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Resumé The Concept of L’approche herméneutique du présent ar- ticle intègre une interprétation transcul- the Manifestation turelle des symboles et des métaphores, of God in Chinese qui permet de faire une « fusion des horizons » entre les civilisations fondées Symbolism: An sur des patrimoines culturels différents. L’idée selon laquelle des symboles appar- Inter-civilizational emment incompatibles peuvent avoir une signification sous-jacente commune per- Hermeneutic Study met d’établir des liens entre des visions du monde et des perspectives générale- ment perçues comme incommensurables, AMROLLAH HEMMAT en l’occurrence entre le concept bahá’í de la Manifestation de Dieu et les concepts Abstract philosophiques et religieux chinois corre- spondants. L’auteur démontre que certains This article’s hermeneutic approach ac- éléments de la tradition chinoise trouvent commodates transcultural interpretation une résonnance profonde dans le concept of symbols and metaphors, providing for bahá’í de la Manifestation de Dieu. a “fusion of horizons” between civiliza- tions with different cultural heritage. The Resumen idea that seemingly incompatible symbols El enfoque hermenéutico de este artículo can be allusions to a common underly- acomoda la interpretación transcultural ing meaning makes it possible to develop de símbolos y metáforas, proveyendo una connections between worldviews and per- “fusión de horizontes” entre civilizaciones spectives commonly considered incom- con diferente patrimonio cultural. La idea mensurable, in our case between the Bahá’í que símbolos aparentemente incompati- concept of the Manifestation of God and bles pueden ser alusiones a un significado corresponding Chinese philosophical and común subyacente, hace posible desarrol- religious concepts. This paper demon- lar conexiones entre perspectivas mun- strates that there are elements of the Chi- diales y perspectivas comúnmente con- nese tradition that resonate deeply with sideradas inconmensurables, en nuestro the Bahá’í notion of the Manifestation of caso, entre el concepto bahá’í de la Man- God.1 ifestación de Dios y los conceptos chinos filosóficos y religiosos correspondientes. 1 I would like to express my deep ap- Este ensayo demuestra que hay elementos preciation to The Journal of Bahá’í Stud- de la tradición china que resuenan profun- ies editorial committee and reviewers, damente con la noción bahá’í de la Mani- and in particular to John S. Hatcher, for festación de Dios. their careful review of this article, valu- able feedback, and improvements, as well constructive suggestions, and to other col- as to my brother Ehsanollah Hemmat, laborators who assisted me in my research and my son Kaveh Hemmat for providing of the Chinese sources. 56 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016

INTRODUCTION the prophet or Manifestation of God holds a unique station, a state of being It is a common belief that the con- impossible for even the most perfect cept of prophets of God that exists human to attain. in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Likewise, the term Perfect Man (zhi the Bahá’í Faith is essentially foreign ren) is found in the Chinese classics3 to the Chinese tradition and is incom- and conveys both of these meanings: patible with its long-held beliefs and the ideal model of perfection for a unique culture. We argue in this article mystic, and a sage holding a station that the Bahá’í concept of “the Mani- unreachable by human beings. The festation of God” (mazhar-i-iláhí) can term Perfect Man is the most accurate be observed in certain aspects of the equivalent, according to Carl Jung symbolism found in Chinese classics, (293) and Izutsu (4), for various Chi- language, and culture. If proven, this nese concepts of a sage, a saint, or a hypothesis may well lead us to the “sacred man” (sheng ren), and the “true conclusion that the concept of the man” (zhen ren). Manifestations of God as discussed As we explore such Chinese des- in the Bahá’í Writings most likely also ignations in this paper, we will see has existed in ancient China. that—similar to what we observe in We begin our search by introduc- the Bahá’í Writings—the Perfect Man ing a philosophical term used both in and equivalent terms used in Chinese Bahá’í Writings and in Chinese texts. classics share the characteristics as- The term “Perfect Man” (insán-i-kámil) sociated with the notion of the Man- is a mystical term in Islamic and Bahá’í ifestation of God (in addition to their literature symbolizing a being with the mystical meaning). loftiest level of spiritual perfections.2 The Bahá’í Writings make clear The Perfect Man thus becomes the that the term Perfect Man, when re- standard for human progress, a mod- ferring to the station of the Manifes- el the mystic wayfarer should strive tation of God, denotes a station un- to emulate. This term is also used in attainable by ordinary human beings. the Islamic texts and in the Bahá’í ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains: “But from the Writings (‘Abdu’l-Bahá 114) to denote beginning which has no beginning, the prophets or the Manifestations of to the end which has no end, a Perfect God. But there is a difference between Manifestation always exists. This Man the Perfect Man of mysticism and the of Whom we speak is not every man; Perfect Man as a prophet. Whereas we mean the Perfect Man” (196). The mystics believe in the possibility for Báb makes this distinction clear in His the wayfarer to become a Perfect Man, emphatic statement: “I am the Primal Point from which have been generated 2 See ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions 237. 3 For example, in Texts II 13.. The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 57 all created things. . . . The substance Indeed Chinese philosophers have wherewith God hath created Me is not offered moral and ethical teachings the clay out of which others have been that they believe, if practiced, will formed. He hath conferred upon Me solve the problems facing human- that which the worldly-wise can never kind. The importance of education, comprehend, nor the faithful discover” harmony, justice and equity, filial (qtd. in Shoghi Effendi, 126). Accord- piety, moderation, detachment, col- ingly, Manifestations of God hold a laborative spirit—even sacrificing station that is absolutely unattainable, for community and society at large— even by the wise and saintly. and a vision of universal brother- The central question we address hood are among such teachings.5 in this paper is whether or not the In other words, one might under- concept of the Manifestation of God standably conclude that in China the can be located in Chinese culture. Chi- function of divinely appointed proph- nese civilization, differing in many ets has been fulfilled by philosophers ways from the civilizations residing who, Chinese often believe, can play to its West, is commonly understood the same role in the future. to be devoid of the concepts of an The perspective on this issue from anthropomorphic God, prophets, and Bahá’í beliefs is antithetical to this related notions that are observed in idea—the Bahá’í teachings assert that, the Abrahamic religions (such as Juda- since the beginning of humankind, all ism, Christianity, Islam, or the Bahá’í people have been in need of and have Faith). Contemporary Chinese gener- benefited from the guidance of the ally consider these concepts foreign Manifestations of God. In the Qur’án to them. Prominent modern historian 10:47 we find the axiomatic assertion, of Chinese philosophy Fung Yu-lan4 “And every people hath had its apostle” believes there is a fundamental differ- (Rodwell 127). In a 4 October 1950 ence between the Chinese civilization letter written on behalf of Shoghi and the cultures in which religion is Effendi, we find a reply to a question dominant and that the role played by raised by an individual believer that the theistic concept of “prophets” in should answer why, if this premise other cultures has been played by “phi- is valid, we do not find in the Bahá’í losophers” in China. He asserts, “In Writings any extensive references to the world of the future, man will have non-Semitic or Asiatic prophets: “The philosophy in the place of religion. only reason there is not more mention This is consistent with Chinese tradi- of the Asiatic prophets is because their tion” (10). names seem to be lost in the mists of ancient history. Buddha is mentioned 4 As Chinese names are rendered, the last name appears before the first name 5 See Chew 97–116 and related throughout this paper. chapters. 58 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016 and Zoroaster in our scriptures—both may be expressed in diverse linguistic non-Jewish prophets or non-Semitic and non-linguistic forms, in dissimilar prophets. We are taught there always metaphors and visual images. In spite have been Manifestations of God, but of these distinctions, they sometimes we do not have any record of their allude to the same abstract concept or names” (qtd. in Hornby 381–82). meaning, and with this understanding While in this statement issued on we are able to locate symbols in the behalf of Shoghi Effendi there is no Chinese culture that allude to the con- mention of Confucius, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, cept of the Perfect Man in the Bahá’í addressing the subject of “dependent” Writings. By examining such symbols and “independent” prophets, elucidates and performing a cultural translation that “Confucius renewed the ancient of them, we can thus observe the ap- conducts and morals,” in contrast to pearance of this concept in unique Buddha, who “established a new reli- Chinese forms. gion” (188). Regardless of the station and mission of specific saintly figures THE “PERFECT MAN” in China’s past, Shoghi Effendi con- IN CHINESE CULTURE siders China a country “which ranks foremost among all nations in materi- We should keep in mind the difference al, cultural, and spiritual resources and between the term “Perfect Man” as potentialities” (qtd. in Chew 37). used in this paper and other saintly We can conclude that based on the figures or categories of pious or noble Bahá’í point of view, it is almost cer- people who, through their own effort, tain that Manifestations of God have achieve a relative state of spiritual per- existed in China and its associated fection. Whereas the designation of civilizations, such as Japan and Korea, Perfect Man normally employed in the that share in many ways similar per- Bahá’í Writings alludes to those Who spectives on religion and philosophy. are inherently perfect expressions of Indeed, our exploration of this subject Godliness, albeit manifest to us initial- will demonstrate that the concept of ly by Their association with a human the Manifestation of God is not for- persona, They have not acquired Their eign to China, especially if we consider spiritual qualities through effort, culti- a cultural translation of symbols re- vation of self, or learning. lated to Chinese philosophical beliefs. In the Chinese classics we come In order to pursue such a cultural across designations and terms used translation, we will focus on the func- for people who are spiritual, saintly, tion a symbol performs in a specific and morally superior—not inherently culture in order to determine whether so, but through effort. They became or not it is equivalent to the function of superior by attaining piety through a similar or even completely different learning and through spiritual prac- symbol in another culture. Symbols tices. Likewise, great educators such as The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 59

Confucius were aspiring to instill mor- word is composed of two parts, one al and ethical attributes in their pupils. meaning “ear” and the other meaning The word jun zi, or “superior man,” “manifest,” “disclose,” or “reveal.” Ear appears 107 times in Confucius’s Ana- represents hearing and understanding lects (Chan 15). Because such a person “the Way of Heaven.” Sheng is the one has attained this station through ac- who understands the “Mandate of cumulated effort, it is clear that, from Heaven” (tian ming) (Taylor 12) and this perspective, an ordinary individ- subsequently manifests, or discloses, ual can become a superior man (134). it to humanity. In Taylor’s words, “If In contrast, the concept of the Perfect there is a significance to the meaning Man we are searching for in the Chi- of this phonetic, then the sage is he nese tradition does not refer to ordi- who hears the Way of Heaven and in nary people who are superior due to addition manifests or reveals it to hu- their learning and effort but to Figures mankind” (24). Thus, if sheng has the personifying the Bahá’í concept of the ability to understand God’s Will and Manifestation of God, the matchless reveal the Way of Heaven to humanity, representative of God in the world this figure serves as an intermediary Who functions as an intermediary be- between Heaven and humankind—as tween God and creation. is the case with the notion of the Man- What we discover as we study Chi- ifestation of God in the Bahá’í Faith. nese texts is that the concept of the Sage (sheng) in Confucian texts Manifestation of God is not absent in is a designation primarily assigned Chinese tradition. In ancient Chinese to ancient sage-kings (sheng wang) texts, the terms “sage” (sheng) or “sage of the Shang and early Zhou dynas- person” (sheng ren) resemble this con- ties of China (Taylor 23). The Shang cept. Sheng is the one who understands dynasty ruled from around the eigh- “the Way of Heaven” (tian Dao) and teenth century to the twelfth century manifests it to humanity. Heaven (tian, BCE, and the Zhou dynasty from the “sky”) in Chinese tradition has been a twelfth to the third century BCE. symbol for the supreme, omnipotent, The period of the Shang dynasty is and omnipresent power (Wilhelm marked by a strong religious charac- 35). For centuries the term “Heaven” ter of the society, including the belief referred only to God and not to sky in an anthropomorphic God (Chan 3). (Chew 211–12). In that sense, “the In Confucian classics, the sage-kings Way of Heaven” manifested through of the Shang and Zhou dynasties are sheng represents God’s Will, or the referred to as models of conduct for manner in which God wills creation to humanity (Taylor 23–25). Two leg- come into being. endary sage-emperors, Yao and Shun, The pictographic character (writ- living in the third millennium BCE ten form) of the Chinese word sheng (Chan xv), are often cited in Chinese supports such an understanding. The classics, and the attributes assigned to 60 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016 legendary sage-emperors like Yao and before 1,000 BCE), believed that sage- Shun resemble the Bahá’í concept of kings ruled by divine appointment and the Manifestation of God. thus represented the Will of Heaven However, in Confucian doctrine it (tian ming). These sages were the only seems that despite being designated ones who had a “direct apprehension “the Son of Heaven” (tian zi), the sage- of the Way of Heaven” (Taylor 41). king possesses his unique station only In contrast, centuries later, in the fifth as long as he remains virtuous (Taylor century BCE, Confucius emphasized 12). In that sense, sage-kings are not education and taught that all men are inherently infallible or perfect, from similar in nature and only become a Confucian viewpoint. In general, different through enlightenment and attributing a unique divine status to the sage-kings, a station unreachable effort (227). by ordinary people, has been debatable At the same time, he alluded to the and unsettled, as we will discuss in the sages of antiquity as special beings following pages. who were superior to ordinary human beings. He stated that he himself is DEBATES ON THE STATION not at the level of such “sacred men” OF SAGE-KINGS (sheng ren, or sage) (Izutsu 430). To Confucius, sages were limited to Yao, In ancient Chinese texts, a special and Shun, and Yu (Taylor 41). With re- unique station has been explicitly or spect to Confucius’s classic The Ana- implicitly ascribed to sage-kings. Yao lects, Taylor writes, “What is partic- and his successor Shun are highly re- ularly apparent in the context of the vered. Similarly, Yu of the second mil- Analects is the separation of the sage lennium BCE, the king who saved the from the capacities of ordinary per- country from devastating floods by sons. There is no attempt to suggest diverting water to the sea, is revered that one can reach the state of sage- as a sage-king in Chinese texts (Chan hood” (41). Therefore, although Con- 76). Yet, can ordinary people become like the sage-kings Yao and Shun? fucius emphasized education, he also Did Heaven endow these figures with believed in the existence, in ancient unique and extraordinary powers and times, of sages with a unique station perfections that ordinary people lack? beyond the reach of ordinary people, Let us explore these questions as they a station that is impossible to achieve appear in some of the major schools through effort and education. Howev- of Chinese philosophy from ancient er, subsequent Confucian philosophers times to the present. debated this viewpoint.

CONFUCIANISM IDEALISTIC CONFUCIANISM

The ancient Chinese, especially before In contrast to Confucius himself, the Zhou dynasty (i.e., approximately Mencius—Confucian philosopher of The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 61 the fourth century BCE— seems to sage and I are the same in kind” (55). have taken an uncertain position on Overall, Mencius’s emphasis on this matter. On the one hand, he as- the goodness of human nature led signs a unique station to the sages. He him to differ from Confucius with re- maintains that sages like Yao and Shun gard to the station of the sage-kings. are “the ultimate standard of human Whereas Confucius saw sage-kings as relations” (Chan 73) and that their perfect models that one could not fully example should be followed by all rul- emulate, Mencius was more optimistic ers: “Never has one fallen into error, about human potential. Mencius’s ide- who followed the laws of the ancient alism paved the way for the Neo-Con- kings” (Legge, Works of Mencius 289). fucians of later centuries who strove Mencius does not see sage-kings for the full realization of human po- only as perfect exemplars for people. tential. Neo-Confucians were deter- He assigns to them a unique station. mined “not to stop learning until they He points out that only sages can be- become equal to sages” (Taylor 43). come perfect models for humanity. He Therefore, Confucius’s emphasis on declares that only the sage can put education takes an idealistic form in the nature endowed by Heaven into Mencius’s philosophy. Under Men- full use (80). Additionally, Mencius cius’s influence the Neo-Confucians’ believes that the sages possess special humanism holds considerable faith in capabilities and unique powers that the ordinary human being’s capacity. cause the transformation of other But although agreeing on the point people. He mentions that “there is a of human capacity, not all Confucian sense of wonder in the sage’s pres- philosophers were so positive about ence” (qtd. in Taylor 42). Also, on one human nature, as we will discuss next. occasion, he differentiates between those who, by nature, were true sages, REALISTIC CONFUCIANISM like the sage-kings Yao and Shun, and those kings who through personal cul- Xunzi,6 a philosopher of the third cen- tivation practiced humanity and righ- tury BCE, is called a realist or natural- teousness (Chan 80). In fact he wished ist Confucian, as opposed to Mencius, that a true sage would appear again who was an idealist Confucian. While (Legge, Works of Mencius 192). Mencius believed all people are born On the other hand, however, Men- good, Xunzi believed human nature cius does not necessarily suggest that is inherently evil in the beginning people do not have the capacity to be- and thus human beings would need come sages. He believes all men are to strive to overcome this base nature. born with the potential for being good. However, they both believed in the per- He is known as effectively saying that fectibility of human beings and that all all men can become sage-kings (Chan 133 footnote). Thus he states, “The 6 Hsun Tzu. 62 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016 people could become perfect through Other Confucian philosophers—name- education and practice (Chan 115). ly Neo-Confucians—adopted a similar In spite of Xunzi’s stand on the stand. original evil nature of human beings, he believed that everyone has the fac- NEO-CONFUCIANISM ulty to discern virtues, as well as the capacity to practice them. Therefore, Neo-Confucianism is the continuation if one studied and practiced day after of idealistic Confucianism, especially day and persisted in acquiring virtues, the mystical ideas of Mencius (Fung eventually he could “be as wise as 440), but it is influenced by both gods, and form a trinity with Heaven Taoism and Buddhism. Neo-Con- and Earth” (134). Xunzi concludes, fucians assigned a special status to “Thus the sage is a man who has the human species. Zhou Dunyi,7 reached this state through accumulat- the philosopher of the eleventh cen- ed effort” (134). tury CE who laid the foundations for On the other hand, Xunzi considers Neo-Confucianism, writes, “It is man this philosophical position only hypo- alone who receives (the Five Agents8) thetical. Giving the example of sage- in their highest excellence, and there- king Yu, he points out that no one has fore he is the most intelligent. His actually become a sage like him: “It is physical form appears and his spirit possible for every man in the street to develops consciousness” (Chan 463). become Yu, but it does not follow that According to Zhou Dunyi, inasmuch every man in the street is able actually as human beings possess the most to do so. However, the fact that he is perfect natural composition, they have not able actually to do so does not de- the potential to become sages. In his stroy the possibility of his doing so. It context, he poses the question as to is possible for a man with feet to walk whether sagehood can be learned or all over the world, and yet so far there acquired, and he replies that it can be. has not been any who is able actually He asserts, “Being clear and penetrat- to do so” (134). ing, impartial and all-embracing, one Thus, while Xunzi considers his is almost [a sage]” (de Bary 678). idea that everyone can become a sage But again, do we infer this conclu- as purely hypothetical, he has still sion to imply that Zhou Dunyi does been recognized for holding the posi- not assign a unique station to sages? tion that everyone has the faculty to He describes the distinct and enigmat- acquire knowledge of those virtues ic character of the transformation that possessed by sage-kings, as well as the capacity to acquire them (133). 7 Chou Tun-I Indeed, his maxim, “Any man in the 8 “Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, and street can become Yu,” has been of- Earth” (Chan 463), representing elemen- ten cited by Chinese philosophers. tal qualities in existence. The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 63

takes place through the agency of the words elaborate and beautiful” (550). sage: “As the Way of heaven operates, Clearly this type of learning that is all things are in harmony. As the vir- not an accumulation of knowledge but tue of the sage-ruler is cultivated [in rather stems from one’s heart resem- people9], all people are transformed. bles the mystical perspective of tread- The great harmony and great trans- ing the spiritual path by the wayfarer. formation leave no trace, and no one Yet, Neo-Confucianism did not par- knows how they come to be: This is ticularly prescribe mystical practices called spirit. Therefore, the foundation or the pursuit of ecstatic experiences of the multitudes lies in one per- for achieving the station of sagehood. son. . . .” (Chan 470). Yet, regardless of At the same time, like Taoism— the importance Zhou Dunyi assigns to the mystical tradition of China— the mysterious transformative agency Neo-Confucianism took the position of the sage, he—like the Neo-Confu- that anyone could become a sage, the cians who followed him—seems to be- Perfect Man. Neo-Confucianism pre- lieve that everyone has the potential to scribed education for such purpose, in become a sage. contrast to Taoism, which emphasized In a Neo-Confucian text of the spiritual cultivation, detachment, and eleventh century CE written by the purification of oneself. philosophers Cheng Yi and his broth- To summarize, Confucianism, er Cheng Hao, we come across spec- including the idealist, realist, and ulations on the aforementioned Men- Neo-Confucian variations of it, em- cius’s position on the sage-kings like phasized education. Confucius himself Yao and Shun. Mencius believed that was primarily an educator, albeit by these sage-kings were born with the some assumed to be a sage. Confucian knowledge of good, while ordinary philosophers revered sages as person- people needed to acquire such knowl- ages unique and rare in history, pos- edge through learning and effort. The sessing a station higher than normal Cheng brothers confirm that sage- human beings. But they believed that, kings Yao and Shun possessed an in- at least in principle, every individual nate knowledge from birth that others could be educated and become a sage. lack. At the same time they believe it The idea of cultivating one’s nature in is possible for people to achieve the order to become equal to sages gave a station of sagehood through learn- mystical flavor to Confucianism (Tay- ing. However, this learning should be lor 45). Mystics generally believe that through the exploration of their inner through purification of the self one being, not through outward learning can attain the station of the Perfect or by “effortful memorization, clever Man, and this is very similar to what style, and elegant diction making their we observe in Taoism.

9 Words in brackets are my additions. 64 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016

TAOISM or the knowledge acquired through formal education. Indeed, strenuous Taoism is as ancient as Confucianism. exercises of the mind, sophisticated Like Confucianism, Taoism has been planning, and complex strategies of a mainstream philosophical doctrine civilization are viewed with suspi- and, additionally, a religious practice in cion in Taoism. Instead, simplicity is China. Dao (Tao), literally “the Way,” valued. is the transcendent reality through Taoism is thus more of a mystical which the universe was generated, tradition focusing on the spiritual de- exists, and is sustained (Bowker 950). velopment of the individual, in con- Accordingly, the material world is giv- trast to Confucianism, which is more en life and is sustained by the non-ma- concerned with education, order, and terial transcendent Dao. upholding social customs and tradi- However, the distinction between tions. As a reaction to Confucianism’s the material existence and the tran- emphasis on education and refinement scendent Dao is not definite. Dao is not of society through traditions, laws, of the physical realm; it is supreme, and governance, Taoism accentuates heavenly, supernatural, and beyond the individual’s inherent innocence understanding. At the same time, the and natural growth and development. Dao of a thing and that thing itself From a Western perspective, we can are not entirely separate. Materiality discern in this antithesis the same is not insulated from spiritual reality, contrast we find between the Age of nor is the heavenly distant or entirely Enlightenment’s regard for reason and distinct from the corporal. As such, order and the Romantic regard for in- nature holds a special place in Taoism, tuition and the purity of the “natural and, at times, the transcendent Dao man.” (i.e., Heaven) and nature coalesce into Thus, Taoism objected strongly a single entity. to artificial controls and the burden This Taoistic perspective about of elaborate laws and regulations. It reality contains implications about considered them ineffective, at times how one should live life. Although the harmful, and only temporary cures notion that human beings possess a for society’s ills. On the contrary, it corrupt or base nature that needs to be deemed spiritual cultivation of individ- controlled and tamed exists in Taoism, uals as the only permanent and truly the emphasis in the Taoist philosophy effective remedy. Taoists tension with is on the need for human beings to the principle of administration of laws follow the way or path of nature; the and governance has been particularly wisdom inherent in the laws of nature noted and, at times, harshly criticized should be studied and heeded. Similar- by non-Taoist Chinese philosophers. ly, in Taoism, one’s intuition possesses In relation to the concept of the a higher value or power than reason sage-king, it should be no surprise that The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 65

Taoism as a mystical philosophy felt point of view regarding the concept very comfortable with the notion of of the sage-king, Izutsu observes, “It the “sage” but not with the idea of the is interesting to remark in this con- “king.” Taoism cherished spiritual de- nection that in the Tao Te Ching10 velopment and mystical practices but the ‘sacred man’ is spoken of as the was not comfortable with concepts of supreme ruler of a state, or ‘king’, and administration and ruling. As we will that this equation (Saint=King) is made see, although the idea of the sage-king as if it were a matter of common sense, is strongly present in Taoist texts, cer- something to be taken for granted” tain Taoist philosophers extolled the (301). sagely aspect of the sage-king while The unique station of the sage- largely rejecting or even despising the kings is also addressed in a text11 “kingly” aspects of this figure. written by Wenzi (Wen-Tzu), re- putedly a pupil of Laozi (Bodde LOA TZU AND CHUANG TZU 288). He attributes most of the text to Laozi, but he might have actual- In order to examine the notion of the ly written it himself (Cleary vii).12 sage-king in the light of Taoism, let Wenzi makes a direct relationship us briefly review the teachings of two between Heaven and the sage-kings. greatest philosophers of Taoism, Laozi Heaven is a symbol for the divine, the (Lao Tzu) and Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu). transcendent reality of Dao. Its man- Laozi is commonly believed to be the date, the Way of Heaven, is propagat- founder of Taoism. According to leg- ed by the Sons of Heaven, the sage- end, he met Confucius and conversed kings: “Emperors are called offspring with him. Dao De Jing, the classic work of heaven insofar as they establish the attributed to him, is well known as the world by means of the Way of heaven” essential Taoist canon. Zhuangzi, who (123). Additionally, Wenzi praises the lived in the third century BCE, is con- sage-rulers, as they govern through sidered by some to be even more im- spiritual means: “Only those who rule portant than Laozi. His highly mystical, by spiritual influence are impossible to metaphorical, and imaginative passages overcome” (147). are well known and often quoted by the Chinese people. But to continue our theme, let us review what these two 10 Dao De Jing. philosophers thought in relation to the 11 Thomas Cleary, trans., Wen-Tzu, problematic of the sage-king. Understanding the Mysteries, Further Teach- Laozi considers the “sacred man” ings of Lao-Tzu. (the sage) equivalent to Dao (Izut- 12 It was a common practice in old su 407). He also uses the term “Em- China for the authors to attribute their peror” for Dao, or, as Izutsu puts it, own work to another well-known and re- for God (388). In relation to Laozi’s spected personality (Cleary vii). 66 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016

In Wenzi’s text we see that spiritual hardhearted and unyielding interven- reality has priority over the material tions accomplish through complex de- reality. Wenzi praises the sage-kings’ signs and governance. sacrifice of their material and physical This perplexing contradiction wellbeing: “Shen-nung was haggard, in Zhuangzi’s attitude toward sage- Yao was emaciated, Shun was burnt kings—on the one hand praising them black, Yu was callused” (122). This and on the other hand criticizing them— aspect of personal sacrifice is partic- is probably intentional on his part. That ularly noteworthy because the great is, Zhuangzi is making exaggerations in philosopher Zhuangzi found sacrificial order to underscore his philosophy of struggles of the sage-kings in conflict natural and childlike simplicity, sponta- with his Taoist philosophy, as we will neity, and non-action. He goes as far as discuss next. saying, “Yao killed his eldest son, and The prominent Taoist philoso- Shun banished his half-brother,” both pher Zhuangzi occasionally praises of which are believed to be exaggerated the two sage-kings Yao and Shun, as claims and misrepresentations (Legge, they were in natural harmony with Texts II 178). Heaven; they were not concerned In general, in Zhuangzi’s texts we with the worldly advantages, and they come across exaggerations, allegories, practiced the Taoist way of ruling.13 metaphors, and imaginative narra- But he is not consistent in his judg- tives that, if taken literally, certainly ments. More frequently, he criticizes divert us from the point the author is them for having devised administra- trying to make. One needs to take his tion and laws, developed plans, accom- particular philosophical context into plished complicated tasks, punished consideration in order to understand the guilty, and exerted intensive en- his texts; he is dealing with mystical deavors, even sacrificial ones (Legge, concepts that by nature cannot be ex- Texts I 295, Texts II 171), all of which plained objectively or in a clear and are at least symbolically in conflict precise manner. with the naturalistic and passive wu But to understand Zhuangzi’s po- wei (non-action) principle of Zhuang- sition on the sages we cannot limit zi’s mystical philosophy. According to ourselves to his references to Yao and the Taoist doctrine of “non-action,” Shun. Along with his occasional praise one should let nature take its course and, more frequently, his scorn of the and not interfere with it because historical sage-kings Yao and Shun, simple and effortless actions are in Zhuangzi uses various terms to re- harmony with the natural flow of af- fer to people with an especially high fairs and produce better results than spiritual nature, at times defining a hierarchy for their stations. These var- 13 See James Legge, Texts of Taoism I ious titles and designations as a whole pp. 225 and 338, and II pp. 31 and 183. resemble the aforementioned principle The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 67 of the Perfect Man (insán-i-kámil), The blind have no perception of particularly as the concept was em- the beauty of elegant figures, nor, ployed by the Islamic mystical school the deaf of the sounds of bells of Sufism. and drums. . . . That man, with For instance, Zhuangzi ascribes those attributes, though all things imaginary supernatural attributes and were one mass of confusion, and powers to an exceptional exemplar he he heard in that condition the labels the “spirit-like man” (shen ren). whole world crying out to him His spirit-like man is an ideal model to be rectified, would not have for humanity, possessing an excep- to address himself laboriously tionally high spiritual station. He is to the task, as if it were his busi- so lofty that he is capable of creating ness to rectify the world. Nothing sage-kings like Yao and Shun. could hurt that man: the greatest Noted Scottish sinologist, James floods, reaching to the sky, could Legge, composes a list of the high- not drown him, nor would he feel ly imaginative statements made by the fervour of the greatest heats Zhuangzi about the spirit-like man melting metals and stones till and his miraculous abilities. He ob- they flowed, and scorching all the serves that the spirit-like man is “a ground and hills. From the dust ‘Spirit,’ ‘the Blessed and only Poten- and chaff of himself he could tate,’ ‘Who covereth Himself with still mould and fashion Yao and light as with a garment, Who stretch- Shuns; how should he be willing eth out the heavens as a curtain, Who to occupy himself with things. layeth the beams of His chambers in (Legge, Texts I 171) the waters, Who maketh the clouds His chariot, Who walketh on the As we see, the spirit-like man in wings of the wind,’ ‘who rideth on a Zhuangzi’s passage holds a very high cherub,’ ‘who inhabiteth eternity’”14 station, considerably higher than (Texts I 127–28). the station of the ancient sage-kings In Zhuangzi’s text we come across Yao and Shun. He rectifies the world an unusual description uttered by a through the irresistible transforma- madman (a recluse) about the spir- tive power of the Dao, a power that it-like man. The person who recounts comes naturally to him and seems to the madman’s words says he is fright- emanate from him. ened by these statements that he does According to Zhuangzi, sages pos- not believe correspond to reality. But sess far-reaching transformative pow- after he expresses his disbelief in such ers, but they do not ascribe them to things about the spirit-like man, he re- themselves. The source of their trans- ceives the following reply: formative power remains hidden. As a result, people do not recognize their 14 Legge’s source for these is not clear. unique connection to Heaven, their 68 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016

matchless and exalted station. About he is) may not be acknowledged and the intelligent (enlightened15) kings his name not established; we have in (ming wang) Zhuangzi writes, him what is called ‘The Great Man’”16 (Legge, Texts II 105). In the governing of the intelligent Sages are not like ordinary human kings, their services overspread beings; therefore, Zhuangzi calls them all under the sky, but they did not “abnormal.” The “Perfect Man” of seem to consider it as proceeding Zhuangzi is an abnormal man (ji ren) from themselves; their transform- for the others because he is a person ing influence reached to all things, “who is totally different from other but the people did not refer it to men, while being in perfect conformity them with hope. No one could tell with Heaven” (qtd. in Izutsu 431). Sag- the name of their agency, but they es manifest Heaven or the Way (Dao). made men and things be joyful They are misunderstood because they in themselves. Where they took reflect the attributes of the Way, a their stand could not be fathomed, state that is beyond the understanding and they found their enjoyment in of most people: “If it is not laughed at, (the realm of) nonentity. (Legge, it would not be worthy of the Way,” in Texts I 262) Laozi’s words (432). While the sage’s transformative in- The sage’s influence reaches the fluence is at work, all efforts to change whole universe but it is not possible society for the better are considered to tell where it comes from—people to be trivial, as we read in Zhuangzi’s are incapable of understanding that text: “When the seasonal rains are this capacity or power emanates from coming down, if we still keep watering the heavenly or spiritual nature of the the ground, will not our toil be labour sage. In his lifetime he might not be lost for all the good it will do?” (Leg- recognized and revered by the masses. ge, Texts I 169). These are the words But even though his station may not be of the sage-king Yao who felt that if acknowledged, he has within him what he continued ruling his kingdom, he makes him “The Great Man”: “The would be “vainly occupying the place.” sage embraces in his regard both Heav- Therefore, he begged his counselor, a en and Earth; his beneficent influence sagely person, to accept the throne. extends to all under the sky; and we do But the sage responded, “Return and not know from whom it comes. There- rest in being ruler, —I will have noth- fore though when living one may have ing to do with the throne” (170). no rank, and when dead no honorary This sage does not show any in- epithet; though the reality (of what terest in occupying the position of a king, seeing himself as performing a 15 Translation used in Zhuang Zi, 139: “enlightened king” is more appropriate. 16 Da ren. The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 69 function different from that of ruling As we see, regardless of how the the kingdom. Here again Zhuangzi is specific sage-kings Yao and Shun are making a contrast between the sage- depicted in the often highly symbolic king Yao and a “sagely man.” As op- and poetic texts of Zhuangzi, the ar- posed to the sage-king who chooses chetypal principle of the sage is not to transform society by ruling, the absent in his texts. The various titles sagely man is not interested in ruling. and terms he adopts—the intelligent Through this hypothetical dialogue, kings, the spirit-like man, the perfect Zhuangzi emphasizes his Taoist teach- man, the sagely man (e.g., Legge, Texts ing of non-action and his preference I 169), as well as the hierarchies he at for spiritual transformation of people times defines—make the principle of as opposed to governing their material the Perfect Man strongly present in circumstance. his texts. In Zhuangzi’s texts there is men- Despite the fact that Zhuangzi tion of a man who is human in ap- makes a distinction between the sage pearance but embodies in himself the and the one who rules, the concept nature of Heaven. Gently and with pa- of “the sage one,” or sagacity itself, is tience he teaches people according to not separated from the notion of the their capacity, causing their transfor- ruler in Taoist thought. This point mation—the words in parentheses in is particularly clear in Laozi’s and the following passage have been added Wenzi’s passages quoted earlier. One by Legge, the translator: can say Zhuangzi, and in general Tao- ism, moved the sage-king principle He is a man who satisfies the true closer to Heaven, emphasizing the (ideal of humanity), a man in ap- transcendent and divine aspect of the pearance, but (having the mind of) sage-ruler. [17] Heaven. Void of any thought The Taoist philosophy of Zhuangzi of himself, he accommodates prescribes a mystical path to the tran- himself to others, and nourishes scendent reality. Zhuangzi implies, the true ideal that belongs to him. or explicitly claims, that the mystic With all his purity, he is forbear- ing to others. Where they are wayfarer can have direct access to that without the Tao, he rectifies his transcendent reality, a concept that demeanour, so that they under- might be interpreted as a denial of the stand it,[18] and in consequence station of the sage-kings. However, to their own ideas melt away and assume that Zhuangzi, or Taoist phi- disappear. . . . (Texts II 42–43) losophers in general, deny the impor- tance of the sage-kings and eliminate 17 Has the nature of Heaven. their unique role as an intermediary 18 Preferred translation: “Where between Heaven and man would be an they are without Dao, he helps them oversimplification. understand.” Yet, even though in the above 70 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016 quotations from Zhuangzi we find es- RATIONALISTIC PHILOSOPHIES sential resemblances with the concept of the Manifestation of God, we can- As we get further away from the an- not disregard the fact that Zhuangzi is cient times and closer to the age of offering a mystical philosophy with all modernity, rationalistic tendencies its ambiguities and perplexities. He is grow stronger in Chinese philosophy. designating a perfect spiritual exem- We encounter the aforementioned plar for the mystic wayfarer to emu- twentieth-century philosopher Fung late, an ideal station that the wayfarer Yu-lan with a proclaimed objective of should strive for. On the other hand, “continuing the materialistic thought his ideal and perfect model possesses in the history of Chinese philosophy, extraordinary qualities that are be- the type of thought that is for the peo- yond human reach. Zhuangzi’s sage ple, scientific, and progressive” (Chan demonstrates perfections and attri- 779). Fung’s intention is to maintain butes that ordinary people cannot fully traditional Chinese philosophy, but comprehend or emulate. with a new emphasis and interpreta- Such perplexity is not unique to tion that is in line with materialistic Taoist mysticism, distinguishing it philosophy. This approach may well from non-Chinese spiritual doctrines. have influenced his position on the sta- Certain Sufis believed they can reach tion of the sages. the station of the Perfect Man, despite Quoting from Shao Yung, the elev- the fact that they considered Muham- enth-century philosopher who said mad to be the Perfect Man, the per- “the sage is the ultimate of man,” Fung sonage who is titled “the Seal of the explains that “by the ultimate of man Prophets” and is believed to be the is meant the perfect man, one who can chosen messenger of God, superior in fully develop the nature of man and station not to only to all human beings investigate the principle of man to the but to all previous Prophets. most” (Chan 761). Such a perfect per- Overall, the question of whether son fulfills his universal duty, “forming ordinary people can in practice achieve one body with all things” and serving the station of the sage-kings remains Heaven (762). Fung maintains that unanswered in Taoism. Since their every individual can become such a inception, and throughout centuries, sage, the universal ideal of humanity. neither of the two major schools of In support of his position, he quotes thought, Confucianism or Taoism, has the previous philosophers’ adages of offered a firm and unequivocal answer “People filling the street were all sag- to this question. But the question has es” and “All people are equal” (778–79). not lost its importance or disappeared It is noteworthy that even with Fung’s as China has entered the age of mo- pronounced materialistic orientation, dernity, intellectual enlightenment, he does not seem to be deviating in and rationalism. a significant way from traditional The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 71 discourses about the unique station of sage principle. We find overwhelming the sages. evidence in Chinese classics that the But there is no doubt that the spiri- principle of the Perfect Man has ex- tual beliefs of ancient China cannot be isted in China, a person who is an in- readily reconciled with contemporary termediary between the transcendent materialism, rationalism, and scientific reality and the mortal human reality objectivism. Therefore, modern phi- and, furthermore, who is an exemplar losopher Kang Yu-wei (1858–1927) for human perfection. questions the historicity of sage-kings According to the Bahá’í viewpoint, Yao and Shun. Kang believed Con- appearances of such intermediaries fucius attributed his own reformist and exemplars are not isolated cases. ideas to sage-kings of antiquity only Rather, these personages are manifes- to give precedence to his ideas. To tations of one and the same divine re- Kang, Confucius did so “even to the ality. This reality appears at different extent of imagining great achieve- times in distinct historical ages and ments of sage emperors Yao and Shun conditions, as well as in unique human whose historicity is doubtful” (724). forms, each one revealing teachings But in general Kang’s philosoph- appropriate for the needs of the par- ical positions were considered to be ticular age in which he appears. The “a cyclone, a mighty volcanic erup- eternal reality of the Manifestation tion, and a huge earthquake” (724). of God (as this figure is titled in the As Chan puts it, “This bold dismiss- Bahá’í Writings) has cyclical appear- al of the age-old Confucian idols ances through these personages who [sage-kings Yao and Shun] vir- successively and progressively trans- tually amounted to a revolution”19 form civilization. (724). As we see, even by the advent This process is the basis for the prin- of the twentieth century, categorical- ciple that in the Bahá’í Faith is called ly denying the historicity of legend- “progressive revelation.” The tran- ary sage-kings had not been a trivial scendent and divine Truth progres- matter. sively reveals itself in measures and by degrees as appropriate to the capacity BEYOND HISTORY of people at a given time and in a given civilization. In this sense, the Manifes- In our exploration of the concept of tations of God are fundamentally the the Manifestation of God in China, same reality, even though They appear we are not so much concerned with at different times, Each with a distinct historicity. What we are looking for in personality, and with successively the very ancient Chinese civilization more advanced social teachings. The are not particular sage-kings but the heart of the spiritual teachings They reveal is changeless, simply evermore 19 Words in brackets are my additions. expansively explained. 72 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016

In the Kitáb-i-Íqán (The Book of each Manifestation of God hath Certitude), Bahá’u’lláh elucidates the a distinct individuality, a definite- station of unity or sameness of the ly prescribed mission, a predes- Manifestations of God: “In this sense, tined Revelation, and specially neither the person of Jesus nor His designated limitations. Each one writings hath differed from that of of them is known by a different Muhammad and of His holy Book, in- name, is characterized by a special asmuch as both have championed the attribute, fulfills a definite Mis- Cause of God, uttered His praise, and sion, and is entrusted with a par- revealed His commandments” (21). ticular Revelation. (Bahá’u’lláh, Although they prescribe differing laws Kitáb-i-Íqán 176) and ordinances, what is appropriate for the needs of the age they appear in, Thus, in this section we explore these the Manifestations of God all pro- dual stations or aspects of the Mani- claim the same eternal Truth, iden- festation of God as it seems to appear tical divine and spiritual principles. in the Chinese culture, the phenome- In another occasion, Bahá’u’lláh pro- non of the cyclical appearances of the claims, “This is the changeless Faith eternal reality of the Perfect Man in of God, eternal in the past, eternal in the station of distinction—as particu- the future” (Kitáb-i-Aqdas 85). lar historical individuals. Accordingly, the phenomenon of the appearance of the Manifestations of God is at the same time a historical THE STATION OF ESSENTIAL UNITY and an ahistorical process. These indi- viduals reveal the same transcendent In the Chinese classics we come across reality and pursue the same spiritual texts pertaining to the underlying purpose. They continue previous un- unity of the sage-kings. The eternal dertakings and progressively move qualities of the Perfect Man appear humanity forward but Each playing in distinct sages at different times. a specific role in this ever-advanc- Yet, these sages all manifest the tran- ing process, as appropriate to the age scendent Dao and transform society in which They appear. It is in this according to the Way. They all teach sense that Bahá’u’lláh describes Their the eternal Dao but in the manner individuality and Their particular appropriate to the time in which they mission as part of Their “station of appear. distinction”: Wenzi explains that the laws and regulations of each age are tools for The other is the station of dis- establishing a timeless and placeless tinction, and pertaineth to the purpose—that is, the Way of Heaven: world of creation and to the lim- “Laws, regulations, rites, and music itations thereof. In this respect, are tools of order, they are not what The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 73 makes order order” (Cleary 160). Dao Deliberating on why the laws pre- is the ultimate order, what gives pur- scribed by the sage-kings change, pose and meaning to laws. Therefore, Wenzi explains, “Sages adapt to the Wenzi points out that although the changes of the times” as “[d]ifferent laws of each age are different, they ages have different concerns. . .” (71); are in harmony with each other. They therefore they “abandon regulations are all in accordance with the Dao, the of former kings when no longer ap- transcendent reality that is beyond propriate, and they take to the enter- time and space. Accordingly, sages are prise of later ages if they are good” in harmony with each other, as they all (175). teach aspects of the same Way. Because sages renew and revise past Another similarity among the sag- directions and guidance in accordance es is that they all transform people with the needs of their time, Wenzi through spiritual means. Hence they asserts, people should not be attached succeed in penetrating hearts. Their to a specific code of conduct and tra- approach to changing society is thus dition or “behave in fixed ways” (8). effective because it is essentially spir- He again notes, “Ways can be guides itual in nature. Signifying the same not fixed paths, names can be desig- transcendent reality of Dao and nated, but not fixed labels” (8). In that adopting the same spiritual approach sense he is reminding people not to be to transformation, they cannot but be thoughtlessly attached to their tradi- in harmony with each other: “Those tion or to follow it blindly. who are imbued with the Way and Wenzi possibly sounds like a calcu- commune with all beings have no way lating policy-maker when he empha- to deny each other. That is why the sizes the need for changes in laws and laws of enlightened leaders of ancient practices: “Do not do anything without times were different in their measures calculated planning; if the power and yet were at one with each other insofar momentum of a movement or trend as they won the hearts of the people” do not follow reasonable measure, even (Cleary 111). spiritual sages cannot achieve success Wenzi explains why the laws of thereby” (121). But to Wenzi, the sages’ ancient sages were different from each adjustment of laws to fit the require- other. He observes that as time tran- ments of their specific time is not based spires and new eons emerge, change on wisdom, intellect or experience, as is becomes necessary. Referring to the the case with the scholars or policy-mak- sage-kings of the ancient times as the ers; rather it stems from the eternal and Five Lords, Wenzi sates, “The Five changeless reality with which they are Lords took different paths, yet their imbued: “So when the sages embody the virtue converted the land. . . . This Way, they revert to changelessness in is because they changed according to order to deal with change; they act, yet their times” (175). without contrivance” (76–77). 74 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016

At the same time that there is an order to chaos, transforms decadence element of logic and rationality in the and corruption into simplicity and pu- laws and directions established by the rity. When virtue is reborn, the world sages, there is an unfathomable spiritu- is at peace. The pivot is the leader, al foundation for their guidance. Their who is the guide of the people” (77). directions are manifestations of the Accordingly, humanity is always in eternal and changeless Dao, a tran- need of the sages. Each time the soci- scendent reality that cannot be under- ety declines, sages appear in order to stood by ordinary human beings: “The remedy the situation. This observation laws of the sages can be observed, leads us unmistakably to the notion of but their reason for making laws can- a cyclical intervention of the sages in not be found out; their words can be human history. heard, but their reason for speaking cannot be formulated” (72). He makes THE CYCLICAL APPEARANCES this clear in another occasion when he OF THE SAGES observes, “The Way of heaven is . . . always evolving along with people, but The concept of cyclical change is an knowledge cannot grasp it” (120). important principle in Chinese cul- Wenzi explains the need for the ture and philosophy, and the cyclical appearance of the sages. He believes interpretation of history has been there is a “celestial design,” a “celes- a persistent concept in China (Chan tial nature” that people are born with. 245). The cyclical decline of society The natural celestial design that peo- that necessitates the rising and inter- ple are born with is in accordance vention of a sage is clear in Wenzi’s with the eternal and heavenly nature text. Wenzi notes that when the time of Dao (9). However, this natural in- arrives in which society is “about to born goodness of the human being lose its essential life, it is like the aris- cannot be realized without the help ing of negative energy, the leadership of the sages: “Human nature includes is ignorant, the Way is neglected, vir- the qualities of kindness and duty, but tue dies out” (Cleary 182). When such unless they are guided by sages, they conditions arise, it is time for the sage cannot be rightly detected” (116). to intervene and advance society: “It is Likewise, according to Wenzi, when the Way of the universe to turn back inner celestial design of the human when it has come to an extreme. . . . being is influenced by outward and Therefore sages change structure to worldly knowledge, the likes and dis- remedy deterioration” (177). likes of the human condition replace it Two great philosophers of China, (9). The intervention of sages are thus Confucius and Mencius, have also ex- needed to remedy the situation: “The pressed the idea of the cyclical inter- virtue of the Way corrects what has vention of the sages. Mencius believed gone wrong and makes it right; brings that a true king would appear once The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 75 every five hundred years (Chan 245). started with Fuxi, the legendary The Confucian doctrine of the peri- sage-king who taught people how to odic appearance of sages is explicit in use fire for cooking. At a very ancient Mencius and implicit in Dong Zhong- time Fuxi initiated a greater cycle. shu, the philosopher of the first centu- Sage-emperor Yao is at the peak of ry BCE (Chan 289). this cycle that ends in the third centu- In addition to the concept of peri- ry BCE: “The law (of history) began odic appearance of sages, one comes with Fuxi, completed in Emperor Yao, across the concept of the greater cy- modified in the period of the Three cles of history in Chinese texts. This Kings, reached its limit in the period idea is similar to the concept of the of the Five Despots, and disappeared Universal Cycles in the Bahá’í teach- in the time of Ch’in (221–206 BCE). ings. In particular, it parallels the dis- This is the track of the cycle of peace cussion in the Bahá’í Writings of the and chaos throughout the ten thou- Adamic cycle. According to the Bahá’í sand generations” (Chan 491). texts, the Adamic cycle commenced with the appearance of the Prophet SAGE-KING IN NON-TEXTUAL Adam—Who, rather than being por- SYMBOLISM trayed as the first man, is depicted as the first major prophet from God as a In our exploration of the Chinese new cycle of human history is initiat- symbolism as it parallels the Bahá’í ed . During the Adamic cycle that be- concept of the Manifestation of God, gan with Adam and ended with Proph- we have thus far relied on Chinese et Muhammad, the last prophet in that texts—written scripts, mainly classics. cycle, multiple prophets appeared. The We observed that in Chinese classics Adamic cycle was a greater cycle of terms like “the spirit-like man,” “the history encompassing smaller cycles sage-king,” and “the true man,”—are of spiritual regeneration by Manifes- linguistic metaphors and symbols tations of God like Abraham, Moses, denoting the principle of the Perfect and Jesus. Accordingly, the creation or Man as a unique station not attainable the beginning of time does not mean by ordinary people. the physical creation but the spiritu- In this section we review ancient al regeneration that initiated a new non-textual symbolism unique to Chi- greater cycle in history, the Adamic nese culture to discover whether there cycle, according to the Bahá’í Writ- might be further insight into the par- ings. We come across the concept of allelism between the Chinese concept the greater cycle of history in Chinese of the Perfect Man and the Abrahamic classics, as well. concept of the prophet. The non-tex- Shao Yung, the Chinese philosopher tual symbols selected represent ar- of the eleventh century CE mentioned chetypal concepts we have previously earlier, defines a cycle of history that examined in Chinese texts so we can 76 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016 explore how the same underlying con- of three strokes of horizontal lines cepts can be discovered in fundamen- and a vertical stroke connecting the tally different types of symbolism, es- three, appearing as 王. In the standard pecially when the symbols are studied dictionary20 composed by Xu Shen as they function in a cultural context in one hundred CE, we see a definition rather than in their distinct method of of this character: “Everything in this representation. world submits to his rule. . . . The an- cient people who created this charac- CHINESE CHARACTER SYMBOLISM ter named the three strokes connected by the middle which is the King. These Existing for around 6,000 years of three strokes are heaven, earth and history, the Chinese system of writing human beings. The one who joins and is most likely the oldest continuously connects the three of them is the used system in the world. As most King. Confucius said: The one that non-Chinese are aware, the Chinese penetrates the three is the King.”21 written language does not use words Likewise, based on Chinese sources, composed of alphabetic letters; in- Legge notes that the vertical line con- stead it uses pictographic symbols, necting the three realms is the symbol logographs referred to as “characters” for “the highest possible conception by Chinese linguists. As opposed to of power or ability” (Works of Mencius alphabetic letters, Chinese characters 196). represent concepts instead of sounds. Interestingly—and perhaps not Thus, one or more such characters coincidentally—the character wang will function as a word, representing (王) and its symbolic value bear a strik- a concept rather than the phonetic ing resemblance to what is called “the sound of the word. Some logographic Greatest Name” (ism-i-a`zam) symbol characters have direct iconic resem- in the Bahá’í Faith. Also known as “the blances. For instance, the character for ring symbol,” this calligraphic repre- fire is 火 (huo), resembling flame, and sentation devised by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá ap- the character for forest is 林 (lin), re- pears as follows: sembling a pair of trees. Throughout history, various media have been used for inscribing Chinese characters; they have been discovered on turtle shells (oracle bones), bronze vessels, seal en- gravings, and scripts. Chinese charac- 20 Explanation of Script and Eluci- ters have also been used outside China dation of Characters (shuo wen jie zi). See in various other Far Eastern countries. Bodde 747. The character wang, meaning 21 Some believe the character wang is in “king,” is particularly pertinent to our the shape of an ax, symbolizing the admin- discussion. The wang character is made istrative rank of the king carrying an ax The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 77

Starting from the top, the three hor- PERFECT MAN SYMBOLISM IN izontal lines represent respectively THE BOOK OF CHANGES the world of God (the Creator), the world of Revelation (the Manifesta- The Book of Changes (Yi Jing) is an tions of God), and the world of hu- ancient Chinese classic and is probably mankind, (creation). The vertical line, the most important book with respect a repetition of the middle horizontal to its influence on Chinese thought line, connects the three horizontal from antiquity to modern times. In lines and represents the station of fact, both Taoism and Confucianism the Manifestation of God, the Perfect have their roots in the ideas expressed Man (‘Abdu’l-Bahá 114), Who is an in this book. intermediary between the worlds of The book is composed of simple God and Creation. images composed of two linear sym- Another interpretation of the bols—the divided line or yin, and the vertical line is that it represents the undivided line or yang: Holy Spirit descending from God to the world of creation by means of the Yin line (divided) __ __ appearance of the Manifestation Who Yang line (undivided) _____ translates the essential unknowable and imperceptible attributes of God The book contains images com- into human expression, both through posed of various combinations of His utterance and through example as these two lines. Each image is accom- the Perfect Man. So it is that the two panied by a concise text interpreting letters utilized in these lines—“h” or the meaning of the particular ar- represent the Proph- rangement. This succinct explanation ﺏ and “b” or ﻫ et-Forerunner of Bahá’u’lláh, the Báb is accompanied by layers of commen- (the Gate), and Bahá’u’lláh Himself, taries and interpretations written for the twin Manifestations for this age. each image in ancient times, most of Likewise, the stars (or pentacles) on which are attributed to Confucius. either side of this calligraphic ar- Four holy individuals are noted rangement represent the Báb and to be the authors of this book: Fuxi, Bahá’u’lláh. King Wen, the Duke of Zhou, and In a similar manner, the Chinese Confucius. Fuxi, the sage mentioned character wang represents the sage- earlier, is a legendary figure of the king who is an intermediary between hunting and fishing era. He is believed Heaven and earth. Heaven in the Chi- to have invented cooking and some of nese culture represents the Divine the line symbolism we see in The Book realm, and earth represents the realm of Changes. This shows how old and of creation, as explained in the Chi- ancient the origins of concepts in this nese classic The Book of Changes. book may be. The other three authors are thought to be responsible for the 78 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016 textual explanations and interpreta- consulted the work before engaging tions of the images throughout the in a battle and would give commands centuries. according to what the book seemed to The older parts of the book were indicate as the most propitious course generated in the form we see today, a of action. Taken thus seriously, many century before Confucius, who lived Chinese know the book and still regard in the fifth century BCE. Fortunately, it as an important source of guidance. The Book of Changes has escaped the And yet, it is also because of this fate of the other Chinese classics that enduring importance that the book were burned by the order of a Chinese has been denounced for its supersti- monarch (Wilhelm and Baynes lx). tious and outdated contents, as well as The highly symbolic nature of its perceived regressive ideas that are line images contained in The Book of portrayed as hindering progress and Changes and the cryptic and poetic modernization. Nevertheless, many character of the commentaries and still consider the book a source of explanations within it have made the ancient wisdom containing profound contents of the book open to many philosophical and social teachings to levels of interpretation. As a source be studied and reflect upon. Overall, for explaining change and transforma- the book has been a source of awe and tion, widely differing interpretations wonder such that today, one of the can be developed, all relevant to the most common comments one hears line images in the book. The work can regarding this work is how extreme- be seen as addressing a variety of in- ly difficult, if not impossible, it is to stances of change and transformation understand. related to personal, familial, social, For the purpose of this discourse, and global situations, as well as tran- let us examine a few selective inter- sitions taking place in nature, such as pretations from the book, or at least the changing of seasons. This variable the parts of them that are pertinent applicability of the work has made to our theme. Our ongoing intent is to The Book of Changes endure through further trace the concept of the Per- the ages as a source of guidance and fect Man in ancient Chinese thought. wisdom for many, a result made pos- By the same token, let us examine the sible through the generic nature of its designations “the great man” or “the geometric images and the allegorical superior man” not as these terms are language of the commentaries and in- commonly understood—as indicating terpretations it includes. a saintly person, one who through In particular, the work’s inherent cultivation of self has achieved a high openness to interpretation makes moral or spiritual station; rather, let us possible the book’s use for divination. examine these concepts as the sage or For instance, it has been so seriously the Perfect Man, one who is inherently regarded that some Chinese kings superior. Let us also examine various The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 79

translations into English to determine In their generic structure, all hexa- whether these interpretations hold up, grams, regardless of their specific though the translations we examine composition of yin and yang lines, are meticulously and reliably execut- represent the three fundamental prin- ed by accomplished and prominent ciples of Heaven, Earth, and Man. scholars. Each two lines of the hexagrams represent one of the three realms of SYMBOLS IN THE BOOK OF CHANGES Heaven, Earth, and Man, as shown in the figure below. The lower two lines Again, as we have noted, all of the represent Earth, the middle two lines symbolic arrangements in The Book Man, and the upper two lines Heav- of Changes are composed of but two en. This is explained in The Book of types of lines. The yin (the divided Changes as follows: “The two lowest line) traditionally represents such places are those of the earth, the third variable but thematically similar attri- and fourth are those of man, and the butes as darkness, earth, rest, softness, two at the top are those of heaven” receptivity, and the feminine, among (Wilhelm and Baynes 265). If we con- others. While yan (the undivided line) sider Man to be the highest spiritual most often represents light, power, station possible in the human form, Heaven, movement, and what are tra- or the Perfect Man, the hexagram’s ditionally considered “male” qualities. generic structure resembles the three When we combine six of these worlds of God, Revelation (Manifesta- yin and yang lines, we create a “hexa- tion of God), and Creation, which, as gram,” an image composed of one or discussed above, we see in the Bahá’í both types of these lines, such as ring-stone symbol: or , though various combinations are possible. In fact, a total of six- Heaven God ty-four such hexagrams can be con- Man Perfect Man structed by different combinations Earth Creation of yin and yang lines—the sixty-four hexagrams we see in The Book of For the above diagram I have used Changes (Appendix A). the first hexagram of the book, the Each hexagram has a designated Creative (composed of six undivided name to symbolize a situation, nor- lines). But the three-world structure is mally pertaining to an individual or generic and true for all hexagrams of society. Some examples are “Youthful,” the book. “the Clan,” and “Modesty.” The most When we compare the three levels important of these hexagrams is per- of Heaven, Man, and Earth in The Book haps the first one in the book, called of Changes with the concept of three “the Creative,” and it is composed of worlds in the Bahá’í Greatest Name six yang lines: . symbol, it is important that we are 80 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016

clear about one particular point. If in “There is heaven, the upper world of Chinese symbolism Earth and Heaven light, which, though incorporeal, firm- are taken as complementary principles ly regulates and determines every- of yin and yang that mutually partici- thing that happens, and over against pate in the act of creation, there will heaven there is the earth, the lower, be an essential difference between the dark world, corporal, and dependent symbolism in The Book of Changes and in its movements upon the phenomena the Greatest Name symbolism. That of heaven” (Wilhelm and Baynes 281). is, in the Bahá’í ontological model, Subsequently, it would seem we God and creation do not complement are well justified in perceiving a con- each other or participate in a collab- nection among the three worlds of orative act of creation; God oversees God, Revelation (Manifestation), and creation and is fully independent of Creation in the Bahá’í symbol of the His creation. Or stated axiomatically, Greatest Name and the generic struc- creation requires God, not vice versa. ture of hexagrams in The Book of In The Book of Changes, as in the Changes. Bahá’í viewpoint, Heaven is not at the level of the Earth but is superior to THE CREATIVE HEXAGRAM it. This is true despite the fact that in ancient Chinese religious beliefs we We saw how the imbedded generic come across the concept of the earth- structure of the hexagrams of The god and the idea that during the Shang Book of Changes can represent the con- dynasty, Earth at times was considered cept of the Perfect Man functioning more important than Heaven (Wil- as an intermediary between Heaven helm and Wilhelm 37). Regardless and Earth. Let us now study a specif- of these exceptions, however, in the ic hexagram of The Book of Changes indigenous Chinese religion, Heav- called “the Creative” (Qian), exploring en was the supreme God, the highest its symbolic meaning in relation to level in the hierarchy of gods and su- our present discussion. As mentioned pernatural powers: “Heaven was the earlier, the Creative hexagram is com- supreme anthropomorphic power of posed of six yang or undivided lines. the universe directing the operation The six undivided lines in the of the spiritual world” (Yang 23). Creative hexagram (or the Creative Likewise, there is no dualism in Principle) symbolize different stages The Book of Changes, suggesting that or aspects of the activity of a dragon equal forces of Heaven and Earth have (or dragons). In Chinese culture, the collaborated in creating the world dragon carries a completely different and have jointly ruled it. Heaven is symbolic meaning than in Western the source of rule over the whole of cultural tradition: “The dragon is the creation. A commentary in The Book symbol of the electrically charged, of Changes explains this forthrightly: dynamic, arousing force that manifests The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 81

itself in the thunderstorm. In winter and its activity. The text in the book this energy withdraws into the earth; provides an interpretation of the lines in the early summer it becomes active of the hexagram, one by one from the again, appearing in the sky as thunder bottom up—numbering the lines, the and lightning. As a result the creative lowest line is designated to be line one forces on earth begin to stir again” and the highest line six. (Wilhelm and Baynes 7). Regarding The interpretations and commen- the symbolism of dragon in the Cre- taries contained in The Book of Chang- ative hexagram, we read, es denote that the condition and activ- ity of the dragon changes as we go The dragon is the symbol em- sequentially from line one to line six ployed by the duke of Kau[22] to at the top. The dragon that was com- represent “the superior man” and pletely hidden in line one gradually especially “the great man,” ex- soars into the sky and manifests itself. hibiting the virtues or attributes It becomes fully manifest in line five, characteristic of heaven. The and in line six it prepares to become creature’s proper home is in the hidden again, as was the case in line water, but it can disport itself on one. This gradual change of condition the land and also fly and soar aloft. and its return to the original condition It has been from the earliest time in the first line can be depicted as a cir- the emblem with the Chinese of cular or cyclical movement. the highest dignity and wisdom, This concept, especially as it can of sovereignty and sagehood, the be applied to historical cycles, bears a combination of which constitutes remarkable resemblance to the Bahá’í “the great man.” (The Book of concept of the cyclical release of Changes 59) spiritual energy in the world with the periodic appearance of the successive Based on this explanation, we can Manifestations of God. But also sim- quite legitimately consider the dragon ilar is the period of the absence of a valid symbol for the archetypal prin- the Manifestation of God, the hidden ciple of the Perfect Man, or the Man- dragon in this imagery. In the Bahá’í ifestation of God as portrayed in the teachings, in the dispensation of each teachings of the Bahá’í Faith. Such an revelation comes a period of decline analogy is supported by the interpre- or darkness (symbolized by nighttime tations in The Book of Changes for the in the scripture) when the power un- lines of the Creative hexagram. leashed by the new prophet is no lon- In The Book of Changes, each line ger adequate to provide guidance for a of the Creative hexagram symboliz- changed social condition, both because es a specific condition of the dragon advancement and change are inevita- ble and beneficial and, even more im- 22 Duke of Zhou. portantly, because the followers will, 82 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016 over time, come to lose sight of the them open to many levels of inter- spirit and teachings of the Prophet; pretations, particularly in relation to consequently, the religion will become one’s personal or social life. With that perverted by those seeking to control in mind, I quote here selected passages it or else to use it perversely as tool and texts from the interpretations in for gaining secular power. Or, to em- the book for the hexagram lines that ploy the Chinese symbolic language can be perceived as allusions to the from The Book of Changes, each period stages of progressive manifestation or of fulfillment and enlightenment is revelation and activity of the Perfect necessarily and naturally followed by Man: a period of absence, “the hidden drag- Line one (the bottom line) is a sym- on” condition. bol for the hidden dragon. “Here this Another analogy can be made be- creative force is still hidden beneath tween the concept of the Manifesta- the earth. . . . [T]his symbolizes a tion of God and the Creative hexa- great man who is still unrecognized” gram. Interpretations provided in the (Wilhelm and Baynes 7). In a commen- book for the lines of the hexagram tary for this line we read, “According in some respects are analogous to the to Master,[23] this symbolizes someone gradual disclosure to the people of the dragon-like in his virtue who conceals world by the Manifestation of God re- his light, avoids all compromise with garding His station and purpose. The the world, makes no name for himself, lower lines of the Creative hexagram withdraws from the worldly life with- can thus be interpreted to symbolize out regret, cares not that no one seeks the period when the divine station of him out. . . . Firm as a rock, he can by the Manifestation of God is hidden or no means be uprooted. Such a man veiled by the earthly or human guise may well be called a concealed drag- in which He appears. At this begin- on!” (Blofeld 86). ning stage, the spiritual station of the For line two we read, “Here the ef- Manifestation of God is unknown to fects of the light-giving power begin people; He appears among them as an to manifest themselves . . . . this means ordinary person because He has not that the great man makes his appear- revealed His mission. As we move up ance in his chosen field of action. . . . the lines, the divine aspects of this Such a man is destined to gain great in- Perfect Man become increasingly man- fluence and to set the world in order.” ifest and unveiled. By the fifth line, the For line three we read, “A sphere of revelation, mission, and station of the influence opens up for the great man. Manifestation have been fully revealed His fame begins to spread. The masses and unleashed. flock to him.” For line four we read, “A As mentioned earlier, the cryptic place of transition has been reached.” and symbolic nature of the passages included in The Book of Changes make 23 “Master” is a reference to Confucius. The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 83

Now the great man has the choice to At this point, “The strengths of the stay in seclusion as a “holy sage,” or Creative and the mildness of the Re- “he can soar to the heights and play an ceptive unite” (Wilhelm and Baynes important part in the world” (Wilhelm 10). and Baynes 8–9). Of further related interest is the Line five of the hexagrams in The fact that the name of the second hexa- Book of Changes typically represents gram in The Book of Changes is “Re- the peak of an activity. In the Creative ceptive,” a hexagram that represents hexagram it represents the full appear- the receptivity of the earth. The drag- ance of the dragon. For the interpre- on’s return to line one means, “Recep- tation of line five of the hexagram, we tive does not combat the Creative but read, “Flying dragon in the heavens. completes it” (10). At this stage the It furthers one to see the great man” earthly and the heavenly, the material (Wilhelm and Baynes 9). The com- and the spiritual, are not in opposition; mentary written by Confucius for this the world of existence is in accord line of the hexagram is “All creatures with the divine Will. This indicates follow with their gaze the advent of a the stage of fulfillment, the realiza- holy sage” (Blofeld 88). In other com- tion of the purpose for the appearance mentaries, we see “This passage pres- of the dragon, or, in our analogy, the ages the emergence of a being who is Manifestation of God. truly great” (Blofeld 88). And we read, As we have seen, interpretations in “Thus the superior man creates order The Book of Changes for the lines of the out of confusion” (Wilhelm 51). Wil- Creative hexagram include allusions helm points out that here the Chinese to the gradual appearance and the pro- word “creates” (tsao, zao) refers not gressive nature of the activities of the to an ordinary creative activity but holy sage. The same concept is seen in to divine creative activity. According the Bahá’í Writings in relation to the to Wilhelm, the word appears only appearance and activity of the Man- once in The Book of Changes, “where ifestations of God. According to the the creative personality appears as the Bahá’í perspective, as an act of mercy representative of God” (51). to humankind, the Manifestations of Line six of hexagrams normally God reveal Their station and Their represents a reverse in the situation, new laws and ordinances gradually the return to line one. The dragon’s and in stages. Bahá’u’lláh explains: gradual process of appearance is com- plete. It is time for the dragon to hide Know of a certainty that in every himself again. For an interpretation of Dispensation the light of Divine this line, we read, “The ruling-sage has Revelation hath been vouchsafed gone through all the sphere in which unto men in direct proportion to he is called on to display his attributes; their spiritual capacity. Consid- it is time for him to relax” (Legge 59). er the sun. How feeble its rays 84 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016

the moment it appeareth above station from His early writings. He the horizon. How gradually its was originally understood by many warmth and potency increase as of His followers to be merely a gate it approacheth its zenith, enabling to the hidden twelfth Imam of Shi’a meanwhile all created things to Islam. But progressively and by suc- adapt themselves to the growing cessive stages, He made His station as intensity of its light. How steadi- an independent Manifestation of God ly it declineth until it reacheth clear to all. its setting point. Were it, all of Similarly, Bahá’u’lláh was at first a sudden, to manifest the ener- understood by many to be a follower gies latent within it, it would, no of the Báb and a revered and promi- doubt, cause injury to all created nent teacher of the Bábí faith. Later, things. . . . In like manner, if the for a period of time He was regarded Sun of Truth were suddenly to as a mystic sage among other mystics reveal, at the earliest stages of in the mountains of Kurdistán. Thus, its manifestation, the full mea- the process of His revelation that had sure of the potencies which the begun in a hidden manner in a prison providence of the Almighty hath called the Siyáh-Chál (the Black Pit) in bestowed upon it, the earth of hu- Tehran was followed by His disclosure man understanding would waste of His unique station to those present away and be consumed; for men’s in the Garden of Ridván immediately hearts would neither sustain the before He was exiled from Baghdad intensity of its revelation, nor be in 1963. Eventually in Adrianople, He able to mirror forth the radiance commenced the public announcement of its light. Dismayed and over- of His station and teachings to the powered, they would cease to ex- Bábís and to the world at large through ist. (Gleanings 87–88) His letters to the kings and rulers of the time. Examples for the gradual disclo- As we have seen, then, the concept sure of the station, mission, and pur- of the three levels of reality represent- pose of the Manifestations of God ed in the Bahá’í Greatest Name symbol can be located in history. In the case is also to be found in the ancient Chi- of the Bábí and Bahá’í dispensations, nese classic The Book of Changes. Ad- such a process of gradual revelation is ditionally, the concept of the cyclical clearer, as the holy texts of these dis- appearance of the Manifestations of pensations are authentically preserved God in the Bahá’í Faith corresponds to and a chronological progression can the cyclical appearance of the dragon be accurately verified. Thus was it (the great man) in the symbolism of that the Báb gradually made His true this book. Likewise, the Bahá’í con- station clear to the public in His writ- cept of the gradual revelation of the ings, though few understood His full station of the Manifestations of God The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 85 corresponds to certain interpretations they love and respect and those reli- of the Creative hexagram. gions that have emerged outside of China. The West has had its own im- SUMMARY pact on the contemporary understand- ing Chinese have about their tradition. The common belief of the Chinese Secular perspectives associated with people is that China, as opposed to the age of enlightenment and the sci- the countries to its west, has been a entific revolution have played a pivotal land that always lacked the concept of role in political, popular, and academic divinely sent prophets—personages thinking of the country. inherently superior in their spiritual As a result, at times even station sent from the metaphysical heavy-handed pressure has been ex- realm with a divine mission and super- erted in China to uproot and destroy human power and authority. Although old traditions and symbols because the largest number of Buddhists of they were considered obstacles to the world are Chinese—and there modernization and enlightenment, are Muslim and Christian Chinese, as historically keeping China underde- these religions have been brought into veloped and weak. The Cultural Revo- China—they have been more or less lution (1966–76) was the peak of such assimilated by the Chinese culture. As thinking and led to the destruction of such, these religions are not native to numerous Taoist and Buddhist tem- China. ples and cultural relics. Consequently, The mystical philosophy and reli- in contemporary China, at the same gion of Taoism is a spiritual practice, time that a vacuum for morality and but Laozi, its legendary founder, and spiritual outlook is clearly being felt, other prominent Taoist figures, like religion, by and large, is perceived to Zhuangzi, are known as philosophers, be outdated, superstitious, and back- not as prophets of God. Confucius is ward-thinking, especially in academic also known as an educator who was circles, as is generally the case within transmitting and reviving China’s Western academic worldviews. very ancient traditions and beliefs, but This condition does not mean that he is not understood to have professed various forms and manifestations of any claim of a divine mission and spiritual and religious practices can- authority. As a result, Chinese often not be observed in contemporary consider the religions to their west China; nor does it mean that concepts as alien beliefs that do not have any and philosophies similar to what we affinity with or relation to their own see in the religions to its west have indigenous tradition and culture. not existed in the Chinese indigenous Many contemporary Chinese see tradition. The core and foundation an essential incompatibility with and of religious belief is the faith in the conflict between the Chinese tradition existence of God, a transcendent 86 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016 reality that through intermediaries or At the same time, these viewpoints prophets (the Manifestations of God have generally coexisted with the reli- in the Bahá’í terminology) guides hu- gious perspective of an essential and manity. It is for this reason that in this ontological difference between the research we have identified symbols sages and the ordinary human being. in the Chinese culture that resonate Indeed, we have demonstrated how with the notion of the Manifestation the sage-king principle can also be of God in the Bahá’í Faith and also located in written characters of the named in the Bahá’í Writings as the Chinese language as well as in the Perfect Man. symbolism of The Book of Changes. The terms “sage” and “sage-king” Furthermore, we have noted how the in ancient Chinese texts can be con- Bahá’í concept of the three levels of sidered symbolic representations of reality as expressed in the Bahá’í ring the principle of the Perfect Man, and stone symbol can be found in the Chi- our examination of the concept of nese principles of Heaven, Man, and the sage-king and its variations in the Earth, as expressed in Chinese charac- main Chinese philosophical schools ters and hexagrams. seems to bear out this conclusion. Finally, we have observed how the Overall, throughout history we can concept of the cyclical appearance of observe a transition from Chinese the Perfect Man can be seen in ancient antiquity’s supernatural and religious interpretations of the Creative hexa- images of the sage-king to the con- gram in The Book of Changes, as well temporary political evaluation of the as the notion of the gradual manifes- term, as well as the rationalistic and tation of His true reality each time secular interpretations of the concept. the Prefect Man appears, concepts But throughout such transitions, sag- also parallel to the Bahá’í view of how es and sage-kings have not decisively human history proceeds with the ad- lost their unique station in the minds vent of successive Manifestations to of Chinese philosophers. advance human progress and thereby Of course, as we have noted, the create “an ever-advancing civilization” question of whether people can, (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings 214). through effort, become sage-kings has We can thus conclude that the un- been answered somewhat ambiguous- derlying concept of “the Manifesta- ly in Chinese philosophy. The human- tion of God,” an intermediary between istic stance that upholds belief in the God and creation, has existed in China capacity of every human being would throughout its history, observable in imply that all people possess the po- linguistic and graphic symbolisms. tential to become a sage. Additionally, Such a conclusion defies the notion the mystical objective of spiritual cul- that the concept of the prophets as tivation for the purpose of achieving intermediaries between the divine and the station of a sage is clearly present. human realms—a common belief in The Concept of Manifestation of God in Chinese Symbolism 87 the Near East and the West—is somehow foreign to China and to the Far East.

Appendix A, Hexagram Images in The Book of Changes

(Modified from The I Ching, The Book of Changes, Legge, p. 56) 88 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 26.1-2 2016

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