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A Study of Korea, Japan and the Republic of China

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A Study of Korea, Japan and the Republic of China View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by RMIT Research Repository CONFUCIAN HUMANISM as the Foundation of Human Rights and Economic Ethics: a Study of Korea, Japan and the Republic of China A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Calvin C. Lee Master of Public Policy (University of Melbourne) School of Global Studies, Social Science and Planning RMIT University April 2007 i ABSTRACT This study is about Confucian humanism as the foundation of human rights and economic ethics. The study covers the three industrial non-socialist nations of Confucian East-Asia, i.e., Korea, Japan and the Republic of China. The main research question lies in how Confucian humanism emerged as an enduring tradition, and how it impacts upon human rights and economic ethics of the three nations on their individual paths towards globalizing civil societies. There were three elements to the research strategy: (i) literature review, (ii) focus group discussions and (iii) documentation corroborations. The literature reviewed have been selected mostly from the scholarly works of the three nations and also drawn from those of non-Asian international scholars. Narrative data were obtained from the focus group discussions from the three sectors of discussants representing, firstly, academic- research groups, secondly, public policy groups and, lastly, the diverse practitioners in the public and private sectors. Altogether 54 people from the three nations shared expertise and interest in Confucianism, Confucian humanism and its implications for human rights and economic ethics. Documentation corroboration complemented what the focus groups expressed through their unstructured discussions. The study explores the origin of Confucianism and proceeds to examine how the Confucian philosophical tradition gave naissance to Confucian humanism as a living tradition. From Confucian humanism, the thesis proceeds to examine Confucian governance (ching shih) that remained the central theme of Confucian scholar- officialdom when the orthodox Confucianism was adopted as the state ideology. While the Confucian ideal of the ‘sagely sovereigns’ persists as an enduring governance model, complementary and alternative political views of more egalitarian inclinations such as of Mencius also take up a good part of the governance theme. The role of life long self- cultivation applicable to all from sovereigns down to commoners emerges as the foundation of character-building for respective societal roles within Confucian ethics and ii social ethos. The modern democratic institution of human rights emerged from the fertile demo-centric Confucian social psychology, but benefited directly from the Western institutional models. Discussions on the tradition of Confucianism and that of Confucian humanism progress through the important turning points throughout history. They are the Classic age of Confucius, the Neo-Confucian reformation, the Practical Learning sub-era of the Neo- Confucian era, and, finally, the contemporary Neo-Confucian era that provides intellectual responses to the modernization processes of the three nations. The discussions highlight that the Confucian tradition of ‘humanity’ that Confucius and his disciples formulated in the Classical age endured through the ages to modernity. They also point to the notion that Confucians pursued their intellectual, moral and aesthetic ideals to the highest possible level through the system of learning, philosophizing, and practicing in the tradition. The Confucian cosmology of the ‘human to nature’ nexus and the Confucian spirituality of cosmic immanence in the ‘self’ provide clues to the multi-layer structure of Confucian consciousness of self, selves and the greater self, namely society or the Heaven itself. The Neo-Confucian school of ‘mind and heart’ learning reinforced the inquiry into selves in nexus to nature and the universe. Religious tolerance and the adaptability of Confucianism have stood out as important qualities in the globalization of East-Asian values and ethos, i.e., Confucian ‘souls and decorum.’ Japan, as an island nation with a unique perception of its self-identity, employs Confucianism, still considered fundamentally as the philosophy of China, to reinforce the national identity without compromising the integrity of the Japanese tradition and sensitivity. Japanese aesthetic sensitivity would place aesthetic unity with nature on equal footing with that of moral unity with the world. Secularism and spirituality of Confucianism benefited from the peaceful co-existence amongst the three great philosophical traditions of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. The thesis as an inquiry into Confucian humanism as a living tradition concludes by answering the main research question and its three associated postulates. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ii Table of Contents iv Acknowledgement ivi Declaration ix CHAPTER 1: ABOUT THE THESIS 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1.1 Aims 2 1.1.2 Rationale 3 1.2 HUMAN RIGHTS AS AN EMBODIMENT OF CONFUCIAN HUMAN DIGNITY 3 1.3 ECONOMIC ETHICS AS AN AMPLIFICATION OF CONFUCIAN HUMAN RIGHTS 7 1.4 RESEARCH STRATEGY 9 1.5 ROADMAP OF THESIS 12 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION 13 2.2 CONFUCIUS, THE ANALECTS AND THE FOUNDATION OF CONFUCIANISM 14 2.2.1 Collective Intentionality 16 2.2.2 The Crowning Achievement of the Korean Neo-Confucian T’oegye 17 2.2.3 Self-cultivation and Humanism 18 2.3 CONFUCIAN HUMANISM 20 2.3.1 Confucian Humanity 20 2.3.2 Confucian and Mencian Humanism 22 2.3.3 Chung-Yung (The Doctrine of the Mean): 'Superior Personhood, Community of Trust and Sincerity’ 25 2.3.4 Confucianism and its Encounter with Taoism and Mahayana Buddhism 29 2.3.5 I Ching: Source of Imagination for Confucian Creativity 32 2.4 CONFUCIAN GOVERNANCE 36 2.4.1 Governance: ‘Sovereign as a Sage’ Ideal 36 2.4.2 Legalism: An Alternative to Confucian and Mencian Views 37 2.4.3 School of Great Unity (Universal Commonwealth) 39 2.4.4 Confucian ‘Power-Knowledge’ (‘governmentality’), Hierarchy and Governance 40 2.5 CONFUCIAN REFORMATION: REDISCOVERY AND PRACTICAL LEARNING 42 2.5.1 Chang Tsai and the Coming of Neo-Confucianism 42 2.5.2 Chu Hsi: Reformation and Integration into Neo-Confucianism 45 2.5.3 The ‘Lu-Wang School’: a Major Challenge to Chu Hsi’ Orthodoxy of Neo-Confucianism 50 2.5.4 Wang Yang-ming and ‘the School of Yang-ming’ 52 2.5.5 Practical Learning: Sirhak in Yi dynasty Korea and Inculturation in Tokugawa Era 56 2.6 CONFUCIAN HUMANISM AND HUMAN RIGHTS 65 2.6.1 Confucian Humanism and Political Thought 65 2.6.2 Confucian Human Rights, Rule of Law and Constitutionalism 73 2.7 CONFUCIAN HUMANISM, ECONOMIC ETHICS AND ECOLOGY 81 2.8 CONCLUSION 90 CHAPTER 3: CONFUCIAN HUMANISM, HUMAN RIGHTS AND ECONOMIC ETHICS: DISCUSSANTS’ VIEWS 3.1 INTRODUCTION 97 iv 3.2 CONFUCIANISM AS THE COMMONLY EMBRACED PHILOSOPHY OF EAST-ASIA 98 3.2.1 On the Diverse Identities of Korean Confucians 98 3.2.2 Confucian Influence over Education in Korea 100 3.2.3 Existing Confucian Institutions in Metropolitan and Provincial Korea 101 3.2.4 Religious Embeddedness of Confucianism: 'Christians Without, Confucians Within'? 103 3.2.5 Confucian Influence over Education in Japan 104 3.2.6 The Confucian Family and the Japanese Civil Code 106 3.2.7 Confucian Context of Japaneseness: Literary Aesthetics and Nihonjinron 108 3.2.8 From the Almighty Sacred to the Secular and Symbolic Tennōsei (emperorship) 115 3.2.9 On the Diverse and Deep-rooted Confucian Identity of the Republic of China (aka Taiwan) 118 3.2.10 Contemporary Neo-Confucian ‘Transcendental Intuition’ and Mahayana Buddhism 122 3.2.11 ‘Ascendant’ Confucian ‘Tao’ and Aesthetics 123 3.2.12 Confucianism and Western World Views: Understanding and Misunderstanding 125 3.3 CONFUCIAN HUMANISM 130 3.3.1 Confucian Humanism in Contemporary Korea 130 3.3.2 Confucian Humanism in Contemporary Japan 137 3.3.3 Confucian Humanism in Contemporary Republic of China (aka Taiwan) 147 3.4 CONFUCIAN GOVERNANCE AND HUMAN RIGHTS 149 3.4.1 Confucian Governance and Human Rights in Korea 150 3.4.2 Confucian Governance and Human Rights Observance in Japan 158 3.4.3 Confucian Governance and Human Rights in the Republic of China 169 3.5 CONFUCIAN HUMANISM AND ECONOMIC ETHICS 178 3.6 GLOBAL CONFUCIAN HUMANISM 187 3.7 CONCLUSION 201 CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 4.1 INTRODUCTION 203 4.2 CONFUCIANISM AS THE COMMON PHILOSOPHY 203 4.2.1 Multi-levels of Cultures and Consciousness embedded as Confucianism 203 4.2.2 Confucian Collective Consciousness and Intentionality 205 4.2.3 Education and its Centrality to Confucianism 206 4.3 CONFUCIAN HUMANISM 207 4.3.1 Confucian ‘Structure’ of Consciousness 207 4.3.2 Confucian Transcendental Intuition and Interactions with Taoism and Buddhism 209 4.3.3 Confucian Aesthetics and Signification 209 4.4 CONFUCIAN GOVERNANCE AND HUMAN RIGHTS 210 4.4.1 Governance Ideal within the 'Great Learning' Framework 211 4.4.2 Evolution of Confucian Governance and Human Rights 212 4.4.3 Evolution of Human Rights and Confucian Gender Equality as an Unfinished Project 214 4.4.4 Confucian Governance and the Challenges of Reform: Human Rights in the New Millennia 215 4.5 CONFUCIAN HUMANISM AND ECONOMIC ETHICS 216 4.6 CONFUCIAN HUMANISM AND GLOBALIZING CIVIL SOCIETY 218 4.7 CONCLUSION 219 CHAPTER 5 : SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSIONS 5.1 INTRODUCTION 222 5.2 SYNTHESIS AND RESEARCH FINDINGS 223 5.2.1 Research Findings on Confucianism as the Common Philosophy of the Three Nations 224 5.2.1 (a)
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