Family Focus On... Fatherhood
Early Experience with High-Risk Fathers: Puberty Changes in Daughters
by Bruce J. Ellis, [email protected] and Kali S. Van Campen, Norton School of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Arizona
new study shows that girls start to both their mother and father—tend to start menstruate earlier when they their periods later. At the same time, these A experience biologically-disrupted changes in puberty are also influenced by homes (families in which the biological the stresses associated with family disrup- parents are separated or divorced) in early tion and change. Animal research suggests childhood. When a girl starts life with a that the combination of pheromones and high-risk father in the home, and then the stress are most likely to accelerate puberty. family breaks up and that father leaves, her The evolutionary explanation is that chil- timing of puberty changes. She gets her first dren adjust their development to match period about a year earlier than does either the environments in which they live. In the Bruce J. Ellis Kali S. Van Campen her older sister or other girls from disrupted world in which humans evolved, danger- families whose fathers do not display high- ous or unstable home environments meant About the Study risk behavior. a shorter lifespan. Going into puberty A recent study by Jacqueline Tither at the Background earlier in this context increased chances of University of Canterbury and Bruce Ellis Fathers affect the physical and social envi- reproducing and passing on your genes. at the University of Arizona attempted to ronments of their children and, in turn, their Despite the plausibility of this scenario, it sort out these issues by comparing sisters in timing of puberty. Part of this influence may could be wrong. Indeed, behavior geneti- the same family. The study looked at what be chemical: Fathers emit pheromones— cists have argued that the relationship happens to a girl’s sexual development airborne chemical signals when she experienced the following: that trigger behavioral …younger sisters in biologically-disrupted families the divorce or separation of her and physiological reached puberty earlier than their older sisters did. parents responses in other members of the No such trend emerged in biologically-intact families. different amounts of her childhood same species—that living in a biologically-disrupted home, may alter the timing of sexual development between growing up in families without a and in daughters. Animal research has shown resident father and early puberty in daugh- different levels of exposure to fathers that male pheromones have different ters lacks validity. This relationship, they who showed deviant or antisocial effects on young females, depending on say, is an artifact of genes for early puberty behavior (i.e., high-risk fathers) biological relatedness: Exposure to the accumulating in non-resident father fami- pheromones of biological fathers appears lies. This accumulation may occur because The study asked two questions: to slow down puberty in girls, while expo- mothers with genes for early puberty not (1) Did the sisters’ age of first menstrua- sure to the pheromones of unrelated adult only pass on those genes to their daughters tion vary depending on which sister lived males appears to speed it up. but also tend to form less stable relation- with her father longer? The influence of pheromones may help ships with the fathers of their children. The (2) Did living longer with a certain type of explain why the break-up of biological result is that girls with genes for early father lead to differences in the sisters’ families, especially when followed by the puberty may be more likely to grow up timing of puberty? departure of the biological father from the without their fathers in the home. home and subsequent entry of a stepfather, What researchers are still trying to figure To answer the first question, the research- is linked to early puberty in girls—a known out, then, is whether growing up in a bio- ers implemented a unique study design risk factor for teen pregnancy and an array logically-disrupted home without a resident (see Text Box). Sixty-eight pairs of sisters of health problems in adolescence and father actually causes the timing of puberty from biologically-disrupted families, in adulthood. Specifically, girls whose parents to change. And if so, does girls’ exposure to which the father had moved out, were get divorced and who then live without different types of fathers (normative vs. compared with 93 similar pairs of sisters their biological fathers, or live with stepfa- high risk) at different points in their child- from intact families. In the disrupted thers, tend to start their periods earlier. hood matter? families, the younger and older sisters were Girls who grow up in intact families—with Puberty Changes continued on page F17 Family Focus Spring 2009 F16
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PUBERTY CHANGES continued from page F16 about 5 and 12 years old, on average, when the parents split up. Sisters from the intact A Unique Quasi-Experimental Design families had a similar gap between their ages. The study design examined the influence of fathers on daughters’ puberty, indepen- Why did the researchers choose these two dent of possible genetic factors and of environmental conditions that are shared by groups? They wanted to see whether living entire families, such as poverty or religion. longer in a disrupted family—without dad— The researchers compared sisters with the same biological parents who grew up led the younger sister to get her period in the same home. In previous studies, girls who lived without a father were earlier than her older sister. Consider a compared to girls who lived with both parents. These girls differed not only in typical sister pair. They have the same biological mother and father, but one was whether or not they lived with their father. They also differed in genetic risks, 5 and the other 12 when the parents broke race, religion, socioeconomic status, and everything else that differs between up and the dad moved out. On the one families. Therefore, if previous studies found a link between growing up without hand, the younger sister spent more of her a father in the home and early puberty, researchers still would not know what childhood (7 more years) in a disrupted caused the early puberty. It could be any factor linked to living in non-resident family without her father in the home. father families. On the other hand, the older sister spent To handle these shared environmental influences, the investigators of this study more of her childhood in an intact family compared sisters who grew up in the same home. These sisters had the same with her father there. In other words, the religion, socioeconomic status, and other features that are shared within families. sisters differed by 7 years in the amount of To control for genetic influences, the researchers studied full biological sisters time they lived with their dad. Did that who differed in age (birth order). Scientific evidence shows that birth order has different length of exposure to their father nothing to do with genetic risk. That is, there is no known reason to expect that lead to differences in when the two sisters older sisters, as a group, are more at risk for certain genes than their younger got their first periods? The theory states sisters are. For example, imagine 100 families that have four children and a that the younger sisters should get their genetic risk for alcoholism. On average, the 100 firstborns of each family will periods first in the disrupted families but have the same genetic risk for alcoholism as the 100 secondborns, and so on. not in the intact families. The second question came out of previous earlier if they had been exposed in child- experiences. These limitations provide research, which suggests that a parent’s hood (typically the first 5 years of life) to important directions for future research. personal characteristics can change the a high-risk father, and then that father course of a child’s development. For ex- A Comparison: moved out of the house. ample, living with a father who displays International Adoption Studies high-risk behavior (e.g., a history of violence, These younger sisters got their first Research on girls from developing countries depression, imprisonment) often creates periods about a year early, compared to adopted into wealthy Western families bad results for children. The researchers their older sisters or other younger sisters sheds light on this study’s finding. These wondered whether the impact of dads on from disrupted families whose fathers girls regularly experience neglect, abuse, their daughters’ puberty might also depend did not display high-risk behaviors. disease, and poor nutrition before they are on the amount of high-risk behavior that In other words, the reason these girls got adopted. Yet they experience much earlier the dads engaged in. their periods earlier was not because puberty than children do from the same Findings they lived for different amounts of time countries of origin or their host countries. The answer to whether a sister’s age at first with any father. They reached puberty Further, girls who are older when they are menstruation changes based on how long earlier because they lived for different adopted (i.e., more than 2 years old) expe- she lived with her father is: It depends on amounts of time with a certain type of rience puberty at even younger ages. the type of father. father when they were young. The adoption studies indicate that, under As predicted, more time living without a Limitations very high stress conditions, girls’ bodies “shut down,” and their growth is stunted. dad in the home led to earlier puberty. Although this research highlights the role However, when the stressor is removed by That is, younger sisters in biologically- of high-risk fathers in regulating the sexual being adopted into stable families with disrupted families reached puberty earlier development of their daughters, limitations plenty of food and social support, some- than their older sisters did. No such trend should be noted. Foremost among them was thing happens to these girls. Their bodies emerged in biologically-intact families. the small sample size, which could have seem to respond to a window of reproduc- generated unreliable parameter estimates. However, this finding was moderated by tive opportunity. Similar to the effect of a The study also relied on recall of earlier the amount of deviant or antisocial be- high-risk father leaving the home, they life events, and these family memories havior displayed by the dads. Specifically, speed up puberty, as if to take advantage younger sisters only reached puberty could have been biased by time and life Puberty Changes continued on page F20 Family Focus Spring 2009 F17
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PUBERTY CHANGES continued from page F17 NCFR Report - A Member Forum of the dramatically improved situation. the amount of time his daughter lived with The NCFR Report is a member-written Some researchers say this phenomenon him had little effect on her first menstrua- quarterly newsletter designed to encourage occurs only during a “sensitive time period” tion. Only time spent with a father who member-to-member dialogue; to inform in development. Girls in early to middle showed deviant or antisocial behavior, colleagues about new research areas or to report early research findings and solicit childhood who transition from a very followed by his absence, put the daughter critique before submission to a professional stressful to a much less stressful home at risk for earlier puberty. journal. Through the Report, NCFR also environment may experience an important More important than the presence or builds our community by reporting on people, events and organizational news. acceleration of puberty. absence of a father is his behavior. It is not Implications for Practitioners enough simply to have a cardboard cut-out Unlike the content of our scholarly jour- of a father sitting on the couch. What he nals, the articles in Report have not been Parents and clinicians need to know that peer-reviewed. In the spirit of open debate stressors such as divorce and exposure to does in the family is critical. and academic freedom, NCFR Report is a high-risk fathers put girls at increased risk member forum for exchanging ideas. The during sensitive periods in their develop- This article summarizes the following opinions or findings expressed are those of ment. Girls’ experiences can result, on report: Tither, J. M., & Ellis, B. J. (2008). the author(s), which may or may not represent the official position of NCFR as average, in the speeding up of puberty by Impact of fathers on daughters’ age at an organization nor the prevailing scientific almost one year. That one-year accelera- menarche: A genetically and environ- consensus on the topic. tion increases girls’ risk of breast cancer by mentally controlled sibling study. De- Author email addresses are provided to 5%. It also makes it more difficult for them velopmental Psychology, 44, 1409-1420. encourage readers to offer comment to to manage the challenges of adolescence. For an overall review of the effects of writers. Members may access the content This research offers insight into the debate fathers, pheromones, and stress on girls’ of our scholarly journals on-line at pubertal development, see: Ellis, B.J. www.ncfr.org . To join NCFR, click on our over what type of parenting gives children convenient on-line membership application the most advantages in life. Is “perfect” (2004). Timing of pubertal maturation in at www.ncfr.org . Journalists with media parenting better for kids than “good girls: An integrated life history approach. inquiries are invited to contact Nancy enough” parenting is? In this study, when a Psychological Bulletin, 130, 920-958. Gonzalez at 763-231-2887 or via email at father functioned in the normative range, [email protected] for information on our scholarly research.
Announcing New Books Edited or Authored by NCFR Members! On the Bookshelf David C. Bell (2008), Constructing Social Theory, Rowman & Littlefield. Stacy & Brian Burd, Sue & Dean Liming, Kerry Stutzman & Dave Skudneski, and Jerilyn & Greg Thiel (2007), Preventative Main- tenance for Your Marriage: The Owner’s Manual for a Couples Group, Ketch Publishing http://www.ketchpublishing.com Monique Diderich (2008), Sibling Relationships in Step-Families: A Sociological Study, Mellen Press. Charles Hennon and Stephan Wilson, (Eds) (2008), Families in a Global Context. Routledge. Suzanne Smith, Raeann Hamon, Bron Ingoldsby, and J. Elizabeth Miller, (2009). Exploring Family Theories (2nd ed), Oxford University Press. Marlene S. Lobberecht, CFCS, CFLE and Maxine Hammonds-Smith, PhD., CFLE (2008), Bottom Line Quick Start for Emerging Entrepreneurs, Outskirts Press, Inc. William Marsiglio, (2008), Men on a Mission: Valuing Youth Work in Our Communities, Johns Hopkins University Press. Elizabeth van Acker (2008) Governments and Marriage Education Policy: Perspectives from the UK, Australia and the U.S., Palgrave Macmillan, Inc Basingstoke. On the Bookshelf is a news column intended to build community by letting colleagues know about new books by fellow members. Inclusion on this list does not constitute an endorsement by NCFR. To submit your book for consideration in the next On the Book- shelf column, at least one author must be an NCFR member and the book must have been published in 2007 or thereafter. Send your submission in the exact format of these listings to [email protected] .
N ATIONAL COUNCIL ON FAMILY RELATIONS 3989 Central Ave. N.E., Suite 550, Minneapolis, MN 55421 Phone: 763-781-9331 Fax: 763-781-9348 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.ncfr.org Copyright ©2009 by the National Council on Family Relations. One copy of any portion of this publication can be made for personal use. Additional reprints of this publication are available by contacting NCFR headquarters at the address above. Bulk rates available.
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