.S. Dowding. The vegetation and retrogressive changes of peat areas (91muskegs') in aentral Alberta. Journal of Ecology, vol. 14, 1926, p.317-341. The vegetation; histor3 and certain retrogressive ekanges of the small well-defined peat areas (called 'muskegs'in ~anada)in the Edmonton district, are discussed. Until more recent tirmes, sphagnum has dominated the auskegs, but is now tending to dis- appear* the implfcatfonaa ~f which are considered. Retrogressions due to fire, desiecat%on, and the inflow of springs highly charged with mineral matter are described. B.3 MacMillan, C. On the formation of circular muskeag in tamarack swamps. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Clubr vol . 23, l8ggr p ,500-5Q7. This early paper calls attention to the tension- line between sphagnummoors and the higher forest-clad ridges surrounding such moors as they exist in Mfmeaota. Sphagnum formatione with the various attendant plants are commonly designated as "Muskeag" by the woodsmen of Minnesota, The sphagnum moors, or muskeags, are regarded as glacial ponds or lakes In the process of conve&bsion to fore&. Various stages in the.transition are described (with accompanying photographs) from personal observations of the author,

B.4 Rigg, GOB. and C.T. Richardson. The development of sphagnum bogs in the Sm Juan Islandso American Journal of Botany, vol. 21, Dec. 1934, p.610-622. This paper gives the profiles of eight sphagnm bogs and discusses thelr development in Postglacial timeso emphasizing the general course of b~gdevelop- ment in the San Juan Islands by pointing out the features common to all bogs, No pollen ma1ysi.s was made in this study, The Von Post scale is utilized to designate the degree of disintegration of' the peat.

B.5 Swinnertons A.A.* Peat in Canada. Canadian Geographical Journal, vole 31, no. 1, July ,1945,p.18. Peat bogs are deposite of' plant materials that have accumulated in lakes, ponds, marshes asad swamps, Such deposits form in aseaa where a lack sf drainage and consequent lack of aeration pemit~an accmula- tion of organic acids. Growth of peat bogs is very slow, varying from a few inches to 2 to 3 feet per century. This paper gives coaas%dsration to the principal faoto~sprompting formation of peat, types of peat forming plants, and a strata of an ideal peat bog. A discussion is included on the uses of peat, and a description is given of peat mmar%actta~"efrom excavation to the finished bales.

* Also appears ae K.5, C, CLASSIFICATION

C.1 ~akr~,T.A. Some considesation aff eoting the classification of the bogs of Ireland, and their peats, Papep? Presented at the Pntematf onal Peat Sppssim, Section B.2, Dublin, July 1954. A brief description is given of the cll.m8t%c9topo- graphical, and geological features of Ireland, The main types of bog are described in general terns of average depths, profiles and appearance, with a map provided to show the distribution of those types $aa relation to rainfall and relief', ~~ss%derat%on%B given to the classification syatems of various peat authorities, Referenee is made to a tmmbek of ?W%te~s, the elucidation of which would be of importance to all those interested in peat,

C.2 Dachnowski, A.P. Peat deposits in the United States md their classificat80amo Soil Science* vol, 1Q9 no, 6, July-Dec 1920, ~~4.53-465, Consideration is given to the area, distribut%~nand general charaeteristies of peat depo~itsb. the United States. The philosophies of the vaaioua systems of classificatio9a, 0% peat deposits are discussed: (1) system of classff Ing peat deposits based on surface vegetat ion; (2Y t opographio classif icatf on of peat depositso (3) Europeaxi system of e188sifying peat deposits; (4) classification of peat deposits based on chemieal ma1yses; and (5) the stratigraphic system of classf$y%ag peat deposits, The author Favours the stratigraphic aystem aa a basis for classifying peat deposits %nthe United States,

C .3 Dachnowski, A. P. The stratig~aphfc study of peat deposits, Soil Science, vol, 1T9 Jm0 - June 1924, polQ7-133, The ten different kinds of peat my be placed generally iqto 3 chief gsoupas pulpy peat lagers, fibrous peat layers and woody peat layers, To these might be added muck and hmub, the former being related to disintegration of peat and the latter is the result of decomposition 0% psat soils, An extensfve dkacription Is given fos examining peat deposits with a suggestion of the obser~atdbons~and re~okadeg to makec The paper con~ludeswith 5 plates showing photographs of examples of the vasfoue types of psat laye~s, C.4 Fraser, G.K. Classification and nomenclature of peat and peat deposits. Papers Presented at the International Peat Symposium, Section B,2, Dubl$ra, July 1954. Consideration is given to various aspects of the classification of peat as a soil type, with special attention paid to those factors that promote its formation. A classification system is proposed for peat boge, dividing them broadly into two types; 1) Climatic or zonal bogs and 2) Topogenic or . intrazonal bogs, Some terns used in peat classification are discussed.

C.5 Radforth, M.W. A suggested classification of muskeg for the engineer, National Research Council sf Canada, Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Meahwicso Technical Memorandum Noo 249 dmo 1953, Reprut from The Engineering Journal, vol. 35# noo 11, NOV. 1952, pmllgg-121Qo The term "muskeg" oovera a wide variety of peat- like soil conditions, The author discusses the problems involved in trying to claseify such soils and intsoduces the term "o~~gmlcterrain" to designate muskeg, peat, and muck deposits, A classification system is suggested, which ia based on surface md subsurface characteristics of" the organic terrain, Relevant surface charaetesistfcs include vegetation, topographyo atsd colow, Sub- surface characterfstfos are determined from micro- .&copid examha%ione by a palaeobotanist who interprets the results in terns OF use to engineers,

D. SUWACE AND SUBSURFACE CHARACmRBTZCS

D.1 Brooks, M. Muskeg farthest south - Crrnberg?~~Glades, West Virginia. Audubon Magaz%aae, voab. lkTp May - J~aae1945$ ~~216-223, This article is chiefly concerned with desc~fb9ng the birds which make the Cranberry Glades their habitat. The author gleves a brief descript%on of the vegetation of the Gladesg which he consfdegds to be typical for muskeg country as found much farther north, in Canada. D,2 Dachnowski-Stokes3 A, Po The botanical compoaitfon and laorphological features of Ihighoor' peat profiles in Maine. Soil Safence, vole 27, Jan, - June 1929, P a 379-388. This.paper presents the results of the examination and analysis of the profile features of three raised bogs9 or highoo~s~in Maine. It constitutes an endeavour to give the botanical and morphological profile record reflecting the succssaion of fomes vegetation units now forming peat deposits,

D.3 HcCool, MOM. and A.G. Weidernam, A study of several organic soil profiles. soil Soience, vole 18, July - Dec. 1924, p.ll7, ' A number of organic soil profiles were ex&edP tests being conducted at different levels to determine the relative water-holding and wategd taking-up capacities of the peat.

D.4 Nicholsr GeE. Raised bogs in saste~nBlaine. The Geographical Reviews vole 7, no, 39 March B9l9, paB59-lbT. A survey was undertaken in 1918 to Locate raised bogs in eastern Maine, which would be a source of surgical sphagnum for the Amer%cm Bed Cross, A description is given of the geographical locat%on and general beatwes of several bogs along the MaUe Coast, wjlth a discussion as to theis merit for the desired purpose,

D.5 Radforth, NOWo The use of phmt material in the recognitiai of northem organic termin characteristics. National Research Council 0% Canada, Associate Committee on S~fland Snow MeePaanfce3 Technical Memorandum BIG; 28,, Masch, 1954, Reprint fsom Trmsaetions of the Royal Society of Canadao vol. XLVII, ser. I%H9 sect. 5s June 1953# p.53-71, This paper demonatrates how aseae may be mapped aceosdfng to surface vegetatLon, A description is given of the valuable aid ina interpreting and assessing organic terrain charaete~provided by the occwsence of zonation in coverage vegetation - the zomtion being based on "fom comm%tiea" rather than on floristic commitiea, Microfossil analysis providers the basisa of ~rgm$ctekxaain interpretation, since it Indicates organization for the vertical and horizontal axes in the organic matter. Details of the means of cor9oelating surface and subsurface data are outlined.

D.6 Radforth, N .We Palaeobotmical method in the predictfon of sub-surface summer ice conditions in northern organic terrain, National Research Council of Canada, Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Me@hani@sp Technical Memorandum No. 34, March 1955- Reprint from Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, vole XLVIII, ser, 111, sect, 5, June 1954* p.51-64. An Illustrated description is given of various ice phenomena which occur in northern organic terrain9 following the retreat of winter conditions. The correlation between these subsurface ice c~nditf~nsand the vegetal coverage is discussed. It 1s suggested that subsurface ice phenomena cm be predicted and charted Prom the coverage characteristics in terrain mapping and in interpreting aerial records.

D.7 Rigg, GOBo Some sphagnum bogs of the North Pacific Coast of America. Eco~o&;$, vol. 6, no, 3, July 1925, ~~260-278. Some 78 bogs along the North Pacific Coast were investigated over a 15-year period, from 1988 to 1923, the results of which are discussed in thls paper, The term 'tsphagnm bogt1 is defined. Special attention was paid to the flora of the bogs md to the change in the flora ah3 the bog matures. That bogs exert a selective influence on the flora, is pointed out, Depth of the bogs, their substrata, origin and development are all considered,

D.8 Rigg, GOB. Motes on a sphagnum bog at Fort Br%gg9 California. Science, vole 77, no, 2805 June 29 19339 P-535-536, A bog at Fort Bsagg, 125 miles north of Sm F~~C~SCO, is, In the experience of the author, the farthest south sphagnum bog on the Pacific Coast. It eonsists of three layers: living sphagnum on the surface; a layer of sedge peat; a mixed layer of mud clay, smd, md wood. The bog has much in cornon with coastal bogs of Oregon and Washington, with respect to some vegetation, forest suc~essionand also to cllmtic conditions, D.9 Rigg, GOB, Some raised bogs in southaaatem Alaska with notes on flat bogs and muskegs. American J~urnal of ~otany,VO~. 24, April 1937, ~~194-198. The three-layeredaphagg~mbognear Juneau ia typical. of the raised bogs of southeastern Alaska, Flat bogs somewhat similar to these of western Washingt~n, Oregon and British Columbia also occur ~ceasionallyin southeastern Alaska. The author concludes that no sharp distinction can be drawn between sphagnum bogs muskegs, or between muskegs and tundra in the coastal region of Alaska.

D.10 Riggo Q,B, and C,T. R$chardaon. Profiles sf some sphagnum bogs of the Pacific Coast of' North he~ica, Ecologyp vol. 19, 193e9 p .408-434, The location and general character ~f 19 sphagnum bogs in western Washington, Oregon and British Columbia are discussed with a sketch. map md profile of each. The general pro erties of the 11 kinds of material (mainly organic7 that form thick layers in these bogs are stated, and the occurrence of a thin layer of volcanic ash in 12 bogs is discussed, Some features of the utilization of the bogs are considered,

D.11 Thompson, T.T,, J.R. Lorah, and G.B. Rigg. The acLdftg Q% the waters of some Puget Sound bogs. Journal of the American Chemical Society, vole 49, no, 2, duly - De~o19279 p.2981-2988. The waters from 4 bogs in the met Somd area ware investigated to determine the cause, degree and effect of acidity. The relationships between acidity and organic tnatterp colour, stage of' bog su@@essionand amount of watek were all iaaatest%gated. Some of the acidity in the waters was found to be caused by ca~bonicacid, but reaulta indicate that other cause8 are involved as well. E. PROPERTIES OF ORGMIC: SOILS

E.1 Colley, B.E.+ Constructfan of highways over peat and muck areas. America Highways, vol. 29, no. 1, Jan. 1950, p.3-6. This paper is based -on research conducted in 1948 Wid 1949 by the University of Floridap in co-operation with the Florida State Road Department, Methods of road const~u~tionover peaty areas are reviewed with special kefe~enesto the use of ve~ticalsand drains, Methods of exploratfon and sampling are described, Physical properties such as moistwe content, organic materialo shrinkage, specific gravity, density and permeability are briefby discussed, and some consideration is given to c~nsolfdation,direct shear and tri- axial tests on peaty s'oil~,

E.2 Cuperus3 J.L.A. Permeability of peat by water. Proc, Second International Conference ~n Soil Mecbnies and Foundation Engineering, Rotterdam, 1948, vol, 1, p .258-2616,

A description is outlined 0% a special apparatus devised to measure the pemeability of peat by water. With this infomation at hand, a better insight is obtained of the behaviow 0% soft peat when it has a load of smd brought t8 bear upon it,

E.3 Feustel, I.C. arid H.Q. Byera. The physical and chemical characteristics of certain Ame~icanpeat profiles. U.S. Dept. of Agricultwe, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils Teeh. Bulletin No. 214, Washington, Mov. 1930, A comparison is presented of certain physical and chemical eharacte~istiesof peat profiles from several' deposits, which differ widely as to type of vegetation and geographical location. Bnifom methods are used for exmination of a wide range of physical and chemical propei?ties and are described in detail. The properties and characteristics determined were: apparent and true specific gravity, moisture relations (moisture equivalent and maximum moisture holding capacity), a fractional analysis of the organic matter, elementary and psoxbaate composi- tion, mineral con~tituentsof the asho and behaviow of certain peat samples when submerged under anaerobic conditions. E.4 Hmrahan, E.T. The mechanical psoperties sf peat with special reference to road const~uction. Bulletin, Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, vole 78, no. 5, April 1952, p.179-215. A brief description is given of the conditions of existing roads in bogs, f011med by a presentation of the results of an investigation of the relevant mechanical properties of peat. Consfderat.Son is given to the following properties and characteristics: water content, voids ratio, specific gravity, density, compressibilityo time of consolidation, shear th (quick-trfaxial adunconfined compression , shrinkage on drying, California bearing ratio and pewneability. The problem of drainageo rotational $hear failwe, variability of bogs and the effect of trees and vegetation are also discussed. The pager concludes with Bone practical re@omendationsfor the design of bog roads.

E.5 H-anrahan, E.T. An investigation of some physical properties of peat. Geotechnique, vol. 4, no. 3, Sept . 1954, p .108-123. This article deals mainly with the results sf a laboratory investigation of certain properties of peat. The variable nature of this lkiaterial is described and results are given of index-property, permeability, shear and oonsolidatim tests. The decreases in permeability effected by load and time are cons9dered. A relatl~nskbipwas established between strength and water content. It is congiluded that the strength of peat is of a vholbly oohesive natws and depends primarily on the water content. From an investigation of the compressib%lityand rate of consolidation, it is concluded that for layerg of varying thickness the magnitude arwd time of settlement depend on the ratio of the thickness, and the square of the ratio of the thickness mapectively, for a considerable period after the completion of the phase of pore water presswe.

E.6 Hanrahan, E.T. Factors affecting strength and defamation of peat. Papers Presents6 at the Xntermtional Peat Symposium, Section B. 3, Dublin, July 1954. This paper deals with a laboratory investigation, by soil mechanics methods, of the behaviow of peat under stress. The peat was studied at high water contents such as obtained in drained bogs QT in peat compressed by roads or embankments, The use OF the trimcia1 I compression apparatus for investfgation of sksa~$ng strength is described, and results given of tsiaxial tests, during which pore water ppesswe measurements were made, The conclusion was drawn. that peat is wholly cohesive in character, depending primarily on water content aceording to an established relation- ship. Results of consolidation tests are given, demonstrating the behaviow of peat under compression in both primary and secondary phases of one-dimensioqal consolidation,

E.7 Henry, D.C. Misc~llmeoushighway kssation ad construction problems. Contractor's Record, v01. &CIS no, 3, 1949, p.22-24. Road Abstracts, v01. 3.7, no. 94, 1950. This article, the first fn a series concerned with location and construetion problems OF highways, discusses the constitution and engineering properties of peat, and methods of constructing soads across peat,

E.8 Smith, A.H.V. A survey of s~mBrLtish peats and their strength characteristfca. Axmy Operati~abalResearch Group, Report No. 32/49, London, February, 1950. Undertaken in 1949, this survey was carried out with the purpose of measwi~gthe shearing ~esiatanceof peata, for the production of tsafficabflity maps and to provide data %or the designers Q% tracked vehicles, The strength of the peats was measured with a vane apparatus. The peat deposits investigated were classified into three categories: blanket bogs raised bog and fen peat. The factom %f%@~ting the shearing resistance of peats are discussed. The average ultf- mate beashg; capacity of all the peat8 examined 9s estimated t~ be about 10 p.s,%. It is ehom that peat deposits, especially those of the raised bog type, are easily recognizable from aerfal photographs,

E.9 Thonpson, J.B. and L.A. pa be^. Report of consolfdatfon tests with peat. Symposium on Consolidation Testing of Soils, A.S.T.M. Special Technical PublicatSon NO. 126, 1952, p.4-8. Extrene settlement of two earth-filled concrete barricades built on a site reclaimed from a tidal marsh prompted a study or the coneol'9dation characteristics of the underlying peat. Results indicate that thepe is no line of demrcatfon between primary and secondary consolidation, the primary phase apparently being completed in less than one minute. The authors, conclude that regardless of the thickness of the sample, the rate of strain is the same. A further conclusion is that using vertical sand drains to stabilize a stratum of peat soil is futile9 since the rate of consolidation is independent of the distance of flow 0% the pore water,

E.10 Ward, W.H. A slip in a fl~oddefence b cOnst*u@ted On a peat bog, Pk06. Second International Conf'erence on Soil Mechmics and Bsmdation Engineering, Rotterdam, 1948, vol. 2, p,19-23. This paper discusses the causes of slip in dikes constructed on a peat bog base and from peat dug From borrow pits alongsfde . Some coabaidekation is given to certain physical and mechanical chsacteristics, such as: water content, unconfined compressive strength and shear strength. Stability of the slip was malysed to provide a rational basis $or design of ~emedialmeasures, giving a check on the use of unconfined aompseaaiva strength in assessing immed- iate stability, The author eoaacludes that an appreciable change in the water content of peat has little effect on its strength, variation in strength .being largely due to different plant fibre structwea and degree of hm66"icatione

F.1 Baiseo W.V. Hydraulic fill causeway replaces floating road, Construction Methods9 vole 27, no. 7, July 1945, p .88-900 184, 186, 188* Serious subsidence of the eastern approach road to Elizabeth Citys N.C, led to the construction of a new causeway in 1942. The reaonat~uctionis described of the road) whfch crossed a swamp consisting of 18 to 30 feet sf' inundated peat over- lying a solid s~il$oundat%on, Construct%on procedure was to dredge out the peat and muck to %om a trench 60 feet wide, This was subsequently filled with sand, brought from nearby borrow pits in. the form of a slurry9 tbough pipe lues, which reached a mile in length in some irastmces, See also: Dredges build a swamp road* En ineering Mews-Record, vol. 135, no. 4, July 26, 19 85, p.114- 117.

F.2 Blmer, A. A road on an unstable subgrade. Schweizerzeit , Strassenwesen, Bd. 209 NP. 14, 19349 5.145-152 (in German). Road Abstracts, vol, 1, no. 488, 1934-35, The author describes an Lnvestigation carried out on the subgrade of a typical st~etehof the Bilten - Ussbuhl Road between the Wallensee and the Lake of Zurich in Switee~~md.The soad was underlain principally by peat, interspersed with lenticular deposits of loam. Seismogsaphic investigations carried out on the road before and after peeonstruction are described. The variation of the groundwater level and the acidity of the water are discussedp and the cow- clusion dram that the bearing power of the peat varies with the degree of aatu~ation., The paper concludes with an outline of the method of ~econstructionof the mad to counteract the effect of the weak subgrade.

F.3 Bruce, Robert. The Great North Road over the Grmpiaahs. Min. of Proc, of InstitutBon of C%vil Engineers, London, vol. 232, part 2, 1930-31, ~~113-154, This paper e~nstitutesa thorough report QI the history, design, and details of' the re~~nstsaactfoaaof a road over the Grampian Mountains of Sootland in 1924. The road was carried across peat bogs for a t~taldistance of 1 mile, 110 yards in its 78-~%~elength. The greatest depth of peat eneomte~edwas 15 feet, Desfgn details are given for the reinforced concrete rafts used to traverse the bog;s.ad the method of field construction 1s described, ,

F.4 Burton, V.R. and A.C. Benkehm, pus the^ study of $111 settlement in peat marshes. Good Roadss vsl. 72, no. 3, March 1929, p.142-14ss 155, 156. Unusual trouble in the conatx?uction andl mintenmce of roads over peat marshes in Michigan prompted a survey of the existing roads over peat bogs, Those factoss which were consideked to have an effect upon the depth of penetration and lateral displacement of fills were: 1) chakaoter~and depth of peat layesings; 2) character of fill material; 3) method used in construction of fill. Analysis of the results of the survey shows that pavement eettlement is proportional to the depth of the peat prcifile, and also to the degree of penetratLon of the peat by the fill materials.

F.5 Butters, A.E. Construction of roads and culverts over soft peat bo . Highways, B~idgesand Aerodromers, vol. 15, p.7 %1, Supplement i-ii; Discussionsp vol. %5# p.765, Supplement iv and xiip 1949, Road Abstracts, vol, 17, no. 113, 1950. The actual constsuction is described of a road and culverts across a soft peat bog in Bedfordshireo England. The depth of the peat was almost 20 feet, The road was c~nstructedon an embankment approximately 6 feet deep. First a 6-inch reinforeed concrete mattress was laid on the @;rdund surface, and on this was spread a 12-inch layer of brick rubble. Sand fill- . ing was placed on the rubble in 12-inch layers and compacted. Settlement measwmemts were taken dw%ng constmactfon. Factors influencing the design of beinforced concrete culverts are fully described, as are the site condit$ons md.methods sf const~~uctioa.

F.6 Colley, B.E.+ Construetion of highways over peat and muck areas. American Highways, vol, 29, no, 1, Jmo 19509 p.3-6. This paper is based on resemch conducted in 1948 and 1949 by the University of Florida in co-operation with the Florida State Road Department. Methods of road construction over peaty areas are reviewedp with special refers~ceto the use of vertical sand drains. Methods of exploration =P,d sampling are desc~ibed. Physical properties such as mofstwe content, orgmfe mate~?ial, shrinkage, specific gravity, density and permeability are briefly dfacussedo and some consfdera- tion is given to consolidat~on, direct shear ad trfaxial tests on peaty soils.

B.7 Gushing, J.W. and 0.L. Stokstad, Nethods and costs of filling of highway over swmgs. Engineerfag Mess-. a Record, vol. 114, no. 4$ Jan. - June 1935, po126-129. This article presents the psactfces of the State Highway Department of Michigan 9x1 buildfrag roads over

* Also appears as E.1 swamps. Emphasis is placed oqthe kind of fill material to be used and the proper.timing of steps in the construction of an embankment, sather than on the excessive use of explosives, Included is a discussion of various methods of construction over peat, with details of excavation and water-jetting. Cost data are outlined,

F .8 De Bussy, Le C. Holland1s roads. Ingeni#ren, vol. 56$ no. 5, 1947, ~~817-821;Road Abstracts, 1701. 15, no, 127, 1948, Road requirements in Denmark and Holland are briefly compared, and the planning and construction of roads in Holland are dfscussed with regard to administrative and financial problems. Particular attention is paid to conditions p~evailiarg in west Holland where %he subsoil consists of alluvial clay or mud and large peat deposits with very low bearing capacity. Methods of constr~uctionof roads over such unsuitable material are described, Included is a discussion of the present state of Holland's roads, with a brief account of the items to be taken into consideration in estimating the value of a motor road.

F.9 Dibbits, H.A.M.C. Road constkuction on soft subsoil. Pssc, Second International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rotterdam, 1948, vol. 6, p .42-45. In the western part of the Hetherlmd~a~the subsoil consists of peat and clay layers of a thickness up to 18 metres in some placea. The low bearing capacity of these soils imposes difficult problems in road construction, This paper" discusses in detail the methods utilized in building roads over soft subsoils, dividing them into three main groups: (1) compression of soft subsoil by weight of: roadbed; (2) partial removal of soft soil layers and replacing with sand; (3) transfer of roadbed weight to underlying sand strata by wooden or reinforced concrete Foundation elements.

F.10 Ddcker, A, Vertical sand drains:as a mems of accelerating settlement and of securing the stability of road embankments in districts with peaty soils. Strassen uo Tiefbau,Bcl. 4, Nr. 11, 1950, S.279-283 (in German). Road Abstractsp vol. $9, noo 23, 1952. "This technique has been suceessfully applied to a stretch of road about 2650 feet long in the course of the construction of a by-pass on peaty soils in Schleswig-Holstein. Constmctiom methods used and results obtained are described and are compared with American experience, It .

F.11 Dryburgh, F.B. and E.R. McKillop. Construction and maintenance OF roads over peat. National Research Council of Canada, Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics, Technical Memorandum Mo. 29, July 1954, 14p. (Publfshed with permission of the Director, Road Research Laboratory, D.S,L.R. Great ~ritain),

This memorandum includes 8 paper by each of the authors - and subsequent discussions - as presented to a conference (sponsored by the British Road Research ~aboratory)at Bvekness, Scotland, in March, 1953. Practical aspects of construction and maintenance of roads over peat are discussed in some detail: design of roadway embankment and surfacing, drainage, construction of culverts, etc. The need is expressed f~rmore basic knowledge of peat behaviour .

F.12 Fine, Manuel 8, .Roads over muskeg. An unpublished thesis of the Faculty of Applied Science ad Engineeringg Department of Civil E-ag%nserfng , Unfve~sityof Toronto, Dec. 1951. This thesis attempts to c~llectand correlate information on the substasface characte~isticsof muskeg, the physical and me~hanicalproperties and the classiffcation of organic soils employed. From

\ this information, the engineering pkoblem involved in road construction ovep muskeg or organic ter~ain is analysed and the methods of crossing under various conditions are discussed.

F.13 Groschopf, P. Bogs and peat In road construction. Strassenbau, Bd. 27, NP. 14, 1936, 5.20 -211 (in ema an). Road Abstracts, vol. 3, no, 3B 4, 1936-37. From 4 to 5 per cent of the total area of Germany consists of bogs which oscw most frequently in the northwest provinces. Ia flat bogs, the actual depth of the peat varies from 6 to 14 feet, but the peat is generally underlain by highly organic mud or ooze of low organic content, constituting unstable deposits varying from 30 t~ 85 feet Ln depth, Road const~uetion must be preceded by extensive soil surveys. Sphagnum peat bogs occur in areas of high rahfall and vary in depth from 18 to 26 feet. Such deposits can frequently be removed as a preliminary to road construction.. F.14 Hanes, C.R. Grading job overruns 1500 per cent. mginees- in News-Record, vol. 144, no. 17, April 27, 19509 P. fi 3. happarentlysimple 30-day job of raising the grade of 1500 feet of State Highway 18 near Wellington, Ohio, involving 8,397 cu.yd. of fill, developed into a 15-month job, involving 135,000 cubic yards. The embanbent was built of clay material and when it was subjected to heavy traffic, extreme settlement was experienced, coupled with violent upheaval of the peat alongside and cracking of the road surface. Fill was added until the accelerated settlement desisted. Airfield landing mats were then placed over the cracks in the embankment and a layer of compacted earth laid, followed by a sand-gravel mix.

F.15 How Erikson uses vertical sand drains to stabilize fomda- tion for fill. Pacific Builder and Engineer, vol. 51, no. 10, 1945, p.56-57* Road Abstracts, vol. 13, no. 629, 1946. "A description of the successful use of vertical sand drains in constructing a stable embankment across a swamp without removing the peat. "

F.16 Huizinga, T.K. Design of cross section of earth embwkmenta. Highway Research Board, vol. 18, no. 2, 1938, p.81-92. This paper refers particularly to embankment construction in the western Netherlandso where the soil consists mainly of peat and marine clay, resting on sand. Such soils are characterized by low density and high compressibility. The depth of the unstable material may reach 60 feet with the groundwater level near the surface. Design of embankments is discussed on the basis of results of a series of cone penetro- meter tests carried out in the subsoil,

F.17 Markwick, A..H.D. Road cons3tsuction on peat foundations. Roads and Road Construction, vol. 27, no, 203, HOV. . 1939, p .343-345. ii * pslrnag., t-d rl OQ1 "41 @O@k -94 &Pssiccl Q, *O ccl & ama, "YCQ $2 Qhtd C goam 4 53 1-0 4 Q1 $G G I WQ 0 G 4 4 kM Mod ffi $sew2 Yya tQ 3 a 0 @ oes P8OdBd2 fis $d ~o m 0 OB&@ "$a! 5ECerN * Ocr %$e OkOQ IIA Q, rkm 04 mm kQQrdCnW &-i%3 OQOajrl as " ecrf$Ps Z;"o4a &@a0 WtQ rn 0 m$ Q2d"G G P WO % a G~~QP- aJ $ a 0 Gdab * k c m*es 400 Irn* Q) t-d 0 "4 6) &a .,e!li am 0" 04 0 marl h"a, d PZZ "a5 " afc3 dGcua, ma, Pc " 0% $ gmm 0 * td ilq amkrl si" Pi&'" *Ii? "gs. *a -a m 0 Qktg Ok4r-i" 0 Q, Ei$Z dk4 eel o A"'d dQd rg 0 0 A &' ah 4 B ~P;X% 2f;;PB outlined %or const~uctfngroads acposs peat, the method emplopd generally depending rapon local eondit ions.

P.21 Richardson, H.W. llcm - her%c&rlsGlory Woad, Bn ineering Hews-Record, v01b 129, nos 25, Dec, 17, 19!t 2, p.859-$72; vol. 129, no. 2q9 Dee, 31, 1942, p.907-914; vole 130, noo 29 Jan, 149 1943, p.63-70.

Duping the conrst~uetfota0% the AIcm H%ghway, muakeg deposits were geme~allyskirted when erns~unte~ed, so succeasfukly that for one 265-mile streteh only 4 miles of knuakeg were crs~sed,andl that with Bfttle difficaillty. When muskeg eouBd not be avo%Bsd, corduroy conatruct%on or gravel fill was used to cross it, although in so10 cages 1% was excavated by dragline.

B.22 Sand drains -stalled at marsh aoossbg, mttek Roadss vole 19, no, 6, Jme 1949, po39-40. Road Abstracbo vol, 18, no. 346, 1951, The emb-ent approach to a new bridge carrying Hew Jersey Route 35 across the I+&mssquR%ver inlet waEa constructed over marshy gr~md,in which a fim strat- of ~amdwderlie~ab~~~30 feet OF grey silty mud and 10 fee$ of wet peat, Ve~t&@sl,esmd drains totalling 1570888 I-, ft , were placed to stabilize the emb-ent foupdation, Betsila of the method of finstalling these smd drains ape desc~fbed.

F.23 Scheide~,J. Roads in peat aomtry, Stmsse u, VeHPkeh~~ Bd, 27, Hr, 21, 1941, S, 401-408 (in. Ge 1 Road Abstracts, vol, 9, no. 251, 1942, This paper presents an illustrated description of measures taken in Switzerland to ensure etability of macadam-surfaced roads 0n pea$$ ~siLs, The method~sof esnst~uetfonadopted for new ~oadsvaz"%ed according to the tkfcbess ~f the peat and Included: 1) replacing the peat bx atable material; 2) coverbg very deep peat with a crib of pft-gropes, on which ia built a low ennbadment; 3) pbac-g the s~bankmeat in peat coveped with an l~su1atfon~8~~36 of dandy gravel. A detailed descrfptionn fe given. sf the proBlems encoutntssed fn the aonst~u~t%onof a mad on a thin layer of pest resting on boulder @lay. F.24 Stoddart, H.A. The probleasla of Alaska road-builders, Western Construction, vol, 27, no. 2, 1952, p.71-73. Road Abstracts, vol. 19, no. 6V91952. A brief Burvey is given of the difficulties arising out of building roads acksss makeg and permanently frozen ground in Alaska. Organis soil deposit8 vary in depth from 2 to 20 feet and may be 3000 feet across, Methods 0% road constrta@t%on across such unstable material include: 1) exeavatiag e~bd replacement by granular mtesisel for ashablow depths; 2) g~mularfill placed on top Q% the o~ganfc deposit $or greater depths. A sketch map sf roads in Alaska is included.

F.25 Taber, S. Some problems QE road eonstsuetion and mainteraanae In Alaska. Public Roads9 vol. 23, no, 9, July - Sept . 1943, p . 247. This report is a dfscucssion of' the p~oblemswhish confront the [email protected] is building md maintain- ing roada in Alaeh, Some 0% the moat outstanding difficulties encountered are; pemfkost, which presents ex@avation g~oblema; asg~egationof water in the fom 0% ice dwisae; the $P~@z- of ~~fl~j differential fkost heaving) whfch can be vepy damaging to roads; high moisture content of the extensive "spongy" orgeuai.6 as%lss which ~staigl tlaefr moistwe dwing thawing 3.a the summer; bw%al of highways under ice; and %Pood~.

~.2& Walsh, A. California coast road projeet. Roads and Streets, va1. 85, no. 7, 1942, ,19-23. Woad Abstracts, vol. LO9 no. 162 , 19t 3. A pealigned portion of the a~astmad between Watsonville and Rob Roy Ju@t%b;an, Calif'omfap crossed several areas conaiating of alluvial soil and semi-fluld peat, A dletaiBsd description is given-of the rneth~dof In~taBlingsand drains to stabilize e~bankmeatson them matable soils.

B .27 Zill, E. Consrtructfon of motor k~ad~throra h moorlands. Die Bautechnik, Ed. 23, lp, 2g9 1935, S. t 00-402, Road Abstracts, vole 2, no. 432$ 1935-36. When roads are to be built lnoo~laUBd~ experience has shorn that all peaty or marshy soils should be removed to the proper width and replaced by an adequate filling. Details are given for methods of excavation of mosrrlmd9 including dredging, b1ast-g and jetting, with a discussion of the relat%ve merits of eaah fop different types of moors. The paper concludes with recommendations for transporting and dumping the soil excavated.

Go BOG BLASTING

G.1 Bog blasting. The Engineer, voL. 166, Aug, 59 1938, p*1400 The technique is diseuaaod of excavating a bog once the fill has been placedg by placing ohargea beneath the fill and blasting, The underfill metbod only ia c~nsidered, Several. examples are cited of bog blasting ope~atiosas~chiefly Bn Germany.

6.2 Bog blasting ln Worthern Ireland. Roads ad Road CO~S~~UC~PO~~VQ~.27, 3-949, .322-364* Road Abstracts, vol. lao no. t BBp 3.950. An experiment in bog; bhaatkng was eaat?r%ed out in Northern Ireland, USUAQthe undesFiEl. blasjtMg and toe-shooting methods. Ih both methods, the peat is displaced when the cha~gssare fireds and the embanhnsnt then settles into the oavfty so formed.

G.3 Casagsandep L. The blaatmg of marshes, Stmasea Bd. 6, Mr. 1, 1939, 5.20-23 (in Oemm Road Abstraats, vsl. Qs no. 299, 1939- "An illustrated account is given sf the use of the blasting process in road aonstruction through mar~shes, The author surveys the development of the methods employed and eatmatea the redu@tisn in the cost in m0v3ng unstable mate~lal~which bas been made possjbble with the introduction of the process." ~.4Duncanp ReCerJ.S.K. DaPz~2.1,and FoHePe W$llfms, A full-seals experiment in bog blasting for road const~uction. The Ust$tut%oa% 0% Cfvfl Engineers, London, Road FagJt;neermg Division, Session 1950-51, Road Paper No. 32, A review is given OF the development of the bog blasting process, where the construction ok stable embankments oves peat or silt is achieved by the displacement of' the weak material by means of explosivees md its replacement by a suitable filling. A series of full-acale.experiraasnts in. Northern Hselmd is described in Qetaiab. Results indicate that the esst of the operation @~mapoza"es favourably with no-1 excavation methods. A comprehensive bibliography 1s included,'

G.5 Jeffries, J.M. Building soads tbsugh unstable ksxmations, civil Engineering ~N,Y,B~ vo8, Go no, 5B May 1936, p. 317-328.

A desc~fpt%~nfa given sf methods 0% pb86iI3g m embmkmemt aver a peat bog sr swamp, util$z%ng dmam9te to diapbace the matable sef~. Two methods of settlement a% the fill are outlined in detail: the wedge aaaethod adthe toe-dmping method. The coat of excavating ios a fill %a often less than the over-aLB cost of mainta3aing the grade of a mad floated on. the swamp surface,

G .6 ~~ese.A. The removal of peat by blasting in the constmction of the 'Ge~dmmastor soada. Verkehrateebiik, M0 NP, 17, 1935, 53.459 (in ~emmHa),Road Abatraots, vol, 2, no, 489, 1935-36 Entirely aat%sfaetomj results are reported in the use of explosives lor the emo oval of a peat deposit underlying the $mbankment for the Berlin to'F~aWust-on-the- ode^ not8~3roadc The f%Pl was placed on the peat, then marginal blasts followed by the main central blasts displaced the peat, pemnittbg the fflb to settle to a more stable foundation.

G.7 Parsons, A.W. Accelerated settlement sf embankments by blastLng, F%.~blfcRoads, VQ~,209 noo 109 Dec . 2939 p ,197-202, The use of blasting is desc~fbedin effecting the settlement of a fill en a section ~f?the Wa~hington Primary State Highway between Quilcewe and Sequ%aaz. The swamp deposit consisted of alternate layers of peat and clayI attaining a total depth sf 3.5 ts 26 feet, The method of blasting is outlined, with details of spacing and depth 0% ahargesa etc.

G.8 Usinger, C, and A, Gmraa, The esonomy of the marsh blasting process (~feW%~tachaft%ichkeit des ~oorsprenguesfahrens), Bors~hwgsgesellschaft fur das St~assenwesene,v, Borse aus dem Strassen~esen~Bd, 4, Berlin, 1937 Qvslk und Reich TTerlag) &in ~e~~,Road Abatapacts, vol. ,!jO no, 286, 1938-39, "In the construction of embankments for the German motor k0adss blasting bas been employed %or obtaining satisfactory foundations in swapso peat, ooze and similar soft g~omd,An earth embment is built on the soft material, which is then dPspPaced by exploding oharges beneath the embankment. The methods used and experience galned ape reported $gay detail and the economic value of the process is exmined,"

G.9 Von Gottsteao E, The blasting sf peat, Strassenbau, Bd. 29, MP. 1, 1938, Sol-4 (in h3e 9, ~oad Abstractss vole 5, noo 1938-39, Some areas of Gemnu kave matable strata consisting of peat, ooze or silt attaining a thickness of up to 60 feet, A b~iefe~itieal review is given of the standard methods ~f k~ad conatmction ac~csss such mate~ial, The use sf explosives for dealing wfth large peat deposit8 is considered in some detail, particularly the underfill method, PaPa~ti~alexwpLes of the blasting process are dessr%bed ad illustrated,

G.10 Zavity, H.B, A method of quick settlement of fills, Canadian Engineerp vole 76, no, Igs 19351~p,4-6, Two variations are desc~ibedin the blasting method to bring about the quick settlement of' fills, One method ks to place the embment on the swamp and blast the peat fnaom underneath; the other is to blast a tren~hahead of the advancing ernbar~kcment. H. TWFICABUaITH PROBLEM

H.l All-track vehicles for use in muskeg azbssas. Civil Engineering, vole 24, no, 86 August $9543 p088. Discussion: vol. 24, no, LOs Oct. 195b p.66.

A brief description is given 0% the muakeg tpactor developed by the Gulf Oil Corp, for oil exploration fgz muskeg aleeaa during the a Two tandem wheal tracks 29 iaa@heewfds present 5,000 sq. in, 0% surface to the groundg exerting a maximum preeawe of la p,s.i. with a load of 2508 lbo jlaa addition to fta om weight 0% 5008 Ibo The length is 12 feet, the width 7 beet. See also: "Muskeg buggy aids Canadian explorationt', The Petroleum Engineero vole 26, no. 9, Aaag. 1954, p. 106-108.

J.1 Amy builds on arctic afrbase. EaaginsrLng News-Records

vole 125s no. 172 19409 pq558-559 0 Certain difficulties are deswibed in the constmctisn 0% the U,S, A a%srbase at Ladd Fieldo Alaska. An 18-i.mh layep of muskeg covered the 1000 acre site, providing an hsula- tion blanket to keep the mde~byingsoil pemently ,frozen, The blanket was stpipped off and the frozen ground excavated by blasting, Detafba sf ~mway layout, ' aubgrade constsfuat%~aand cone~etepouring are out lined.

-5.2 Brown, H.D. Conatructbon of the Eadssn Bay Railway. The Canadian Englmeer, vsl. 61, Aw0 25, 1931, polBa

A discussion of some 0% the problems encountered in the constmct$on 0% the Hudaon Bay Railway, with a brief histor%ea$ baekgromd. The ~a%lway is 510 ales long, 315 miles sf which is mu~ksg embankment. The muskeg was stripped in laye~s (by hand) from the ground ad$acelrat to the lines and transposted to the grade by whealbak~ew. Ht , was discovered that the muskeg provided SnsUatfon to the groundo so that it thawed out to a depth 02 only one foot in ammelea. Pe %r~steonatituted a g~arve;problemto the enginsekea

J, 3 Constructing the Whatcorn Coumty, Washington Aimopt, public WOF~B, MOP., vole 733 33 1916.2p p*S4-259 36, The airport site held many small, peat bogs of coneiderable depth, which were removed by &rag- line from areas to be covered by rmways, @or one 12 acre peat deposit, 2 to 18 feet deepp the portion under the rwway was excavatedp mad a dike constructed to isolate the rest of the bog, which was covered with "Jto 8 isst of fill. The report alao disausse@ p~sbleme0.f drainage and runway surfacing,

J,4 Cuperus, JeL.Ao The stabilization of ~aiBr~ad embankments near Qcakada. P~~POQ, Qe@~nd[aCg%tm- national Confe~~e~l~eon SofB Nee %a@ and Fomdstigm Eng~eeriag,Rotte&mb 191bB9 ~81, 6 p .29-37,, Over a pe~iodof yeaksr considerable tmuble was experienced with a gort%snof the railway embankment, near Gouda in the u@st@ac~nlethessolmdss which was built on laye~sef peat md soft clay, Loao oP equilibrium of's portion 0% the emb snt in 1938 qecessitated ~tabilizationof %he enbanbent, and initiated a series 06" subaoib %nveat%gations and measurements of the undu3katfon. A detailed description is okitlined 0% the methods used in stabilizing the railnay line to mintah safety 0% the traim~. The method bs dea@sibed of inetalling a ~einforceddab of "sludge slag" under the tracks to combat the mdulat$~npheno- mena and to maintain the speed of the tkains,

5.5 Cuperue~, J.L.A. and F.C. De N$e. St~engtheaaingthe road-bed of a railway, supported by soft soil and situated amidst the buildings of the central part of a town, PPQC, Second Xnternathonal Conference on So91 Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rotterdam, 1948, vole 2, pOH-T0 The Utrecht-Rotterdam railway is supported by V8ry soft compressible subsoil., pr%ncfpally ces~lsisting of layers of peat with sporadic layers of day above a fim sand fo~~~datfo~.The total thfck- ness of the soft layers reaches 11 metres at Gouda. Lack ~f atability of the railway necessitated stabil8zation of the embmhent. This paper describes the methods used in strength- ening the roadbed without damaging the fomdatione of adjacent housea,

~.6Hunter, L,E, The draining cf bogs, HLghways, Bridges and Aerodromes1 vol. 139 noe 639s 1946, p.1, 3. Road Abst~acts,vol, 14, no, 20 1947, A short description sf the formation and general characteristics of' peat bogs is followed by an account of drainage methods. Thee methods vary according to the type addepth sf the bog,

5.7 Miller, R.V. Record time constmctfon at Quonset Naval Air Station. Jowr~ak~Boston Sooiety of' Civil Engmeers, vol, %9$ no, lo P9162> po38-49, A description is given sf the laying of the surfacing of the F~TR~~Bof the Naval Airbase at Quonset Point, REaode Islmd0 The access ~oadto the airpo~tpassed over three peat deposits, one 900 feet long and 2% feet deeps the other 500 feet long and 8 to 10 feet deep. The first was removed by blasting, the ot$he~by excavation with a dhEaag- line.

5.8 'Pipeline.. , , Haines to Fairbanks, Pacific Builder and Engineer, VQB, el3 noo 3, March 19559 p060-62, n \J A pipeline 621 miles Bong was built to carry petroleum products firom Hafnes to Fairbanks3 Alaska. The worst portion of the job - that of ditching operations fn muskeg md permafrost areas - is described. A special trenches was devfeed to dig ditches in the pemf~ost,

J.9 Special technique to get a stable roadbed, Railway Engineering and i%intenanees vob, 48, no, 5, May 1952 9 p 479-1682 9 The problem of reloeating a railroad line over 800 feet of swampygrpomd near ChLeago involved care not to dahage adjacent hLghway fomdatfons md unde~gsomdpipes, The method amsea to consolidate the muck to take the required load is described. A sad blanket was placed on the surfacep a surcharge load added, ad sand drains provided to give drainage,

J.10 Spindler, W,H. Drainage on the Alaska Highway. Roads and Bridges, vol. 82, no. 1, Jmo 1944, po33-35, 80. A discussion is p~eaented0% the special drainage problems of the Alaska highwayg created by the unusual soil conditions and low temperatweso Winter temperatures sometimes reach -70OF. A11 types of soil conditions were encoaaxchtered, varying from black gmbo'clays ts a%lts and smds and gravel banks in rollLng countryo Gr~avel,with an overburden of only 2 to 5 feet of silty soil, was present along much of the route in Alaska. Much 0% this te~drab was covered by moss or muskeg to a depth sf several. inches to twenty feet for short distanceso Runoff is below normal for this type of terrain.

J.11 Undiscovered substratum of peat csmplic%ates foundation job. Engkneerhg Mews-RecordB VQI, 91s noo 59 Augo 19238 pel920 Borings taken prior to sonst~uctionsf a large office building Philadelphia failed to reveal a substantial stratum of compressible peat, A marked differential settlement occurred when the building frame was e~ectsd, The foundation was reinfoxwed by dsivjbng new piles through the peat stratum to bedrock and f%miLyattachLng them to the original pilea,

K, UTILIZATION OF QEaG863PC SOILS

K.l Bonsteel, Jay A, Muck and peat. U,S, Departnent sf Agriculture, Bureau of Soils, Cir~ulasMoo 65, Aug. 20, 1912. An estfnated 15sQ00s000awes of peat and muck deposits in the Eastern U.S, constitute a large area-yet to be reclaimed and utilized for agricultural purposes. SpeeiaL crops can be grown in these areas, with the addition of certain fertilizers and after? propex? drainage has been carried ou'tt. Eaeh apea sf organic soil constitutes a separate d~ainageproblem,

K.2 Dachnowski-Stokes, A.Po Grades of peat and muskeg for soil improvements, UoS, Department of Agrfcultwe, Circular No. 290, Aug, 1933* This paper discusses in some detail the practice of adding peat and muck to mineral soils contain- ing sm inadequate supply of srgmfc matter, The type of peat to be used varies with the nutrient demands of the plants to be grams the type 0% mineral soil and climati~~ondit%ons, The chief classes of peat and thefr orLg3-n are considered, together with certain characteristic phyefcal andl chemical properties of the diffe~entclasses, A bibliography is included,

K,3 Laurie, Alex. The use of peat in the greenhouse, Agrfcultural Experwent Statlono Michigan State College, Special Bulletin 660, 194, Jan, bg30, This paper reports on a ~erisaof expe~iments conducted at Niehiga State College during the 5 years 1924-1928, $n which peat was used a1sr.a and fn comblnat%on with other substmees as a medium fop the gsowing 0% va~iousgreenhoaaee crops, The merits of certain types of peat used and the amount to be combined with othes ~ub8tmces is discussed in some detail,

K.4 Peat as a roadbuilding material, Compressed Air Magazine, voL. 57, no, 12, Bee. 1952, p.351. Highly compressed bales of peat dust lump8 have been used succeasfu9ly in Holland as a sub- base for a road built on an unstable soil, This type of foundation is reported to offer excellent resistance 60 trafffc.

K.5 Swinnerton, A.A,* Peat in Canada. Canadian Geo raphical JoaaknaE, vole 31, no. 1, July 19451 P-18.

Also appears as k3.3. Peat is used as a fuel, but peat moss also has uses in agriculture, for stable bedding and, poultry litter; in horticulture, for soil conditioning and as a filler for commercial fertilizers; it is used for insulating and as a packing material. There are large peat deposits in Canada, but small market for the products. There is some peat exported to the U.S. but most of the U.S. supply is imported fpom Europe. A description is given of peat manu- facture from excavation to the finished bales, with accompanying photographs.

K.6 The utilization of peat. Engineering, vole 166, no. 4301, July 2, 1948, p.14. Estimates of peat resources in Ba?itain vary from 3.6 to 6 million acres. The depth of peat deposits may be as great as 30 feet. Economic considerations of the use of peat as fuel in Britain as compared to Eire are discussed, Examples are cited of methods of winning and drying peat in Ge~rIBny,Denmark, Russia and Ireland. The design of furnaces for bwn- ing peat to produce eleatrlc power is discussed. The paper concludes with a brief consideration of the possible by-products of peat. APPENDIX A

INDEX OF AUTHORS OR SQIfRcI6s

Baise, W.V. F.1 Dibbits, H.A,M.C, F.9

Better Roads F .22 Dryburgh, F,B. F.11

Bonsteel, J.A. K.1 The Engineer Gel

Butters, A.E. F.5 Fine, MoA. F ,12

Casagrande, L. a.3 Garxas, A. Civil mUeer3ng H.l Groschopf , Po Colley, B.E, E.lP ~.6 Hanes, :C0R. Compressed Air Magazine ~.4 Hanr&an, E,T* Cupems, J.L.A, Eo2, 5.4, 5.5 Henry, DeCo

Cuehing, Jaw, \ F.7 Huizinga, ToKO

Dachnowaki , A, Pa C.2, C.3 Hunter, L.E. Dachnowski-Stokes, A,P, A.2, B.1 Jeffries, J.M. , (305 le D.2, K.2 i m

r 7 A-1

Laurie, ' A . K.3 Roads and Road Construetion G.2 i Leahey, A. B I I Scientific American 8.1 I Leverin, H.A. Schneider, J, F -23 Lewis, F.J. Smith, A.H.V. Spindler, W.H. J.10 Stoddart, H.A. F .24 Stokstad, O.L. F.7 Strasse F .20 Swimertonr A .A. B-5, Ks5 RcKillop, E.R. F.11 Taber, S. F .25 Miller, R.V. ~horspson, J*B. E.9 Murray, E.H. p.18 Thonipson, T.T. D.11

Usinger, C. G,8 de Hie, F.C. 5.5 Von Gottstein, E. G.9 t Pacific Builder and Engineer F.15 5.8 Walsh, A. P ,26 Palmer, L.A. E.9 Ward, W.H. E.10 Parsons, A .W. Weidemam, A.G. D.3 Piette, Q. willi-s, F.H.P. a.4 Public Works Zavity, H.B. G.10 Radforth, N.W. C.5, D.5, D.6 Railway Engineering and J-9 b Maintenance i% b Richardson, C.T. B-4, D.10 ,Y Richardson, H.W . F -21 Rigg, GOB, B.4, D.7, D.8, D.9 D.10, Do11