State of Environment 2016-2018

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY

Kenya State of Environment Report 2016– 2018

A Publication of the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), Kenya © National Environment Management Authority, 2018 First Published 2018 ISBN:…………………………………………….. This document should be cited as follows: Government of Kenya (2018), State of the Environment Report 2015-2018, National Environment Management Authority, NEMA - Nairobi

All correspondence should be addressed to:

The Director General National Environment Management Authority P. O. Box 67839 -00200 Nairobi Tel. (020) 2183718, (020) 2103696, (020) 2307281, (020) 2101370, (020) 2198643 Fax +245 (0)20 6008997 Email: [email protected] Website: www.nema.go.ke

TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures ...... 10 List of Tables ...... 12 ACRONYMS ...... 26 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ...... 30 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 31 1.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 31 1.2 BACKGROUND ...... 31 1.2.1 EMCA Provisions on State of Environment Planning ...... 31 1.2.2 Objectives of the report ...... 31 1.2.3 State of Environment Reporting Process ...... 32 1.2.4 Structure of the State of the Environment Report ...... 32 1.2.5 Methodology ...... 32 1.2.6 History of the State of Environment reporting in Kenya ...... 33 1.3. LINKAGES WITH OTHER PROCESSES ...... 33 1.4 COUNTRY PROFILE ...... 34 1.4.1 Geographical location ...... 34 1.4.2 Size ...... 35 1.4.3 Topographical diversity ...... 35 1.4.4 Ecological regions and Ecosystems...... 35 1.4.4.1 Savannah grassland and rangelands ...... 35 1.4 4.2 Forest Ecosystems ...... 35 1.4.4.3 Riverine and Lake Ecosystems ...... 36 1.4.4.4 Wetlands Ecosystems ...... 36 1.4.4.5 Drainage Basins and Catchments ...... 36 1.4.10 Population Density ...... 36 CHAPTER 2: PEOPLE, DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT ...... 38 2.1 People, Economy and Development ...... 38 2.1.1 Population and Environment ...... 38 2.1.1.1 Gender and Environment ...... 39 2.1.2 Economy and Environment ...... 40 CHAPTER 3: WEATHER AND CLIMATE VARIABILITY ...... 43 3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 43 3.2 WEATHER ...... 43 3.2.1 Climate Variability in Kenya ...... 43 3.3 CLIMATE CHANGE ...... 45 3.3.1 Causes of Climate Change ...... 45 3.3.1.1 Greenhouse Gases Emission ...... 45 3.3.3 Key sources of GHGs emissions in Kenya ...... 46

3.4 THREATS OF CLIMATE CHANGE...... 47 3.4.1 Vulnerability of Key Sectors and Groups ...... 48 3.5 GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORKS AND INSTITUTIONS ...... 51 3.6 CLIMATE CHANGE FINANCE ...... 52 3.7 RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE ...... 53 3.7.6 Monitoring and Evaluation of Climate Change Actions ...... 53 CHAPTER 4: WATER RESOURCES AND POLLUTION ...... 57 4.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 57 4.2 WATER RESOURCES ...... 57 4.2.1Water Basins in the Country ...... 57 4.3 RENEWABLE WATER RESOURCES...... 58 4.4. PROPORTION OF WATER FOR VARIOUS USES ...... 59 4.4.1 Irrigation Water Demand ...... 59 4.5 RIVER FLOW LEVELS/VOLUMES BY BASINS ...... 60 4.6 GROUND WATER LEVELS BY POTENTIAL/VOLUMES ...... 61 4.6.1 Ground Water Resources ...... 61 4.6.2 Groundwater Aquifers ...... 62 4.6.3 Classification of aquifers...... 62 4.7 WATER STRESS INDEX (WSI) ...... 63 4.8 ACCESS TO SAFE DRINKING WATER ...... 66 4.9 ACCESS TO IMPROVED SANITATION ...... 68 4.10 WATER STORAGE CAPACITY ...... 69 4.10.1 Total Dam Capacity ...... 69 4.11 WATER QUALITY AND CATCHMENT DEGRADATION ...... 69 4.11.1 Water quality and pollution ...... 69 4.11.2 Catchment Degradation ...... 70 4.13 OTHERS STRATEGIES ...... 72 4.13.1 Compliance and Enforcement in the water Sector ...... 72 4.14 WATER MONITORING ...... 79 DPSIR Model ...... 80 Issues affecting the water sector were analysed using the DPSIR Model and presented in Table 19...... 80 CHAPTER 5: LAND AND SOILS ...... 82 5.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 82 5.1.2 Status of Land Resources...... 82 5.1.3 Land Use and Land Cover Change ...... 82 5.1.4 Land Use Planning ...... 83 5.1.5 Land Tenure ...... 83 5.1.9 Threats to Land ...... 84 5.2 SOILS ...... 84 5.2.2 Soil/ Land Degradation ...... 85

DPSIR Model ...... 86 The ssues affecting Land and Soils sector are analysed using the DPSIR Model and presented in Table 20...... 86 CHAPTER 6: FORESTS AND WOODLAND ECOSYSTEMS ...... 89 6.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 89 6.2.1 Trends of forest cover...... 89 6.2.2 Extent (area) of protected forests...... 89 6.2.3 Extent (area) of encroached forest area ...... 90 6.1.4 Forest restoration ...... 90 6.4 LOSS OF FORESTS AND WOODLANDS DUE TO WILDFIRES ...... 90 6.4.1 Frequency of wildfires and areas prone to wildfires ...... 91 6.5 KAYA FORESTS ECOSYSTEMS ...... 92 6.6 DRYLANDS FORESTRY...... 93 6.6.2 Benefits of Dryland Forestry and agro-forestry ...... 94 CHAPTER 7: BIODIVERITY ...... 96 7.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 96 7.6 STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY AND INDICATORS OF CONSERVATION ...... 97 7.6.1 Plant, animal and fungal species diversity ...... 97 7.6.2 Plants (flora) diversity ...... 97 7.6.3 Animals (fauna) ...... 99 7.6.4 Fungi, Lichens and Slime molds ...... 100 7.6.5 Threatened Animal Species and their Population Trends ...... 102 7.6.6 Grevy’s Zebra (Equus grevyi) ...... 103 7.7 NUMBER OF PROTECTED AND NON-PROTECTED AREAS ...... 104 7.7.1 Number of Ramsar sites Gazetted ...... 104 7.8 BIOSPHERE RESERVES ...... 105 7.9 WORLD HERITAGE RESERVES...... 105 7.10 CONSERVANCIES ...... 105 7.11 INFRASTRUCTURE AND HOTELS IN PROTECTED AREAS ...... 105 7.12. INVASIVE SPECIES ...... 106 7.12.1 Type and Number of Invasive species ...... 106 7.12.2 Extent (area) of invasive species...... 108 CHAPTER 8: COASTAL, MARINE AND WETLANDS RESOURCES ...... 110 8.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 110 8.2 Mangroves ...... 110 8.2 Seagrass ecosystems in Kenya ...... 111 8.3.1 Status and trends ...... 111 8.1.3 Sand Dunes ...... 112 8.3 NUMBER AND ACREAGE OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS ...... 113 8.2.2 Status and Distribution of Mangroves ...... 114 8.5. WETLANDS ...... 115

8.5.1 Number and acreage of coastal protected wetlands...... 115 8.5.2 Coastal lakes ...... 115 8.5.4 Number and acreage of wetlands under Ramsar...... 117 8.5.6 Coatsal Marine and werlands Biodiversity ...... 118 Source. KCDP, 2014 ...... 119 Threatened animals and plants of coastal marine and wetlands ecosystems ..... 119 8.5.8 Status and trends ...... 119 CHAPTER 9: AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK AND FISHERIES ...... 135 9.1 AGRICULTURE SECTOR ...... 135 9.1.1. Introduction ...... 135 9.2 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION ...... 138 9.3 FISHERIES SECTOR ...... 139 9.3.1 Fish Exploitation ...... 139 9.3.6 Number of Illegal Gears ...... 141 CHAPTER 10: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATION AND MINING...... 143 10.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 143 10.2 ENERGY RESOURCES IN KENYA ...... 143 10.2.1 Fossil Fuels ...... 143 10.2.2 Renewable Energy ...... 149 10.2.3 Environmental Concerns associated with Energy Supply...... 160 10.2.4 Demand Side Environmental Concerns ...... 162 10.2.5 Net Domestic Use Of Petroleum Fuels By Consumer Category...... 163 10.2.6 Rural Ectrification ...... 163 10.3 TRANSPORT ...... 164 10.3.1 Intoduction ...... 164 10.3.2 Road transport - Motor Vehicles and motor cycles ...... 164 10.4 COMMUNICATION ...... 166 10.4.1 Fixed Telephone and Mobile Network Services ...... 166 10.5 MINING ...... 167 10.6 QUARRYING ...... 168 10.6.1 Rock Quarrying ...... 168 CHAPTER 11: TOURISM, TRADE AND INDUSTRALIZATION ...... 170 11.1 TOURISM ...... 170 11.1.1 Introduction ...... 170 11.1.2 International Visitors and Revenue ...... 170 11.1.3 Number of Visitor-Days Stayed according to the purpose ...... 171 11.1.4 Hotel Occupancy ...... 172 11.1.5 Visitors to National Parks and Game Reserves ...... 173 11.1.9 Challenges ...... 174

11.2 TRADE ...... 174 Carbon Trade...... 174 Impact of Trade to the Environment ...... 175 11.2.6 Green Economy Initiatives in Kenya ...... 176 11.3 INDUSTRALIZATION ...... 177 11.3.5 Impact of Industry on Environment ...... 177 CHAPTER 12: URBANIZATION, HEALTH, SANITATION AND WASTE ...... 179 12.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 179 12.2 URBANIZATION ...... 179 12.2.1 Urban population ...... 179 12.2.2 informal settlements ...... 180 12.2.3 Developmental Control ...... 180 12.2.4 Urban planning ...... 181 12.2.5 State of urban areas ...... 181 12.3 HEALTH ...... 182 12.3.1 Environmental related diseases ...... 182 12.3.2 Indoor air pollution ...... 182 12.4 WASTE MANAGEMENT ...... 184 12.4.1 Licencing of waste water Treatment ...... 186 12.4.2 Waste Water Treatment ...... 187 12.4.3 Solid Waste Disposal Services ...... 187 CHAPTER 13: ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS ...... 189 13.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 189 13.2 RECENT DISASTERS AND HAZARDS...... 191 13.2.1 Industrial Hazards ...... 191 13.3.2 Traffic Accidents ...... 191 13.3.3 Lightning ...... 192 13.3.4 Drought ...... 192 13.3.5 Floods ...... 195 13.7 LANDSLIDES ...... 197 13.7.1 Characteristics of Landslides ...... 197 13.7.2 Factors Contributing to Vulnerability to Landslides ...... 198 13.7.3 Economic and Social Impacts of Landslides ...... 198 13.7.4 Landslides prone areas ...... 198 13.8 FIRE HAZARDS ...... 199 13.8.1 Cases of Fire Outbreaks in Kenya ...... 200 13.8.2 Constraints to Fire Fighting ...... 200 13.8.3 Capacity Required for Fire Fighting ...... 200

13.9 POLICY INITIATIVE ...... 200 13.10 OUTLOOK ...... 201 13.11 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS STRATEGIES ...... 202 13.11.1 Operation in Disaster Response ...... 202 13.11.2 National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) ...... 202 13.11.3 Strategies during disaster response ...... 203 13.11.4 Disaster Response Coordination in Kenya ...... 203 13.12 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT FOR DISASTERS AND HAZARDS MANAGEMENT ...... 204 13.13 OUTLOOK ...... 207 CHAPTER 14: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION, INFORMATION AND AWARENESS ...... 211 14.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 211 14.2.1 Formal Education ...... 211 14.2.2 Environmental Programmes in Kenyan Universities ...... 211 14.2.3 Enrolment in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics ..... 215 14.2.4 Educational Institutions by Category ...... 215 14.2.5 Role of Education in Enhancing Sustainable Livelihoods ...... 216 14.2.6 Literacy Levels ...... 216 14.2.7 Proportion of Population which is Literate ...... 217 14.3 CAPACITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERTS ...... 219 14.3.1 Recommended Responses ...... 221 14.4.1 Policy Frameworks ...... 224 14.4.2 STATUS OF ESD ...... 225 14.5 CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS ...... 227 14.6 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION, INFORMATION AND AWARENESS PROGRAMMES ...... 229 14.6.1 Adopt – A – River Initiative ...... 229 14.6.2 NEMA Strategic Partnerships ...... 231 14.7 REGIONAL CENTRES OF EXPERTISE...... 236 14.8 KENYA ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION (KEIN) ...... 237 14.9 NEMA GREEN POINTS ...... 238 14.10 COUNTY RESOURCE INFORMATION CENTRES...... 240 14.12 NON FORMAL EDUCATION (NFE) ...... 241 14.12.1 NEMA’s Collaboration in Non-Formal Education ...... 242 CHAPTER 15: ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE ...... 244 15.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 244 15.2 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS ...... 245 15.2.1 Institutional Arrangements ...... 245 15.3 POLICY FRAMEWORKS ...... 250 15.3.2 The Constitution of Kenya ...... 251

15.4 SOME ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS ...... 253 15.5 DEVOLUTION AND ENVIRONMENT ...... 253 15.5 ENVIRONMENTAL FUNDING ...... 254 15.5.1 Funding Mechanisms ...... 254 15.5.2 Funds Established under EMCA, CAP 387 ...... 254 15.5.3 Funding Research under the National Research Fund ...... 255 15.6 COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT ASPECTS ...... 256 15.7 PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP ...... 258 15.7.1 Introduction ...... 258 15.7.2 Opportunities for PPPs in environment management ...... 259 CHAPTER 16: EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ...... 260 16.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 260 16.1.1 Climate Change and Effects on Food Security, Nutrition and Incomes. ... 260 16.2 EMERGING LIVESTOCK DISEASES ...... 260 16.3 EMERGING CHANGE OF LAND USE ...... 260 16.4 MIGRATION TO THE ASALS ...... 260 16.5 INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES ...... 261 16.6 HABITANT DEGRADATION/POLLUTION...... 261 REFERENCES ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. APPENDICES ...... 270 Appendix 1: Critically endangered plant species in Kenya ...... 270 Appendix 2: Conservation status of some Kenyan bird species ...... 271 Appendix 3: Invasive plant species in Kenya ...... 272

List of Figures

Figure 1. Map of Kenya showing the 47 Counties ...... 34 Figure 2. Population estimates from 2015 to 2017 ...... 39 Figure 3: Trends on Total Green House Gas Emissions expressed in CO2e ...... 46 Figure 4: Kenya’s Green House Gases Emissions by sector ...... 47 Figure 5. Projected Global average Temperature Changes ...... 48 Figure 6: Average annual water availability per drainage basin in Kenya...... 58 Figure 7: Map of water stress index for Kenya ...... 66 Figure 8 : Population accessing safe drinking water...... 67 Figure 9: Percentage of county population accessing safe drinking water ...... 67 Figure 10: Percentage of population accessing improved sanitation ...... 68 Figure 11: Percentage of counties access to sanitation...... 69 Figure 12: Effluent discharges for coast region ...... 72 Figure 13: Effluent Discharge Licences for North Eastern Region ...... 73 Figure 14: Effluent Discharge Licences issued for Eastern Region ...... 74 Figure 15: Waste water licenses issued at Eastern region ...... 75 Figure 16 : Effluent discharge licences issued for North Rift Region ...... 75 Figure 17: Effluent Discharge Licences issued for South Rift Region ...... 76 Figure 18 : Effluent Discharge Licences Issued for Nyanza Region ...... 77 Figure 19: Effluent Discharge Licenses issued for Western Region ...... 78 Figure 20. Effluent Discharge Licenses issued for Nairobi Region ...... 79 Figure 21. Distribution of major soils in Kenya ...... 85 Figure 22: Gully erosion in Nyando area, Kisumu County ...... 86 Figure 23: Impact of Forest fires to the Ecosystems ...... 92 Figure 24: Dry land forests in Marsabit County ...... 94 Figure 25: Endemic plant species index in Kenya ...... 98 Figure 26: Distribution of animal species in Kenya ...... 100 Figure 27: Newly described species of lichenised-fungi, B. kenyana from Kitui County ...... 101 Figure 28. Trends of Grevy’s zebra in Samburu County between 1978 and 2015 (DRSRS) .... 104 Figure 29: Sand dunes in Malindi (Photo by James Kamula) ...... 113 Figure 30: The invasive species water cabbage (Pistia stratiotes) in Lake Jipe ...... 116 Figure 31. Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (A), and humpback whale (B) sighted in Shimoni (Photo Credit: Chloe Corne, GVI) ...... 121 Figure 32: Nesting patterns of sea turtles at the Lamu archipelago based on monitoring from 1997 to 2013, (Source: WWF-Kenya)...... 122 Figure 33. A green turtle (Chelonia mydas). (Photo by Mike Olendo) ...... 123 Figure 34: Species of skate and rays –The round ribbontail ray (Taeniura meyeni) (A), and Himantura urnark (B), Dayastis spp. (C) in Shimoni (Photo credit: Nina Wambiji) ...... 123 Figure 35 : Important Bird Areas along the Kenya Coast (Source: KeNODC 2017) ...... 125 Figure 36: Fischer's Turaco (Tauraco fischeri) at Shimba Hills National Reserve ...... 126 Figure 37: Shark fin exports in metric tons and export value in Ksh/Kg between 1987-1995 and 2006-2015 (Kenya Fisheries Service statistics) ...... 130 Figure 38: A dugong captured accidentally in a gillnet (jarife) within fishing grounds in Msambweni and brought to shore by fishermen in April 2017 (Photo by: Gladys Okemwa) .... 131 Figure 39: Fishing Effort index in Lake Victoria from 2000 to 2016 ...... 140 Figure 40: Fish biomass in the Kenyan waters of Lake Victoria...... 141

Figure 41. Exploration Block Map of Kenya: Government of Kenya Revised Edition 2013..... 145 Figure 42 : Quarrying for construction rocks on Funzi Island, Kwale County, February 2018 . 169 Figure 43: International visitor arrivals and tourism earnings...... 171 Figure 44: Visitor – day stay in Kenya...... 172 Figure 45: Monthly bed and room occupancy...... 172 Figure 46: Bed night occupancy at the coast ...... 173 Figure 47: Bed night occupancy at the coast ...... 174 Figure 48: Population of major towns in Kenya...... 180 Figure 49 : Population per county using paraffin as source of energy ...... 183 Figure 50: Solid Waste Collected in Nairobi ...... 184 Figure 51: Percentage of waste disposed in dumpsites ...... 185 Figure 52: Mai Mahiu-Narok road cut off by floods recently...... 196 Figure 53: Landslides occurrence in Kenya ...... 199 Figure 54: Pre – Primary Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) & Net Enrolment Rate (NER) ...... 216 Figure 55: National trends in literacy levels ...... 217 Figure 56: National % Literacy Levels for Population Over the Age of 15...... 217 Figure 57:County Distribution Map of % literacy levels above age 15 Years ...... 218 Figure 58: County Distribution Map of Registered Experts ...... 220 Figure 59. Beach Management Units at the Coast...... 247 Figure 60: Number of environmental crimes reported to NEMA ...... 248

List of Tables

Table 1. The trends in Gross Domestic Product and inflation in the period 2016 - 2017 ...... 41 Table 2. Summary table of DPSIR model on population, economic development and environment nexus ...... 42 Table 3. Country Temperatures Trends ...... 44 Table 4 :Mean Annual and Seasonal Rainfall (MM) ...... 44 Table 5: DPSIR for Climate Change and Climate Variability ...... 54 Table 6: Present and future water demands by sector...... 59 Table 7: Proportion of fresh water used for domestic, irrigation, industry and other uses ...... 59 Table 8. Possible Irrigation Area Estimated by Water Balance Study (Unit: ha) ...... 60 Table 9. Available Water Resources and Water Demands Projections by Catchment Area ...... 60 Table 10: Average annual water availability per drainage basin...... 61 Table 11 : Annual sustainable yield of groundwater compared to annual recharge (unit: BCM) . 61 Table 12 : Classification of Kenya’s aquifers ...... 62 Table 13: Water Stress Index ...... 63 Table 14: Catchements water demands and available water resources...... 64 Table 15: Trends in dam sizes...... 69 Table 16: Water quality per drainage basin ...... 69 Table 17: Acreage of rehabilitated water catchments through tree planting...... 71 Table 18: Water Resources Operational Monitoring Stations...... 79 Table 19: DPSIR for the Water Sector ...... 80 Table 20: DPSIR for Land and Soils ...... 87 Table 21. Forest Cover 2015 – 2017Trends ...... 89 Table 22 : Summary of newly gazetted forests in 2016 ...... 90 Table 23: Forest Fire incidences reported...... 91 Table 24 : Known plants, animals and microbes in Kenya...... 99 Table 25 : Wildlife Population Estimates in the Kenya Rangelands,(000’Number) ...... 101 Table 26: Threatened plants and animals ...... 103 Table 27: Ramsar sites ...... 104 Table 28: Gaztetted Ramsar sites ...... 104 Table 29: Tourists who visited protected Forest Areas during the time under view...... 106 Table 30: Invasive species recorded in Kenya...... 107 Table 31: Land/ Water Area Occupied by 4 Invasive Species ...... 108 Table 32: DSIR for Biodiversity ...... 109 Table 33: County Mangrove Forests Coverage ...... 110 Table 34. Distribution of seagrass species along the Kenyan coast(x = areas where the species are found)...... 112 Table 35. Marine Parks and Reserves and their Area Coverage...... 113 Table 36: Mangrove areas in the five counties along the Kenyan coast...... 114 Table 37: Major drivers, pressures, and impacts of the changes in coastal wetlands ...... 115 Table 38: Biodiversity of the coastal lakes...... 118 Table 39. List of threatened marine mammals in the WIO and their status ...... 120 Table 40: List of threatened sea turtles in Kenya ...... 121 Table 41: Bony fishes and elasmobranch species of conservation concern in Kenya ...... 123 Table 42: Terrestrial bird species of conservation concern along Kenya coast ...... 126 Table 43: List of Terrestrial Mammals of Conservation Concern on the Kenya Coast ...... 127 Table 44 : Other Coastal and Marine threatened species in Kenya ...... 128

Table 45. Issues affecting coastal, marine and wetlands resources ...... 133 Table 46: Estimated Production of Selected Agricultural Commodities ...... 135 Table 47: Production and Imports of Wheat, (000 of tones) ...... 135 Table 48: Production. Area and average yield of coffee by type of grower ...... 136 Table 49: Production, Area and Average Yield of Tea by Type of Grower ...... 136 Table 50: Planted Area, Area Harvested, Production and Average Yield of Sugarcane ...... 137 Table 51: Exports of Fresh Horticultural Produce ...... 137 Table 52: Production of Rice in Irrigation Schemes ...... 138 Table 53: Livestock Slaughtered and Dairy products, 2013-2017 ...... 139 Table 54: Marine Illegal Gears...... 141 Table 55 : Lake Victoria illegal gears ...... 142 Table 56 Types and numbers of cages used in L. Victoria ...... 142 Table 57: CONSUMPTION OF PETROLEUM, 2009-2016. ‘000 Tones ...... 163 Table 58 : Electricity Generation by Sources, (‘000 Tones) in the period 2014 - 2016 ...... 163 Table 59: Electricity Consumption 2014-2016 (Million Kwh) ...... 164 Table 60: International Trade in ICT Equipment, Millions) ...... 167 Table 61: Quantity and Value of Mineral Production ...... 168 Table 62: DPSIR: Tourism, Trade and Industry ...... 178 Table 63: Shows Occurrence of Environmental Diseases ...... 182 Table 64: Types of licenses issued, ...... 185 Table 65: Facility of the solid waste disposal per county ...... 185 Table 66: Percentage of population with access to waste water treatment...... 186 Table 67: Licenses issued by NEMA for waste management ...... 187 Table 68: Population in Urban Areas with access to solid waste management facilities ...... 187 Table 69 DPSIR framework for urbanaiza ...... 188 Table 70: DPSIR ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS AND HAZARDS ...... 209 Table 71: Proportion of Programmes per cluster in Public Chartered Universities ...... 212 Table 72: Proportion of Programmes per cluster in Private Chartered Universities ...... 213 Table 73: Bachelors Graduates in Private Chartered Universities...... 214 Table 74: Bachelors Graduates in Public Chartered Universities...... 214 Table 75: Educational Institutions by Category, 2013 - 2017 ...... 215 Table 76: DPSIR on Literacy Levels in Kenya ...... 218 Table 77 show trends in licensed EIA Experts ...... 221 Table 78: Percentage of Licensed EIA Experts in County per 10,000 population 2016 ...... 221 Table 79 : DPSIR on Capacity of Environmental Expertise ...... 222 Table 80: Tertiary Level Graduates on E &NRM ...... 223 Table 81: DPSIR on Tertiary Level Graduates on E &NRM ...... 223 Table 82: Partnerships Matrix ...... 233 Table 83: Categories of NFE Schools and Centres ...... 241 Table 84: Founders of NFE Schools and Centres ...... 242 Table 85. Clubs in Schools ...... 242 Table 86. Number and categories of Incidents reported at NEMA ...... 247 Table 87: Environmental Crimes Reported to NEMA ...... 247 Table 88: Applications for access ...... 248 Table 89: Permits issued for access to biodiversity and genetic resources ...... 248 Table 90: Trends in EIAs study and project reports...... 249 Table 91: Number of Environmental Audits by Sector...... 249

Table 92 : Legal and Institutional Frameworks for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement ...... 257 Table 93: Projects supported under PPP ...... 259

FOREWORD Kenya is endowed with a fascinating diversity of ecosystems and natural resources which provide critical ecological goods and services for supporting the country economic development. The Country depends on these ecological goods and services as the Natural Capital for driving the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The Water towers for example provide important recharge for rivers draining several water basins and providing water for domestic use, agriculture, wildlife and the manufacturing industry. The forests play a critical role in the management of Greenhouse gases as key carbon sinks and in so doing contribute in management of climate change which affects virtually all sectors of the economy. The rich country wildlife and scenic sites are fundamental in driving the vibrant tourism industry which is a key driver of national economic growth. From the foregoing, it is clear that the growth of the National Economy is directly linked to the integrity of the Environment and natural resources.

Over the years though, the environment has faced increasing conservation challenges mainly driven by both natural and human induced factors like climate change, land degradation and loss of biodiversity resulting in the decline of the environmental quality. For instance, the wetlands that are key water sources in the country are increasingly becoming polluted and the water quantity is declining. Land degradation in some parts of the country has reached severe levels substantially reducing land productivity. Many species of plants and animals are now listed as threatened owing to decline in numbers and destruction of their habitats. This suggests that it is therefore important to constantly keep a watch on such trends and raise alarm at the opportune time for managing these environmental changes before they bring environmental crisis. State of the Environment Reporting (SoE) is a process that attempts to address this need through monitoring, assessment and reporting.

Guided by the provisions of the State of Environment report since 2003, Kenya has accordingly responded to many environmental concerns and achieved major milestones in its quest to protect and conserve its natural resources. For instance, several policies, plans, strategies and legal frameworks have been developed and have contributed immensely in promoting sustainable environment and natural resources conservation. Among the policies, legal frameworks, plans and strategies include; Natiomal Environment Policy of 2014, Climate change Act, 2016, Gazette notice number 2334 on the ban on manufacture, use and importation of plastic bags (carrier and flat bags), Climate change Response Strategy 2010 and Climate Change Action Plan.

I note that the State of the Environment Report 2016/17 – 2017/18, which builds on the previous SoEs covering the period 2003 through 2014 presents a wealth of useful information for application in supporting environment conservation for driving Kenya’s Vision 2030 and the Big four agenda while mainstreaming environment conservation. I therefore urge all stakeholders to make use of this important resource for offering sustainable solutions to environment conservation while in pursuit of their economic growth interests in-line with Kenya’s development print, the Vision 2030 and the Big Four Agenda.

Keriako Tobiko Cabinet Secretary, Ministry of Environment and Forestry

PREFACE

The Ministry of Environment and Forestry is the frontier Ministry in Kenya mandated with the function of ensuring that environment matters are mainstreamed in the country development agenda. In order to steer environment conservation and management throughout the country for ensuring Kenyans have a clean and healthy environment as provided in the Constitution of Kenya 2010, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry recognizes the value data and information for sound decision making. The State of Environment report provided in EMCA Cap 387, present the most comprehensive source of environmental data and information for directing environment conservation policies, plans and strategies development in Kenya.

The country (Kenya) produced the first State of the Environment Reports in 2003 and later other reports were produced annually for the years 2004, 2005, 2006/2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012 and 2014. In 2015, EMCA, 1999 was reviewed and SoE production cycle was reviewed to happen every 2 years. The SoE 2016/17 -2017/18 therefore serves as the first generation SoE under the 2 years cycle. The key objectives of SoE are to: (I) Assess and consolidate environmental data from diverse sources using prescribed environmental indicators, (ii) Analyze the data to present trends of various environmental attributes (iii) Indicate clearly whether environmental quality is improving, worsening or static (iv) Assess whether policies, laws, programmes and other actions are having the desired effect on the environment.

Over the years the SoE has been produced, the country has gained better understanding on the status of the environment and used the evidences on the SoE to institute measures for addressing issues of concern flagged in the report. The application of the SoE findings and recommendation has therefore gone a long way in promoting conservation of our environment and natural resources. I therefore want to call upon all stakeholders to prioritize mainstreaming the provisions of State of the Environment report to their environmental programmes for complementing the national government efforts in environment conservation.

Finally, I take the opportunity to thank those who were involved in the process of preparation of SOE 2016/17 – 2017/18, and urge them to continue beyond the completion of the current report with the same spirit in the preparation of the future reports.

Dr Ibrahim Mohamed Principal Secretary Ministry of Environment and Forestry

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

EMCA Cap 387 section 9 (2) (p) provides for the preparation of the State of the Environment (SoE) report for Kenya every two years. To comply with this EMCA provision, the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) coordinated the preparation of the State of Environemnt report 2016/17 – 2017/18 with most of the data and information provided by the lead agencies representing various Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs). The preparation process entailed comprehensive consultations led by teams organized into thematic groups to prepare the chapters and sections of the report. These teams played a crucial role in data collection, analysis, compilation and validation. The data was collected using National Environmental Indicators (NEIs) which enabled trends analysis and bringing out major environmental issues.

I take the opportunity to express my sicere gratitude to the lead agencies and stakeholders who played a critical role throughout this process. Specifically, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry is appreciated for giving policy direction for the process. I also thank the Danish Government for financial support to the SoE making process through the Green Growth and Employment Programme.

My appreciation also goes to the NEMA Board of Management for providing the resources and enabling environment that made the completion of this report possible. The entire process was driven by NEMA team especially staff from the Department of Environmental Planning and Research Coordination (EP&RC) and also wish to thank this team for working tirelessly to professionally steer this process to completion. I note that a short version of the comprehensive report has been developed as fact sheets for the decision makers presenting key highlights easy to capture by non-technical experts.

Lastly, I note that this report contain useful data for future forecasts of the environmental situation for the country. Such forecast will provide early warning and signals that provoke national debate and well-timed planning for appropriate environmental management to support economic development in Kenya. I therefore call upon all Kenyans to find time and go through this documents for acquitting themselves with their environment.

Prof. Geoffrey Wahungu Director General, National Environment Management Authority

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Environmental Management and Coordination Act, EMCA Cap 387, Section (2) (P) provides for the preparation and submission of the State of the Environment for Kenya (SoE) every 2 years. To comply with this EMCA, provision, the State of Environment report for Kenya 2016/17 – 2017/18 is presented. The report was developed following collection of primary and secondary data and stakeholder consultations involving lead agencies and stakeholders from both public and private entities as well as civil agencies guided by the National Environment Indicators (NEI) The Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) approach which brings out the main elements that interplays in the Kenya’s environment was used to present the report synthesis particularly the pressures, State and Responses. Fifteen main chapters including sectoral emerging environmental issues have been used to form the structure of the document with related sub-sections.

Chapter one gives an introduction to the State of the Environment report 2016/17 – 2017/18. High population growth, shrinking productive land and technological changes are some of the key issues influencing environmental changes. The main human activities contributing to environmental degradation in Kenya include unsustainable land use practices, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation, overgrazing and pollution. Rapid urbanization as a result of increasing migration of people to urban areas is also driving widespread environmental degradation and multiple health hazards in Kenya such as pollution from industrial sources and ever-increasing traffic. This chapter also outlines the objectives of the report, the process of reporting, the structure of the report, methodologies used and highlights linkages with other national and global processes. It goes further to give details of the country profile and the map of the country with counties administrative units.

Chapter two on People, Environment and Development, analyses the national natural resource capital and relates it with the three vision 2030 development pillars namely, the Social, Economic and Political pillars. It also analyses the interplay between human development and environmental management. The perspective used in this chapter is that the environment and the natural resources therein, and the ecological services thereof are valuable assets that require to be integrated into the national accounting process. The population data from 2014 to 2017 showed an increase in population but a decrease in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and increase in inflation. The changes in population, GDP and inflation have implication on environment as they point to increase on demand for natural resources to support increasing population, declining economy and increasing cost of life. Nevertheless, the country strives to make significant political, social and economic reforms to reverse the decline in GDP, sustain economic growth and social development. Other sections of the chapter capture socio-economic indicators, appropriate technologies applied in Kenya and gives alternatives livelihoods which are being applied to raise living standards of Kenyans while supporting environment conservation.

Chapter Three on Weather and Climate Change gives an analysis of Climate and its weather elements including rainfall, temperature, humidity and drought as key aspects of the environment that influences provision of environmental goods and services. Kenya has a complex climate that varies significantly from coastal zone through the interior savanna to the highland regions and from season to season, year to year, and decade to decade. Weather data show that maximum mean annual temperatures covering the period 2015 to 2017 has marginally been on increase whereas mean rainfall has presented a decline during the same period. Therefore, just like other African countries, Kenya is currently bearing the brunt of risks related to climate variability and change. The chapter also gives information on causes of climate change, impacts of climate change on sectors of the economy and responses and lastly the governance and institutional frameworks for managing climate change. The chapter concludes that climate change manifestation in Kenya is bringing major environmental changes with impact on ecological services and goods with implications on economic development and human wellbeing and continued investments to manage climate change is recommended.

Chapter Four on water resources and pollution recognizes water resources as central to provision of environment goods and services. It offers key ecological services that drive many other environmental processes. The chapter provides an assessment of the status of the water resources both at the surface and beneath the ground levels. The chapter also outlines the water basins in the country and their status, proportion of water for various uses, river flow leves in the country per volumes, ground water aquifers, and water stress index, access to safe water and access to improved sanitation. It goes further to give water storage capacity and degradation of the various catchments which need rehabilitation. Enforcement aspects, by NEMA, under the Water Quality Regulations are also given in terms of licensing and lastly the monitoring aspects. The information sourced presented patterns of declining water quality and quantity due to pollution, increasing water demand and climate change. Currently the country is classified as a water scarce country meaning that the demand for water is greater than the renewable freshwater resources that Kenya has access to. Further, information from the national water master plan point at projected increase in water demand through the period under review to 2030 and even 2050. Analysis of water stress index present a severe water stress for the Athi river basin and the other basins are projected to face high water stress index in the coming years. To cater for the increasing water demand, the number of boreholes sunk increased from 1557 in 2016/17 to 2419 in 2017/18. In conclusion, changes in water quality and quantity remain a major environmental challenges that require attention.

Chapter Five on Land and Soils considers land an important resource from which the country generates goods and services for the people. The national economy is primarily agro-based and about ninety percent of the population living in rural areas derives its livelihood directly from land. The demand and pressure on land is ever increasing resulting in increasing land degradation due to unsuitable agricultural land use, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation and overgrazing. Natural disasters, including droughts, floods and landslides also contribute to land degradation. By 2016 almost all the counties in Kenya were classified to be at risk

20 from one form of land degradation. About 61.4% the total area of Kenya was also classified as likely to face high degradation with 27.2% of the land area likely to face very high degradation. The chapter also gives indepth information on status of land in Kenya, land use and land cover change, land use planning, land tenure and sustainable land administration and management aspects. Analysis of land use patterns indicates that at about 69.7% of the land area is savannah grasslands, combining a wide range of vegetation types and mainly used for pastoralism. About 17.7% of the land area is used for agriculture, both rain-fed and irrigated whereas about 2.2% of the land area is bare lands. To manage land and soils for advancing enivornment conservation a number of land reform programmes have been implemented in Kenya and are are outlined as well as policy and legal frameworks. Under Soils, information on various soil formations and ecological zones are given with a map of soil types in Kenya. In conclusion, it is noted that change in land use patterns continue to create severe implications on socio-economic development and relationships to the ecosystem functions thus mainstreaming environment conservation in land use is advocated.

Chapter Six is on Forests, Grassland and Bushlands Ecosystems. The forests are important sources of livelihood to the communities living in those particular areas through provision essential goods and assets supporting the economy. During the period under review covering 2015 to 2017, forest cover in the country icreased from 7.17% in 2015 to 7.29% in 2017 presenting a commendable effort in improving the country forest towards the national target of 10%. The area under grassland and bushland remained largely the same during the period under review at about 70% cover. Increase in forest cover presents great opportunities for enhancing ecological good and services for supporting human wellbeing in addition to ecosystems integrity. Forests are also important carbon sinks and thus critical in the management of climate change. Through the ministry of environment and Forestry, the country has set a threshold of attaining 10% forest cover by 2022 and many initiatives are in place to attain this target. The chapter also profiles information on the main five Water Towers that constitute the water catchments and source of the main rivers. Challenges facing forests, grasslands and bushlands conservation are also provided. In conclusion, forests, grasslands and bushlands are recognized as critical ecosystems that serve important ecological services necessary for economic development. These ecosystems though face a myriad of challenges that constrain the capacity of these ecosystems to support economic development and ecosystems services. Increased investment in re-afforestation programmes and enforcement to arrest deforestations in recommended.

Chapter Seven covers Biodiversity. Kenya is a biodiversity paradise due to many species of flora and fauna some of which are only found in Kenya globally. For instance there about 7004 plant and about 30,000 animals species throughout the country. Among the animals invertebrates comprise of over 80% whereas birds are represented by about 1034 species. Owing to changes in the environment and unsustainable utilization, many species of plants and animals are now recognized threatened. For instance 18 plant and 41 animals species were recognized Critically Endangered in 2018. Many other species are listed endangered, vulnerable and near threatened. The biodiversity though contributes immensely in promoting

21 economic growth through wildlife based tourism, pollination services for agricultural crops and wild plants, servicing the manufacturing industries with raw materials and beautification of landscapes. The agro-biodiversity on the other hand serve to foster food security whereas some plants and animals are sources of medicines and thus critical in promoting universal health. The building industry heavily depends plant based products. Conservation of biodiversity is therefore critical for preservation of environment and economic development.

Chapter Eight covers Coastal, Marine and inland wetlands. The ocean waters are important carbon sinks and offer important ecological service by supporting the mangroves forests that are efficient carbon sequestration ecosystems. About 61,271 ha of mangroves forests occur at coastal Kenya with Lamu County accounting for over 60% of this mangroves followed by Kilifi then Kwale, Mombasa and finally Tana river accounting for the least cover of mangroves forests. Inland wetlands are important habitats for many water depended biodiversity in fresh and saline waters. They also serve to filter water that runs as run-off or in river systems in addition to serving as sources of livelihood to riparian communities and offer important ecological services acting as recharge areas to rivers and lakes. It is estimated that inland wetlands cover about 3 – 6% of the land surface in Kenya, depending on the season. Like other ecosystems, coastal marine and inland wetlands face major challenges mainly due to anthropogenic disturbances and some natural factors. Nevertheless, a range of conservation initiatives have been initiated by the Government in collaboration with stakeholders to advance conservation of these important ecosystems and are outlined in the main sections of the report.

Chapter Nine covers Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, sectors which contributes more than 26 per cent of the GDP directly and another 25 per cent indirectly as highlighted by the Agricultural Sector Development Strategy 2010–2020. The sector also accounts for 65 per cent of Kenya’s total exports and provides more than 18 per cent of formal employment. More than 70 per cent of informal employment in the rural areas is provided by the Agriculture, livestock and fisheries. Driven by the increasing demand for food for increasing country population and cash production for service the export markets, increased agricultural activities have been witnessed during the period under review. The area under maize production continue to expand with the implementation of the one million Galana-Kulalu food security project in coastal Kenya. The area under tea and coffee has also increased whereas area under sugarcane was reported to have declined. Livestock as the main source of livelihoods for pastoral communities is also discussed and showed a drop in milk production in the period under review especially in 2017. Fisheries including aquaculture pointed at an increasingly important contributor to the economy through the blue economy concept. Fish stock though declined during the period under review from 164,106 tonnes in 2015 to 135,100 tonnes in 2017. The increase in agricultural activities create changes on natural environment and the natural resources they support often displacing biodiversity. Overgrazing also create changes in the natural environment that accelerate land degradation while increase in fishing result in over-fishing that create ecological imbalance with negative ecological implications. To support food security and economic growth while safeguarding environment, mainstreaming environment conservation in the

22 agriculture, livestock and fisheries is recommended. Adoption of approaches such as conservation agriculture, observing carrying capacity in livestock industry and avoiding overfishing offer opportunities for promoting agriculture, livestock and fisheries while ensuring sustainable environment conservation.

Chapter Ten on Energy, Industry, Transport and Mining assesses the implications of provison of Energy, transport services, industrial development and mining on environment and natural resources. Energy and transport services are critical services for promotion of economic and social pillars of the Kenya Vision 2030. Mining is recognized as an important sector for Kenya economic growth. These sectors notably; energy, transport and mining has been prioritized to support social services and economic development. During the period under review, energy demand increased. Whereas there was an indication of major attempts to off-set the demand of clean energy, wood-fuel use still remained common in rural areas which has implications on the environment conservation through trees harvesting and carbon emissions. By close of 2017, it was estimated that over 60% of households throughout the country still used biomass. On transport, during the period under review, the number of privately owned vehicles increased and also the number of some public transport vehicles. This, indicated potential increase in emissions of air pollutants particularly in the urban environments. Mining activity also recorded increased outputs. For instance soda ash output increased marginally from 301.7 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 303.6 thousand tonnes in 2017. Gold outputs also increased among others indicating potential increase in environment disturbance or pollution during the mining activity. The trends in these sectors suggest need for regular monitoring to continue to understand implications of the increased output on mining and increased vehicles on the environment for compliance enforcement. The need for improving clean energy suppy is recommended to off-set the use of the biomass and thus attain low carbon pathway.

Chapter Eleven deals on matters Tourism, Trade and Industrialization. Kenya has one of the biggest and most diverse tourism attractions in East Africa, offerings a range of niches such as meetings, incentives, conferences and safari ecotourism. Tourism, trade and industrialization are key sectors profiled for promotion to spur Kenya’s economic development. During the period under review, international arrival and visitation to national parks increased and trade and manufacturing witnessed growth. Proliferation of these sectors come with implications on the environment. Increase in tourism indicates increased traffic to national parks and possibility of off-road drives destroying habitats, increase in tourism facilities in the environment that come with changes in environment and increased waste generation. Trade on the other side may result to increased solid wastes particularly e-waste while industrialization will be accompanied by changes in landscapes where the industrial parks are constructed, increase in water demand, increase in waste generation and air pollution. These potential pressures on the environments associated with the growth of these sectors indicates that appropriate responses are required. Key response to these pressures include; implementation of the air quality regulations 2014, Environmental Impact Assessment/Audit and waste management regulations as safeguards. Research to guide understanding implications of the growth of these sectors on the environment is also recommended.

Chapter twelve covers Urbanization, Health, Sanitation and Waste. During the period under review, urbanization continue to witness expansion across the country largely due to increase in rural to urban migration, communicable and non-communicable diseases continued to be a major health challenge, access to sanitation services was also low in many areas while waste generation continued to increase presenting a management challenge. The key environmental concerns associated with urbanization, health, sanitation and waste is environmental pollution, destruction of natural ecosystems and habitats and spread of vecror-borne diseases. Responese for these environmental concerns have been provided with key ones including, mainstreaming environment in to urban planning, compliance enforcement to adhere to urban plans, provision of sanitation services and implementation of waste management regulations.

Chapter Thirteen presents Environmental Hazards. Natural hazards include drought, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, cyclones and storms. These occur all over the world and interact with humans and environment and are likely to cause damage of varying magnitude resulting in disasters. Disasters thus occur, when the natural hazards interact with vulnerable people, property, and livelihoods causing varying damage depending on the level of vulnerability of the individual, group, property, livelihoods and environments. The key environmental disasters and hazards witnessed during the period under review include; severe droughts, forest fires and floods with implications on biodiversity and environment conservation. These environmental hazards cause loss of biodiversity, land productivity and essentially accelerate land degradation. Key responses to environmental hazards include; climate change mitigation to address droughts and floods, adopting sustainable land management to manage soil erosion and floods and continued enforcement of environmental laws such as the Gazette notice No. 2334 on the ban on manufacture, use and importation of plastic bags (carrier and flat bags) and Climate change Act, 2016 implementation among others.

Chapter Fourteen captures issues of Education, Awareness, Information and Communication. It highlights the approaches used for environmental education in Kenya. Environmental education, both formal and informal is vital for changing people’s attitude to appreciate environmental concerns. During the period under review, many formal and informal environmental education, awareness and communication activities were undertaken. About 4% and 1.5% of the academic programs in public and private chartered universities respectively were on environment indicating the great contribution of formal education in advancing environment management. The Environmental Impact/Audit expert licensing regime presented also an increase in the number of licensed experts to offer environmental management support in the development sector. Several environmental days such as World Wetlands Day, World Environment Day and World Day to Combat Desertification commemorations were held every year for for the period under review (2015 to 2017) to raise awareness on various environmental issues. The ESD policy is also recognized with regard to contribution to matters environmental education and awareness.

Chapter Fifteen covers Environmental Governance and explains the rules, practices, policies and institutions that shape how Kenyans should interact with the environment. Environmental governance is critical in finding lasting solutions to environmental challenges. During the period under review, several legal reforms were undertaken to strengthen environmental governance such as the review of the Environmental Management and Coordination (Amendment) Act 2015, the Water Act, 2016 and the Forest Conservation and Management Act, 2016, Fisheries management and Development Act, 2016 and the gazette notice number 2334 on the ban on use, manufacture and importation of plastic bags in Kenya among others. Institutional strengthening also happened through review of strategies and capacity building for promoting environmental governance. The chapter also presents Compliance and Enforcement aspects at NEMA and other lead agencies, devolution and its effects on environmental management including development of county environment action plans, implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs).

Chapter Sixteen is on Emerging Environmental Issues and documents some of the environmental issues from any of the sectors which are emerging. UNEP defines emerging environmental issue as those that “must be recognized as very important by specific scientific community, but has not yet received adequate attention from the policy community”. Hence it is considered an “emerging issue” from the perspective of the policy community. These issues are taken as critical to the community and can be positive or negative and with a large spatial scale. Such issues require to be given priority in the planning process for environmental management. The issues may include cross-cutting issues which affect communities. During the period under review, the spread of invasive species in new geographical zones continued to be major issue, the plastic bags and PET bottles merged as a major environmental pollutants, bio-pestcides and oil spillage were also noted as emerging environmental issues.

In conclusion, the SOE 2016/17 – 2017/18 like others through DPSIR model largely present pressures on the environment, the status of the environment during the period under review and presents the various responses to address the challenges.

ACRONYMS

ADC Agriculture Development Corporation AFOLU Agriculture Forest and Land use AMCEN African Ministerial Conference on Environment AMREF Africa Medical Research Foundation ASDS Agriculture Sector Development Strategy ASALs Arid and Semi-Arid Lands ASK Agricultural Society of Kenya CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBOs Community-Based Organizations CDM Clean Development Mechanisms CDTF Community Development Trust Fund CEAPs County Environment Action Plans CIDP County Integrated Development Plan CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CLTS Community Led Total Sanitation DPSIR Drivers Pressures State Impacts Responses DRSRS Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing DWFN Distant Water Fishing Nations EA Environmental Audit EAWLS East Africa Wildlife Society EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EMCA Environmental Management and Coordination Act EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FCPF Forest Carbon Partnership Facility FEWS Famine Early Warning Systems FFEPP Farming Enterprise Productivity Programme GBD Global burden of disease GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographic Information Systems GMT Greenwich Mean Time GOK Government of Kenya GTZ German Technical Cooperation HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IBA Important Bird Area ICIPE International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology

ICT Information and telecommunications Technology IGAD Inter-Governmental Authority on Development IK Indigenous Knowledge ILM Integrated land Management Approach ILO International Labor Organization ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IMIS Integrated Meteorological Information System IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ITN Insecticide Treated Net IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JKIA Jomo Kenyatta International Airport KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KBS Kenya Bureau of Standards KEMRI Kenya Medical Research Institute KENSUP Kenya Slum Upgrading Programme KEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service KEREF Kenya Sugar Research Foundation KEWI Kenya Water Institute KFWG Kenya Forest Working Group KIPPRA Keya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis KMD Kenya Meteorological Department KMFRI Kenya Marine and Forestry Research Institute KNBS Kenya Bureau of Statistics KNSDI Kenya National Spatial Data Infrastructure KPLC Kenya Power and Lighting Company KSPCA Kenya Society for the Protection and Care of Animals KU Kenyatta University KUC Kenya Utalii College KVDA Kerio Valley Development Authority KWS Kenya Wildlife Service KWTA Kenya Water Towers Agency LBDA Lake Basin Development Authority LVEMP Lake Victoria Environmental Management Programme MCS Monitoring Control and Surveillance MDG Millennium Development Goals MER-COV Middle Eastern respiratory Syndrome – Corona virus ME&F Ministry of Environment and Forestry MIA Moi International Airport MOH Ministry of Health MOU Memorandum of Understanding MRV Measurement Reporting and Verification MTP Medium Term Plan MU Moi University NADIMA National Disaster Management Authority

NBEs Nature Based Enterprises NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NCCRS National Climate Change Response Strategy NCPD National Council for Population and Development NEAP National Environment Action Plan NEAPC National Environment Action Plan Committee NEC National Environment Council NEMA National Environment Management Authority NET National Environment Tribunal NGO Non-Governmental Organization NMK National Museums of Kenya NOCK National Oil Corporation of Kenya NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product ODF Open Defecation Free PA Protected Area PCC Public Complaints Committee PFMPs Participatory Forest Management Plans IPPC International Plant Protection Convention REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation RCMRD Regional Centre for Mapping of Resource for Development RPLRP Regional Pastoral Livelihood Resilience Project RWH Rain Water Harvesting SERC Standards and Enforcement Review Committee SLMP Sustainable Land Management Project SoE State of Environment TBNRM Trans Boundary Natural Resource Management TLU Tropical Livestock Unit TWG Technical Working Group UN United Nations UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Education and Scientific Cultural organization UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children Education Fund USDA United States Department of Agriculture. WCK Wildlife Clubs of Kenya WDCD World Day to Combat Desertification WED World Environment Day WHO World Health Organization WIO Western Indian Ocean WRA Water Resources Authority WRUA Water Resources Users Association WSTF Water Service Trust Fund WTO World Trade Organization WWF World Wildlife Fund

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Climate risk: The probability of harmful consequences or expected loss (e.g., death, injury, loss of livelihoods, reduced economic productivity and environmental damage) resulting from interactions between climate hazards and vulnerable conditions in the context of climate variability and change (adapted from UNISDR, 2009).

Hazard: A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the “loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage” (from UNISDR, 2009).

Climate hazards (also referred to as hydro-meteorological hazards): “A physically defined climate event with the potential to cause harm, such as heavy rainfall, drought, storm, or long-term change in climate variables such as temperature and precipitation” (UNDP, 2005, p. 249). Climate hazards may occur suddenly (e.g. tornados) or slowly (e.g. droughts); they may be transient (e.g. storm) or permanent (e.g. increase in average temperatures); and may be observed in the present or projected to occur in the near, mid- or long-term.

Vulnerability: “the degree to which a system is susceptible to harm due to exposure to a perturbation or stress and the ability (or lack thereof) of the exposure unit to cope, recover, or fundamentally adapt (become a new system or become extinct)” (Kasperson et al., 2000; cited by UNDP, 2005). The vulnerability of a system is influenced by the adaptive capacity of its people and institutions, or their ability to take advantage of opportunities or to cope with the consequences of potential damages (IPCC, 2001).

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Kenya has witnessed unprecedented socio-economic and environmental transformations since independence. High population growth, shrinking productive land and technological changes are some of the significant changes. These interlinked components provide the backdrop against which to view changes in the state of the country’s environment. This is because they serve a dual purpose as some of the most forceful drivers of environmental change. The main human activities contributing to environmental degradation in Kenya include unsustainable land use practices, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, overgrazing and pollution.

Rapid urbanization as a result of increasing migration of people to urban areas has caused widespread environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity and health hazards in Kenya. There has, as well, been an increase in the magnitude of pollution from industrial sources and ever-increasing traffic.

The Constitution of Kenya 2010 and other new developments like climate change Act 2016 marked an important chapter in Kenya’s environmental policy development. Hailed as a ‘Green’ Constitution, it embodies elaborate provisions with considerable implications for sustainable development. These range from national environmental principles and Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) to the right to a clean and healthy environment as enshrined in the Bill of Rights. Chapter V is entirely dedicated to land and environment.

1.2 BACKGROUND

1.2.1 EMCA Provisions on State of Environment Planning The State of Environment (SoE) report is produced pursuant to section 9 (2) (P) of the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) CAP 387. The Act mandates the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) to coordinate the preparation of the report on Kenya’s state of the environment every two years for submission to the Cabinet Secretary in the ministry resposnible for matters environment.Conventionally, the State of Environment Report is an account of the environmental state, highlighting the state of the environmental, pressures and responses to the pressures.

1.2.2 Objectives of the report

The SoE 2016/17 -2017/18 objectives are to: • Consolidate environmental data from diverse sources using known environmental indicators and analyze the data to determine trends.

• Indicate whether environmental quality is improving, getting worse or stable. • Assess whether policies, laws, programmes and other actions are having the desired effect and identify emerging issue • Inform environmental policies interventions. • Provide tangible environmental issues backed by data for planning purposes • Monitor and report the implementation of the NEAP and the CEAPs

The SoE 2016/17 – 2017/18 highlights on emerging environmental issues in all sectors that potentially pose threats to the realization of sustainable development in Kenya.

1.2.3 State of Environment Reporting Process State of the Environment is a report documenting findings from biannual assessment of the state of the environment for Kenya. The process of building the State of Environment report commences with the formation of national team comprising of experts from various leaf agencie in Kenya. NEMA provides the coordination rile and secretariat. The national team with specific Terms of Reference (ToRs) build a workplan for the delivery of the SoE within the set times. Guided by the known environmental indicators provided in the revised environmental indicators, environmental data is sourced from various stakeholders and surveys. The consolidated data is presented as trends to present profiles of state of particular sectors upon which pressures are lighlighted and responses to the pressures provided. The draft SoE is subjected to extensive stakeholders’ consultations and validation gain a national outlook ahead of completion and submission to the Cabinet secretary in the ministry responsible for matters environemnt.

1.2.4 Structure of the State of the Environment Report The structure of SoE follow thematic areas or chapters that included: Summary, Introduction; People, Environment and Development; Weather and climate Variability; Land and Soils; Forest, Woodlands and Grasslands; Biodiversity; Coastal, Marine and Wetlands Resources; Water Resources & Pollution; Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries; Energy, Transport and Mining; Tourism, Trade and Industrialization; Research Technology and Innovation; Environmental Disasters and Hazards; Urbanization, Health and Sanitation; Environmental Education, Information, Communication; Environmental Governance (including PPP) and Emerging Environmental issues.

1.2.5 Methodology The SoE 2016/17 -2017/18 employed two main analytical approaches namely, the DPSIR (Drvires – Pressure – State - Impact Response) model and the Opportunity Framework approach. These two approaches are conventional approaches for

32 global environment assessment and reporting. Each of the thematic areas of the SoE was interrogated using the two analytical frameworks and information profiled.

The DPSIR framework was used to analyse the causes (drivers and pressures) of environmental change (impact, state and responses) of the seven thematic areas of the Environment. The opportunity framework on the other hand was used to identify the assets; environmental goods and ecological services; the threats to the assets and the opportunities offered for future sustainable development. The findings from these two processes provided the building blocks for the assessment report.

National Environmental Indicators developed in 2009 were employed to guide data collection feeding into the two analytical approaches. The output of this analysis is the determination of trends that assisted in forecasting of the future trends. This enabled objective identification of the main environmental problems and hence set priority areas for decision making and policy focus. The trends further assisted to determine whether the quality of our environment is improving and if investments in environment intervention was producing desired result. The data used was provided by the relevant lead agencies with key mandates in the various thematic sectors. The result of the analysed data is presented in form of tables, maps, graphs, charts and pictures.

1.2.6 History of the State of Environment reporting in Kenya The first ever State of the Environment Report was published in 2003. Thereafter, the State of Environment Reports (SoEs) were published in: 2004, 2005, 2006/2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. The intitial reportig was guided by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) referencing from the Global Outlook concept but over the years, the country has build technical capacity and now the development of the SoE is led by local experts with coordination by NEMA. Since 2003, the reporting was undertaken annually under the EMCA, 1999. Following the revision of the Environemntal Management and Cooridnation Act (EMCA) in 2015, the reprtong cylcles become biannual. The SoE 2016/17 – 2017/18 therefore serves as the first generation biannual SoE under the revised EMCA (CAP 387).

1.3. LINKAGES WITH OTHER PROCESSES The SOE presents a broad scope of matters related to environment that are interlinked to other process. Among the key process linked to SoE include; the National Environmental Action Planning process which is founded on SoE on the first chapter on environemtnal profiling, the development of the Kenya Evnironemntal Performance Index which largely mimic SoE content in most of the chapters. The SoE in profiling the state of environment cover many aspects of the national development agenda such as the Vision 2030, the Big Four Agenda, Medium Terms Plan and many other sector specific provisions. At the global level, the SoE present

33 an opportunity for monitoring SDGs such as goal 6, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 which address matters environmental sustainability with great concerns on challenges of climate change.

1.4 COUNTRY PROFILE

1.4.1 Geographical location The Republic of Kenya is located within the eastern side of the vast continent of Africa, where it forms part of East Africa. It shares boundaries with Republic of Uganda to the west, and the United Republic of Tanzania to the South, and is also bordering the following countries: Ethiopia in the North, the Republic of Southern Sudan in the North - West and the Republic of Somalia in the East. Kenya is bordered in the Southeast by the Indian Ocean, which serves the Country as an important outlet and means of international maritime contact. The Republic of Kenya lies approximately between Latitudes 5o 0’ N and 4o 40’ S and between Longitudes 33o 83’ E and 41o 75.5’ E it is almost dissected by both the equator and by Longitude 38o 0’ E. Kenya has a single time zone which is GMT+ 3. Figure 1 shows the 47 counties as created by the Kenya Constitution of 2010 under the devolved governance system.

Figure 1. Map of Kenya showing the 47 Counties Source: opendata.go.ke

1.4.2 Size Kenya has an area of about 582 646 km2. Water occupies about 1.9 % or 11,230 km2 leaving 571,416 km2 of the dry land of which more than two-thirds is arid and Semi- Arid Lands and deserts. This then means only between 142,314 and 189,562 km2 of the land can be used profitably by the country’s estimated 46.6 million inhabitants in 2017 (KNBS, 2018). The greater part of the habitable area of the republic is situated in the wetter Central and South -Western areas, although there is a narrow strip of land along the Indian Ocean coast, which is equally very wet.

1.4.3 Topographical diversity Practically every landform type ranging from mountain(glaciated) and permanent snow above 4,600 metres altitude on Mt. Kenya to a true desert landscape in the Chalbi is present Similarly, all stages of landscape evolution from Cambrian plantation surfaces; to extremely recent volcanic and tectonic Landscape are all well represented. The entire landscape while possessing great amplitude or relief from sea level to 5, 900 metres is dominated by a flight of plateau which somewhat convey the impression of extensive upland plains rather than mountainous environments.

1.4.4 Ecological regions and Ecosystems Kenya is an ecosystem diverse nation with approximately 9 biodiversity regions ranging from; Forest (Forest Ecosystems), Swamps (wetland Ecosystem), Arid and Semi-arid lands (Rangeland Ecosystem), Savannah grassland (grassland Ecosystems), Mountain (Alpine Ecosystem), Ocean (Marine Ecosystems), Lakes (Lake Ecosystems), Mangrove (Mangrove Ecosystems) and Farmlands.

1.4.4.1 Savannah grassland and rangelands Kenya landscape is covered by over 80% arid and Semi-arid lands, this forms the major rangeland ecosystems and savannah grassland. The rangeland is dominated by grassland and bush land including woody vegetation. The rangeland is characterized by low rainfall averages, frequent drought and incidences of food insecurity. Agricultural productivity is low and food insecurity is rampant. The rangelands and Savannah grasslands harbours enormous wildlife biodiversity that Kenya is renowned for most of the game parks and game reserves are found in these ecosystems.

1.4 4.2 Forest Ecosystems The forest ecosystems are found in the humid and rainy moist areas of Kenya, mainly in the highlands of Kenya and around the high mountains of Mau, Cherengani, Mt. Kenya, Mt. Elgon and Aberdare ranges. The forest ecosystems constitute the major water towers providing source of many rivers. Forest ecosystems are renowned for abundant biodiversity and provide abundant natural resources for economic growth. Most forest reserves and parks are found in these ecosystems. On the mountainous

35 areas are found mountain forest ecosystems, these mountain ecosystems contain typical alpine vegetation and sometimes snow-capped mountains.

1.4.4.3 Riverine and Lake Ecosystems In addition to the terrestrial ecosystems discussed above, aquatic ecosystems found in the country include the riverine ecosystems found around river courses that bear unique biodiversity and riverine vegetation. The lake Ecosystems comprise the Rift Valley lakes which are often brackish, some of which are home to huge bird and other firewater biodiversity contributing to tourism industry. On the western part of the country bordering Uganda is found Lake Victoria that offers fisheries resources for export and food to the local communities.

1.4.4.4 Wetlands Ecosystems Kenya is also endowed with many Wetland ecosystems found mainly along the deltas and estuaries of the major rivers. Apart from the riverine swamps, there are lacustrine wetlands found in various parts of the Country, many of which provide water recharge and discharge. Wetlands are considered the kidneys of the earth and known to provide numerous ecological functions. Along the Coastal region is found the mangroves ecosystems including the 200 mile Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ) which forms the marine ecosystem, which carries unique coastal biodiversity including corals and sandy beaches. Near the coastal shoreline there is mangrove ecosystem coverage providing the littoral merges of fresh water and marine water with unique biodiversity. These ecosystems provide important fishing resources to the coastal communities.

1.4.4.5 Drainage Basins and Catchments There are five drainage basins in Kenya namely: Lake Victoria, Rift Valley, Athi River, Tana River and Ewaso Ng’iro. They contain the water resources with potential to support social and economic development. These basins have water bodies such as lakes, rivers, wetlands and springs. These water bodies are the sources of water for rivers flowing west of the Rift Valley to Lake Victoria and East of the Rift Valley into the Indian Ocean.

1.4.10 Population Density Population trends have resulted in increased population densities in some of the rural areas, such as Kiambu, Kakamega, Vihiga, Kisii and Kisumu counties, with densities of over 500 persons per sq km, compared to a national average of 68 persons per sq km. Such high densities have created increasing pressure on the land and other natural resources, the consequences being evident in the extensive loss of forest cover, land degradation, dwindling water resources and emerging climate change (GoK, 2013). A further characteristic of the distribution of the population is the rapid urbanization rate even if current urbanization levels remain

36 relatively low. The 2009 Population and Housing Census shows that slightly less than one-third of the population lived in urban areas; a substantial increase from the 19.3 percent recorded in the 1999 census and further increase of urban population believed to have happened in the recent years. The growing urban population has over-stretched existing infrastructure and services, leading to growth of informal settlements characterized by overcrowding, and the lack of basic infrastructure (such as sewage, safe drinking water and decent housing), and consequently increased poverty.

Population growth and development are inter-linked in complex ways. Economic development generates resources that can be used to improve education and health, the two key contributors to the quality of human capital. Such improvements, along with associated changes, can reduce both fertility and mortality rates. Conversely, high rates of population growth eat into investment resources for economic and social development, and can hinder improvements in both education and health, and the reduction of poverty. A growing population also poses challenges over housing and employment and increases the risk of social unrest, amongst other concerns. These potential linkages have been recognized in Kenya and are articulated in past policy and other documents, such as Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2000 on National Population Policy for Sustainable Development.

CHAPTER 2: PEOPLE, DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT

2.1 People, Economy and Development

This chapter on People, Environment and Development, presents the interplay between population growth, economic development and environmental management.

2.1.1 Population and Environment

The population data from 2014 to 2017 showed an increase in population (Figure 2). There are challenges that come with rapidly increasing population. Kenya's high potential agricultural land is only eighteen percent of the total land area. If the population growth rate continues, the country will face food security challenges. In our attempt to increase food production for an increasing number of people, there has been cultivation of steep hillsides snd riparian zones of river and other wetlands areas. All these areas cannot withstand interference caused and as such has led to overexploitation which is characterized by severe erosion, environmental degradation and loss of productivity as well as biodiversity loss. As the population increases, most Kenyans have also been forced to live in slum areas where no waste disposal systems, safe potable water and other social amenities. It is estimated that a bout 42 % of Kenyan population do not have access to improved safe drinking water and about 75% of the Kenyan population do not have aceess to formal sewerage treatmemnt system facilties which are below the required national and global stnadards (KEPI, 2018).

In 2012, the government of Kenya passed a landmark policy to manage its rapid population growth (NCPD, 2016). The new population policy aims to reduce the number of children a woman has over her lifetime from 5 in 2009 to 3 by 2030. The policy also includes targets for child mortality, maternal mortality, life expectancy, and other reproductive health measures. Kenya’s long-term development plan, Vision 2030 also recognizes that rapid population growth could severely derail progress in reaching its primary goal to achieve a high quality of life for all Kenyans that is sustainable with available resources. The National Council for Population and Development (NCPD), under the Ministry of Planning, National Development, and Vision 2030, has initiated a series of consultations to relaize the provisions of the population policy that would bolster this vision. With additional investments in health and education and economic initiatives to facilitate job creation, Kenya may be able to experience the rapid economic growth.

Figure 2. Population estimates from 2015 to 2017 Source: KNBS 2018 (Economic Survey report data)

2.1.1.1 Gender and Environment

UNDP-UNEP Poverty-Environment Initiative (PEI) and UN Women (2015), notes that more than half of the world’s population is comprised of women. Unfortunately, this significant population stands in front line in the management and conservation of the earth’s biodiversity and natural resources. Women role and know-how to environmental conservation is often undervalued and ignored despite the power of their number and capability for contribution to environment management. The value of gender in environment conservation in Kenya becomes more critical when viewed from the perspective of roles most communities in the country attach to women such as carrying out domestic chores of fetching fuel wood, water and grazing livestock. In most households, women are also responsible for water and waste management. Such roles have made women in some communities to become effective managers of environmental resources. Recongizing the value of gender particularly women in environmental conservation, the IUCN devised the gender index adopting a range of indictors that present extend of women involvement in environment conservation. The index has become popular and in 2018 following invention of Kenya Environemntal Perfomance Index, gender issues focusing on women were mainstreamed to KEPI under the socio-econiomic sustianbility index policy objective (KEPI, 2018). Therefore, by spearheadinh gender index for encouraging women involvement in matters environment conservation, improved environmental performance is projected for the coming years.

2.1.2 Economy and Environment

From the economic development perspective the economic survey data covering the period under review showed a decline in national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and increase in inflation (Table 1). The changes in GDP and inflation have implications on the environment as they point to increase on demand for natural resources to support increasing population, declining economy and increasing cost of life. Environment is largely influenced by socio-economic factors in human life such as sector specific GDP per capita growth, migration, employment, trade and demographic factors. Kenya as a developing country with majority of its citizen still largely depended on natural resources for socio-economic development is therefore bound to face major environmental challenges due to declining GDP per capita and inflation. The declining economy presented by the decline in GDP signals possibility of increase in unemployment and subsequently increases in poverty which forces people to turn to natural resources for livelihoods. Poverty which has been defined as a complex and multidimensional issue, affecting the lives of many people (Alkire et al., 2013) which is driven by declining economy, play a major role on putting stress on environment and environmental degradation despite mankind placing stress on environment. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment study (UNDP-UNEP, 2007) show that poorer communities and those living in marginalized areas put pressures on environment leading to decline on the environment and subsequently become affected by the decline of the ecosystem since they directly depend on ecosystem services for their well-being. Poor people in both rural and urban areas are less resilient to the natural and the man-made disasters. Further, poverty leads to conflict over natural resources at personal, community, regional and national levels. This poses a threat to their development. Illegal logging by poor people robs governments’ revenues which consequently deprives local communities of forest resources and services. Addressing the challenges of the state of environment therefore requires the countryt to deal with the state of the poor. Kenya still faces poverty challenges (NCPD) 2016). Despite the range of economic development interplays that influence Kenyas’ environment conservation, it is noteworthy to pointout that the country strives to make significant socio-economic reforms to reverse the decline in GDP, sustain economic growth and social development.

Followng the DPSIR model, the key drivers of environemtnal change under population, economic development and environment nexus is population explosion and poor economic performance while the key pressures are include; increased demand for natural resources that lead to illegal and unstainable exploiations of natural resurces to support the increasing state of population with demands, the declining economic perfromnce and increasing inflation levels. The proposed responses to the pressures are initiating population growth management strategies,

40 improving economic growth to support employment and poverty alleviations for easing reliance on natural resources, initiating sustainable natural resources enterprises and enchancing natural resources conservation programmes that involve wide range of possibitilies like appropriate technologies and alternatives livelihoods which are being applied to raise living standards of Kenyans while supporting environment conservation.

Table 1. The trends in Gross Domestic Product and inflation in the period 2016 - 2017

Category Year

2016 2017

GDP 5.9% 4.9%

Inflation 6.3% 8.0%

Source: KNBS 2018 (Economic Survey report data)

Table 2 highlights a summary of the DPSIR model analysis of the interaction on population, economic development and environment.

Table 2. Summary table of DPSIR model on population, economic development and environment nexus

Thematic Drivers Pressure State Impact Response Sector People, Population Consumption Unsustainable  Air and Water  Formulation of Environment growth patterns utilization of pollution Policies and resources  Deforestation  Identification and Development  Depletion of the adoption of appropriate ozone layer technologies  Land and Soil  Diversification of degradation alternative livelihoods.  Global warming and climate change  Loss of biodiversity  Reduced food availability  Reduced water per capita Market prices High rate of  Overdependence of  Implementation of the poverty and economy on natural Green economy unemployment resources strategy and action  Unemployment plan  High crime rates  Creation of green jobs  Encroachment of  Social safety nets for fragile ecosystems most vulnerable  Increased informal populations settlements  Adequate capacity in human, physical and financial resources  Good governance, accountability and transparency  Strong monetary and fiscal policies management and investment policies

CHAPTER 3: WEATHER AND CLIMATE VARIABILITY

3.1 INTRODUCTION The atmosphere provides vital but often disregarded life supporting resources that affect development opportunities, livelihoods and human health. Climate systems form the basis for development of natural resource based socio-economic sectors such as agriculture and energy including livelihood support sectors such as health. The climate components of fresh air, rain, temperature, sunshine and wind among others are all significant components supporting human wellbeing.

Kenya has a complex climate that varies significantly between its coastal, interior and highland regions and from season to season, year to year, and decade to decade. Just like other African countries, Kenya is currently bearing the brunt of risks related to climate variability and change most of which has been attributed to climate change. Adaptation and resilience remain Kenya’s, priority response to climate change. This has been affirmed at the regional level by the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) who have called for a global goal for adaptation which takes into account adaptation needs and associated costs, including support for developing countries, while recognizing the need to increase adaptation investments in developing nations’. AMCEN further called for “an ambitious global mitigation action in the long-run, combined with large-scale, rapidly increasing and predictable funding for adaptation. The recommendation of AMCEN is that investment in building resilience must continue to be a top funding priority, including as an integral part of national development planning, which resonates well with Kenya’s approach to mainstream climate adaptation in national and county (sub-national) development planning.

3.2 WEATHER Weather can be described as, what is happening in the atmosphere at any given time, a day to day variation of weather parameters like temperature, rainfall, wind pressure and others. The average weather over a certain period of time often about 30 years is climate. Climate of a place is described by using a combination of weather parameters.

3.2.1 Climate Variability in Kenya Climatic variability in Kenya is influenced by naturally occurring factors such as movement of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone and the ocean-atmosphere interaction phenomena such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole. Large water bodies and varied topography in the country give rise to a range of climatic conditions, from a humid tropical climate along the coastal areas to arid low-lying inland elevated plateau regions across the country. The presence of the Indian Ocean to the east and Lake Victoria to the west, as well as high mountains such as Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro, including the Mau Hills and other high topographical features induce localized climatic patterns in this region (KNMI 2006). 43

3.2.2 Evidence of climate change in Kenya

Temperature performance Data on mean annual and seasonal maximum temperature in the period 2015 - 2017 present evidence of Climate change in Kenya, with a general temperatures rise in the country (Table 3). The March – May season fro instance present a continuous increase in maximum seasonal temperature. The rest of the season also recorded marginal increase in temperature particularly from 2016 – 2017. The reported changes in mean temperature point to climate change manifestation in the country.

Table 3. Country Temperatures Trends

Years 2015 2016 2017 Mean annual and 29 28.7 28.9 seasonal maximum temperatures (0C) March - May 29.4 29.8 30.3 June - August 27.4 26.6 27.4 October - December 28.7 29.1 29.2 Source: Kenya Meteorological Department

Rainfall Performance During the period under review (2015 -2017) the mean annual rainfall presented a declining trend (Table 4). The seasonal rainfall for the short rains occurring between October to December and June to August during the period uder review also presented a decline from 2015 to 2016 though with a small increase in 2017. The long rains appeared stable with a small increase in 2017. In the year 2016, most parts of the country experienced sunny and dry weather conditions during the first two months with only parts of Central Rift Valley, Western Kenya and Central High-lands, Nairobi included, recording substantial amounts of rainfall. During the March – April - May (MAM) long - rains season, areas that received near normal rainfall include Western, Nyanza, counties in the Central and South Rift, Central Kenya, Nairobi and some counties in the Eastern region. Enhanced rainfall was experienced in Kwale, Mombasa, Lamu and Kilifi counties, while counties in the coastal region like Taita/ Taveta and Tana River, and North Eastern Counties like Mandera, Wajir and Garissa received depressed rainfall. The changes in rainfall point to clamate change manifestation in the country also.

Table 4 :Mean Annual and Seasonal Rainfall (MM)

Years 2015 2016 2017 Mean annual and 876.5 703.9 675.3 seasonal rainfall (mm) March- May 350.3 350.7 354.0 June - August 110.4 104.6 104.0 October - December 360.6 142.8 155.0 Source: Kenya Meteorological Department 44

3.3 CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change refers to a change in the state of climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties. It persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate variability on the other hand, refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes among others) of the climate on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events. It may be due to natural processes within the climate system, or variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing. The level to which an economy, people and livelihoods will be negatively affected by the extreme weather events associated with climate change/climate variability relates to the levels of vulnerability of the economic, social or livelihood system.

3.3.1 Causes of Climate Change Climate change is a result of natural and human activities. Naturally climate change is affected by solar irradiance. Since the industrial era, sun has given rise to global warming. High solar radiance affects the ozone concentration, inducing atmospheric heating and composition. The resulting imbalance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing thermal radiation will likely cause the earth to heat up over the next century, possible melt polar ice caps, causing sea level to rise. The possible results are violent weather patterns and increasing vegetation. Human activities also contribute to climate change through emissions of Green House gases.

3.3.1.1 Greenhouse Gases Emission A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs infrared radiation (IR) and radiates heat in all directions. Greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere absorb IR from the sun and release it. Some of the heat released reaches the earth, along with heat from the sun that has penetrated the atmosphere. Both the solar heat and the radiated heat are absorbed by the earth and released; some is reabsorbed by greenhouse gases to perpetuate the cycle. The more of these gases that exists, the more heat is prevented from escaping into space and, consequently, the more the earth heats. This increase in heat is called the greenhouse effect. Examples of greenhouse gases include: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and any fluorohydrocarbons. Data on the percentage of households using woodfuel in 2015 indicated that about 84% of the Kenyan population was using woodfuel source of energy contributing immensemy in CO2 emmissions (KEPI, 2018). Figure 3 from data in the second national communication of UNFCCC reporting shows the trends in emissions of the four main greenhouse gases (i.e., CO2, CH4, N2O and HFCs) from 1995 to 2010 and the figure indicate possibilitu of increase in emission to the period under review.

60 N2O

50 CH4

40 HFC

30 CO2

0 1995 2000 2005 2010

Figure 3: Trends on Total Green House Gas Emissions expressed in CO2e

Source (NEMA 2015).

3.3.3 Key sources of GHGs emissions in Kenya According to the Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) three sectors are responsible for the national GHGs emissions. These include Agriculture, Land use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, Energy and Industrial processes and waste (Figure 4). Agricuture sector is major contributor GHGs emissions in Kenya with estimated share of 61.1% emissions among the key emissions sectors (NEMA, 2015). The key GHGs associated with agriculture sector include; Methane (CH4) from enteric fermentation, manure management associated with livestock as well as rice cultivation and prescribed burning of savannah and crop residues while Nitrous Oxide (N2O) emissions arise primarily from synthetic and natural fertilizers. The Energy sector is the second largest contributor to GHGs with an estimated share of 30.4% excluding land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF). When LULUCF is included in the model, the energy sector becomes the third largest contributor. Industrial processes follow energy sector and lastly waste secto (NEMA, 2015).

Figure 4: Kenya’s Green House Gases Emissions by sector

3.4 THREATS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

In recent decades, observed mean annual temperatures have increased by 1.0°C since 1960, or an average rate of 0.21°C per decade. Changes in rainfall patterns have also been noticed since the 1960s (Figure 5) Present projected changes in global temperature scenarios

Figure 5. Projected Global average Temperature Changes

Extreme climatic events have long posed a significant risk to regions in Kenya, and they have contributed to making it one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world. Of particular concern are floods and droughts, with major droughts occurring about every 10 years, and moderate droughts or floods every three to four years. Historically, these extreme climatic events have caused significant loss of life and adversely affected the national economy. Droughts have affected the most people and had the greatest economic impact; it is estimated that droughts cost about 8.0 per cent of GDP every five years. While usually more localized, floods (flash floods) have led to the greatest loss of human lives.

Whereas dueing the period under review moderate droughts and floods were witnessed. Other climate-related hazards in Kenya include forest fires and landslides, the latter of which mostly affect the highland regions (UNDP 2008a). Current uncertainty regarding how climate change might manifest in Kenya reflects, in part, ongoing gaps in knowledge at the regional and international levels, such as incomplete understanding of how critical drivers such as ENSO influence Africa’s climate, a severe lack of local weather data in Kenya specifically and in Africa as a whole, the granularity of global circulation models, and the limited development of regional climate models (Conway, 2009).

3.4.1 Vulnerability of Key Sectors and Groups

Vulnerability is the degree to which a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change/ climate variability. It is a function of the character, magnitude and rate of climate change and variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity. Vulnerability is thus the relationship between the degree of climate stress on population (exposure), the degree of responsiveness to stress (sensitivity) and the ability of the population to adjust to climate changes (adaptive capacity).

All populations are vulnerable to the changing climate, but the health risks vary depending on where and how people live and how resilient they are to the impacts. Many of the major diseases that are most sensitive to climate change – diarrhea, vector-borne diseases like malaria, and infections associated with under-nutrition are preventable. Issues that are exacerbated by the impacts of climate change/climate variability include floods, droughts, storms and landslides.

Kenya’s economy remains highly dependent on a number of climate-sensitive sectors, including agriculture, tourism and energy production. This sensitivity stems in large measure from the dependence of these economic sectors on a sufficient supply of water. Kenya already is one of the most water-scarce countries 48 in Africa (Kandji, 2006; Mango et al., 2010; WRI et al., 2007; KEPI, 2018); based on current population growth, water availability is projected to fall to 350 cubic metres per person by 2020 (WRI et al., 2007). Climate change could further reduce the availability of this resource through higher evaporation and altered rainfall patterns.

Policies and strategies adopted by Kenya to address water scarcity include the Water Sector Investment Plan (WSIP) for 2008 to 2030 and the Water Catchment Management Initiative. As a whole, these initiatives focus on the economic benefits derived from improved access to and use of water resources, and they only indirectly address climate risks. Enhanced integration of climate risk management into these and other water management initiatives could improve Kenya’s capacity to achieve its development goals.

Agriculture remains the backbone of Kenya’s economy, directly generating about 26 per cent of annual GDP and providing employment, food security and (rural) livelihoods. Productivity in the sector is directly influenced by climatic conditions. Nearly all of Kenya’s crop production (98 per cent) is rain-fed (WRI et al., 2007); the small proportion of irrigated cropland is largely used for export crops (WWAP, 2006).

Within the livestock sector, nearly half of production occurs in the water-scarce Arid and Semi-Arid lands (ASALs) (IFAD, 2007), and droughts have historically led to significant loss of animals. Drought also adversely affects the forestry sector by increasing the likelihood of forest fires and promoting the clearance of forests for agriculture, grazing of livestock in forested areas, and charcoal production.

Climate change is expected to adversely affect the stability of Kenya’s agricultural sector—with particular concern being raised regarding the vulnerability of the country’s millions of smallholder farmers. Understanding of precisely how the sector will be affected is limited. Studies have identified the potential for greater production in the highlands and lower production in the ASALs, and potential impacts on key crops such as maize. Current understanding points to the need for investment in adaptation measures such as development of drought-tolerant crops, income diversification and improved access to meteorological information, and conservation of water resources. The forestry sector faces risks such as increased water scarcity, fire risk, and exposure to invasive species and pathogens. Little assessment appears to have been undertaken of the potential impacts of climate change on Kenya’s important freshwater fisheries sector. The Government of Kenya has initiated efforts to improve climate risk management within the agriculture sector through its National Policy for the Sustainable Development of Arid and Semi-Arid Lands of Kenya and Agriculture Sector Development Strategy (ASDT) 2010–2020. ASDT identifies climate change as a main constraint on future development and includes commitments to climate risk

49 management actions such as expansion of irrigation infrastructure, investments in water storage and rainwater harvesting. Addressing the numerous non-climatic challenges facing the sector such as a skewed landholding system, poor infrastructure and inefficient land policies and legislation (FAO, 2011), would also enhance the country’s capacity to manage climate risks. The health of Kenyans is also influenced by extreme weather events such as storm surges, heat waves, and droughts, and by climate-influenced vector and water-borne diseases such as malaria, cholera, and typhoid. In particular, 5 per cent of deaths in Kenya are due to malaria (ROK, 2009). Climate change is expected to increase exposure to malaria, as well as malnutrition, Rift Valley fever and various water-borne diseases (WHO, 2010). Climate change research to date has largely focused on malaria and, to a lesser extent, cholera in the Lake Victoria Basin. Uncertainty remains, however, regarding if and how outbreaks of these diseases will change in the future. More research is required in this area, as well as on the relationship between climate change and health concerns such as malnutrition. Reducing climate-related health risks in Kenya, particularly among poor households, will require addressing the underlying causes of vulnerability (including poverty and poor water and sanitary services) and the capacity of the health-care system to manage climate-influenced diseases.

The country’s current capacity to respond is low due in part to limited budgets. Improving the health-care system by moving from a curative to a preventive system, decentralizing health delivery and strengthening county medical centres forms part of Kenya’s aspiriations and its Medium Term Plans. Implementation of these plans should positively impact climate risk management efforts, but will require the commitment of considerable technical, financial and human resources. Climatic conditions also influence energy production in Kenya. Access to these energy sources has been reported to be increasingly restricted due to the loss of forest cover, rising populations, existing land tenure arrangements and inefficient utilization (Mugo & Gathui, 2010). Climate change could accentuate this situation by altering the growth of forests and agricultural crops. Within the modern energy sector, large hydroelectric power stations generate just over half of Kenya’s electricity supply, which is used by about 23 per cent of Kenyans, primarily in urban areas. Demand for electricity is increasing significantly as the population and economy grow, and is expected to continue to expand (KNBS, 2018). Reduced rainfall in recent years has already made hydroelectric power production increasingly unreliable, leading the Government of Kenya to introduced new policies and strategies that place greater emphasis on promoting renewable sources such as geothermal, solar, wind and biofuels. Research is needed to understand the potential vulnerability to climate change of these renewable sources and of Kenya’s transmission infrastructure.

Other sectors facing growing climate risk include tourism, industry and infrastructure. The tourism industry forms a vital part of Kenya’s economy—one

50 that is expected to grow, as the country aims to become one of the top-10 long haul destinations in the world. Achieving this goal will be challenged by climate risks that include the loss of tourism attractions such as coral reefs, coastal beaches and Mt. Kenya’s glaciers; changes in wildlife migration patterns and species diversity; damage to infrastructure; water restrictions; and higher demand for air conditioning.

Significant expansion of Kenya’s industrial sector is envisioned as part of Vision 2030 and is expected to occur in part through expansion of climate-sensitive industries. Industry can also be affected by reduced access to water supplies and hydroelectric power during times of drought, and its coastal installations may be damaged by future sea-level rise. Expansion of Kenya’s transportation and communication infrastructure is also planned under Vision 2030 to support achievement of Kenya’s economic development goals. As the government recognizes, these new investments will need to be “climate proofed” to ensure resilience over their lifespans (NEMA, 2014). Similarly, with projections suggesting that Kenya will become a predominately urban country by 2033 (World Bank, 2011), building capacity to manage climate risks in urban centres will increase in importance. The integration of climate risks into plans for industrial, infrastructure and urban expansion is needed to foresee and mitigate concerns. The needs of a number of vulnerable groups, including the poor, women, children, the disabled and those living with HIV/AIDS, need to be carefully considered in any assessment of climate risk in Kenya. Members of these groups typically have restricted access to and control over resources such as capital, credit and land, and are therefore less able to cope with climate shocks and stresses. While all of these groups face unique challenges, most research to date has focused on the vulnerability of women to climate risks. Commitments under Vision 2030 and the Medium Term Plans that aim to reduce poverty and wealth disparities, such as a consolidated social protection fund, a disability fund and a national drought contingency fund, should contribute to lessening vulnerability to climate risks. To date, however, climate risk does not appear to have been integrated into efforts to advance gender equity and the needs of vulnerable groups. This gap needs to be addressed for the vulnerability of marginalized groups to be effectively mitigated.

3.5 GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORKS AND INSTITUTIONS

Separate systems for management of disaster risk and adaptation to climate change have been established in Kenya. The National Drought Management Authority was established in 2012 with mandate to eradicated drought emergencies; the National Disaster Operations Centre, exist to address disaster risk management. A National Disaster Management Policy exists to guide disaster management in the country.

Government bodies established to coordinate Kenya’s response to climate change include; the Climate Change Secretariat established under the Climate Change, Act, 2016 and housed within the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry (ME&F). While ME&F has lead responsibility for coordinating and supervising climate change efforts across government, numerous other ministries and parastatal organizations are also actively engaged in climate change actions. NEMA specifically is under section 17 of the climate change Act is responsible for matters of Greenhouse gases monitoring and ensuring compliance by both public and private entities.

The country’s Climate Change Act, 2016 provides a robust framework for guiding climate change management in Kenya. Further the 2010 National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) provides guidance on how the ambitious goals set forward in Vision 2030 could be achieved through “climate smart” development. To enable the NCCRS, the climate change action plan 2018 – 2022 ha been developed. As well, to strengthen institutional capacity for integrating climate change adaptation into the national development planning process, previously the Ministry of Planning developed the Threshold 21 Model (T21). This planning tool integrates analysis of the risks and impacts of climate change across the major sectors in the economy, society and environment, in order to inform coherent national development policies that encourage sustainable development, poverty eradication, and increased well-being of vulnerable groups, especially women and children, within the context of Vision 2030 (Ministry of State for Planning, National Development and Vision 2030, 2011). Through these and other efforts, the Government of Kenya has acted to improve its capacity to manage climate change and is working to improve inter-ministerial coordination and integrate climate change considerations into national planning processes. Funding to steer the the governance however still remain a challenge and require to be addressed.

3.6 CLIMATE CHANGE FINANCE Climate financing is critical for addressing various aspects of climate change management and is provided for in the Climate Change Act, 2016. Wheares the Governmnt of Kenya provides some climate change financing, the bulk of the financing in the recent times has come from development partners such as he Global Environment Facility, Adaptation Fund, UNDP, World Bank and the African Development Bank among others. The Green Climate Fund under UNFCCC is lined to provide a mjor boost in climate financing also in the country. Opportunities also exist for entities to access the climate change funds through indirect access modalities through the multilateral entities.

Determining the level of financial allocations that go to environmental conservation and climate mitigation and adaptation helps to strengthen climate finance in Kenya’s public financial management systems and in the Medium-Term

Expenditure Framework (MTEF) processes to: 1) maximize budgetary allocation the tracking of public sector expenditure and its effectiveness against policies and plans; and, 3) contribute to strengthened monitoring and reporting of Climate Change adaptation and mitigation efforts.

3.7 RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Kenya has been responding to climate change through various mitigation and adaptation initiatives.

Mitigations and adaptations initiatives

The key mitigation measure has been afforestation and reafforesttion programmes. The country recently set to attain a forest cover of 10% by the year 2022 which will immensely contribute in mitigating climate change. The ministry of transport id working on realizing low carbon pathway in the transport sector through improved and efficient transport particularly in urban centres. The energy sector is promoting clean energy technologies while the agriculture sector is promoting smart agriculture or conservation agriculture. Through various research institutions, research on mitigation and adaptation potentials has been ongoing and new technologies have been developed while other tehcnologies are on incubation stage. Various public, private and civil society organizations are creating awareness on best practices to manage climate change i.e. use of relevant technologies. Gaps though have been identified both in the quality and quantity of data used for mitigation assessment. In order to be able to analyze demand side mitigation options, it is critical that fuel consumption and related emissions be allocated to end-uses. Historical information on the total consumption of different energy consumers (urban households, rural households, commercial and industry) is available from the data on petroleum fuels sales and a number of reports. However, there is little comprehensive information available on the end-use demand where these fuels are ultimately consumed, such as for cooking, lighting and heating water. A number of reports provide details on usage patterns of households and ownership of appliances but this data only indirectly indicates actual energy consumption.

3.7.6 Monitoring and Evaluation of Climate Change Actions While efforts to mainstream climate change at the national level have continued to bear results; much more efforts are required at the County level. The county governments present an important avenue to contributing to climate change management complementing the national government efforts by mainstreaming climate change to the County Integrated Develoment Plans (CIDPS). This would go a long way in understanding the performance of the national and county

Performance index to be spearheaded by NEMA presents a framework for monitoring the performance and will complement the SoE in monitoring and evaluation of climate change actions at national and county levels.

DPSIR Model An analysis of the issues affecting the Climate Change and Climate Variability were analysed using the DPSIR Model (Table 5)

Table 5: DPSIR for Climate Change and Climate Variability

Thematic DRIVERS INDICATOR area PRESSURE STATE IMPACT RESPONSES Weather Burning GHGs Emmissions Increased GHG  Temperature rise  Promotion of afforestation/reafforestation and Biomass (CO2) levels  Sea level rise programmes Climate  Precipitation change  Investment in clean development mechanisms change  Increased floods and  Reduced population growth rates thro family droughts planning  Promotion of conservation of natural resources  Environmental education and awareness creation Burning of Black carbon Increased GHG  Temperature rise  Promoting affordable Kerosine Lamps alternatives Kerosene emmissions levels  Sea level rise  Precipitation change  Increased floods and droughts Transport GHGs Emmissions Increased GHG  Adoption of transport emissions reduction Systems (CO2) levels  Temperature rise strategies  Sea level rise  Enhanced monitoring for GHGs by NEMA Demand for high  Precipitation change  Mitigation and adoption measures for sustainable polluting forms of  Increased floods and transport travel(Cars, droughts  Environmental education and awareness creation aeroplanes)  Development of a holistic framework for research and investiment to reduce related emmissions

Cutting GHGs Emmissions Increased GHG  Temperature rise  Enhancing reafforestation and afforestation down and (CO2 CH4 CO) levels  Sea level rise initiatives burning  Precipitation change forests;  Increased floods and

droughts Land use / • GHGs  Increased GHG • Enchroachment into  Conservation strategies/policies Land Cover Emmissions levels Environmentally Significant  Climate smart agriculture Changes. Areas (ESAs)  Afforestation/reafforestation programmes • Inappropriate  Increased Floods and Land use droughts practices  Loss of habitats • Land Cover  Loss of biodiversity Conversions  Soil erosion Agricultural GHGs Emmissions Increased GHG  Pollution of water bodies,  Policies &legislations, strategies Crops ( NO2 ) levels  degradation (Soil erosion  Compliance and enforcement of legislations and land cover change),  Education, awareness &capacity building  Change of rainfall patterns  Agro-forestry Livestock  Emissions into the  Integrated pest management and safe use of rearing GHGs Emmissions atmosphere, agrochimicals (CH4, NO2)  Encroachment  Over use of Agro-chemicals  Habitat destruction  Health impacts due to agrochemical use (skin, Respiratory diseases, blooming of water hyacinth, pests and related cancers)

Manufacturi GHGs Emmissions  Increased GHG  Global warming  Adoption of Clean development mechanisms ng/ levels  Increased rainfall variability (CDMs) industries  Demand for & intensities, floods and  Implementation of MEAs and mining manufactured droughts  Implementation of Climate change Response goods and  Pollution Strategy and Action Plan employment  Increased Waste Products  Education and awareness creation  Changes in  Depletion of ozone layer  Use of alternative renewable energy sources technology and  Depletion of forest and tree  Adoption of green/environmental industrial lifestyle cover processes (energy audit for efficient energy  Deteriorated Health (Upper utilization, reuse and recycling of products) respiratory tract)

Natural  Floods  Frequencies  Transport disruption  Enhance Early warning systems factors  Drought and severity  Loss of lives and property  Promote Disaster preparedness and response  Landslides  Pollution  Undertake Mapping of risk areas  Climatic  Loss of habitats  Enhance Public education and awareness creation Variability  Loss of Biodiversity,  Loss of livelihoods  Siltation of rivers ,dams and lakes  Vector borne diseases Urbanizatio Enchroachment in  GHG  Pollution  Develop Urban planning policies n Environmentally concentration  Degradation  Reclaim enchroachedEcosystems Significant Areas  LU/LC  Warming of the atmosphere  Upgrading informal settlements in urban areas. (ESAs) (heat island / microclimatic  Enhance Waste management systems effects)  Enhance monitoring and evaluation of ESAs  Identify and Gazette ESAs

Land  Demand for land  Settlement  Degradation  Conservation strategies/policies use/Land for settlement,  Agriculture  Change in rainfall patterns  Climate smart agriculture cover agricultur and expansion  Habitat/biodiversity loss  Afforestation/reafforestation programmes change infrastructural  Mining development  Industrializatio  Population n expansion  Infrastructure development

CHAPTER 4: WATER RESOURCES AND POLLUTION

4.1 INTRODUCTION Water is a component of all life and is the most essential of our natural resources. Over two thirds of Earth's surface is covered by water; less than a third is taken up by land. As Earth's population continues to grow, people are putting an ever- increasing pressure on the planet's water resources. In a sense, our oceans, rivers and other inland waters are being "squeezed" by human activities—not so they take up less room, but so their quality is reduced. Poor water quality means water is polluted (Chris wood 2017).

As industrialization spread around the globe, so the problem of pollution spread with it. When Earth's population was much smaller, the pollution was never a serious problem. However, with the current global population of 7 billion people it has become apparent pollution is turning out to be a far serious challenge to mankind. Pollution is one of the signs that humans have exceeded limits. Pollution from toxic chemicals threatens life on the planet. Nearly all the oceans and continents ranging from the tropics to the once-pristine Polar Regions face contamination challenges.

4.2 WATER RESOURCES

Kenya has an area of about 582 646 km2 with the water occupying about 1.9 % or 11,230 km2. The country is classified as a water scarce country. This means that the demand for water is greater than the renewable freshwater resources that Kenya has access to. The water resources are represented by lakes, rivers, ocean, swamps, springs as well as dams/water pans and groundwater.

4.2.1Water Basins in the Country

Lake Victoria Basin The basin covers about 8% of Kenya. It however, accounts for over 54 % of the national freshwater resources. The basin is composed of Lake Victoria and its associated smaller lakes. The main rivers from the Kenyan catchment are Sio, Nzoia, Yala, Nyando, Sondu-Miriu, North Awach, South Awach and Gucha-Migori.

The Rift Valley Basin The Rift Valley Basin covers an area of about 130 452 km2. It consists of a number of closed basins. These include those discharging into Lake Turkana in the North through the Turkwel and Kerio rivers and those draining into Lake Natron in the south through the Ewaso Ngiro South River. The smaller lakes such as Lake Baringo, Lake Bogoria, Lake Nakuru, Lake Elementaita, Lake Naivasha and Lake Magadi also form individual basins.

Athi River Basin The basin comprises of the southern part of the country east of the Rift Valley. It covers an area of 67 000 km2 and drains the southern slopes of the Aberdare Ranges and the flanks of the Rift Valley, as well as the North Eastern slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro to form the Athi River finally flowing into the Indian Ocean. Athi River, whose length is approximately 591 km, has an average width of 44.76 m, average depth of 0.29m and average flow rate of 6.76 m3/sec is the main river traversing this basin.

Tana River Basin The Tana River is the longest river system running for over 1000 km and also form the the largest basin areas (120,000 km) in Kenya, supplying about 32% total national water resources (NWDR, 2006). Its tributaries include Thika and several other smaller rivers that mostly flow during rainy seasons. It flows from its headwaters on Mount Kenya and in the Aberdare Range in the eastern rim of the Great Rift Valley. The river then runs into the Masinga and Kiambere Reservoirs as well as the Kindaruma dam. The river flows along Meru and North Kitui and Bisanadi, Kora and Rabole National Reserves. It also passes through the towns of Garissa, Hola and Garsen before entering into the Indian Ocean near Kipini. The annual flow is above 5,000 million cubic meters (MCM) on average, but varies substantially both within and across years, and includes two flood seasons each year.

4.3 RENEWABLE WATER RESOURCES The National Water Master Plan, 1992 estimated the natural renewable freshwater to be about 20.2 Billion Cubic Metres (BCM). Figure 6 provides average annual water availability per drainage basin in Kenya.

Figure 6: Average annual water availability per drainage basin in Kenya.

Source: SoE 2014 data

4.4. PROPORTION OF WATER FOR VARIOUS USES

The estimates of water for various uses have been estimated for the years 2010, 2030 and 2050 respectively. Table 6 summarizes water estimates for various uses.

Table 6: Present and future water demands by sector.

2010 (MCM/year) 2030 (MCM/year) 2050 (MCM/year) Subsector Domestic 1,186 2,561 3,657 Industrial 125 280 613 Irrigation 1,602 18,048 18,048 Livestock 255 497 710 Wildlife 8 8 8 Fisheries 42 74 105 Total 3,218 21,468 23,141 Source: The National Water Master Plan 2030

The estimated water demand for irrigation forms the bulk of the water requirements between 2030 and 2050. It however indicates that future demand for the indicated years will not change. This presents the challenge on the need of investing in more freshwater demand so as to be able to meet the demand for irrigation.

Table 7 highlights the proportion of fresh water used for domestic, irrigation, industry and other uses.

Table 7: Proportion of fresh water used for domestic, irrigation, industry and other uses

Volumes 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17 (m3) Public 80,279.7 14,189.07 48,518.32 123,726.78 53,170 54,113.04 43,721.3 Domestic 19,654.7 3,329.53 14,063.03 14,075.3 23,210.1 15,257.31 11,217.31 Livestock 5,018.2 19 1,081.73 668 703 340.1 447.4 Irrigation 67,112.88 101,724.73 127,289.02 247,403.23 52,921.43 246,281.29 80,352.79 Industrial 13,278.24 11,413 13,081.84 33,853.99 2,408 13,212.66 73,285.43 Hydro 124,114.73 1, 468,000 80,501,795.12 1,728,310.73 0 1,657,781 3,000 power

Source: The National Water Master Plan 2030

The fresh water used for irrigation has over the years have been available for use and forms the highest proportion. Those of livestock and hydropower were less available and with the least proportion respectively.

4.4.1 Irrigation Water Demand Kenya has a land irrigation potential of 539 000 hectares (ha). The country can however, increase its potential to 600 000ha through development of drainage and flood protection. Additionally, with water harvesting and storage interventions, the irrigation potential could be increased to more than 1.3 million

59 ha. The Vision 2030, envisage increasing irrigation area to 1.2 million hectares by 2030. The irrigation potential is highlighted in Table 8.

Table 8. Possible Irrigation Area Estimated by Water Balance Study (Unit: ha)

Item LVNCA LVSCA RVCA ACA TCA ENNCA Total Existing 1,876 13,218 9,587 44,898 64,425 7,896 141,900 Irrigation Area New Irrigation 161,645 101,749 52,185 32,070 135,961 26,202 509,812 Area Total 163,521 114,967 61,772 76,968 200,386 34,098 651,712 Source: NWMP 2030

The National Water Master Plan has estimated demands per the six water catchment areas. The Athi water catchment showed the highest water demand compared to the other catchment areas. Tana catchment also showed relatively high demand for water. On the hand, the Lake Victoria catchment both south and north showed less demand for water compared to the other catchment areas. Table 9 present comparison of water demand versus water resources presented as percentage. The data indicate that currently, Athi river basin is under the severe water stress category while 2030 all other basins except the Lake Victoria also enter the severe water stress catergory. The Master Plan also determined several demand centres where there are or would be water deficits. These demand centres include Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu cities, Kakamega, Eldoret, Nakuru and other smaller towns.

Table 9. Available Water Resources and Water Demands Projections by Catchment Area

Catchment 2010 (MCM/year) 2030 (MCM/year) 2050 (MCM/year) Water Water (b)/(a Water Water (b)/(a) Water Water (b)/(a) Resources Demand Resources Demand Resource Demand (a) (b) (a) (b) s Lake 4,742 228 5% 5,077 337 26% 5,595 1,573 28% Victoria North Lake 4,976 385 8% 5,937 2,953 50% 7,195 3,251 45% Victoria South Rift Valley 2,559 357 14% 3,147 1,494 47% 3,903 1,689 Athi 1,503 1,145 76% 1,634 4,586 281% 2,043 5,202 255% Tana 6,533 891 14% 7,828 8,241 105% 7,891 8,476 107% Ewaso 2,251 212 9% 3,011 2,857 95% 1,810 2,950 163% Ng’iro North Total 22,564 3,218 14% 26,634 21,468 81% 28,437 23,141 81%

4.5 RIVER FLOW LEVELS/VOLUMES BY BASINS The river flows in the country are classified as in the various basins. The basins include, L Victoria, Rift Valley, Athi River, Tana River and Ewaso Ng’iro North. The

60 average water availability is summarized in table 10. Tana and Rift Valley systems have the highest water available respectively.

Table 10: Average annual water availability per drainage basin.

Drainage Basin Annual Rainfall Surface Water Ground Water Total Water(MCM) (mm) (MCM) (MCM)

Victoria 1,368 1, 672 116 11,788 Rift Valley 562 2,784 126 2,910 Athi River 739 1,152 87 1,239 Tana River 697 3 ,744 147 3,891 Ewaso Ng’iro North 411 339 142 481 Total 621 19,691 618 20,309

Source: SoE 2014

4.6 GROUND WATER LEVELS BY POTENTIAL/VOLUMES 4.6.1 Ground Water Resources Besides surface water, Kenya is endowed with groundwater resources. Areas that receive low rainfall and runoff such as Ewaso Ng’iro basin are largely dependent on groundwater as a reliable source. Groundwater is also an important supplementary source in urban centres such as Nairobi, Mombasa, and Nakuru.

Improvements of technology and geological mapping have demonstrated that the potential of groundwater resources in Kenya is huge. According to the NWMP 2030, groundwater is now thought to comprise almost 50% of the national freshwater source. Further, results from recent state-of-the-art research in Turkana significantly raised the prospect of groundwater resources across the country.

An estimated summary of the annual sustainable yield of ground water and annual recharge per catchment in BCM is presented in the table 11. Tana catchment will continue to have the highest recharge and safe yields as compared to other catchments.

Table 11 : Annual sustainable yield of groundwater compared to annual recharge (unit: BCM)

Catchment 2010 2030 2050 Recharge Safe yield Recharge Safe yield Recharge Safe yield Lake Victoria North 1,326 116 1,251 108 1,612 140 Lake Victoria South 2,294 203 2,111 188 2,126 190 Rift Valley 1,126 102 1,126 102 1,209 109 Athi 3,345 305 3,303 300 3,649 332 Tana 7,719 675 6,520 567 5,840 508 Ewaso Ng’iro North 1,725 526 2,536 475 1,361 449 Total 21,462 1,927 19,407 1,740 19,287 1,728 Source: Adapted from Annual Water Sector Review 2012-2013

4.6.2 Groundwater Aquifers Kenya consists of three major rock types which influence the hydro-geological condition of the country. The rock types are the volcanic rocks, metamorphic basement and intrusive rocks and the Sedimentary rocks. The groundwater resources are, therefore, spread over the three hydro-geological formations, namely, volcanic rocks in and out of the Rift Valley; Basement rocks and the eastern and western quaternary sedimentary rocks.

Prospecting for water resources in deep aquifers (>300m) started with regional mapping of the Turkana Basin. Initial results showed that there are good chances of striking potable water of between 400 to 600m below ground level. Moreover, it is now thought that there exists a deep aquifer in the coastal region of Kenya due to the discovery of such an aquifer in the Tanzanian Coast (Tanga-Dar esalaam area).

From the existing information Kenya’s groundwater potential is extremely variable, both spatially and temporally, in quality and quantity, and in terms of depth to the water table. Recharge varies from less than 5 percent of the annual rainfall in the arid and semi-arid lands where evapotranspiration losses are high, upto 30 percent in areas of deep sandy soils, coral limestone, and unconsolidated rocks where evapotranspiration losses are low. In humid and semi-humid regions recharge rates may be higher.

4.6.3 Classification of aquifers The various aquifers in the country have been classified into four broad categories with respect to their perceived importance. The classification helps in determining the quality and quantity of each aquifer recognizing the value and vulnerability to different management regimes. The classification is shown in Table 12.

Table 12 : Classification of Kenya’s aquifers

Class Description Examples Strategic Aquifer used to supply significant Sabaki, Tiwi, Nairobi, aquifer amount/proportions of water in a given area Central Merti, Nakuru, and for which there are no alternative Kabatini, Lake Naivasha, resources, where such resources would take Lamu Island time and money to develop, significant transboundary aquifers Major aquifer High-yields aquifer systems with good quality Daua and Elgon volcanics water Minor aquifer Moderate-yield aquifer systems with variable Mandera Jurassics water quality Poor aquifer Low to-negligible yield aquifer systems with Aquifers in Basement rocks moderate to poor water quality Special aquifer Aquifer systems designated as such by WRA Isinya

For sustainable utilization of groundwater resources it is important that studies are conducted to determine the current abstraction levels from aquifers in different

62 parts of the country and encourage such exploitation where appropriate as and when quality and quantity allow. A number of boreholes have been sunk to access ground water. During the period under review, the number of boreholes sunk increased from 1557 in 2016/17 to 2419 in 2017/18.

4.7 WATER STRESS INDEX (WSI) This measure describes the proportion of the country with water stress, measured as % of water use compared to total water available in country/catchment. If the ratio of use vs available is >40%, this indicates severe water scarcity. Water levels of stress are defined by a threshold level as follows;

>40% = severely water scarce, Between 20-40% = water scarce, Between 10-20% = moderate water scarce, and < 10% = low water scarce. Table 13 indicates water stress index and projections.4

Table 13: Water Stress Index

Water Stress Index (Unit: %) (and projections) Year 2010 2016 2030 2050 Demand (MCM/ Yr) 3218.0 8693.0 21468.0 23141.0 Supply (MCM/ Yr) 22564.0 23785.0 26634.0 28437.0 WSI (%) 14.26 36.55 80.60 81.38

Table 14 shows the water demands, supply and stress index percentages for the years 2010, 2016 and 2050 which point to a projected increase in water stress index. Figure 7 also presents a map of water stress index for Kenya.

Table 14: Catchements water demands and available water resources

Area Water Demand (MCM/yr) Available Water Resources Catchment Counties WSI (km2) (MCM/yr) 2010 2030 2016 2010 2030 2016 Trans Nzoia Bungoma Uasin Gishu Lake Victoria North Kakamega Catchment 18,374 228 1337 561 4742 5077 4843 11.58% Area(LVNCA) Busia Nandi Siaya Vihiga Kericho Kisumu Homa Bay Lake Victoria South Bomet Catchment Area 31,734 385 2953 1155 4976 5937 5264 21.95% (LVSCA) Nyamira Narok Kisii Migori Turkana West Pokot

Rift Valley Baringo 130,452 357 1494 698 2559 3147 2735 25.52% Catchment Area (RVCA) Elgeyo- Marakwet Nakuru Nyandarua Ewaso Ng'iro North Marsabit 210,226 212 2857 1006 2251 3011 2479 40.56% Catchment Area Mandera

(ENNCA) Wajir Samburu Isiolo Laikipia Meru Garissa Tharaka-Nithi Nyeri Tana River Tana Catchment 126,026 891 8241 3096 6533 7828 6922 44.73% Area (TCA) Kitui Kirinyaga Embu Murang'a Lamu Kiambu Machakos Kajiado Nairobi city Athi Catchment 58,639 1,145 4586 2177 1503 1634 1542 141.17% Area (ACA) Makueni Kilifi Taita-Taveta Kwale Mombasa Total 575,451 National 3218 21468 8693 22564 26634 23785 36.55

Figure 7: Map of water stress index for Kenya

4.8 ACCESS TO SAFE DRINKING WATER

Access to safe drinking water describes the portion of national population having access to an “improved drinking water source”. Improved sources include protection from external contamination, either supplied as piped water into dwellings, plot or yard; public tap/standpipe; tubewell/ borehole; protected dug well; protected spring, and rainwater collection. Kenya is generally described as a water scarce country. Figure 8 shows the percentage population (urban and rural) with access to at least 20 litres of water per person per day from an “improved” source within 1 kilometre of the user’s dwelling (WHO 2010). As at 2016, only about 58% of Kenyas population had access to improved safe drinking water.

Figure 8 : Population accessing safe drinking water

Source: Ministry of water and irrigation, 2016

Figure 9 shows Percentage of county population accessing safe drinking water

Figure 9: Percentage of county population accessing safe drinking water Source: Ministry of water and irrigation, 2016

4.9 ACCESS TO IMPROVED SANITATION Access to improved sanitation refers to percentage of a population that has access to improved sanitation, defined as: safe disposal and management of faecal waste so as to prevent human exposure and environmental hazards. WHO and UNICEF define this as including: connection to public sewer, to septic system, pour-flush latrine, simple pit latrine and ventilated improved pit latrine. According to the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP, 2017) slightly over half (51%) of Kenya’s population have access to improved sanitation estimated at 77% for urban areas and 42% for rural areas. However the situation has remained static at 51% since year 2000. Figure10 summarizes the percentage of population accessing improved sanitation, while Figure 11 highlights the percentage of counties access to sanitation. The best performing counties include Nairobi (78%), Kiambu (57.1%), Kisumu (54.1%) and Nakuru (52.1%). The poorest performing counties whose population have low access to improved sanitation at below 20% include Mandera (18.3%), West Pokot (18.3%), Samburu (14.8%), Wajir (13.3%) and Turkana (9.8%)

% National Population Accessing Improved Sanitation 55

35 % Pop Access Access %Pop Sanitation 30 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Year

Figure 10: Percentage of population accessing improved sanitation Source: Ministry of water and irrigation, 2016

Figure 11: Percentage of counties access to sanitation. Source: Ministry of water and irrigation, 2016

4.10 WATER STORAGE CAPACITY

Water is not always available when and where it is needed thus, storage and/or diversion systems have been developed to help meet this need. The most common surface-water structure for storage and transfer of water is a reservoir and canal system.

4.10.1 Total Dam Capacity In 2015, total dam capacity for Kenya was 24.79 km3. Total dam capacity of Kenya increased from 20.03 km3 in 1970 to 24.79 km3 in 2015 growing at an average annual rate of 2.47 %. This represents the total cumulative storage capacity of all dams in the country. The amount of water stored within any dam is likely less than the capacity due to silting. Data on small dams may not be included, although their aggregate storage capacity is generally not significant. Table 15 shows trends in dam sizes from 1970 to 2015.

Table 15: Trends in dam sizes.

Year Dam Size (KM3 2015 24.79 2010 24.76 2005 24.76 2000 24.76 1995 24.76 1990 22.36 1985 21.77 1970 20.03

Source: Water Resources Authority

4.11 WATER QUALITY AND CATCHMENT DEGRADATION

4.11.1 Water quality and pollution Water quality status of most water resources in the country indicates that most of them are degraded due to unsustainable land and water use practices. Consequently, the physical chemical analyses of surface waters show a high concentration of dissolved and suspended matter mostly during rainy season. Table 16 shows water quality for drainage basins.

Table 16: Water quality per drainage basin

Basin Surface Water Quality Groundwater Quality Lake Victoria The lake itself has fresh water. It is mostly polluted to Over 90% of boreholes drilled have the extent that the invasive water hyacinth has thrived good water quality, which is fresh and in the system. Rivers exhibit variable seasonal water free from high levels of dissolved salts. quality. Mostly, the rivers are turbid, coloured and silt laden in rainy seasons. However, in the upper reaches, water is of good quality. Rift Valley Only Lake Naivasha has fresh water. The other lakes in Mostly fresh, neutral, soft and free from the basin have brackish to saline waters. In the upper colour and turbidity. 50% of tested parts of the rivers, water is of good quality but in lower borehole waters have fluoride levels parts high siltation and agricultural pollutants affect above 1.5ppm. water quality. Athi In upper reaches, water is of good quality in dry Over 50% of boreholes contain hard periods but gets very turbid during the rainy season. and saline water. At coastal area, Water quality deteriorates downstream due to sewage pollution and seawater pollution from municipal wastes, domestic sewage, intrusion affect the water quality. High industrial effluents and agricultural activities. local variations occur in water quality. Parts of the basin have high fluoride levels, hardness and high iron and manganese contents. Tana Generally of good quality. Pollution from municipal Generally fresh and free from colour sewage, agrochemicals and siltation affects some and turbidity. Hardness varies from soft rivers in this basin. Quality deteriorates gradually to moderately soft. High fluoride levels downstream. in parts of the basin. Ewaso Ng’iro Rivers have high turbidity due to agricultural activities. Water often hard with variable salinity levels. Nitrate contamination has been detected and is due to accumulation of livestock waste at watering points Source: Stakeholder analysis

Pollution of water resources is a major problem in Kenya. The pollution kills life that depends on these water bodies. Major sources of pollution include:

 Organic residues from municipal sewage

 Industrial sources including tanneries, pulp and paper milling, Heavy chemical industries, and textile factories

 Agro-chemicals and agro-based industries such as coffee and sugar factories,

 Agricultural activities which include fertilizers and pesticides

 Sediment load due to soil erosion

Pollution disrupts the natural food chain. Pollutants such as lead and cadmium when eaten by water animals will later be consumed by fish and finally by man hence disrupting health of members up the food chain.

4.11.2 Catchment Degradation Catchment degradation is a major problem, which is undermining the limited sustainable water resources base in the country resulting in increased runoff, flash flooding, reduced infiltration, erosion and siltation. The main causes of catchment degradation include population pressure and deforestation resulting from destruction of natural vegetation through such activities as poor farming practices, (over-cultivation and over-grazing), infrastructure developments, forest excision

70 for settlement, wood fuel, illegal logging and human encroachment, excess abstractions of surface and groundwater, high nutrient levels causing eutrophication of lakes, dams and pans, toxic chemicals, including agricultural pesticides, and heavy metals which are toxic to aquatic life as well as other water users including humans.

Managing Water Pollution and catchment degradation Water pollution could be managed through several strategies which could be categorized under, Education / Awareness Creation, Enactment and Enforcement of Appropriate Laws and Others.

Education/Awareness Creation The general public should be made aware of the water pollution sources, causes and their impact to human and environmental health. However, public awareness in Kenya on water pollution is very low.

Enactment and Enforcement of Appropriate Laws Water pollution is generally transboundary in nature. Many rivers cross countries and counties, the same way seas span whole continents. Pollution discharged by factories in one country or county with poor environmental standards can cause problems to its neighbors, even when they have tougher laws and higher standards. Environmental laws can make it tougher for people to pollute, but to be really effective they have to operate across borders. This is why we have international laws governing the oceans, such as the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (signed by over 120 nations), the 1972 London (Dumping) Convention, the 1978 MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, and the 1998 OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic.

Rehabilitation of water catchment areas Tree planting is one of the ways in which a catchment can be rehabilitated. This effort has been carried out by all stakeholders with leadership of Kenya Forest Service. Table 17 highlights the water catchment areas that have been rehabilitated for the years 2015, 2016 and 2017. During the period, Nakuru County was under focus though other small scale rehabilitations were carried out in counties

Table 17: Acreage of rehabilitated water catchments through tree planting.

Name of water 2015 2016 2017 catchment/tower per county MAU Tower Njoro Pegging and Rehabilitation Njoro River- 2km Njoro River- 1km Sub Catchment of and Turasha river banks riparian area marked at riparian area marked at Barut section of the Njoro Town section of River the River Mkungi Kitiri Rehabilitation of 40km of (Naivasha) Mukungi and Kitiri rivers 71

Source: Water Resources Authority

4.13 OTHER STRATEGIES Other strategies of handling water pollution include embracing the “Polluter pays principle”. This means that whoever causes pollution should have to pay to clean it up. Polluter pays principle can operate in all kinds of ways. It could mean that tanker owners should have to take out insurance that covers the cost of oil spill cleanups, for example. It could also mean that shoppers should have to pay for their plastic grocery bags, to encourage recycling and minimize waste. Ultimately, the polluter pays principle is designed to deter people from polluting.

4.13.1 Compliance and Enforcement in the water Sector The National Environment Management Authority, in discharging its mandate on matters environment controls human activities dealing with water resources through licensing. Figures 12 -20 shows the waste water licenses issued over the reporting period regions of the Coast, North Eastern, Nairobi, Central, Eastern, South and North Rift. Mombasa and Nairobi show the highest number of licenses issued. These are the two regions with the highest population and facilities. By the end of 2017, the numbers of licenses issued were 32 permits and 142 authorizations for Effluent Discharge Licences (EDL).

CHEMICAL-BASED EFFLUENT DISCHARGE LICENSES ISSUED FOR THE COASTAL REGION PROCESSING 140 INDUSTRIES AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES 120 HOTELS 100 MEDICAL FACILITIES 80

ABATOIRS 60

Figure 12: Effluent40 discharges for coast region SEWERAGE SERVICE PROVIDERS

. OF LICENSES ISSUED LICENSESOF . 20 DOMESTIC NO

0 PETROLEUM 201120132015 201220142016201120132015 201220142016722011 20132015 20122014

MOMBASA KWALEYEARS KILIFI TANA RIVER LAMU TAITA SECTORAL TREND FOR EDL ISSUED FOR THE NORTH EASTERN REGION 2

PETROLEUM

DOMESTIC

SEWERAGE SERVICE

OF LICENCES ISSUED LICENCES OF 1 PROVIDERS

ABATOIRS NO

MEDICAL FACILITIES

HOTELS

0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

YEARS

Figure 13: Effluent Discharge Licences for North Eastern Region

SECTORAL TREND FOR EFFLUENT DISCHARGE LICENSES ISSUED FOR THE EASTERN REGION

60 SECTORS

50 PETROLEUM

40 DOMESTIC ISSUED SEWERAGE SERVICE PROVIDERS

ABATOIRS NO. OF LICENSES OF NO.

20 MEDICAL FACILITIES

HOTELS 10

AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES

0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 CHEMICAL-BASED PROCESSING INDUSTRIES

YEARS

Figure 14: Effluent Discharge Licences issued for Eastern Region

SECTORAL TREND FOR EFFLUENT DISCHARGE LICENSES ISSUED FOR THE CENTRAL REGION

80 SECTORS PETROLEUM 70

60 DOMESTIC

50 SEWERAGE SERVICE PROVIDERS

40 ABATOIRS

30 MEDICAL FACILITIES

FigureLICENSESOF NO. 15: Waste water licenses issued at Eastern region 20 HOTELS SECTORAL TREND FOR EFFLUENT DISCHARGE LICENCES ISSUED FOR THE NORTH RIFT 45 10 AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES 40 0 35 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 SECTORS: 30 YEARS PETROLEUM 25

20 DOMESTIC

15 OF NO. LICENSES

10 SEWERAGE SERVICE 5 PROVIDERS 0

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Figure 16 : Effluent discharge licences issued for North Rift Region YEARS

SECTORAL TREND FOR EFFLUENT DISCHARGE LICENSES ISSUED FOR THE SOUTH RIFT REGION 90

80 PETROLEUM 70 DOMESTIC

60 SEWERAGE SERVICE PROVIDERS

50 ABATOIRS ISSUED 40 MEDICAL FACILITIES HOTELS 30 AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES 20 NO. OF LICENSES OFNO. CHEMICAL-BASED PROCESSING INDUSTRIES 10

0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 YEAR

Figure 17: Effluent Discharge Licences issued for South Rift Region

SECTORAL TREND FOR EFFLUENT DISCHARGE LICENSES ISSUED FOR THE NYANZA REGION 35

30 SECTORS: PETROLEUM 25

DOMESTIC 20

SEWERAGE SERVICE 15 PROVIDERS

O. OF LICENSESOF O. ABATOIRS 10 FigureN 18 : Effluent Discharge Licences Issued for Nyanza Region

5 MEDICAL FACILITIES

0 HOTELS 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

YEARS

SECTORAL TREND FOR EFFLUENT DISCHARGE LICENSES ISSUED FOR THE WESTERN KENYA REGION

SECTORS: 30

PETROLEUM

25 DOMESTIC

SEWERAGE SERVICE PROVIDERS 20

ABATOIRS

15 MEDICAL FACILITIES

HOTELS

10 NO. OF LICENSES ISSUED LICENSESOF NO. AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES

5 CHEMICAL-BASED PROCESSING INDUSTRIES

0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

YEARS

Figure 19: Effluent Discharge Licenses issued for Western Region

SECTORAL TREND FOR EFFLUENT DISCHARGE LICENSES ISSUED FOR THE NAIROBI REGION 140

SECTOR 120 PETROLEUM

DOMESTIC 100

SEWERAGE ISSUED 80 SERVICE PROVIDERS ABATOIRS

60 MEDICAL FACILITIES

NO. NO. OF LICENSES 40 HOTELS

AGRO-BASED 20 INDUSTRIES Figure 20. Effluent Discharge Licenses issued for Nairobi Region CHEMICAL-BASED There is a need for all interested parties to work together in the spirit of article 42 PROCESSING 0 of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 for guaranteening every Kenyan a clean and INDUSTRIES 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 healthy environment. Individual action toYEARS help reduce water pollution is also necessary for example, by using environmentally friendly detergents, not pouring oil down drains, reducing pesticides, and so on. We can take community action too, by helping out on cleanups or litter picks to keep our water bodies cleaner. And we can take action at national and county levels to pass laws that will make pollution harder and the environment less polluted. Working together, we can make pollution less of a problem and Kenya a better place.

4.14 WATER MONITORING Water monitoring involves various measurements which include the river gauging stations, water quality stations, ground water borehole monitoring and rainfall stations. The number of the above stations based on the 2009, data are summarized in Table 18.

Table 18: Water Resources Operational Monitoring Stations

Drainage Area River gauging Water Quality Groundwater Level Rainfall stations stations (B/hole) monitoring St. stations Lake Victoria North 34 57 14 26 Lake Victoria South 38 45 11 53 Rift Valley 42 26 26 26 Athi 30 40 33 27

Tana 51 57 18 36 Ewaso Ng’iro North 40 32 13 12 Total 235 257 115 180 Source: WRMA (2011)

DPSIR Model

Issues affecting the water sector were analysed using the DPSIR Model and presented in Table 19.

Table 19: DPSIR for the Water Sector

Issue Drivers Pressure State Impacts Responses Access to Population Increase in Increasing Increased County and safe drinking growth microbiological trend in overall cases of national Water exceeding pathogens and population waterborne governments to investment related human access to safe diseases, increase capacity in health risks and drinking water mobidity and investments to providing safe diseases due to mortality expand improved water supply, and contaminated water supply indiscriminate water infrastructure use of wetlands source. Access to Population Increase in Static trend in Increase in County and improved growth microbiological the overall cases of national sanitation exceeding pathogens and development of waterborne governments to national and related disease access to diseases, increase county capacity risks due to improved morbidity and investment to for investment in contaminated sanitation has mortality expand improved improved water. remained at sanitation sanitation. 51% for years. infrastructure Water Stress High population Water scarcity Water demand Reduced levels State and county challenge growth placing implies is increasing of renewable investment greater demand vulnerability of and by 2030 water needed in water for water for water demand vs will for all resources for management, human use, sustainable, catchments human use, IWRM/ICZM, rain industry, renewable exceed industry, water harvesting agriculture, natural supply sustainable agriculture, and development supply livestock and of infrastructure wildlife leading for water storage to human such as dams, health risks, inter basin affecting transfer and industry, food ground water production and useage power generation. Water Pollution from The need to Ecological and Loss of species, Waste water pollution Agricultural, produce more human health habitats and Ill treatment industrial and goods for the have been health interventions household wastes increasing affected population Inadequate Discharges into Ecological and Loss of species, Increased compliance and the environment human health habitats and Ill number of enforcement in that do not meet have been health inspections and the water sector the standards affected Improvements in the licensing system Water Inadequate water Water harvesting Limited Water Investments in Harvesting storage capacity potential exists facilities for unavailability harvesting

80 but has not been water in the country infrastructure harnessed harvesting and Policies in storage support of water harvesting have been proposed

CHAPTER 5: LAND AND SOILS

5.1 INTRODUCTION As provided for by Article 260 of the Constitution, Land in Kenya is defined as the surface of the earth and the subsurface rock, any body of water on or under the surface, marine waters in the territorial sea and exclusive economic zones, natural resources completely contained on or under the surface and the airspace above the surface. It represents an important resource for the economic life of a majority of people in Kenya. Further, land is an important resource from which the country generates goods and services for the people. Owing the importance of land to the country, chapter 5 of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 was dedicated on matters Land and Envitonemnt. The national economy is primarily agro-based. Ninety percent of the population living in rural areas derives its livelihood directly from land. Land resources are finite, fragile and non-renewable and are considered a capital and asset that provides the essential services for development and human well being. Consequently, the demand and pressure on land is ever increasing. Activities contributing to land degradation include unsuitable agricultural land use, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation and overgrazing. Natural disasters, including droughts, floods and landslides, also contribute to land degradation. Change in land use patterns continue to create severe implications on socio- economic development and relationships on the ecosystem functions. 5.1.2 Status of Land Resources Kenya occupies 582,646 km2 of land which is categorized as public, community and privateThe proportion of public and community land is expected to reduce as more land is alienated to individuals and institutions under leasehold or freehold terms and registered through land adjudication. The proportion of private land is therefore expected to continue to increase as more community land is registered and more public land is alienated. Demand for housing in urban areas is projected to increase to cater for increasing urban population which will see more land converted to estates. The demand for arable land for food production and infrastructural development (both public and private) is also expected to increase to support food security and facilitate national development apsirations.

5.1.3 Land Use and Land Cover Change The major land-cover types in Kenya are forests, savannahs, grasslands, wetlands, fresh and saline water bodies, and deserts. The main land use types include: agriculture, pastoralism, water catchments, nature reserves, urban and rural settlements, industry, mining, transport and communications, tourism, recreation. Other uses include cultural sites, fishing, forestry and energy.

Determining the effects of the country land use and land cover (LULC) change depends on understanding the past land use practices, current and projections to future patterns. Land use is affected by various factors including human activities, population size and distribution, economic development and change of technology among others. The changing climate can also affect Land use land

82 cover. The existing land use plans are isolated and their implementation has been hampered by inadequate enforcement. Significant tracks of good agricultural land and other valuable areas have been alienated for unrelated uses, thereby contributing to unplanned and unregulated urbanization. Sustainable use and sharing of benefits from land based natural resources is gaining popularity in Kenya.

5.1.4 Land Use Planning The Ministry of lands and Physical Planning through the Sessional paper No. 1 of 2017 established the National Land Use Policy to provide legal, administrative, institutional and technological framework for optimal utilization and productivity of land related resources in a sustainable and desirable manner at national, county and community levels. This overall land use framework will define key measures required to address the critical issues of land administration, access to land, land use planning, environmental degradation, proliferation of informal urban settlements and constitutional issues such as compulsory acquisition of land and development control. The Kenya Constitution 2010 has also spelt out the distribution of functions and roles on land use and urban planning between the National and County governments and other key Government institution on matters land as follows:

National Government: Policy formulation on land use and urban planning i.e. National land Use and Urban Plan

National Land Commission: Coordination of implementation of National, sectoral, regional and local area land use plans to ensure compliance.

County of Government: Implementation of county land use and physical development plans

The key policy deocuments that have been developed to also guide matters land use in Kenya include; National Spatial Plan 2015 - 2045: This is plan to guide the long term spatial development of the country for a period of 30 years.

County Spatial Plan: This is a legal document that will guide on the use of land within counties and also enable land to be managed in a better, strategic and organized way.

5.1.5 Land Tenure

In Kenya the Constitution of Kenya 2010 in Chapter provides for the classfiction of land as public, community or private. Article 62 provides for what is classified as public land, article 63 provides for classification of community land whil article 64 provides for classification of private land.

5.1.9 Threats to Land According to the country land degradation assessment report of 2016, major parts of the country landscapes are threatened with degradation due to various factors. The key threats include:  Catchment degradation by systematic deforestation, conversion of land and wetlands into human settlements and farmlands,  Human encroachment in forest zones; soil erosion and illegal logging, livestock incursions into the forest, charcoal burning, and forest fires.  Excessive and illegal logging especially of high value timber trees;  Invasive species in forest and farm areas, rivers and lakes; i.e. the water hyacinth in lake Victoria, and Naivasha and the rapidly spreading ‘Mathenge Shrub in Arid and semi Arid areas.  Charcoal production which is an economic coping mechanism especially during the dry seasons;  Overgrazing and illegal grazing in forest and game reserves which threaten newly planted trees  Frequent forest fires  Soil erosion and sedimentation of water bodies from intensification of agriculture including farming on steep slopes and river banks, and from roads and quarries.  Inadequate capacity for enforcement of legislations on land management  Competition on Water-Use due to demand exceeding sustainable supply, and further compounded by high runoff rates and decreasing groundwater recharge; drainage of wetlands, and pollution of springs;  Climate Change being experienced through temperature increases and rainfall irregularity and intensification;  Exploration and exploitation of minerals resources for example,Titanium Mining in Kwale, Petroleum mining in Turkana and Coal Mining in Kitui county.

5.2 SOILS

Quality fertile soils are a foundation of sustainable agriculture. Soils are also essential in the hydrological cycle. Soil degradation processes of particular concern throughout the country include erosion, compaction and soil fertility depletion. Loss of natural habitats has reduced vegetation cover and exposed soils to extensive wind and soil erosion in many parts of the country.

Soil types

Kenya has twenty five major soil types. The ten dominant soil types based on percentage coverage for the various agroecological zones include; Regosols 15%, cambisols 11%, luvisols , 8%, solonetz 6%, planosols 6%, ferralsols 6%, arenosols

5%, calcisols 5% and lixisols 5%. The distribution of various soils types in the country are shown in Figure 21

Figure 21. Distribution of major soils in Kenya Source; Kenya Soil Survey, KARLO

5.2.2 Soil/ Land Degradation

Soil erosion is both an ecological and socio economic problem in Kenya. Soil erosion risk mapping revealed that almost all the counties in Kenya are at risk from one form of land degradation. About 61.4% the total area of Kenya is likely to face high degradation while 27.2% of the land area if likely to face very high 85 degradation. Erosion in cultivated land is closely related to rainfall intensity, landform, soil type, land use and the level of conservation measures. The areas with the greatest risk include steep slopes, land usually bare before the onset of rains, soils with surface sealing problems that encourage runoff, bad tillage practices such as cultivating up and down slopes, exposure during periods of heavy rain or wind, and inappropriate land use and cultivation of marginal lands. Erosion on pasturelands especially in ASALs is on the increase because of overgrazing. Areas prone to gullies include bare land, animal tracks, faulty road drainage structures and neglected furrows. The risk of stream bank and bed erosion is high where the streams and rivers flow through alluvial plains with little vegetation cover. 22 shows gully erosion in Nyando area Kisumu County.

Figure 22: Gully erosion in Nyando area, Kisumu County

Soil erosion is a major factor and indicator of land degradation and has severe effects on soil functions, such as the soil’s ability to act as a buffer and filter for pollutants, its role in the hydrological and nitrogen cycle and its ability to provide habitat and support to biodiversity. Soil erosion also causes increased rates of siltation of dams and rivers and increased risk of flooding in rivers and estuaries. Thus, soil erosion reduces the productivity of land, requiring farmers to apply more and more fertilizers and other chemicals that help check declining productivity. The resultant excessive use of fertilizers and other chemicals contributes to soil degradation and water pollution.

Policy Decision It is recommended that line Ministries enhance good soil management through control of unsustainable practices to prevent soil erosion and environmental degradation to avert landslides, mudslides, floods and other disasters that are preventable. Involvment in soil conservation is advocated.

DPSIR Model The ssues affecting Land and Soils sector are analysed using the DPSIR Model and presented in Table 20.

Table 20: DPSIR for Land and Soils

ISSUE DRIVERS PRESSURES STATE IMPACTS RESPONSE Degraded • Need for raw • Inadequate • Degraded land • Increased poverty levels • Urban planning initiatives Land materials policies on with low fertility • Low agricultural yields • Formulation of land policy • Change in land use landuse • Food insecurity • Reduced environmental goods • Rotational grazing (expansion of especially • Frequent famines and services • Afforestation and reforestation. agricultural, relating to dry • Poor grazing • Frequent Floods, Droughts • Formulation and industrial and urban lands land and landslides implementation of poverty areas) • Demand for Land • Loss of arable land reduction strategies • Population Growth as a primary • Loss of biodiversity • Development and • Oveexploitation of asset • Increased Natural Resources implementation of National and Natural resources • Increased use conflicts County Action programmes on • Land fragmentation demand for • Increased use of agro- Desertification and Floods • Deforestation Natural chemical • Development of Restoration • Wetland drainage Resources • Sub-division of land into Funds • Unsustainable land • Land Scarcity uneconomic sizes • Promote drought monitoring use practices • Uneconomical and famine early warning • Climate change land units systems • Development of Agro- chemicals legislations Conflicting • Poor enforcement of • Conflicting • Sectoral • Land degradation • Development of relevant Laws related existing legislations mandates management of • Increased conflicts on land policy related to land to land Land and natural use • Review of relavant legislations resources • Human wildlife conflicts • Capacity building for increased enforcement of relevand land • Destruction of habitats legislations • Loss of biodiversity • Incresed poverty levels Enchroachm • High population • High demand of • Low forest cover • Forest Resources • Development of relevant entment into growth Forest resources • Degraded degradation policies on Forestly and forest lands • Expansion of • Food insecurity conservation • Habitats loss conservation areas and other agriculture and • Infrastructural areas • Biodiversity loss • Establishment of conservation conservation urbanization development • Loss of habitats • Destruction of water groups eg Community Forest areas • Forest excisions especially edemic catchment areas associations • Conversions of species(eg • Increased Floods an Land • Promotion of stakeholders wetlands into other Sitatunga found in slides involvement in integrated land uses wetlands) ecosystem management Land • Poor governance on • Poor mining and • Polluted land • Potential loss of control for • Promation of Education and Pollution handling and quarrying /Soils radio active material Awareness creation through disposal of practices • Lack of • Increased mortality due to • Development of relevant radiation radioactive material • Poor storage and designated radio- radiation guidelines and legislations • Inadequate disposal of active waste • Poor Health • Capacity building for awareness on radioactive management • Ecological contamination enforcement of waste radiation pollution material operators • Contamination of storage management regulations • Pile up of • Lack of disginated sites • Enhanched targeted research radioactive radioactive • Identification and adoption of material material technologies on management graveyards of Radio active materials Soil  Soil erosion due to • Food Insecurity • Degraded soils  Increased flooding  Promotion of Conservative Degradation cultivation of steep • Demand for  Reduced Agricultural yields tillage systems slopes natural  Loss of biodiversity  Promotion of Afforestation  Deforestation Resources and reforestation  Overgrazing • Floods and Land programmes  Poor use of slides  Improvement of drainage agrochemicals Systems  Mining. • Climate Change • Introduction of Agriculture in ASAL areas

CHAPTER 6: FORESTS AND WOODLAND ECOSYSTEMS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Forests provide ecological services such as stabilization of watershed areas, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation. Further, they play a significant role in both the national and household economies by providing a wide variety of resources for development. For instance, they provide utility products such as timber for the construction industry, transmission poles for the energy sector, fuel wood for both industrial and domestic use, plywood pulp and paper. Socially, forests provide other values that are of spiritual, cultural and aesthetic significance. All major rivers originate from the forest watersheds and they provide water for domestic consumption, hydroelectric power generation, irrigation and for industrial use among others.

6.2.1 Trends of forest cover. Whereas Kenya has experienced declines in forest cover over time, during the period under review, an increase in natual forests and public plantations cover was noted (Table 21). However, a decrease in private forests plantations was noted from about 50,000 hecatares in 2015 to about 47,000 hectares in 2017. Grasslands and bushlands also showed tendency for decrease from about 41,170,000 hectates in 2015 to about 41,100,000 hectares in 2017. Overall though forest cover increased from 7.17% to 7.29 % in the country which is attributed to efforts of various stakeholders in attempt to realize the ntional target of 10% forest cover by 2022.

Table 21. Forest Cover 2015 – 2017Trends

Forests type Years 2015 2016 2017 Area (‘000Ha) Natural Forests 3,968.6 3,994.4 4,036.0 Public Plantation 139.4 140.8 142.4 forests Private Plantation 55.0 50.0 47.0 forests Total Forest Area 4,163.0 4,185.2 4,225.4 Forest percentage 7.17 7.22 7.29 cover (%) Grassland and 41,170.0 41,100.0 41,100.0 Bushland

6.2.2 Extent (area) of protected forests

Protected forest consists of the gazetted forest area in the indigenous closed canopy mangroves and plantation forests amounting to 2.5 million hectares. The

89 area under protected forests has been increasing progressively through gazettement of more forest blocks as shown in Table 22.

Table 22 : Summary of newly gazetted forests in 2016

No. County Name of Forest Area (Ha) Boundary Plan No. 1 Lamu Boni Lungi 39,925.7 175/433 2 Garrisa Boni( Ijara) 451,430.7 175/434 3 Lamu Panda Nguo 41,316.0 175/435 4 Turkana Loima Hill 19,739.2 175/436 5 Baringo Mukutani 13,195.8 175/435 TOTAL 565,607.4

Source: Kenya Forest Service annual report 2017

The total forest area that was gazzetted in year 2016 was 565,607.4 hectares.

6.2.3 Extent (area) of encroached forest area Amongst the major infrastructural development which led to conversation of forest land into other land use including construction of standard gauge railway (SGR) during the period under review was estimated to be about 128.28 hectares. This is about 2% of the total area reported to have been exercised from forest into other use.

6.1.4 Forest restoration Programme for rehabilitating degraded forest areas through enrichment planting and natural regeneration has been carried out annually and a total of 688,415 and 781,885 hectares of degraded forest areas were rehabilitated in 2016 and 2017 respectively(source KFS annual reports). The Kenya Foreset Service embarked on acquiring title deeds for all its forests in the country to secure forest land from other land uses. During the period under review (2015-2017) the process of acquisition continued whereby a total of 77 title deeds for different forest areas were acquired. Further the process of revocation of titles illegally issued for Karura, Ngong Road, Kamiti, Kiambu, Mt Elgon (Sikhendu) forests and Eldoret tree nursery are at final stages. Once the process is complete, over about 2,000 ha of the forest areas is expected to reverted back to Kenya Forest Service for conservation.

6.4 LOSS OF FORESTS AND WOODLANDS DUE TO WILDFIRES

During the period under review, incidences of wildfire were reported from different forest and woodlands ecology sites whereby a total of 23289.2 hectares were affected with various degree of intensity 90

6.4.1 Frequency of wildfires and areas prone to wildfires Most of the forested areas that received high frequency of forest fires during the period under review are the highly productive zones of both indigenous and plantation forest. During the period under review there was substantial reduction in the incident of wild fire. The reduction of wildfires inceidences was attributed to a combination of many factors which included enhanced established and maintenance of forest boundaries and firebreaks on a regular basis to keep fires from spreading between plantations and from neighboring settled reserves. Frequent ground patrols and continuous establishment and manning of permanent fire towers on 24hrs basis to detect fire occurrence was a major factor responsible for the observed decline on fire incidences.

Table 23 indicates fire incidences and impacts to the forest during the reporting period. These were addressed by the trained fire fighters from the Kenya Forest Service as required.

Table 23. Forest Fire incidences reported.

Acreage destroyed by fire Period 2015 2016 2017 Hectares 14,170 Nil 9,119.2 Source: Kenya Forest Service annual reports (Years 2015, 2016, and 2017)

Figure 23 shows the Impact of Forest fires to Ecosystems.

Figure 23: Impact of Forest fires to the Ecosystems

6.5 KAYA FORESTS ECOSYSTEMS

The Kaya forests are situated in the coastal plains and hills of Kenya and regarded as sacred by the coastal Mijikenda community. Occurring on a coastal strip approximately 50 km wide and over 300 km long, they are residual areas of once extensive and diverse lowland forest. The forests are relatively small in size, ranging in area from 10 ha to over 400 hectares. Several sites have been designated as National Monuments to foster their conservation. These sacred forests once contained hidden fortified villages where the Mijikenda once took refuge from their enemies when they first migrated into the region. They are regarded as the resting place of the ancestors and some communities bury their dead in these places even today. They also conduct various other traditional cultural rituals and ceremonies. Studies indicate that the Kaya forests in addition to their cultural heritage are important for species conservation (Lange et al., 2012). For example more than half of Kenya's rare plants are found in the coast region (over 3000 taxa have been recorded), and many of these are found in Kayas.

In 2008, the Mijikenda Kaya Forests, represented by 10 sites, were placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List under the World Heritage Convention. By this action the International Community signaled its recognition of Kayas as unique heritage treasures of outstanding universal value. They were celebrated as an outstanding demonstration of how cultural values can help to conserve natural heritage.

The period under review did not report any major loss of gazetted Kaya forests. However sites near the City of Mombasa faced increasing incidences of local distubances through firewood and building material harvesting. It was presumed

92 that the products were consumed in Mombasa and neighbouring rapidly growing towns like Mazeras. The National Museums of Kenya (NMK), Kenya Forest Service and the regional County Governments collaborated in effort to control the incidents. Kayas north of the Sabaki in the Malindi area were affected by farm encroachment and tree felling. This is due to a significant population movement to that area from other parts of Kilifi County.

6.6 DRYLANDS FORESTRY In Kenya, drylands make about 80 percent of the country’s total land surface and support about 9.9 million Kenyans, or approximately 34 percent of the country’s population. They account for more than 80 percent of the country’s eco-tourism interests, 75 percent of its wildlife population and 70% livestock production. The drylands nonetheless receive insufficient investment – both in terms of financing and policy incentives, and are under-recognized for their potential value in national development and poverty reduction.

On average the people of the drylands are poor, with proportionally fewer social services and less infrastructure than their counterparts in high potential areas. Many pastoralists have had their critical dry season grazing areas expropriated for other land uses, thereby undermining one of the few integrated land use systems capable of supporting life in such harsh lands. People in drylands are vulnerable to the effects of drought and climate change, particularly in the drylands of developing countries where high poverty levels limit their ability to cope. This is the case in the drylands of Kenya, where a combination of endemic poverty and frequent drought are major challenges slowing economic development. However, high potential especially in the livestock sector, is now increasingly being recognized.

The drylands therefore host a huge economic potential. The drylands forests are largely characterized by woodlands, bushes and grasslands. Several trees of economic importance such as Melia volkensii among other valuable tree species occur in these dryland scapes.

Figure 24: Dry land forests in Marsabit County

6.6.2 Benefits of Dryland Forestry and agro-forestry The benefits of trees in drylands are manifold. Some are direct benefits and generally appreciated such as the provisioning of food and wood fuel. Others, such as the support of primary production or the regulation of the water cycle, are indirect though not appreciated and often ignored. It is therefore important to take into consideration the ecosystem service perspective as an approach to do justice to the direct and the indirect benefits that people derive from trees in drylands. Such a perspective on resilience makes it worthwhile, because it is necessary to link resilience to ecosystems services. Intuitively, this is an area of much potential for societal impact and innovative scientific work.

Dryland agroforestry systems, which combine trees with livestock keeping and crop production, provide a multitude of benefits to people. The agroforestry systems are multi-functional landscapes managed by people to supply the ecosystem services they require. It should be stressed that the importance of supporting ecosystem services that underpin the provisioning of foods and other commodities from which people directly benefit. Multi-functionality implies various uses of land and trees, which are not always compatible. It is also noted that unsustainable use and extraction of dryland resources may undermine the resilience that these systems can provide. This is particularly so for trees, which discontinue their role as resilience providers when ruthlessly cut, uprooted and overexploited. A reliable supply of tree-based resilience requires recognition of the importance to maintain and respect this natural capital. A secure tenure of trees and the land on which they grow is a first prerequisite to facilitate a more sustainable supply of tree-based resilience. Building resilience requires an

94 integrated approach embedding climate change across all sectors and capitalizing on the available knowledge bases. In recent years it has been realized that there is a need for development, which rebuilds the drought resilience of the region’s dryland economies. Trees can enhance resilience of livelihoods in drylands, but their exact contribution has been poorly explored.

CHAPTER 7: BIODIVERITY

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity encompasses the total variety of genes, species and ecosystems. It has a direct effect on human development, and sustains about 40% of the global market of goods and services. Biodiversity resources and the associated processes support sectors such as energy, food, fibres, drinks, medicines, industry, fishery and agriculture on which human lives depend. Biodiversity also ensures air and water purification, pollination, seed dispersal, climate modification, soil stabilization, drought and flood control, recycling of nutrients and habitats. Biodiversity also forms the basis for national and regional tourism. A source of genetic resources, it supports the biotechnology sector. Scientists and environmentalists agree that biodiversity conservation particularly in primary forests is necessary to stem further loss of species and to avert economic downturns in tropical countries. The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is important to the survival of humans and the other living organisms in the environment.

The green revolution, that continues to happen in agriculture through biotechnology, is directly supported by biodiversity. Improvements in crop cultivars and varieties are made possible by harnessing genes from wild species and known varieties. By re-combining genes for different traits, plant and animal breeders develop new varieties for specific conditions. Indeed, interbreeding crops strains with different beneficial traits has resulted in more than doubling crop production around the world in the last 50 years. Maintaining some level of crop diversity is important in wading off emerging diseases and crop pests and is instrumental in adapting to climate change. Therefore, biodiversity, the natural reservoir of genetic traits in cultivars and traditional landraces is important in improving agricultural crops and animal breeds.

Kenya mainly exploits her biodiversity through primary industry including food, tourism and ecosystem services. It supports many livelihoods and lifestyles as it provides genetic reserves and sustains ecosystems upon which the said livelihoods and lifestyles depend. There is still great potential for further application of local biodiversity through industrial processes led by further research in bioprospecting.

Biodiversity has been identified as one of the important resources in attaining the Kenya’s vision 2030. The Constitution 2010, chapter 5, article 69, recognizes the need to conserve biodiversity through environmental protection, which also underscores the attainment of the Sustainable development Goals. The use of indigenous knowledge, innovations and practices for sustainable use of biological resources and human well-being is well recognized by the provisions of the UNCBD Convention and Nagoya Protocol of 2011. Increased anthropogenic and

96 natural disturbances destabilize the ecosystem functions compromising it and the health of her dependents.

Although the benefits of biodiversity cannot be easily quantified, the strong link between human health and biodiversity is getting better understood. With the fast rising human population and growing dependence on natural resources, sustainable development needs to be fostered to minimize environmental impacts of production and reduce susceptibility of future generations to resource scarcity. Overexploitation of natural resources has fueled degradation of the environment, resources conflicts and other concomitant problems. Ome of the key benefits of biodiversity include the following; Hydrological stability, Nutrient cycling, Breeding grounds of various organisms, Serving as water catchment areas, Serving as a carbon sink, Pollination services, Provision of food and medicine, Gene pool, Provision of wood for construction and fuel, Ornamental resources, Source of raw materials for production, Research and education, Recreation sites/ Eco-tourism and Cultural heritage.

7.6 STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY AND INDICATORS OF CONSERVATION

7.6.1 Plant, animal and fungal species diversity Over 38,000 species of flora, fauna and mycobiota are known to occur in Kenya. The current species diversity and regions/counties with high biodiversity concentration for each of these groups is provided below.

7.6.2 Plants (flora) diversity In 2015, about 7004 species of vascular plants were estimated to occur in Kenya (MENR, 2015). Additional species, either new to science or to Kenya, have however been collected since then in last few years. For example, six new plant species were described recently. They included Sedum keniense from Mt. Kenya, Craterostigma loitense I.Darbysh. & Eb. Fisch. sp. nov from the Loita Hills, Cynanchum gerrardii (Harv.) Liede Ssp. ingae Mieve, L.E. Newton & Liede from Makueni County (Meve et al 2016), and Adenia angulosa from Shimba, HillsZanthoxylum chalybeum var. molle Kokwaro (Rutaceae) in Churo (East Pokot,) and Laikipia Nature Conservancy (Laikipia County), Nesaea erecta Guill. & Perr. forma villosa A. Fern. and Nesaea cordata Hiern (Lythraceae), Gonatopus angustus N.E. Br. (Araceae), and Pycreus aff micromelas Lye (Cyperaceae), all from Kwale County (Base Titanium area), and Fimbristylis squarrosa Vahl collected in kakuzi, Muranga County. Others are Xylopia keniensis D.M. Johnson (2017) and Sansevieria laevifolia R.H. Webb & L.E. Newton (2016). The alpha plant species diversity is therefore higher than 7004 given the various new species and records. This is underscored by the fact we have close to 766 species of bryophytes described in the country to date which are sensitive to disturbance and good indicators of environment change.

Generally, Shimba hills with a total diversity of 1396 plant species is the most diverse site in Kenya. The the other undoubted Key Biodiversity Areas for plant diversity in Kenya are Mount Elgon, Nairobi upland dry forests and the coastal forests, with 650 to 950 species per 0.5 degree square. About eight per cent (577 species) of the plant diversity is endemic to Kenya, meaning they are not found anywhere else in the whole world.

The national areas of endemism for Kenyan plants includes the coastal forests and the isolated mountain peaks of the Afromontane forests, recognized as Eastern Africa Hotspot, e.g. Mau forest complex. The two centers account for over 80 per cent of the endemic species (Figure 25).

Figure 25: Endemic plant species index in Kenya Source/ MENR, 2015

Given the increasing number of new species records, more comprehensive plant diversity explorations are required. For example, recent enhanced diversity studies in Kakamega forest increased species diversity from 400 to 889 (Fischer et al., 2010). Localities where research is required includes the Taita hills and other characteristic cloud moist hilltops in the drylands, mainly in Eastern counties (e.g. Nzaui, Mumoni, Endau, Nuu, Marsabit, Ndoto hills), recently found to harbor high species diversity and qualify to be Key Biodiversity Areas due to high species diversity and endemism(Malombe et al., 2016). 98

7.6.3 Animals (fauna) Over 30000 species of animals have been recorded in Kenya so far, with the invertebrates estimated to be above 25000. In addition, new species were described including a blind snake (Letheobia mbeerensis), from the extreme lower slopes of southeastern Mt. Kenya, at Siakago, in Mbeere-Embu, which lies at an elevation of about 1200m.

Table 24 indicates the specific animal category numbers in the country. The diversity and distribution of animal specicies in Kenya is dependent on topography and rainfall patterns (Figure 26). The most dominant animal species are the large mammals, and severely influence the ecology of terrestrial ecosystems. These are elephants, wildebeest and zebra, and carnivores including lion, leopard and hyenas. High numbers of these species are found in the savannah, most of which are designated protected areas (e.g. Masai Mara, Tsavo, Amboseli, Samburu and Nakuru) and have become world famous wildlife attractions.

Table 24 : Known plants, animals and microbes in Kenya

Category Species Vascular plants 7016 Bryophytes 778 Total plants 7794 Vertebrate Large Mammals 157 small mammals 250 Birds 1100 Reptiles 261 Amphibians 110 Fishes 1108 Total vertebrates 2986 Invertebrates Dragonflies 194 Butterflies 900 Bees 800 Other insects 21575 Molluscs 297 Crustaceans 343 Corals 183 Total invertebrates 24292 Fungi 863

Slime molds 105 Other Microbes 2000 Total species 38040 Source: KFS, KWS, NMK, KEMFRI, KEFRI reports, 2018

Figure 26: Distribution of animal species in Kenya

7.6.4 Fungi, Lichens and Slime molds

Fungi are heterotrophic organisms that live, either as saprophytes (breaking down dead organic matter), parasites or symbionts (lichens, mycorrhizae, endophytes) and reproduce sexually through spores. These are generally understudied in all tropical ecosystems. In Kenya, 800 species of lichen forming 100 fungi have been recorded and 105 species of (Myxomycetes) slimemolds (NMK, 2012). Recent studies in this group have led to documentation of new records and the discovery on new species in Kenya. These include 59 new records from Mt Kenya of which 16 are new genera (Auriculora, Candelariella, Clandestinotrema, Diorygma, Hemithecium, Lecanactis, Lepraria, Letrouitia, Megalospora, Mycoporum, Ocellularia, Placynthiella, Piccolia, Ramboldia, Tephromela and Thelotrema). Figure 27 shows newly described species of lichenised-fungi.

Figure 27: Newly described species of lichenised-fungi, B. kenyana from Kitui County

Economically, fungi are the most important decomposers of organic matter in the biosphere and therefore vital in nutrient recycling. About 90% of plants are known to form Mycorrhizae (symbiotic associations of plant roots and fungi). Some plant species and ecosystems have evolved strong dependency on the fungi like coexistence such as the coastal leguminous vegetation, where majority of species will die without the relationship. In addition fungi and slime olds are the major cause of plant and animal diseases, sources of food to humans and other organisms and usually enhance ecosystem health by forming symbiotic relationship with plants and animals to improve plant establishment and survival. These cryptic species are major sources of pharmaceutical and industrial compounds such as penicillin (an antibiotic) and ethanol respectively.

Wildlife is a major tourist attraction in the country, and therefore its management, protection and conservation is key to the country’s economic performance and national heritage. Table 25 presents the wildlife population estimates within the rangelands from 2012 to 2016. Generally, the population of most wildlife species declined during the review period. The decline is mainly attributed to land subdivisions in the rangelands, harsh climatic conditions, poaching and cross border movements in search of vegetation.

Table 25 : Wildlife Population Estimates in the Kenya Rangelands,(000’Number)

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SPECIES 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Buffalo 15.2 13.0 15.6 15.0 14.8 Burchell’s Zebra 100.0 100.3 110.2 100.0 100.2 Eland 6.8 5.8 4.7 4.3 4.0 Elephant 18.5 16.0 15.9 15.8 15.7 Genenuk 18.0 16.0 15.8 15.5 15.4 Giraffe 23.1 19.0 18.9 18.5 18.6 Grant’s Gazzele 112.0 111.7 111.9 111.9 111.8 Grevy’s Zebra 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.9 H. Hartebeest 0.8 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.3 Impala 60.5 61.8 59.9 59.9 58.9 Oryx 15.2 14.5 14.0 13.9 13.9 Ostrich 28.2 28.5 27.8 27.7 28.1 Thomsons’s Gazzele 43.5 42.0 43.4 43.0 42.0 Topi 20.0 20.5 15.3 15.3 15.3 Warthog 18.0 18.4 17.0 16.9 16.5 Waterbuck 2.9 3.5 2.9 2.8 2.3 Wildebeest 288.0 276.0 270.0 265.0 260.0 Source: Directorate of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing, 2017 Derived using aerial sample surveys 7.6.5 Threatened Animal Species and their Population Trends Based on IUCN red listing categories, a total of 628 species are threatened in nature Table 26. Most of these species have been focus of conservation concern and monitoring has been ongoing.

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Table 26: Threatened plants and animals

Species Critically Endangered Vulnerable (NT- Total endangered Threatened Mammals 2 11 16 18 47 Birds 6 16 21 31 74 Reptiles 2 4 2 0 8 Fish 7 4 15 104 130 Plants 24 111 167 67 369 Totals 41 146 221 220 628 Source: Compiled from reports of KWS, NMK, Nature Kenya (Bird Life Data Zone), IUCN, 2018

In particular, mammalian species are experiencing serious threats which have resulted in the decline of populations (Schipper et al., 2008). In Kenya’s protected areas, there are two mammal species listed as Critically Endangered (CR), including Beatragus hunteri (Sclater, 1889) Hirola, Diceros bicornis (Linnaeus, 1758) Black Rhinoceros. In addition, 11 species are Endangered 16 Vulnerable and 18 Near-Threatened (IUCN, 2018). Three mammal species have become locally extinct from Kenya: Nanger soemmerringi (Cretzschmar, 1828). Soemmerring’s Gazelle, Ourebia ourebia kenyae Meinhertzhagen, 1905 Mt. Kenya Oribi and Kobus kob thomasi (Erxleben, 1777). Ugandan Kob. Four species of exotic mammals have been introduced to Kenya. The habitat with the largest number of species is dry Acacia woodlands/bush lands.

7.6.6 Grevy’s Zebra (Equus grevyi) The numbers of the endangered Grevy zebra has been steadily declining in county of Samburu and in Kenya as a whole (Figure 28). The decline in their population has been attributed to habitat loss, land use changes, competition from other grazers and livestock, competition for water by both humans and livestock, poaching for hides and increased aridity in their range. Furthermore, these factors have had a negative impact on the survival rate of the young Grevy’s zebras. In recognition of their low numbers and steady decline in their range, they were listed in appendix 1 by CITES as an endangered species in 1977.

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Figure 28. Trends of Grevy’s zebra in Samburu County between 1978 and 2015 (DRSRS)

Kenya Water Towers Agency: Mandated with protection of waters towers with key water towers in Kenya including Mt Kenya, Aberdare ranges, Mau Complex, Cherengani and Mt Elgon. However, other 72 major mountains and hilltops have been gazette for protection as major sources of water and biodiversity refugia. Ecosystems services and degradation parameters including springs, river systems, vegetation types, and biodiversity richness including threatened and useful biodiversity have been geo-mapped to identify hotspots for bio-monitoring and sustainable utilization.

7.7 NUMBER OF PROTECTED AND NON-PROTECTED AREAS Table 27 highlights some of the kenya’s Ransar sites and their areas.

Table 27: Ramsar sites

Ramsar site (date designated) Size(km2)

Lake Nakuru (05/06/1990) 5 to 5 km2 18,800 ha Lake Bogoria (27/08/2001) 34km long by 3.5 km Wide 10,700 ha Lake Baringo (10/01/2002) 130km2 28,400 ha Lake Naivasha (10/04/1995) 139 km2 23,600 ha Lake Elementaita (05/09/2005) 18km2 6300 ha Tana Delta (07/09/2012) 1636km2 130,000 ha Source: KFS, NMK, Nature Kenya Reports 7.7.1 Number of Ramsar sites Gazetted The number of Ramsar sites gazetted for the priod 2015 to 2017 is summarized in Table 28.

Table 28: Gaztetted Ramsar sites 104

Year 2015 2016 2017 No of Ramsar sites gazetted 6 6 6 No of ramsar sites with 1 lake management plans Naivasha implemented

Source: Kenya Wildlife Services

7.8 BIOSPHERE RESERVES

Kenya has six internationally recognized biosphere reserves with five of them situated within the forest reserves. These are Mt Elgon, Malidi-Watamu which incorporates the Arabuko Sokoke forest as an important core zone, Mt Kulal in Ewaso North Conservancy, Kiunga which includes Boni forest and the associated mangrove forest and Mt Kenya.

7.9 WORLD HERITAGE RESERVES

There are six World Heritage Sites designated under UNESCO in Kenya. Three are cultural sites and the rest natural. They include Fort Jesus, Mombasa (2011), Lamu Old Town (2001), Sacred Mijikenda Kaya Forests (2008), Kenya Lake System in the Great Rift Valley (2011), Lake Turkana National Parks (1997), and Mount Kenya National Park/Natural Forest (1997).

7.10 CONSERVANCIES

Kenya, as a state party has committed to designate 17% of its terrestrial land and 10% of its marine seascape for conservation by 2020. With 59 terrestrial parks and reserves and 10 Marine parks and reserves covering 8.2% of the country’s land area, wildlife conservancies contribute towards attaining this target and are vital in conservation and management of over 65% of the wildlife in community and private lands. Community and private wildlife conservancies complement national parks and reserves and together provide a bigger and more connected space for wildlife.

There are now 160 conservancies in Kenya with 110 operational, 42 emerging and 8 proposed. Of this 76 are on community land, 26 are formed by grouping together several pieces of private lands and 58 are on private land. Majority of the conservancies are found within biologically sensitive areas and are distributed within 28 Counties.

7.11 INFRASTRUCTURE AND HOTELS IN PROTECTED AREAS

There are a considerable number of facilities developed purposely to improve on tourist attraction both local and International. Table 29 shows the Tourists who visited Protected Forest Areas during the time under view.

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Table 29: Tourists who visited protected Forest Areas during the time under view.

KARURA FOREST YEAR No of tourists Total Domestic International 2014 169,240 58,750 227,990 2015 177,941 824,109 1,002,050 2016 180,503 79,439 259,942 2017 180,511 179,439 359,950 MENENGAI FOREST 2014/2015 60,653 280 60,933 2015/2016 89,820 390 90,210 2016/2017 49,680 102 49,782 ARABUKO FOREST 2015 1540 626 2166 2016 1555 656 2211 2017 1632 877 2509

Source. KFS Report 2017

During the period 2015 to 2017 there was substantial number of tourists recorded (219,187) to have visited Nairobi arboretum for recreational or educational purpose.

7.12. INVASIVE SPECIES

There is increase in number of invasive species in land and water bodies due to opening up of more terrestrial lands for Agricultural activities which in one way led to seepage of excessive nutrients into water bodies leading to eutrophication. Introduction of new fish species and lack of proper management has led to Loss of fish species and habitats. Increase number of invasive species in the environment has been aggravated by poor environmental practices which include excessive uptake of nutrients from soil resulting to reduction in land productivity as a result of land degradation due to soil erosion and consequently Habitat change. Creation of national database on invasive species, border control/ inspection at entry points and development of management plans for specific species of concern to the country is recommended.

7.12.1 Type and Number of Invasive species A number of invasive plant and animals species have been recorded in Kenya, where a number are introduced. These invasions have adversely impacted on biodiversity, agriculture and human development. At least 77 alien plant species have been recorded in the country (Lusweti et al. 2011). The key plant invasive species in the protected areas include Cestrum auranticum, Cuscuta campestris (Golden Dodder), Opuntia ficus-indica (Sweet Prickly Pear), O. stricta (Common Prickly Pear) and Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium Weed), Solanum campylacantha A. Rich (a native species but degrading national parks especially after disturbance). Also, Prosopis juliflora (Prosopis or Mesquite), and Solanum 106 mauritianum (Bugweed). Some of the emerging Alien and encroaches invasive species includes Cuscuta campestris (in tea, coffee and forest plantations e.g. tea farms in Kericho, and forests in Kakamega and Cherangani), Dodonaea angustifolia (wooded grasslands in East Pokot, Machakos and Makueni woodlands), and the poisonous Parthenium hysterophorus (Asteraceae), which has covered most of the road sides and national parks in Kenya including Nairobi. Shrubby, Solanum campylacantha (syn. S. incanum) and Taconanthus compharatus have also continued to spread in most of national parks especially Tsavo, Amboseli and Nakuru. The Opuntia species have widely spread in woodlands especially in Laikipia and Tsavo.

In addition, 34 species of animals (11 arthropods, one freshwater snail, ten microorganisms, and four vertebrates) have been recorded. Invasive bird species include House sparrow Passer domesticus, Lovebird, Agapornis sp. (Fischers, Yellow-collared, Hybrid have feral popns), Indian house crow Corvus splendens and Rock Dove (Feral pigeon) Columba livia.

Invasive species have historically played an important role in Kenya. Two species that exemplify the environmental and economic damage by invasive species can have within the forest ecosystems are Lantana camara that is quite widespread and Prosopis juliflora that is affecting most of the lowland and dry areas. The most prevalent invasive species within the forest sector are presented in Table 30.

Table 30: Invasive Species recorded in Kenya.

Species Year of Impact on native plants, Impact on humans (livelihood, arrival animals and ecosystems transport, health etc.) 1. Arthropods Cypress aphid 1991 Cypress trees decimated Degraded environment, loss of Cinara investment cupressivora Leucaena psyllid 1992 Reduced fodder Loss of capital Heteropsylla cubana 2. Plants Prosopis spp. 1983 Serious Serious Prickly pear 1940s - 50s Out-competes native plants, Poisonous, spines dangerous Opuntia spp. precludes grazing and browsing near it, thorns cause abscesses in livestock intestines. Lantana camara 1950s Out-competes other vegetation Poisonous to livestock, habitat for tsetse flies Eucalypt 1939 - 45 Minimal, though some None Eucalyptus spp. evidence it retards recruitment of native species Guava Invades disturbed, and to a Fruit high in vitamin C and A. Psidium guajava lesser degree undisturbed, sites and forms dense thickets. Orange cestrum 1980-1990 Colonizer and replaces all Disturbed environment Cestrum other vegetations aurantiacum 107

Souce: Gichua et al. (2013)

7.12.2 Extent (area) of invasive species Management strategies have included quarantine measures for unintentional and intentional introductions, eradication, containment and control, monitoring and research, regional cooperation and public awareness. More cooperation, assistance and capacity building is required to effectively manage the problem of invasive species. Table 31 shows some areas occupied by invasive species. Nairobi National Park and the Maasai Mara National Reserve are among many wildlife areas that have been adversely affected by invasive species in the country. Other affected national parks include Lake Nakuru, Amboseli and the Tsavos. Saiwa Swamp National Park is one of the success stories of controlled invasive species in Kenya.

Table 31: Land/ Water Area Occupied by 4 Invasive Species

Total % Land Alien/Invasive Land/ Water Invaded Area Land Type Area Area Species Area (km2) (km2) Invaded Mathenge(Prosopis ASAL Areas in ASAL Areas 30,000 Species) Kenya Hyacinth Lake Victoria 172.3 (Eichornia crassipes) Lake Naivasha 0.3996 580,367 Water Bodies Nile Perch (Lates Lake Victoria 4000 niloticus) Common Carp Lake Naivasha 120 (Cyprinus carpio) % Total Area Invaded 34,293 580,367 5.91 Source : KWS, KFS, KEPHIS, SOE (2010)

To control spread of plant invasive species, the Agricultural Food Authority consulted a National Committee to establish a list of noxious weeds in Kenya and seek to repeal legal status. A bio-control programme is being implemented in Laikipia (ol Jogi conservancy). The Northern Rangeland Trust is also funding a project that is supporting community to mass rear the Cochineal for control of Opuntia stricta. Manual and mechanical removal of cactus and Solanum stands are being undertaken by KWS.

Mapping and monitoring of some of the invasive species is under assessment by the NMK, KWS and CABI. For example, Parthenium hysterophorus mapping based collections regions in the country has been accomplished (Wabuyele et al., 2014), where the species is common in Nairobi and Central Kenya. However most the spatial distribution is based on specimens and actual population in the parks will be required.

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DPSIR Model

A summary of the issues affecting biodiversity are highlighted in Table 32.

Table 32: DSIR for Biodiversity

Thematic DRIVERS INDICATOR area PRESSURE STATE IMPACT RESPONSES BIODIVERITY Population Human Trends in Potential loss in Investment by growth and interference MPAs are tourism, state and county poverty from fishers, increasing reduction in governments in leading to tourists, illegal but well biodiversity of strict management subsistence activities, coral below target marine life, of gazetted pressures bleaching declining reef reserves, seeking from climate quality and protected areas natural change reduced and community resources for affecting fisheries) forests, supporting food and coastal more conservation income. productivity and restoration programmes

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CHAPTER 8: COASTAL, MARINE AND WETLANDS RESOURCES

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Coastal Marine and Wetlands are natural capital that provides significant contribution to the economy. The ocean waters are important carbon sinks and offer important ecological service. Wetlands are a source of livelihood to riparian communities and offer important ecological services acting as recharge areas to rivers and lakes. Like in the previous sections, the drivers and pressures emerge as a result of human interferences. The chapter documents the level to which changes have occurred in these important natural resources.

8.2 Mangroves Mangrove coverage in Kenya has continued to decline. Between 1985 and 2009, the country lost an average of 17.8% (or 0.70% by area per year) of mangroves (Kirui et al., 2012). Most of the losses were observed in Kilifi and Tana River counties. Losses and degradation of mangrove forests in Kenya stems from overexploitation of wood and non-wood products, conversion of mangroves areas to other land uses such as solar salt works, infrastructure development, and pollution effects. Climate change is taking toll on the remaining mangroves, particularly through sea-level rise, aridity, and flooding. One of the major drivers that has led to conflicts and exacerbated the deterioration of mangroves has been inadequate linkages among different stakeholders. At community levels, lack of recognition of customary rules governing subsistence use of mangrove resources has resulted to user conflicts. It may be difficult to predict trends in areas where harvestable products have been depleted owing to the dynamics of the drivers. Table 33 highlights the Mangrove forests cover per county along the Kenya coast from the year 1985 to 2010.

Table 33: County Mangrove Forests Coverage

Region Mangrove cover (ha) Percentage loss per 1985 1992 2000 2010 county as at 2010

Lamu-Kiunga 23,371 22,629 20,661 20,482 12.4 Tana River 10,434 9,119 7,350 6,450 38.2 Mida Creek 3,300 3,184 3,009 2,939 10.9 Kilifi 474 274 123 114 75.9 Mombasa 3,360 3,075 2,846 2,816 16.2 Gazi - Vanga 14,049 13,602 12,945 12,790 9.0 Total 55,288 51,883 46,934 45,590 17.5 (Source: Kirui et al., 2012) Despite the decline in mangrove cover, there have been increased interests on conservation, rehabilitation, and sustainable utilization of mangrove resources in

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Kenya. To improve the management of mangroves in Kenya, the government developed a national mangrove ecosystem management plan for the period 2017- 2027. This is the first management plan for mangroves in Kenya that aims to enhance ecosystem integrity and the contributions of mangroves to the economy through sustainable management and rational utilization. Aspects of co- management, equitable use, access and tenure for the communities living within and adjacent to mangrove ecosystems have been highlighted in the management plan in line with Forest Management and Conservation Act (2016) and other environmental laws in Kenya. Additionally, local communities living adjacent to mangroves have come up with conservation groups through which income generating activities are promoted while conserving the mangroves. Most of these livelihood and income generating activities revolve around reforestation of degraded areas, beekeeping, integrated aquaculture, and ecotourism. To tap on climate change opportunities, an innovative carbon offset project was initiated at Gazi bay with the sole aim of restoring and protecting mangroves through sale of carbon credits. There are plans to expand similar carbon offset projects to other mangrove areas in Kenya.

8.2 Seagrass ecosystems in Kenya Seagrasses are marine angiosperms with a worldwide distribution. In Kenya, seagrasses occur in sheltered tidal flats, lagoons and creeks with the exception of the coastal stretch adjoining the Tana Delta. Compared to mangroves and coral reefs, seagrasses have received limited scientific attention despite the important role they play in providing nurseries, breeding, and feeding grounds for commercially important fishery species. Seagrasses support marine foodwebs and are thus important in nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration. They serve as a primary food source for threatened and endangered species such as the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and the dugong (Dugong dugon) (IUCN, 2010). In addition, sea grasses buffer wave action reducing coastal erosion, while the structure of their leaves act as traps for suspended sediments.

8.3.1 Status and trends Seagrass beds in Kenya are estimated to cover a surface area of about 33,600 ha, with the most extensive cover occurring in Lamu-Kiunga area, Malindi - Ungwana Bay, Watamu, Mombasa, Diani-Chale, and Shimoni-Funzi bay (KWS, 2013). Twelve (12) species of seagrass have been recorded along the Kenyan coast (GoK 2009). These comprise the short-lived, 'pioneering' forms: Halophila ovalis, Halophila minor, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule uninervis, Halodule wrightii, Halophila stipulacea, Syringodium isoetifolium, Zostera capensis, and the long-lived, 'climax' species represented by Enhalus acoroides, Thalassia hemprichii, and Thalassodendron ciliatum. Zostera capensis is categorized as a species of least concern in the IUCN red list. Seagrass ecosystems are threatened by fishing activities including beach seining and trawling. Overfishing of sea urchin predators, particularly triggerfish, has also contributed to explotion of sea urchins, Tripneustes gratilla leading to degradation of seagrass beds, particularly; Thalassodendron ciliatum. For instance, in Diani-Challe and Watamu sea urchin 111 herbivory is associated with a 50% reduction of T. ciliatum. Other major stressors include pollution, dredging and boating activities exacerbated by climate change effects. Seagrass beds are undergoing continued degradation leading to losses of cover and biodiversity in many areas with rates of degradation varying from one site to the other. Degradation of seagrass beds negatively impacts coastal communities since they derive livelihoods from this resource. The Kenya government has developed a management and conservation strategy for coral reefs and seagrass ecosystems (KWS, 2013). The strategy is guided by six strategic objectives focusing on threats and mitigation measures. The feasibility of seagrass restoration has also been conducted in Diani-Chale and Wasini with varied success (KCDP 2015). Promising results on the recovery of seagrass beds and associated fauna have been demonstrated. Table 34 shows the distribution of seagrass species along the Kenyan coast

Table 34. Distribution of Seagrass Species along the Kenyan Coast (x = areas where the species are found)

Name of species County Kwale Mombasa Kilifi Lamu Funzi- Gazi Diani- Mombasa Bofa Watamu Lamu- Vanga- Chale Kiunga Shimoni Cymodocea rotundata X X X X X X X Cymodocea serrulata X X X X X X X Enhalus acoroides X X X Halodule wrightii X X X X X X X Halodule uninervis X X X X X Halophila minor X X X Halophila ovalis X X X X X Halophila stipulacea X X X X X X Thalassia hemprichii X X X X X X X Thalassodendron X X X X X X X ciliatum Syringodium isoetifolium X X X X X X X Zostera capensis X X X

8.1.3 Sand Dunes Sediment from eroding corals, shells and materials brought from the hinterlands by rivers get deposited on the coast to form sand dunes and sandy beaches. Prevailing winds blowing from the sea piles beach sand to form dunes. Figure 29 shows sandunes in Malindi County. Sand dunes and beaches provide important breeding, feeding and nesting habitats for diverse fauna including sea turtles, birds and crabs among others. They also support fresh water provision in 112 underground aquifers and help buffer against sea level rise and storm surges. Sand dunes formed by sediments from Sabaki and Tana River are prominent features of the coastlines in Lamu Tana River and Kilifi counties. Economic activities that degrade sand dunes and sandy beaches include coastal tourism, mineral exploration, developments projects and sand harvesting. Improper waste disposal is also a major threat. Solid waste including plastics and other forms of marine debris on beaches not only lead to a loss of aesthetic value, but also reduces the quality of sea turtle nesting habitats and threatens the survival of sea turtle hatchlings as well as other benthic animals. Aquifers in sand dunes are also susceptible to contamination from septic tank effluents leaching from adjacent settlements. Although shoreline change is a continuous natural process, the intensity of change is influenced by development activities along the shoreline and beaches. A shoreline management strategy was developed in 2010 to guide on shoreline development and address the environmental issues of the coastal shoreline in order to mitigate the threats facing shoreline habitats including sandy beaches and sand dunes.

Figure 29: Sand dunes in Malindi (Photo by James Kamula)

8.3 NUMBER AND ACREAGE OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS Marine protected areas are areas of intertidal or subtidal terrain--and overlying water and associated flora and fauna and historical and cultural features that have been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or the entire enclosed environment. In 2016, marine protected areas for Kenya were 8 % against the tartget of 10% provided in Aichi targets under UNCBD. Table 35 shows Marine parks and reserves and their area coverage (Yale data 2016)

Table 35. Marine Parks and Reserves and their Area Coverage.

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Total Area (KM2) 11,230 Target Name AREA KM2 (%) % Coverage Kiunga Marine NR 250 10 0.022261799 Malindi Marine NR 213 10 0.018967053 Mombasa Marine NR 200 10 0.017809439 Diani Chale Marine NR 75 10 0.00667854 Watamu Marine NR 32 10 0.00284951 Kisite Marine NP 28 10 0.002493321 Mpunguti Marine NR 11 10 0.000979519 Mombasa Marine NP 10 10 0.000890472 Watamu Marine NP 10 10 0.000890472 Malindi Marine NP 6 10 0.000534283 L. Simbi Sanctuary 0.4 10 3.56189E-05 Ondago Swamp Sanctuary 0.2 10 1.78094E-05 835.6 10 7.44% Source. Yale data 2016

8.2.2 Status and Distribution of Mangroves

The total area of mangroves in the Kenya is estimated at 61,271 ha; with Lamu County accounting for over 60% of the total cover, followed by Kilifi, Kwale, Mombasa and Tana River (Table 36). Reported estimates of mangrove coverage in Kenya show discrepancies arising mainly from differences in methodologies and description of what constitute mangroves among other reasons. The 61,271 ha estimates in the development of the national mangrove management plan (Government of Kenya, 2017), is significantly higher than the 54,000 ha and 47,000 ha estimates by Doute et al. (1981) and Kirui et al. (2012) respectively. The management plan re-analysed the 1990s medium scale (1:25,000) aerial photographs for mangroves on the entire coastline; whereas Doute et al. (1981) and Kirui et al., (2012) used Landsat imageries to map the forests. There is certainly a critical need to invest in aerial surveys to accurately map the mangrove areas in Kenya.

Table 36: Mangrove areas in the five counties along the Kenyan coast

County Forested mangrove area (ha) % Cover Lamu 37,350 61 Tana River 3,260 5 Kilifi 8,536 14 Mombasa 3,771 6 Kwale 8,354 14 Total 61,271 100 Source: Government of Kenya, 2017

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8.5. WETLANDS 8.5.1 Number and acreage of coastal protected wetlands Wetlands occupy 14,000 km2, representing 3 – 6% of the land surface in Kenya, depending on the season (Government of Kenya, 2013). Along the coast, these wetlands are represented by deltas, estuaries, tidal marshes, mangrove swamps, freshwater and constructed wetlands. Tana is the biggest delta in Kenya with an estimated area of 130,000 ha. It is a wetland of both local and international importance having been designated as Ramsar Site in 2012. The Delta is also an Important Bird Area (IBA) and the second most important estuarine and deltaic ecosystem in Eastern Africa with extensive floodplains and diverse mangrove systems (Hamerlynck et al, 2010).

Another major wetland along the coast is the Sabaki estuary, which covers an area of 600 ha. The estuary consists of sandbanks, mudbanks, dunes, mangroves, seasonal, and permanent freshwater pools. Sabaki estuarine is an Important Bird Area (IBA) providing habitats for migratory and resident birds. Other important animal species include baboons, monkeys, antelopes, crocodiles, and hippopotamus; that attracts visitors to the site.

8.5.2 Coastal lakes There are three major lakes in the coastal region of Kenya, namely; Lake Kenyatta (Mkunguya), Lake Jipe and Lake Chala. Lakes Jipe and Chala, are transboundary in nature, stranding between Kenya and Tanzania border in Taita-Taveta County.

Drivers, pressures, impacts and response strategies Pressures in coastal wetlands and lakes in Kenya are driven by among others; unsustainable human activities within and adjacent the catchment areas and in the wetlands; lack of co-ordinated and holistic policy guidelines as well as climate change. Communities within and adjacent to coastal wetlands and lakes practice mixed farming, fishing, sand collection among other economic activities which are the major drivers of change (Table 37). Frequent drought and abstractions of water upstream, either for irrigation or energy, results in alteration of sediment dynamics downstream. Tana Delta and the Athi-Sabaki estuary are now showing evidence of shoreline change resulting from reduced freshwater flow and increased sedimentation. The impacts of these changes include loss of critical habitat and species, resource use conflicts and loss of livelihoods. These changes have eroded the ecological and socio-economic values and services derived from these wetlands.

Table 37: Major drivers, pressures, and impacts of the changes in coastal wetlands

Pressures Impacts Underlying Sectors

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Agriculture  Excessive abstraction of fresh water  Water scarcity due to high  Unregulated diversion of water for water demand irrigation  Changing river course  Conversion of wetlands for  water pollution and solid agriculture and settlement waste management  Overgrazing  Soil erosion/sedimentation Sand mining  Sand over harvesting  Reduced hydrological capacity Fisheries  Use of illegal/ destructive fishing  Loss of critical habitat and methods species  Over exploitation of fisheries  Invasive species resources Forestry  Overexploitation of forest products Tourism  Conversion of wetlands for tourism development  Wastewater discharge and pollution Energy  Excessive abstraction water  Alteration in freshwater flows and sediment loadings

Among the coastal lakes, Lake Kenyatta has no restriction to resource exploitation; hence, the lake faces a number of challenges ranging from encroachment, selective felling of riparian vegetation, overgrazing, soil harvesting and impact of invasive species such like as Prosopis juliflora and aquatic plants (Figure 30). Indirect threats include excessive abstraction of underground water in form of numerous shallow wells and boreholes sunk by surrounding local community to draw underground water for domestic use and irrigation agriculture. Overgrazing of large herds of cattle owned by the local communities is also among the other forms of pressure in this lake.

Figure 30: The invasive species water cabbage (Pistia stratiotes) in Lake Jipe Source: Photo credit: Stephen Mwangi

Lake Jipe is facing numerous environmental and management challenges including: lake recession, sedimentation, deteriorating water quality, increased salinity and accelerated weed invasion. These changes potentially affect the biodiversity and provision of ecosystem services. The catchment is facing human- 116 induced changes due to land use activities and diversions of River Lumi for agriculture and domestic use. The lake ecosystem is now at risk from environmental degradation owing to the heavy sedimentation leading to rapid growth and spread of the macrophytes, especially emergent Typha domingensis, which have colonized a large proportion of the lake. Sedimentation is as a result of soil erosion in the riparian areas arising from anthropogenic activities. As a consequence, the fishery once heavily relied on in the Taita-Taveta region has since been affected due to the changes happening in the lake.

Response strategies to conserve wetlands include: ratification of the Ramsar Convention to address sustainable utilization of wetland resources; and formulation of the National Wetlands Conservation and Management Policy (GoK 2016) to guide the management and use of wetlands in the country. Site specific management plan has been developed e.g for the Tana Delta. The focus of the management plan is renewing efforts by the local community and other stakeholders to sustainably utilize the resources within the Tana delta. A management plan for Lake Jipe has also been developed. In order to conserve and safeguard coastal wetlands and lakes, from a policy and management options the following actions are recommended:  Prepare and maintain an inventory of all wetlands in Kenya  Develop and implement targeted integrated wetlands management plans to promote conservation and sustainable use of these resources  Strengthen enforcement of wetlands regulations and other relevant regulations to protect wetlands from unsustainable developments and use  Implement long-term wetlands montoring programme to inform decision- making and planning of wetlands conservation interventions  Develop ecotourism ventures to encourage participation of communnities in concervation of wetlands;  Creating awareness among the local communities to enable them embrace conservation and manahement of wetlands

8.5.4 Number and acreage of wetlands under Ramsar Kenya currently has 6 sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites), with a surface area of 265,449 hectares. These include; Lake Baringo designated on 10/01/02; and covers 31,469 ha at an altitude of 00°32'N 036°05'E. It’s a National Reserve and consists of one of the two important freshwater (less alkaline) lakes in the primarily arid Kenyan Rift Valley and its surrounding riparian zones; the central island Ol Kokwe embodies the remains of a small volcano. It is part of the Great Rift Valley system of faults and cliffs and is fed by several freshwater inflows from the Mau and Tugen hills. The second ramsar site is Lake Bogoria designated on. 27/08/01. It covers10,700 ha; at an altitude of 00°15'N 036°05'E. It is an alkaline soda lake hydrologically dominated by hot springs, located in Gregory Eastern Rift Valley, the site provides critical refuge for the lesser flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor), with a estimated population of 1 to 1.5 million flamingoes, and has high biodiversity values for more than 300 117 waterbird species. Lake Elmenteita designated on 05/09/05 and covers 10,880 ha is another ramsar site. It is situated at altitude of 00°46'S 036°23'E. It’s a shallow saline, alkaline lake which provides a favorable environment for diatoms and the blue-green alga Spirulina platensis, which lie at the basis of the food chain of several bird species. An average of over 610,000 birds of more than 450 species (of which 80are waterfowl) have been counted in the area, and the lake hosts an average of 28.5% of the world population of Lesser Flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor). The Lake Naivasha designated on 10/04/95 covering 30,000 ha is also a ramsar site. It is situated at an altitude of 00°46'S 036°22'E. It is located in a high altitude trough of the Rift Valley, one of the few freshwater lakes in eastern Africa. The site comprises a crater lake, river delta, and a separate lake dominated by blue-green algae and soda-tolerant plants. It supports a complex vegetation of terrestrial (Acacia xanthophloea), riparian and littoral plants such as papyrus and Potamogeton, providing foraging and breeding ground for many resident and migrant bird species, including more than 350 species of waterbirds, with 1% of the world population of Fulica cristata.

Lake Nakuru designated on 05/06/90 covering 18,800 ha is the fifth ramsar site and is situated at an altitude of 00°24'S 036°05'E. Its a very shallow, strongly alkaline lake, with surrounding woodland and grassland, fed by four seasonal rivers and the permanent Ngosur River. A number of ecosystems including sedge marshes, seasonally flooded and dry grasslands, swamp land riparian forests, and various types of scrubland support some globally endangered mammal species such as the black rhino and the hippo, as well as regionally endangered bird species like the African Darter (Anhinga rufa), Great Egret, the range-restricted Grey-crested Helmet-shrike, the Lesser kestrel and the Madagascar pond heron. Tana River Delta also designated on 07/09/2012 and covering 163,600 ha at an altitude of 02°27'S 040°17'E is a ramsar site. It is an Important Bird Area (IBA). It is the the second most important estuarine and deltaic ecosystem in Eastern Africa, comprising a variety of freshwater, floodplain, estuarine and coastal habitats with extensive and diverse mangrove systems, marine brackish and freshwater intertidal areas, pristine beaches and shallow marine areas, forming productive and functionally interconnected ecosystems.

8.5.6 Coatsal Marine and werlands Biodiversity Coastal lakes and their riparian areas support a rich biodiversity (Table 38) as well as vital economic activities of the surrounding settlements. They are also a source of water to the adjacent communities and wildlife.

Table 38: Biodiversity of the coastal lakes

Lake Biodiversity Over 306 plant species including those of special concern are found within the mixed vegetation types, including wooded grasslands, shrublands, overstorey Kenyatta forests and onshore vegetation on bogs. 105 species of invertebrates including 26 species of butterflies, 13 of bees, 3 of ants,

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2 of wasps, 49 of beetles, 2 of cockroaches, 3 of snails, 4 of dipterans, 3 of true bugs & several unidentified species of spiders, scorpions and millipedes; some of which falls under species of special concern. Over 23 species of waterbirds at Lake Kenyatta. The most abundant species are African Open-billed Stork, Cattle Egret and White-faced Whistling Ducks. Small mammal assemblages of the immediate surroundings, including rodents, bats, shrews, lagomorphs, mesocarnivores, hyraxes, and lorrisids An endemic Lorissid primate, Galagoides cocos is found in the forests around the lake The lake is known for its endemic fish species, water birds, mammals, wetland plants and lake-edge swamps, which extend about 2 km from the shoreline Vegetation dominated by bulrush (Typha domingensis) locally known as “Gugu maji” that grows out from the lakeshore forming floating ‘islands’ and fringing the lake edges. Swards of Cyperus laevigatus, Sporobolus spicatus and S. macranthus, and also Jipe papyrus, being the major plants as well as 50 others found on the landward side. One of the few places in this part of Eastern Africa where the Lesser Jacana and the Purple Gallinule are common and where the Madagascar Squacco Heron, Black Heron, African Darter and African Skimmers are often seen. Herbivores, carnivores, ungulates, reptiles are among the different wildlife species that have adapted to the environment around the Lake Jipe catchment area. These include zebras, impalas, gazelles, hippopotamus, crocodiles, water monitors, otters and elephants. Chala Home to endemic Lake Chala tilapia Oreochromis hunteri which is critically endangered as per IUCN red list of threatened species (Bayona et al., 2006)

Source. KCDP, 2014

Threatened animals and plants of coastal marine and wetlands ecosystems

Species of Conservation Concern Species of conservation concern include those that are rare, endemic or show evidence of local population declines. Most of the species are generally long lived, slow growing, late maturing and produce few young ones making them vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts. Some are listed under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, or near threatened species. They include marine mammal species (Cetaceans and Sirenians), sea turtles, bony fishes and elasmobranchs (sharks and rays), and terrestrial species (mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, and plants).

8.5.8 Status and trends

Cetaceans Whales: Seven species of whales have been recorded within Kenya waters. The most common species is the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). Other species include the minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni), the toothed sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), the killer whale (Orcinus orca), the false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens), the melon headed whale (Peponocephala electra) and most recently the blue whale

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(Balaenopteramusculus) (Kiszka et al., 2008). Three species are threatened and listed in the IUCN Redlist of threatened animals.

Dolphins: Five species of dolphins have been sighted within Kenya’s marine waters (the Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus); the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa plumbea), the spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), the spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuate). Three other species, the striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), Fraser’s dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei), and risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus) are also reported to occur (Kiszka et al., 2008). Table 39 shows a List of threatened marine mammals.

Table 39. List of threatened marine mammals in the WIO and their status

IUCN Red List Common names Species Global Distribution Endangered Sei whale Balaenoptera borealis Cosmopolitan Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus Cosmopolitan Fin whale Balaenoptera physalus Cosmopolitan Vulnerable Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus Cosmopolitan Dugongs Dugong dugon Indo-West Pacific Source: adapted from UNEP-Nairobi Convention and WIOMSA, 2015

Efforts to monitor and document sightings of marine mammals along the Kenya coast by the Kenya Marine Mammal Network (KMMN) have contributed new insights on species distributions and their relative abundance. Sighting surveys conducted between May 2011 and September 2013 reported 681 marine mammal sightings represented by 12 cetacean species and 1 dugong. The Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins and humpback whales were the most sighted within the Watamu-Malindi area (364 sightings) and the southcoast area along Diani to the Pemba channel (305 sightings). Pilot whales were sighted around Diani, Pemba Channel and Watamu, sperm whales were sighted near Malindi, and a killer whale within the Watamu banks. In 2016, a sperm whale stranding was reported at Ngomeni, and a group of migrating false killer whales at the Watamu banks. The Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin constituted 70% of the dolphin sightings followed by spinner dolphins (15%). The most common locations of sighting included: Kwale (96), Malindi (52), Kilifi (5), Lamu (2), Mombasa (1), and Tana River (1). Another marine mammal species, the Sub-Antarctic fur seal, was found entangled in a gillnet in Lamu in 2015 and released alive. The frequency of cetacean sightings is highly seasonal, for example humpback whales are frequently sighted between the months of July to October coinciding with the peak breeding and calving periods. Figure 31 shows Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (A), and humpback whale (B).

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Figure 31. Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (A), and humpback whale (B) sighted in Shimoni (Photo Credit: Chloe Corne, GVI)

Sirenians (Dugongs) The dugong (Dugong dugon) is the only living species in the mammalian family Dugongidae. The Dugong is classified as vulnerable to extinction on the IUCN Red list and designated in the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act 2013 as a protected species. Dugong populations in Kenya have declined drastically over time. In the 1960s, they were reportedly abundant having been observed in groups of upto 500, mostly off the south coast (Husar, 1975). Later reports recorded only 8 (Ligon, 1975) and only two were sighted during recent surveys in December 2016 and March 2017 during aerial census surveys conducted by the Kenya Wildlife Service. The relatively pristine Kiunga Marine National Reserve (KMNR) is considered the most important area for dugongs in Kenya. Sea turtles Five species of sea turtles, the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) occur in Kenya. Green turtles, hawksbills, loggerheads, and leatherbacks are pan-tropical (occurring in tropical regions of all continents); while olive ridleys are distributed within the Indo-Pacific region. The global status of the five turtle species based on the IUCN Red List and their local occurrence is shown in Table 40. The green turtle is the most common species in Kenya constituting approximately 97% of reported nests, followed by the hawksbills (2.5%) and olive ridleys (0.5%). There are general uncertainties on the status of local sea turtle populations in Kenya; however, anecdotal evidence based on fishery perceptions indicates declining turtles on nesting beaches and at sea. The islands of the Lamu archipelago and the Malindi- Watamu-Kipini area provide the most important sea turtle nesting areas. Notable in-water concentrations of turtles have been observed e.g. within Mpunguti/Wasini, Takaungu, Watamu, Ungwana Bay and Lamu.

Table 40: List of threatened sea turtles in Kenya

Common Name Scientific Name IUCN Red List Occurrence Activity in Kenya Green turtle Chelonia mydas Endangered Very common Nesting,

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Foraging Hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricate Critically Common Nesting, endangered Foraging Olive ridley Lepicochelys olivacea Vulnerable Rare Nesting, Foraging Leatherback Dermochelys coriacea Critically Very rare Foraging endangered Loggerhead Caretta caretta Endangered Very rare Foraging

Regional tagging efforts of sea turtles in the South West Indian Ocean (SWIO) region reveal migrations through Kenya and genetic studies group Kenya’s sea turtle stock as part of the Northern SWIO stock (Bourjea et al., 2015). Furthermore, a regional status evaluation scored olive ridleys to be at high risk and highly threatened within the Western Indian Ocean region calling for prioritized conservation of the species. Collaborative community based beach monitoring and conservation efforts contribute significantly towards assessing the status of sea turtle populations and enhancing the survival of sea turtle populations along the Kenya coast. Long-term monitoring of selected nesting beaches at the Lamu archipelago, which hosts the most important nesting beaches for sea turtles in Kenya, shows a relatively stable trend from 1997 to 2013 attributed to collaborative community conservation efforts (Figure 32).

Figure 32: Nesting patterns of sea turtles at the Lamu archipelago based on monitoring from 1997 to 2013, (Source: WWF-Kenya).

Figure 33 shows a nesting green turtle (Chelonia mydas) going back to the sea at a nesting beach in Lamu.

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Figure 33. A green turtle (Chelonia mydas). (Photo by Mike Olendo)

Bony fishes and elasmobranchs Bony fishes (Osteichthyes) are a diverse taxonomic group of fish that have skeletons primarily composed of bone tissue, as opposed to cartilage. Elasmobranches are cartilaginous (Chondrichythes) and comprise of sharks, rays, skates and sawfish. The species of conservation concern include 16 shark species (2 endangered and 14 vulnerable), 4 ray species (1 critically endangered, 3 vulnerable), all species of sawfish and 8 finfish species (1 endangered and 7 vulnerable) including two seahorse species. Figure 34 shows some species of skate and Rays.

Figure 34: Species of skate and rays –The round ribbontail ray (Taeniura meyeni) (A), and Himantura urnark (B), Dayastis spp. (C) in Shimoni (Photo credit: Nina Wambiji)

Bony fishes and some elasmobranch species (Table 41) are endegered making them of conservation concern in Kenya

Table 41: Bony fishes and elasmobranch species of conservation concern in Kenya

Group IUCN Red list Category Species

Bonyfishes Critically endangered Oreochromis hunter 123

Endangered Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulates)

Green humphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon Vulnerable muricatum) Giant grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus) Blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) Blacksaddled coral grouper (Plectropomus laevis) Bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) Spiny seahorse (Hippocampus histrix) Great seahorse(Hippocampus kelloggi) Spotted seahorse (Hippocampus kuda)

Scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini) Sharks Endangered Great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran)

Pelagic thresher (Alopias pelagicus) Vulnerable Bigeye thresher (Alopias superciliosus) Common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) Oceanic whitetip shark (Carcharhinus longimanus) Sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus), Great whit shark (Carcharodon carcharias) Shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus) Tawny nurse shark (Nebrius ferrugineus) Sicklefin lemon shark (Negaprion acutidens) Short-tail nurse (Pseudoginglymostoma brevicaudatum) Bowmouth guitarfish (Rhina ancylostoma) Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) Giant guitarfish (Rhynchobatus djiddensis) Zebra shark (Stegostoma fasciatum)

Honeycomb stingray (Himantura uarnak) Rays Critically endangered Giant manta (Manta birostris) Rhinoptera javanica (Flapnose ray)

Narrow sawfish (Anopristis cuspidata) Sawfish Endangered

Green sawfish (Pristis zijsron) Critically endangered Source: IUCN, 2014

Birds Kenya’s bird species diversity is rich with a total of 1,034 species. About 41% are found along the coastal shoreline, of which 43 species, and 171 are palaearctic migrants migrating southwards during the European winter from October to March. There are 18 IBAs along the Kenya coast which host globally threatened species, restricted-range species and exceptionally large numbers of congregating birds.

Shorebirds and seabirds: A diverse assemblage of migrant shorebirds and seabirds including crab-plovers, sandplovers, gulls, terns, noddies, shearwaters congregate to forage in intertidal mudflats, reef flats, tidal creeks, mangroves, estuaries, saltpans, beaches and rocky cliffs. Tenewi Island in Kiunga, Whale

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Island in Watamu and Kisite Island in Shimoni provide important breeding areas for Roseate Terns, while erratic nesting is observed at the other sites. The Tenewi Islands host the world’s largest breeding colony was estimated to be 8000 to 10,000 pairs. Other Important Bird Areas (IBAs) hosting high assemblages of and terns include the Tana River Delta and Mida Creek. Rare species such as the Glossy Ibis, Purple Heron, Common Snipe and the Grey-headed Gulls have been sighted in Watamu (Figure 35).

Figure 35 : Important Bird Areas along the Kenya Coast (Source: KeNODC 2017)

Terrestrial birds: Coastal forests host a high diversity of bird species, many of which are endemic or have small distributions. As such, at least 27 breeding birds have been identified as endangered or threatened in Kenya, including the endemic Taita apalis (Apalis fuscigularis) and Taita thrush (Turdus helleri),the Sokoke scops-owl (Otus ireneae); and the Basra reed-warbler (Acrocephalus griseldis) which are endemic to coastal forests (Table 40). The Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is internationally important for the conservation of 5 globally endangered bird species.

Other important bird areas include Shimba Hills Reserve, the Diani Forest, Dzombo Hill forest, the Dakatcha Woodland and the newly established Boni -

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Dodori Forest which is documented to host 283 bird species from more than 61 different families including 5 threatened and 6 Near Threatened including Fischer’s Turaco (Figure 36), as well as 27 Palaearctic Migrants (PM), 24 Afro- tropical Migrants (AM) and 16 East African Coastal Biome (EAC) species (Barasa et al., 2014).

Figure 36: Fischer's Turaco (Tauraco fischeri) at Shimba Hills National Reserve Photo credit: Tomokayu Fukui-JICA

There are terrestrial bird species of conservation concern along Kenya coast (Table 42).

Table 42: Terrestrial bird species of conservation concern along Kenya coast

Common name Species Status Habitat

Amani Sunbird Anthreptes pallidigaster Threatened, EN Arabuko-

African Crowned eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus Regionally WituSokoke/Shimba forest Hills

Basra reed warbler Acrocephalus griseldis Ethreatened Boni and Dodori

Chestnut fronted helmet Prionops scopifrons Endemic WituForest forest

Clarke’sshrike Weaver Ploceus golandi E Arabuko-Sokoke

East Coast Akalat Sheppardia gunning NT Arabuko/Shimba -HillsSokoke

Fishers Turaco Tauraco fischeri Endemic, NT Witu/Shimba forest, Hills Bon-

Little yellow flycatcher Erythrocercus Regionally WituDodori forest

Saddle-billed stork Ephippiorhynchusholochloru Regionallythreatened Witu forest

Scaly babbler Tursenegalensidoides squamulata Endemicthreatened Witu forest

Sokoke Pipit Anthus sokokensis T Arabuko-Sokoke

Sokoke Scops Owl Otus ireneae E Arabuko/Shimba -HillsSokoke /

Southern Banded Snake- Circaetus fasciolatus NT WituShimba forest Hills / Boni-

Spoteagleted Ground Thrush Geokichla guttata T ArabukoDodori forest-Sokoke

Taita Thrush Turdus helleri CE Taita/Shimba hills Hills

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Taita Apalis Apalis fuscigularis CE Taita hills

Malindi Pipit Anthus melindae NT Malindi Sources: Barasa et al. 2014, Otieno et al. 2016

Terrestrial mammals

Recent efforts to document the terrestrial mammal biodiversity in coastal forests includes the use of infrared camera traps, which has provided new insights on the presence of at risk species. A list of terrestrial mammal species of conservation concern along the Kenya coast is shown in Table 43. A survey conducted between 2010 and 2011 reported 38 species including 32 species at Boni-Dodori forests and 20 species at Arabuko-Sokoke forest (Andanje et al., 2015). Among the species are two of Kenya’s rarest mammals, the endemic Tana River Red Colobus (Procolobus rufomatiitus) and Tana River Mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus) with population levels estimated to range from 1000 to 1300 individuals (Butysnki and Mwangi, 1994) and reported be further declining. A population of ‘critically endangered Aders’ duiker, Cephalophus adersi only thought to be restricted in Arabuko-Sokoke forest and Zanzibar were sighted in Boni forest (Andanje et al. 2011). The Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger roosevelti) is a rare species that is endemic to the Shimba Hills National Reserve. Although it is listed as ‘least concern’in the IUCN Red List, the Kenyan sub population has declined at an alarmingly rate from 265 individuals in the 1960s to about 60 (KWS, 2013).

Table 43: List of Terrestrial Mammals of Conservation Concern on the Kenya Coast

Common Name Scientific Name IUCN conservation Forest Status

Ader’s Duiker Cephalophus adersi CE Arabuko-Sokoke

Common Duiker Sylvicapra grimmia V Boni Dodori

Harvey's Duiker Cephalophus harveyi Conservation Witu dependent

African elephant Loxodonta Africana V Arabuko-Sokoke

Haggard’s Oribi Ourebia ourebia haggard V BoniForest/Witu-Dodori

African Elephant Loxodonta Africana V Shimba

Giant Sengi Rhynchocyon sp Conservation BoniHills/Boni Dodori-Dod ori dependent

African Wild Dog Lycaon pictus E Boni - Dodori

Golden-rumped sengi Rhynchocyon chrysopygus E Arabuko-Sokoke

Lesser Elephant Shrew Elephantulas rufescens NT Witu 127

Lion Panthera leo V Witu

Leopard Panthera pardus V Boni-Dodori

Topi Damaliscus lunatus topi NT Boni-Dodori

Sokoke Bushy-tailed Bdeogale omnivore V Arabuko-Sokoke

SuniMongoose Neotragus moschatus Conservation Witut dependent Tana river red colobus Procolobus rufomitratus Conservation Tana river dependent

Crested mangabey Cercocebus galeritus Conservation Tan river dependent

Sable antelope Hippotragus niger Least concern Shimba Hills roosevelti National Reserve

Source: Andanje et al., 2011, 2015; Barasa et al., 2014; KFS, 2015

Other terrestrial species Other terrestrial species of conservation concern include reptiles, amphibians and plants, many of which are endemic to coastal forests and invertevrates (Table 44). Witu forest reserve is known to hold at least nine species of threatened plants including Euphorbia tanaensis which is endemic to the area (KFS, 2014). Only four E. tanaensis trees remain in Kenya, out of an estimated 20 trees in the whole world (KFS, 2014).

Table 44 : Other Coastal and Marine threatened species in Kenya

Fauna/Flora Common name / Species Status Location

Frogs ForestGroup Spiny Reed Hyperolius sylvaticus T Shimba Hills Frog

Shimba Hills Reed Hyperolius T Shimba Hills ShimbaFrog Hills Afrixalusrubrovermiculatus sylvaticu T Shimba Hills SagallaBanana Fcaecilianrog Boulengerula niedeni E Taita Hills Taita Hills Warty Callulina dawida CE Taita Hills Reptiles KenyaFrog sand boa Gongylophis colubrinus Protected Lake Jipe Leopard tortoise Stigmochelys pardalis Protected(CITES) Lake Jipe Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus Protected(CITES) Lake Jipe Nile monitor Varanus niloticus Protected(CITES) Lake Jipe Southern African Python natalensis Protected(CITES) Lake Jipe Plants Shrpythonub Afrocanthium kilifiense V(CITES) Mwaluganje Shrub Afrocanthium V Shimba Hills Shrub Allophyluspseudoverticillatum chirindensis V Shimba Hills

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Shrub Aristogeitonia V Mwaluganje Shrub Bauhiniamonophylla mombassae E Shimba Hills Shrub Brachylaena huillensis NT Mwaluganje Shrub Buxus obtusifolia V Mwaluganje Tree Caesalpinia insolita V Mwaluganje Creeping rhizome Callopsis volkensii NT Shimba Hills Tree Chytranthus V Lake Tree Colaobliquinervis uloloma V ShimbaKenyatta/Shimba Hills Tree Combretum CE RabaiHills forest Tree Commiphoratenuipetiolatum obovata NT Shimba Hills Tree Cynometra suaheliensis V Mwaluganje African Dalbergia melanoxylon Protected Witu forest Shrub/blackwood Tree Diospyros greenwayi V(CITES) Shimba Hills/ Witu Shub/ Tree Diospyros shimbaensis E Shimba Hills Mombasa Cycad Encephalartos N Mwaluganje Voi Cycad Encephalartoshildebrandtii kisamb T Taita forest Tree Erythrina sacleuxii NT Lake Kenyatta Shrub Erythrococca pubescens LC, rare Mwaluganje Tree Euphorbia tanaensis CE Witu forest Shrub Isolona cauliflora V Shimba Hills Fern Memecylon fragrans V Mwaluganje/ Herbaceous Momordica leiocarpa R MwaluganjeArabuko Sokoke Treeclimber Nesogordonia holtzii R Shimba Hills Tree Oxyanthus pyriformis E Shimba Hills Shrub Pavetta tarennoides R Shimba Hills Shrub / Tree Sterculia schliebenii V Shimba Hills Shrub / Tree Thecacoris E Mwaluganje Shrub / Tree Uvariodendronusambarensis kirkii V Mwaluganje Shrub / Tree Vepris sansibarensis V Mwaluganje/Shimba Hills Shrub / Tree Vitellariopsis kirkii V Mwaluganje Sources: Andanje et al., 2015; Mbuvi et al., 2015; Mitto et al., 2015; KFS, 2015

Note: IUCN Red List status (V= vulnerable, NT = near threatened, T = threatened, E= endangered, CE = critically endangered, LC= least concern).

Human Pressure on Species

Human induced pressures continue to impact on populations of species of conservation concern. Major drivers include increasing coastal populations, poverty, overexploitation of resources, habitat destruction due to infrastructural development and urbanization.

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Cultural value is an important driver of species population declines, especially for marine mammals, sea turtles, sharks, birds and some plants. Many of the species are valued by coastal communities as a source of protein from meat and eggs or for their medicinal properties.

Poaching is driven by poverty and the availability of lucrative illegal markets. Kenya is a signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) which bans trade in protected species..

Overfishing from commercial, artisanal, subsistence and recreational fishing activities is a major threat. Artisanal fisheries are a key source of pressure on finfish and shark populations along the Kenya coast. Shark oil products are processed locally, while shark teeth and jaws are sold to tourists. Kenya represents an important transshipment point for shark fins within the Western Indian Ocean (WIO). Thus, demand for Kenya’s shark fins, particularly from Asia, is a major driver of overfishing. A steady decline in shark fin exports from Kenya occurred between the 1990 and 1995 from 10 mt in 1990 to 4.3 mt in 1995. There was also a rise in value between 2006 to 2015 with the lowest value of Ksh.31.9/Kg being reported in 2008 and the highest value of Ksh.721.6/Kg being reported in 2015 (Figure 37).

Figure 37: Shark fin exports in metric tons and export value in Ksh/Kg between 1987-1995 and 2006-2015 (Kenya Fisheries Service statistics)

Bycatch in fishing gears such as trawlers, drifting nets, seine nets, longlines gillnets, ringnets cause mortalities and are by far the most critical of the threats (Kiszka, 2012). Captured individuals either drown and/or are injured during disentanglement by fishermen. Sightings of dead and stranded marine turtles and mammals (Figure 38) are often documented and tend peak during the Northeast monsoon season when fishing effort is more intense.

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Figure 38: A dugong captured accidentally in a gillnet (jarife) within fishing grounds in Msambweni and brought to shore by fishermen in April 2017 (Photo by: Gladys Okemwa)

Environmental pollution includes marine debris from land-based and sea-based sources, oil spills from vessels, chemicals including persistent heavy metals and slowly degraded organic chemicals like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Microplastics which develop from the breakdown of big plastics are ingested when mistaken for food resulting in mortalities and increased susceptibility to pathogenic infections. For example, incidences of fibropapilloma virus in sea turtles are now frequent.

Noise pollution has impacts on animal communication systems and behaviour by masking acoustic signals related to territorial defence, mate attraction, alarm calls among others. Noise pollution from offshore activities related to oil and gas exploration and seismic surveys may have acoustic impacts on marine mammals and sea turtles and may include damage to the hearing system or behavioural changes after exposure.

Habitat degradation emanates from various human activities related to exploitation of resources and urbanization. Poor management of terrestrial habitats has resulted in land fragmentation, which is increasingly having a negative impact on vulnerable terrestrial birds and mammals. Loss and defragmentation of forest habitats is occurring through deforestation from illegal charcoal production and unsustainable wood extraction. In the sea environment, fishing methods such as trawling, dynamite fishing and beach seines destroy critical breeding and foraging habitats for cetaceans and marine turtles. Exploration of mineral resources such as titanium mining in Kwale County also contributes to environmental degradation in both terrestrial and marine environments.

Infrastructural developments lead to defragmentation of terrestrial and marine habitats resulting in loss of wildlife corridors and increased human-wildlife interactions. Urbanization has also resulted in decreased vegetation cover, which 131 adversely affects the distribution of terrestrial mammals in their native habitats due to reduced food availability. The building of structures such as seawalls along the shoreline has lead to a loss of suitable sea turtle nesting grounds and drives shoreline erosion. Other associated effects include ecological light pollution which impacts on sea turtles and migrating birds by causing disorientation from interference with natural homing cues (Gauthreaux and Belser, 2006).

Coastal tourism and recreation may negatively impacts on marine mammals and sea turtles. Activities such as dolphin-watching in Malindi-Watamu MPA and Kisite-Mpunguti MPA can cause short-term migrations or changes in individual activity and impact negatively on tourism (Christiansen et al., 2010). Marine mammals and sea turtles are also vulnerable to injury from boat strikes especially during peak seasons when there is increased boat traffic. Recreation on beaches is also associated with trampling, picnicking and discarding of litter which degrade sea turtle nesting beaches.

Climate change associated with increasing temperatures and sea level rise have the potential for increased temperatures on nesting beaches, which may affect hatchling sex ratios, and increasing sea level rise resulting in an inundation of nests and reduced hatching success. Similarly, conditions on land are progressively getting hotter and drier leading to a loss of suitable habitats for terrestrial animals.

Policy and management options Based on the wealth of biodiversity thriving on Kenyan marine and coastal ecosystem and the range of challenges that face the biodiversity, the following strategies are proposed to mitigate pressures facing species of conservation concern at the Kenya coast;  Implement provisions of international treaties, conventions and trade instruments such as CBD, CITES, UNCLOS, CMS;  Improve enforcement of existing regulatory frameworks (EMCA CAP 387, Wildlife Conservation and Management Act 2013, Fisheries Acts 2016);  Develop and implement strategies and management plans including a National Marine Mammal Conservation Strategy and a National Plan of Action (NPOA) for sharks and other key species);  Mainstream actitivies to conserve species of concern into County governments’ development agenda; and provide technical support in the formulation and implementation of collaborative management frameworks;  Develop effective monitoring, control and surveillance systems especially outside marine protected areas;  Promote public awareness on the status and importance of conservation  Strengthen community participation and ‘citizen science’ in research and monitoring through capacity building and financial support to boost collective action and conservation capacity;

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 Develop of a comprehensive by-catch management plan to enhance the survival of incidentally captured species;  Enhance research and monitoring of species of special concern to establish species composition, population sizes, ecology, species movements and mortality rates  Encourage ecotourism initiatives to minimize targeted exploitation and promote a conservation ethic;  Identify and protect important areas used as foraging and breeding and rehabilitate degraded areas; and  Develop and implement national guidelines and strategies to manage domestic waste and reduce pollution.

Table 45 shows analysis of the issues affecting coastal, marine and wetlands resources

Table 45. DPSIR Model- Issues affecting coastal, marine and wetlands resources Sector/ Driver Pressure State Impact Response Ecosystem Mangrove Degradation and -overexploitation Loss of Loss of species National Ecosystem loss of mangrove of mangrove forests mangrove forests forests Coastal erosion management -Conversion to plan- under other uses Salinisation Forest Management -Pollution and conservation Act 2016 Climate change Sea level rise Co-management Equitable use Access tenure of communities Community conservation groups Improved stakeholder consultation Sea grass Degradation of sea Loss of sea grass Loss of Development Development of Ecosystem grass beds. cover. livelihoods of management a shoreline Loss of . and management biodiversity. conservation strategy strategies for coral reefs. Sand dunes Degradation and Tourism Loss of Reduction of Development of ecosystem encroachment infrastructural aesthetics quality sea a shoreline development. and turtle nesting management Poor solid waste Pollution habitats and strategy management. other benthic animals.

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Contamination of aquifers. Climate change Sea level rise Loss of Coral species bleaching and property Coastal and Encroachment for Excessive Diversion Changed river Gazettement of inland Agriculture abstraction of of water for course the revised wetlands fresh water irrigation wetlands regulations Overfishing Loss of Loss of species Overexploitatio wetlands Development of n of wetlands Invasive Wetland and wetland Overfishin species management products g plans

Resource use Use of illegal/ Poaching conflicts Intercoastal destructive zone fishing methods Environme management

ntal plan and Over pollution shoreline exploitation of strategies fisheries Invasive implementation resources species

Wetland

conversion

Climate change Sea level rise Loss of Coral species bleaching and property

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CHAPTER 9: AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK AND FISHERIES

9.1 AGRICULTURE SECTOR

9.1.1. Introduction The Gross Value Added in the agricultural sector grew by 1.6 per cent from KSh 879.6 billion in 2016 to KShs. 893.3 billion in 2017. The sector was faced with several challenges such as; drought, pests and disease incidences. During the period under review, production of some key crops declined (Table 46). For instance, maize production declined from 37.8 million bags in 2016 to 35.4 million bags in 2017 while tea and coffee production decreased by 7.0 per cent and 11.5 per cent to 439.8 thousand tonnes and 40.8 thousand tonnes, respectively in 2017. A reduction in cane production was also reported resulting in sugarcane deliveries to factories reducing drastically from 7.2 million tonnes in 2016 to 4.8 million tonnes in 2017. The volume of horticultural exports however increased by 16.4 per cent from 261.2 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 304.1 thousand tonnes in 2017. In the livestock sector, the volume of marketed milk decreased by 17.4 per cent from 648.2 million litres in 2016 to 535.7 million litres in 2017.

Table 46: Estimated Production of Selected Agricultural Commodities

Crop Unit 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017* Maize ...... Million bags 40.7 39.0 42.5 37.8 35.4 Beans ...... Million bags 7.9 6.8 8.5 8.1 9.4 Potatoes .. .. Million 2.1 2.3 2.0 1.3 1.5 Sorghum .. .. bagstonnesMillion bags 1.7 1.9 2.1 1.3 1.6 Millet… Million bags 1.4 1.4 1.1 0.6 0.6 Source: KNBS 2018

Wheat: Table 47 presents annual wheat production and imports from 2013 to 2017. Wheat production reduced by 23.1 per cent from 214.7 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 165.2 thousand tonnes in 2017.

Table 47: Production and Imports of Wheat, (000 of tones)

Production1 Imports Total Year 2013.. ………….. 194.5 1,033.1 1,227.6 2014 .. ………….. 228.9 1,225.7 1,454.6 2015 .. ………….. 238.6 1,421.8 1,660.4 2016 .. ……….. 214.7 1,362.3 1,577.0 2017* .. ………….. 165.2 1,855.0 2,020.2

Source: KNBS 2018

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Coffee: Area, production and average yield of coffee by type of grower for crop year 2012/13 to 2016/17 is as shown in TYable 48. During the period under review, the area under coffee production increased by 700 hectares from 114.0 thousand hectares in 2015/16 to 114.7 thousand hectares in 2016/17. Coffee production however decreased by 11.5 per cent from 46.1 thousand tonnes in 2015/16 to 40.8 thousand tonnes in 2016/17 and was mainly attributed to cold and rainy weather conditions, the bi-modal production system where the crop takes time to recover in one year; and extended dry weather during picking which adversely affected coffee production.

Table 48: Production. Area and average yield of coffee by type of grower

2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17* AREA (Ha) '000- Co-operatives ...... 85.2 85.3 87.8 88.2 88.8 Estates ...... …… 24.6 24.7 25.7 25.8 25.9 109.8 110.0 113.5 114.0 114.7 TOTAL ......

PRODUCTION (Tonnes) '000- 21.9 32.7 27.2 30.8 26.5 Co-operatives ...... 17.9 16.8 14.8 15.3 14.3 Estates ...... 39.8 49.5 42.0 46.1 40.8 TOTAL ...... 1 AVERAGE YIELD (Kg/Ha.)- 257.0 383.8 319.2 361.1 302.1 Co-operatives ...... 727.6 682.9 601.6 619.4 555.6 Estates ...... Source: KNBS, 2018

Tea: The area under tea increased by 6.5 per cent from 218.5 thousand hectares in 2016 to 232.7 thousand hectares in 2017 as shown in Table 49. However, production of tea reduced by 7.0 per cent from 473.0 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 439.8 thousand tonnes in 2017 and was attributed to the drought that was experienced during the first half of 2017.

Table 49: Production, Area and Average Yield of Tea by Type of Grower

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017* AREA ('000 Ha) Smallholders ...... 127.3 128.6 134.2 138.3 141.1 ………Estates ...... 71.3 74.4 75.2 80.2 91.6 T………………….OTAL ...... 198.6 203.0 209.4 218.5 232.7 PR……………ODUCTION.. .( '00.. 0 Tonnes) Smallholders ...... 249.8 262.4 237.6 265.6 246.1 …………Estates ...... 182.6 182.7 161.6 207.4 193.7 T…………OTAL ...... 432.4 445.1 399.2 473.0 439.8 AV………ERAG E YIELD (Kg/Ha)1 136

Smallholders .. .. 2,172.0 2,126.8 1,900.8 2,086.4 1,913.7 ………………Estates ...... 3,209.8 2,833.7 2,459.7 2,908.8 2,603.5

Source: KNBS 2018

Sugarcane: Area, production and average yield of sugarcane for the years 2015 to 2017 is shown in Table 50. During the year under review, the area under cane reduced to 191.2 thousand hectares compared to 220.8 thousand hectares in 2016 and was attributed to conversion of some area under cane to other crops.

Table 50: Planted Area, Area Harvested, Production and Average Yield of Sugarcane

2015 2016 2017* Area under cane 223,605 220,826 191,215 (AHrae)a...... harvested 77,830 85,761 67,708 Total Production 7,164,790 7,151,670 4,751,609 ...... (Ha)1 ...... (PTrodnnucetsio)...... n by non-contracted 1,995,777 1,816,726 1,004,304 A...... verag e yield Tonnes/Ha)2.... 66.4 62.2 55.3 ....farm ers (Tonnes).... Source: KNBS 2018

Horticulture: Earnings from exports of fresh horticultural produce have exhibited an upward trend during the period under review since 2015 as shown in Table 51. Export earnings from cut flowers grew by 16.1 per cent to KSh 82.2 billion in 2017 and accounted for 71.3 per cent of total earnings from horticulture in 2017, mainly occasioned by a 19.7 per cent increase in export volumes. Exports values of fruits and vegetables increased by 23.3 per cent and 3.0 per cent, respectively in 2017. Monthly quantity and value of horticultural exports for 2017 are depicted show that the highest quantities of horticultural exports of over 30.0 thousand tonnes were recorded in the month of May 2017.

Table 51: Exports of Fresh Horticultural Produce

Cut Flowers Fruits Vegetables Total Volume Value Volume Value Volume Value Volume Value 000 KSh 000 KSh 000 KSh '000 KSh Year Tonnes billion Tonnes billion Tonnes billion Tonnes billion 2015… 122.8 62.9 46.2 6.6 69.7 20.9 238.7 90.4 ……2016 … 133.7 70.8 48.7 7.3 78.8 23.4 261.2 101.5 …….2017* … 82.2 56.9 9.0 87.2 24.1 304.1 115.3 Source:… KNBS 2018

Rice: Table 52 shows rice production in various irrigation schemes over the last five years. An additional 7,363 hectares of land was placed under irrigation in 2017, representing a 50.5 per cent increase. This was largely attributable to the expansion of acreage in the out grower areas within the Mwea irrigation scheme. Similarly, the number of plot holders practicing irrigation rose by 25.1 per cent to

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16,326 in 2017. Despite the increase in the area cropped and the increase in the number of plot holders, the volume of total paddy declined by 20.0 per cent to 81.2 thousand tonnes in 2017.

Table 52: Production of Rice in Irrigation Schemes

2014/15 2015/16 2016/17* Mwea- Area cropped-Hectares .. 10,629 10,629 17,146 P……………lot-holders-.N. umber1 .. .. 7,178 7,178 7,178 …………Gross value.. o f output-KSh million 5,727 4,726 3,558 P……aym ents to plot-holders-KSh million .. 4,780 3,938 1,816 All Scheme Areas- Area cropped-Hectares .. 13,998 14,586 21,949 P…………lot-holder..s -Number .. .. 13,055 13,055 16,326 G……………ross value of o utput-KSh million 6,717 5,673 4,395 P……aym ents to plot-holders-KSh million .. 5,508 4,591 2,169 Crops Produced - Tonnes Mwea-Paddy ...... 91,624 78,760 59,291 A……………….hero-Paddy ...... 7,942 6,494 7,752 W………………est Kano-Padd..y ...... 2,039 4,634 4,083 B………………unyala-Paddy ...... 4,600 4,522 3,632 South……………… West Kano.. - Paddy 10,268 7,100 6,440 T………………………otal 116,473 101,510 81,198

Agriculture and Environment

During the period under review, there were notable increase in the area under crops production. Increase in the area under crops production and largely without a well thought environment conservation approach often reffered as smart agriculture bring changes in the natural environment which ultimately also create changes in the habitats for biodiversity. As a result, in addition to changes in the habitat structures, both plants and animals distributions and abundance change often shifting distribution patterns and population levels decline. The changes also present opportunities for invasion by alien invasive species that affect the native biodiversity. Therefore, mainstreaming environmental conservation in the agroculture sector is critical and recommended for promoting food security and economic development while ensuring potential negative environmental impacts are addressed.

9.2 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Livestock slaughtered: The number of cattle and calves slaughtered in abattoirs rose by 5.3 per cent from 2,460.2 thousand in 2016 to 2,590.0 thousand in 2017 (Table 53). During the same period, the total number of goats and sheep slaughtered increased by 12.0 per cent to stand at 9,206.7 thousand. The increase in the number of livestock slaughtered was attributable to the increased livestock

138 off take occasioned by drought experienced during the period under review to cushion from losses.

Table 53: Livestock Slaughtered and Dairy products, 2013-2017

Unit 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017* Recorded Milk Production… Mn. Litres 523.0 540.0 615.9 648.2 535.7 Milk Processed Milk and cream……… Mn. Litres 406.7 419.6 437.9 448.6 410.6 Butter and ghee …… Tonnes 1,231.0 1,444.5 1,646.4 1,444.9 1,127.3 267.4 265.7 302.9 311.2 338.3 Cheese.. .. Tonnes Livestock Slaughtered 2,147.3 2,076.7 2,274.5 2,460.2 2,590.0 Cattle and Calves... .. '000 Head 6,084.8 6,138.5 6,560.8 8,220.2 9,206.7 Sheep and Goats .. .. '000 Head Pigs ... .. '000 Head 264.3 257.2 282.9 313.6 360.1

Source: KNBS, Kenya Dairy Board, State Department of Livestock, 2018

Livestock Production and Evironment

Livestock productions which often result in overgrazing in the country particularly in the pastoral communities vast Arid and Semi Arid Landscapes is one of the key causues of land degradation in the country. Overgrazing increases soil erosion, vegetation loss and changes in biodiversity patterns. The reported patterns of livestock off-take during the period under review to cushion losses indicates experiences of overgrazing that led to lack of fodder. To manage this scenario and ensure control of environment degradation, strategies to manage livestock overgrazing are recommended.

9.3 FISHERIES SECTOR

Kenya is endowed with both marine and inland water resources that contribute to the overall fish production; the coastal marine resource includes the EEZ. The inland water resources include lakes, dams, and rivers of varying sizes. Fisheries contribute a significant proportion to Kenya’s GDP. It also plays an important role in ensuring food security. A large population depends on fisheries both directly and indirectly for livelihood through fishing and linkages to fish processing and trade. The fisheries sector is identified as one with great potential for value addition and provision of rural incomes in the country

9.3.1 Fish Exploitation Despite efforts made by the Government to ensure optimal exploitation of fishery products, the fisheries sub-sector continued to register a decline in performance. Over the last five years, fish from fresh water sources accounted for over 80 per cent of the total fish landed. Fish landed from marine sources contributed a relatively smaller share mainly due to inadequate facilities and technology

139 necessary for fishing in deep waters. Total quantity of fish landed declined from 147.7 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 135.1 thousand tonnes in 2017. Fish from fresh water sources dropped from 123.5 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 111.8 thousand tonnes in 2017, mainly attributed to decline in catches from Lake Victoria, Lake Turkana and Fish Farming which could be due to overfishing.

Fish landed from Lake Victoria accounted for 68.5 per cent of the total fish landed during the year. However, the lake’s annual output dropped from 98.7 thousand tonnes in 2016 to thousand tonnes in 2017. The encroachment of water hyacinth, coupled with destructive fishing practices and dwindling stocks of Nile perch species in the Lake are some of the reasons for the declining fish catch in Lake Victoria. Fish landed from Lake Turkana declined from 7.9 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 4.0 thousand tonnes in 2017. Number of fishers (number of people, number of crafts/ boats and gears) has been increasing despite the decline in the catches over the years in the Kenyan waters (Figure 39) indicating there is likely overfishing which will cause major decline in fish-stock in the country waters. Figure 55 shows the Fish biomass in the Kenyan waters of Lake Victoria

Figure 39: Fishing Effort index in Lake Victoria from 2000 to 2016 Source: KMFRI, 2017 Figure 40 shows fish biomass as estimated using acoustics in Lake Victoria

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Figure 40: Fish biomass in the Kenyan waters of Lake Victoria Source: LVFO

9.3.6 Number of Illegal Gears The dwindling fish stock in the lake is worrying. It’s because of the rampant use of illegal gear, which capture both mature and immature fish, including their eggs. Beach seining, mono filament and use of undersized nets are the most common illegal methods of capturing fish in Kenya. Tables 54 and 55 show illegal gears for marine and lake Victoria waters respectively.

According to Section 43 (4) of the Fisheries Act, it’s illegal to use nets of less than 127mm (hole size) when diagonally straight. It, however, sets a special size of not less than 10mm for omena fishing. The law also prohibits fishing 2km towards the shores. It is noted that omena harvesters are required to use light to attract their catch, but without light, they are bound to capture other fish breeds

Table 54: Marine Illegal Gears.

Tana Illegal gears Year Kilifi Kwale Lamu Mombasa River Total Monofilament gillnets 2012 1,496 255 881 409 198 3,239 2014 1,636 122 746 119 69 2,692 2016 1,212 104 1,134 131 212 2,793 Beach seine 2012 5 70 96 40 - 211 2014 26 43 111 13 - 193

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2016 11 38 64 18 - 131 Spear gun 2012 408 612 - 19 - 1,039 2014 465 420 - 77 - 962 2016 436 363 - 10 - 809 Source: Marine frame survey 2016

Table 55 : Lake Victoria illegal gears

Year Busia Siaya Kisumu Homa Bay Migori Total Beach seine 2014 120 248 7 454 27 856 2016 73 242 17 492 82 906 Monofilament 2014 121 987 18 238 68 1,432 2016 277 15,976 42 3,585 962 20,842 Gillnets 2014 2016 7061 1041 3 31595 24982 2680 76731

Some fishermen use cage fishing in Lake Victoria. Table 56 shows trends and types of cages used for the assement period.

Table 56 Types and numbers of cages used in L. Victoria

Attributes 2016 2017 Number of cages 1,663 cages; 3,398 cages; Dimensions of most cages 2.0 m x 2.0 m x 2.0m (n = 1031; 2.0 m x 2.0 m x 2.0m (n 62%) = 1196; 35%) Number of cages sited at 30 cages (76%) 3058 cages (90%) 4 - 8 m water depth Average stocking density 359 fingerlings m-3 350 fingerlings m-3 Cage coverage per county Homabay 1.54 (ha) Siaya 3.63 Kisumu 0.49 Busia 0.15 Migori 0.04

Policy Promotion of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishery Sectors while Promoting Environmental Sustainability

Environment is the found for sustianble development supporting ageoculture, livestock and fishery sectors among others. Therefore, mainstreaming environment in these sectors is critical by developing these sectors specific policies and strategies that address environmental concerns. 142

CHAPTER 10: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATION AND MINING

10.1 INTRODUCTION The energy sector plays a critical role in the socio-economic development of a country. The Kenya Vision 2030 identified energy as one of the infrastructure enablers of its social and economic pillar. Sustainable, affordable and reliable energy for all citizens is a key factor in realization of the Vision. In Kenya, petroleum and electricity as sources of energy are the main drivers of the economy, while biomass is mainly used in rural communities and a section of the urban population. Currently the energy sector relies wholly on the importation of all petroleum requirements. However, with the discovery of oil in Northern Kenya this trend is likely to change.

Electricity generation is predominately hydro, supplemented by geothermal and thermal sources. Apart from wood fuel which is overexploited, the other renewable energy resources, though abundant, have not been fully exploited. The major challenges facing the energy sector include improving the quantity, quality and reliability of energy supply; high initial capital outlay and the long lead times from feasibility studies to development of energy infrastructure; mobilizing adequate financial resources to undertake massive investment in the power sector, high cost of energy, low per capita incomes, and low levels of industrialization.

At national level, wood fuel and other biomass accounts for about 68% of the total primary energy consumption, followed by petroleum at 22%, electricity at 9% and other sources of fuel (including coal) standing at less than 1%. Solar energy is also used.

10.2 ENERGY RESOURCES IN KENYA

10.2.1 Fossil Fuels Fossil fuels encompass petroleum (oil, oil shale and gas) and coal resources. Coal provided about 1% of the primary energy consumed in the country mainly by cement manufacturers. The petroleum industry is broadly divided into three categories namely: upstream (exploration and production), mid-stream (storage, refining and transportation) and down-stream (supply and distribution).

Petroleum (Oil) Kenya has had no known commercial reserves of petroleum until January 2012 when Tullow Oil Limited discovered it at Ngamia I well located at Lokichar in Turkana County. By November 2013, Tullow had drilled four more exploration 143 wells (Etuko, Twiga, Ekales and Paipai) three of which had oil. The API gravity of the oil was estimated at between 300 and 350, indicating high quality oil. Further petroleum exploration is being undertaken both on-shore and off-shore in the country’s four major Sedimentary Basins. Between 2012 and November 2013, three exploration wells (Mbawa, Kiboko and Kubwa) were drilled in the off-shore.

A total of sixty-three (63) oil exploration blocks have been gazetted, out of which thirty-seven (37) are licensed to International Oil Companies (IOCs) and one to the National Oil Corporation of Kenya (NOCK). Twenty-five (25) blocks are open for licensing (Figure 41). A total of seventy eight (78) wells have been drilled, of which Twelve (12) were discoveries out of which 9 with crude oil in Block 10BB and Block 13T; two with natural gas discoveries in Block L8 and Block 9; one with both crude oil and natural gas in Block L10A. Crude oil recoverable reserves stands at approximately 750 million barrels.

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Figure 41. Exploration Block Map of Kenya: Government of Kenya Revised Edition 2013

Challenges in Petroleum include: (a) Attraction of capital for petroleum exploration and production activities. (b) High cost of acquisition of new technology. (c) Manpower and technical capacity. (d) Inability to access potential exploration sites/blocks which are located on private land or cultural heritage and conservancy areas as well as game parks/reserves. (e) Limited primary technical data in most of the country’s exploration blocks. (f) Inherent weaknesses in Cap. 308 and in the model PSC (g) Petroleum resource is finite. (h) Inadequate policy for sustainable utilization of petroleum revenue and its management (i) Reliance on a single jetty for off-loading petroleum imports. (j) Offshore and onshore access to the port: (k) Outdated refinery: (l) Frequent power interruptions. (m) Inadequate infrastructure for storage and evacuation of petroleum products. (n) High initial cost of acquiring the necessary infrastructure. (o) Lack of proper planning and coordination of petroleum infrastructure. (p) Lack a petroleum (oil and gas) master plan. (q) Whereas spot buying has various advantages, it exposes the country to price volatility and (r) Unreliability as opposed to long term supply contracts which come with price stability and reliability. (s) High prices of petroleum products. (t) Adulteration of petroleum products and (u) Lack of centralized gas reticulation infrastructure to homes.

Natural Gas

Natural gas accumulations can be found as pure methane or in conjunction with higher hydrocarbons. Natural gas is categorized as being one of three types: (a) Oil and associated gas, (b) Rich condensate and gas, (c) Dry gas.

Conventional natural gas is typically found in sandstone reservoirs and can either be in the form of associated or non-associated gas. Associated gas is found together with crude oil, either as free gas or dissolved in the oil. Non-associated gas is found without significant quantities of oil. Both associated and non- associated gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane, and butane. Unconventional gas types include coal bed methane and shale gas.

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Methane produced from coal seams is called coal bed methane (CBM), coal seam methane, or coal seam gas (CSG). Once produced, it is transported and marketed like conventional natural gas. Gas contained within layers of fine-grain clay and siltstone rocks commonly known as ‘shale’ is called shale gas. Shale is the earth’s most common sedimentary rock, rich in organic carbon but having very low permeability.

Natural gas has the potential of meeting future energy needs of the country and offers a number of significant environmental benefits over other fossil fuels mainly due to its chemical simplicity and burns cleaner than all other fossil fuels. Kenya had no known reserves of natural gas until September, 2012 when gas discoveries were made offshore at Mbawa 1 near Malindi. The commercial viability is yet to be established.

Natural Gas Exploration As of 2013, Kenya had no infrastructure for exploitation of natural gas. If commercial quantities are found, field development including drilling of production wells, installation of offshore and onshore production facilities, and LNG liquefaction plants for export will need to be acquired. Drilling and construction activities, particularly in deep water developments, are highly capital intensive. With increased petroleum exploration being undertaken both on-shore and off-shore in the country’s four major sedimentary basins there is now the possibility that indigenous natural gas may be discovered in commercial quantities. If natural gas is discovered in sufficient quantities the country could harness some of the indigenous gas to meet the growing energy requirements of the country and would seek to reduce reliance on imports. The monetization of natural gas is frequently more complex than the commercialization of hydrocarbon liquid reserves. Frequent investments will be required in interrelated links in the supply chain, including upstream, midstream, downstream and consumption facilities.

Importation of Natural Gas The options available for importation are either through natural gas pipelines from producing fields in neighboring countries or by Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) ships supplying LNG to onshore gasification plants. The main use of natural gas is through gas-fired power generation, preferably Combined Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGT) to ensure maximum efficiency. Generation of power through gas fired plants has several advantages over other fossil fuelled power plants in that it has much lower environmental impact. Natural gas pipeline would need to be constructed from the field to the Power plant or from the LNG import handling facility or import pipeline and some environmental impacts will happen.

The following industries are feasible when sufficient quantities of natural gas are available at reasonable cost:

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(i) Manufacture of ammonia for fertilizer production. More than 97% of the worlds strategic fertilizer is produced from synthetically produced ammonia derived from natural gas. The natural gas is both a feedstock and fuel. (ii) Manufacture of fuel additives, plastics detergents, and formaldehyde, among others. (iii) Manufacture of steel through the modern Direct Reduced Iron method which directly removes oxygen by reacting the ore with a hydrogen-rich and CO-rich gas produced by catalyzing methane derived from natural gas. The natural gas is both a feedstock and fuel.

Gas to Liquids This application is used to produce diesel and other fuels. However the technology for Gas to Liquids (GTL) has not yet been commercially proven and therefore is not an option until such technologies are well developed and available at reasonable cost.

Transport (Compressed Natural Gas) Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is methane pressured at 200 to 250 bars (2900 to 3,500 psi) at which it is stored and distributed. In this case, Methane is compressed to less than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. CNG technology shall be applied in Kenya for transport.

Challenges in Natural Gas The related challenges include:

a. Lack of a regulatory framework for natural gas development and production. b. Lack of infrastructure for exploitation and use of natural gas, such as LNG liquefaction plants, natural gas pipelines, etc. c. Lack of legal regulatory and fiscal framework to facilitate the export options as the easiest and quickest option to monetize natural gas discoveries. d. Lack of facilities to exploit natural gas reserves, e.g., power plants, petrochemical plants, and fertilizer plants. e. Lack of infrastructure for supply to commercial, industrial and residential consumers. f. Lack of gas master plan.

Coal Resources

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The Ministry of Energy identified coal as one of the indigenous sources of energy that will drive the development of strategic initiatives for Vision 2030. It was recognized that the key to increased development lay in early identification of indigenous energy sources, exploiting these resources and establishing an appropriate institutional framework for delivery to the consumers. Coal is a readily combustible rock containing more than 50% by weight and more than 70% by volume of carbonaceous material formed from compaction of variously altered plant remains. It is used as a source of energy, including electricity generation. It is the most affordable fuel worldwide and has a potential to become the most reliable and easily accessible energy source. The introduction of clean coal technology (CCTs) in coal fired power plants reduces emissions and extracts sulphur for other applications such as chemical and fertilizer production while capturing carbon for storage (CCS). Current world coal energy consumption by sector is 42% electricity, 25% industrial and 33% other uses. The country has adequate coal deposits for commercial exploitation and the Government is fast tracking exploration and development of the resource for power generation and industrial use.

Demand for Coal In Kenya, coal is mainly used by cement manufacturers to complement heavy fuel oil for process heat. As at 2013, all coal utilised in Kenya was imported. Between 2006 and 2013 consumption of coal averaged 140,000 metric tonnes per annum. This constitutes less than 1% of the total primary energy consumed in the country. Coal consumption is expected to increase with the discovery and mining of coal deposits in Mui Basin in Kitui County and other parts of the country.

Coal Upstream Development There is commercially viable coal reserves in the Mui Basin situated in Kitui County. The basin is sub-divided into four blocks, namely; A, B, C and D. In 2010 four hundred million tonnes of coal reserves were confirmed in Block C. The coal has been analyzed and found to range in ranking from lignite to sub-bituminous with calorific values ranging from 16 to 27 MJ/kg. Further exploration work is ongoing in Blocks A and B. Blocks C and D are under concession. The Government is also carrying out exploration for coal at the Coastal Region in Taru Basin in Kwale and Kilifi Counties and has extended the activities to other parts of the country and in this it has established 31 more coal blocks for the purpose of establishing coal potential and delineating the blocks for concessioning.

The Government has concessioned Blocks C and D in the Mui Basin for coal resource development with the objective of generating 960MW from a coal fired plant in Kitui County. As per the 2013 least cost power development plan (LCPDP), coal is projected to provide 4,500MW of electricity by 2030.

Challenges in Coal exploration

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The related challenges include:

a) Limited skills and expertise in core drilling disciplines. b) Limited coal reserve data due to low intensity of exploration. c) Poor infrastructure; coal resources are mostly situated in remote areas where there is lack of developed road, water, communication and electricity. d) Lack of interest by major coal exploration companies due to limited technical data. e) Absence of a legal, fiscal and regulatory framework for coal exploration, exploitation and development. f) Lack of a special purpose vehicle to spearhead exploration, assessment and development of coal resources.

Coal Mid and Downstream Development The Government is working with a strategic investor to build a coal fired power plant in Lamu County in the coastal region. Phase 1 of the plant will have a capacity of 960MW. However, there is need to develop adequate and appropriate coal handling and storage facilities onshore.

Challenges in Coal Mid and Downstream The related challenges include: a) Inadequate technical capacity for coal mid and downstream activities. b) Absence of a standard import and export coal handling facilities. c) Underdeveloped road and railway transportation system. d) Undeveloped processing facilities for coal. e) Insufficient power supply in the coal field. f) Undeveloped capacity to store and evacuate coal products. g) High initial cost of acquiring the necessary infrastructure. h) High transportation cost from the processor to end user.

10.2.2 Renewable Energy Renewable energy is derived from naturally occurring resources, principally the movement of wind and water, the heat and light of the sun, plant material and animal waste, and geothermal (the heat in the earth’s crust). All these resources can supply our needs and those of future generations in a sustainable way. Effectively harnessing these renewable resources requires careful planning and advanced technology. Renewable energy has the potential to enhance energy security and reliability; generate income and create employment; enable the country to make substantial foreign exchange savings by reducing dependence on imported fuels and its attendant price volatility, and mitigate climate change as it has minimal adverse effects on the environment. It is estimated that 74.5% of electricity in the country is generated using renewable energy sources with fossil fuels providing the balance of 25.5%. 149

Geothermal Energy Below the earth's crust, there is a layer of hot and molten rock called magma. Heat is continually produced there, mostly from the decay of naturally radioactive materials such as uranium and potassium. The amount of heat within 10,000 metres of the earth's surface contains 50,000 times more energy than all the oil and natural gas resources in the world. The areas with the highest underground temperatures are in regions with active or geologically young volcanoes. These occur at plate boundaries or at places where the crust is thin enough to let the heat through. In Kenya, more than 14 high temperature potential sites occur along Rift Valley with an estimated potential of more than 10,000MWe. Other locations include Homa Hills in Nyanza, Mwananyamala at the Coast and Nyambene Ridges.

Geothermal power plants use steam or hot water from a natural underground reservoir to generate electrical energy. Other uses of geothermal energy include: a) Dairy industry - refrigeration and pasteurization of milk products; b) Grain Silos - drying of grains (wheat & maize) and other farm products e.g. pyrethrum; c) Space heating and cooling - green houses, residential houses, hotels and other buildings; d) Industry - production of industrial sulphur, treatment of hides and skins and honey processing, and e) Water heating for fish and crocodile farming, and spas/swimming pool.

Challenges The related challenges include: a) Relatively long lead time of between 5-7 years from conception to production of electricity. b) Geothermal projects typically progress through stages of reconnaissance, surface exploration, feasibility study, exploratory drilling, appraisal drilling, production drilling, steam field development and power plant construction stages which normally involve high upfront investment costs. c) High resource development risks. d) Inadequate geothermal expertise and expensive external technology. e) Remote location, sitting restrictions and long distances to existing load centers necessitating heavy investment in transmission and other support infrastructure. f) Competing and conflicting interests in use of land and natural energy resources by various sectors of the economy. g) Relocation and resettlement of affected persons during geothermal development.

Hydro Energy

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Hydropower is electricity generated using the energy of moving water. Rain or melted snow, usually originating in hills and mountains, create streams and rivers that eventually run to lakes, seas or oceans. This energy has been exploited for centuries. In the late 19th century, hydropower became a source for generating electricity. A typical hydro plant is a system with three parts: an electric plant where the electricity is produced; a dam that can be opened or closed to control water flow; and a reservoir where water can be stored. The amount of electricity that can be generated depends on how far the water drops and how much water moves through the system. Hydropower is also readily available; engineers can control the flow of water through the turbines to produce electricity on demand. In addition, reservoirs may offer recreational opportunities, such as swimming and boating. But damming rivers may destroy or disrupt wildlife and other natural resources. Hydropower is, to date, the most successful form of renewable energy. The amount of electrical energy generated depends upon the quantity of available water. Adverse hydrology can have a devastating effect on an economy that is heavily dependent on hydropower such as Kenya at Present.

Large Hydros Kenya’s major drainage basins: Lake Victoria (295MW), Rift Valley (345MW), Athi River (84MW), Tana River (800MW) and Ewaso Ng’iro North River (146MW). By December 2011, a feasibility study for a multi-purpose hydropower project on Tana River after Kiambere hydropower plant (HPP), High Grand Falls Power Project, revealed a capacity of 700MW of power together with water storage capacity of 6million cubic metres. A further study in the same area also showed potential for 100MW at the Karura HPP. In order to increase generation capacity, the Government has upgraded some of the existing hydro power plants. These upgrades include Tana, Kiambere and Kindaruma adding a total of 72MW in the system. Feasibility studies have also been carried out for three projects on Ewaso Ng’iro South River in the Rift Valley basin with a total capacity of 220MW. In the North Rift Valley basin, a feasibility study for a high head hydropower plant (Arror HPP) was completed in 2011 and revealed a potential of about 70MW.

Small hydros are hydropower schemes whose potential does not exceed 10MW of installed capacity. The total estimated potential of small, mini and micro hydro systems is 3, 000MW. Most of this potential is situated within the country’s five main drainage basins. The implementation of some of these schemes is undertaken by both the Government and private investors.

Challenges The related challenges include: a) Hydropower is vulnerable to variations in hydrology and climate. This is a big challenge as poor rains results in power and energy shortfalls, reducing the contribution of hydro power in the energy mix. However, during the rainy season the water is lost due to inadequate storage

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capacity in the existing Masinga reservoir. This loss is about 100 GWh per year in power generation and also flooding and associated hardship downstream. b) The economic risk in hydropower projects is relatively higher than other modes of electricity generation because they are capital intensive and wholly dependent on hydrology. c) A major challenge for hydro power projects is relocation and resettlement of affected persons. This is key among reasons why the Magwagwa hydro project on river Kipsonoi in Kericho, a densely populated area, has not been implemented to date. This project would have greatly improved the performance of the 60MW Sondu Miriu and 21MW Sangoro HPPs. d) Long lead time of between 7-10 years. e) Inadequate hydrological data throughout the country that does not capture quality and cover required periods of at least 50 years. f) Water charges that have an effect of increasing the cost of hydro generated electricity. g) Conflicting and competing land and water uses between various sub- sectors of the economy with regard to development and utilization of the same for electricity generation. h) Ownership of physical dam reservoirs which have stifled redevelopment and i) Competing interests in the management of hydropower generating infrastructure leading to delays in implementation of viable energy projects e.g. raising of the Masinga dam. This delay has resulted in lost opportunity to generate additional 100 GWh per year.

Biomass Energy Biomass is organic matter that can be used to provide heat, make fuel and generate electricity. Wood-fuel, the largest source of biomass has been used to provide heat for thousands of years. Many other types of biomass are also used as an energy source such as plant residue from agriculture or forestry and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. Landfill gas is also considered a biomass source. Biomass resources can be replenished through cultivation of crops such as fast growing trees and grass. Biomass fuels are the most important source of primary energy in Kenya with wood-fuel (firewood and charcoal) accounting for over 68% of the total primary energy consumption. About 55% of this is derived from farmlands in the form of woody biomass as well as crop residue and animal waste and the remaining 45% is derived from forests.

Studies on biomass energy point to a widening gap between supply and demand for wood-fuel, a challenge that requires dedicated policy interventions to redress. Wood-fuel supply does not match demand over various parts of the country. In spite of past efforts to promote wood fuel substitutes, the number of people

152 relying on wood fuel is not decreasing. Consequently, wood fuel will continue to be the primary source of energy for the majority of the rural population and urban poor for as long as it takes to transform the rural economy from subsistence to a highly productive economy. The high dependency on wood-fuelcoming from forests indicate that conservation of the country natural forests will continue to be a challenge.

Challenges of biomass energy The related challenges include: a) Unsustainable use of biomass with attendant negative impacts on the environment, leading to serious climate variability and unpredictability in rainfall patterns. b) Emissions from wood fuel in poorly ventilated houses leading to health hazards among users. c) Lack of appropriate legal and regulatory framework for sustainable production, distribution and marketing of biomass. d) Insufficient awareness of fast maturing tree growing for fuel as a commercially viable business. e) Inadequate data on biomass production and consumption. f) Disjointed approach in policy implementation by the various ministries and organizations responsible for biomass energy use. g) Inadequate recognition of biomass as a source of energy, despite its predominance in the energy mix. h) Use of inefficient technologies in production, conversion and consumption of biomass energy. i) Limited awareness of the FiTs aimed at encouraging investment in renewable energy. j) Competing interests over land use between biomass plantations, food production and other commercial uses. k) There is a gap between the existing tree cover vis-a-vis the minimum constitutional requirement of 10%. Unlike other renewable sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels called bio fuels to meet energy needs.

Bio Fuels Unlike other renewable sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels called bio fuels to meet energy needs. The use of bio-fuels would reduce vehicle emissions and save on foreign exchange required for importing petroleum fuel, improve on the balance of trade and create employment. A strategy for introduction of bio-fuel blends in the market was developed by the Government in 2010. Facilities for ethanol-gasoline blending have been completed in Kisumu to be followed by Eldoret and Nakuru. However, commercial extraction of biodiesel for blending has yet to be initiated. Land will need to be set aside for the production of energy crops as feedstock for bio-fuels.

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This calls for the formulation of strategies to optimise land use, as well as to harmonise land use policies with the energy policy. Most bio-fuel projects underway or being planned involve sugarcane and sweet sorghum as the main feedstock for ethanol, castor and other vegetable oil crops such as coconut, croton and cotton seed for biodiesel.

Challenges The related challenges include:

a) Insufficient feed-stocks to produce bio-fuels. b) Limited research data/information for the use and production of bio- fuel. c) Insufficient legal and institutional framework to support sustainable generation, utilization, production, distribution, supply and use of liquid bio-fuels. d) Insufficient supply of bio-fuels for blending due to competing uses. e) Threat of competition over land use that could lead to food insecurity. f) Reliance on slow maturing crops and dependence on rain fed agriculture. g) Inadequate research and development on alternative bio-fuel feed- stocks and technologies. h) Lack of knowledge among the public on the viability of growing crops for bio-fuel as a business.

i) Illegal export and illicit use of ethanol. Biogas

Large-scale biogas plants using waste from slaughter houses, agro-processing or municipal waste present good opportunities for electricity generation. A number of pilot and small commercial biogas facilities for heat and electricity generation have been identified (Biopower Limited in Kilifi County generates 150 kW from a mixture of sisal waste and cattle dung, while banana leaves have been used to generate 10 kW at Kamahuha in Muranga County). An example of a large biogas facility using industrial organic waste is the Agro-Chemical & Food Company’s bulk volume fermenter (BVf) at Muhoroni, generating 23,000 m3 of gas per day from the distillery effluent. This biogas has been used to substitute fuel oil in running two medium- size boilers. Out of a crop of a cut flower 80% constitutes waste which acts as a source of biomass the remaining 20% is what is commercially marketable. Assuming the same biogas production rates as the waste from gardens or parks, a daily power generation of roughly 200kWh/ton could be realised. Total power that could be generated from members of the Kenya Flower Council is estimated at 87 GWh/yr, corresponding to an installed capacity of about 20MW (depending on usage and design load factor).

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The highest potential for energy generation from cut flower waste is found in Nakuru County. In 2011 the Ministry of Energy initiated pilot projects for electricity generation from cut flower wastes in Kiambu and Kajiado counties with a view to scaling up the generation of electricity from other biogas sources. It is estimated that the potential electricity generation capacity from the floriculture industry could be 20MW. It is estimated that the potential electricity generation capacity from the sisal industry could be 10MW. The Government is involved in the “Biogas for Better Life” which offers business opportunities as well as improved livelihood and aims at providing 2 million households in Africa with biogas digesters by 2020. A feasibility study carried out under this initiative established that it is possible to construct 6,500 biogas digesters in Kenya every 5 years. Several biogas projects are being undertaken by MoE and ERA in public institutions. The private sector is also implementing a number of similar initiatives all over the country. Various prisons including Embu GK prison and schools in the country currently utilize biogas for their cooking and lighting requirements.

Challenges The related challenges include:  Limited information on the benefits and potential of biogas technology.  Limited research on biogas emerging technologies.  High upfront costs of domestic and commercial biogas plant and equipment.  Inadequate skilled installation contractors in the country.  Lack of post installation operation and maintenance service for plant, equipment and appliances.  Lack of clear registration and regulation guidelines for biogas installation contractors

Solar Energy Solar energy can be used for lighting, heating, drying and generating electricity. Kenya’s geographical location astride the equator gives it unique opportunity for a vibrant solar energy market. The country receives good solar insulation all year round coupled with moderate to high temperatures estimated at 4-6 kWh/m²/day. Solar energy is widely used for drying coffee, cereals, vegetables, fish, hides and skins; for water heating; and for electricity generation using photovoltaic systems.

Solar water heating systems are mainly used in homes, hotels, hospitals and learning institutions. The demand for solar water heating (SWH) is projected to grow to more than 800,000 SWH units by 2020 equivalent to 300,000 TOE. This represents a growth rate of 20% per annum. This demand will mainly be from domestic, institutional and small commercial consumers spurred by the operationalization of the Energy (Solar Water Heating) Regulations, 2012. Kenya is well known for a large-scale market-driven penetration of small PV systems with capacity of 12 – 50 watts power (WP) consisting of low cost amorphous silicon

155 modules and both mono- and polycrystalline silicon modules. It is projected that by 2020, the installed capacity of solar photovoltaic systems will reach 10MWe generating 22 GWh annually. The Government initiated a programme for electrification of institutions far from grid using solar PV systems. As at 2012 solar PV systems had been installed in 945 institutions including primary and secondary schools, dispensaries, health and administrative centres.

The Government has also embarked on a programme to provide solar/diesel and solar / wind hybrid generation capacity to off-grid stations including the following: (a) 60 kW solar / diesel at Lodwar. (b) 30 kW solar / wind at Habaswein. (c) 10 kW solar / diesel at Merti in Isiolo. (d) 60 kW solar / diesel at Hola. (e) 50 kW solar / diesel at El Wak in Wajir.

The following eleven diesel plants were being converted to hybrid stations: (a) 9 x 230 kVA at Laisamis, North Horr, Eldas (Wajir), Takaba (Mandera), Rhamu (Mandera),Hulugho, Kiunga (Lamu), Lokichogio, Lokitaung, and Lokori (Turkana). (b) 450 kVA at Faza Island. (c) 800 kVA at Lokichogio.

Challenges The related challenges include:

i. Disjointed approach in policy implementation and promotion of solar energy projects in the country. ii. The percentage of solar energy harnessed for commercial and domestic applications is insignificant relative to the potential. iii. Prohibitive costs of solar home systems despite favourable fiscal incentives and arising from lack of appropriate credit and financing mechanisms. 4. Erosion of consumer confidence because of inappropriate system standards, faulty installations, importation of sub- standard systems and poor after sales service. iv. Rampant theft of solar photovoltaic panels, which discourages their installation. v. Lack of awareness on the potential, opportunities and economic benefits offered by solar technologies.

Wind Energy Wind energy uses naturally occurring energy of the wind for practical purposes like generating electricity, charging batteries, or pumping water. Large, modern wind turbines operate together in wind farms to produce electricity for utilities.

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Kenya has a proven wind energy potential of as high as 346 W/m2 and speeds of over 6m/s in parts of Marsabit, Kajiado, Laikipia, Meru, Nyandarua, Kilifi, Lamu, Isiolo Turkana, Samburu,Uasin Gishu, Narok and Kiambu Counties among others. The Ministry of Energy developed a Wind Atlas in 2008 with indicative data.

With the rising cost of oil, exploitation of wind energy has become more attractive. Substitution of thermal generation with wind power plants will cut down on the large amounts of foreign exchange required to import fossil fuels for the thermal power plants. Further, partial substitution or combining wind with gen- sets (wind–diesel hybrid) and some form of renewable energy storage such as pumped storage in hydropower could cut down on running or overall costs by substituting renewable energy sources for significant amounts of diesel. Using wind the emissions can be sold as certificates of emission reduction. The installed wind energy capacity to the grid was 5.45MW as at June, 2012 and a further 20MW was planned for commissioning by end of 2013. The 300MW Lake Turkana Wind power project was planned to be commissioned by 2017. Prospecting for Kinangop and Ngong areas for 110MW wind power projects were also planned. Local production and marketing of small wind generators is ongoing and few pilot projects are under consideration. However, only a few small and isolated wind generators are in operation so far.

Challenges of wind energy The related challenges include:  High upfront costs.  Most potential areas for wind energy generation are far away from the grid and load centres requiring high capital investment for transmission lines.63  Inadequate wind regime data.  Limited after sales service

Municipal Waste Sources Municipal waste consists of solid waste including durable and non-durable goods, containers, food scraps, yard waste and inorganic waste from homes, institutions and businesses, wastes generated by manufacturing, agriculture, mining and construction and demolition debris, as well as sludge and liquid waste from water and wastewater treatment facilities, septic tanks, sewerage systems, slaughter houses. In order of preference, municipal waste can be managed by reduction of its production at source; reuse and/or recycling; treatment to destroy or reprocess waste to recover energy or other beneficial resources if the treatment does not threaten public health, safety, or the environment; or dumping and disposal.

Most of the municipal waste in Kenya as at 2013 was disposed in poorly managed dump sites, such as the Dandora dumpsite, located 8 km from Nairobi’s Central Business ranked as the largest waste disposal pit in the East African region as of 157

2013. With appropriate waste-to energy technologies, municipal can be used to provide energy while helping to clean the environment.

Challenges associated with municipal waste sources of energy The related challenges include: i. Lack of legal, regulatory and institutional framework for exploitation. ii. Inadequate data and information on potential of municipal waste. iii. Lack of incentives for exploitation.

Biomass Co-Generation Co-generation refers to the simultaneous production of heat and power from one single fuel source. It is common where plant processes require both heat and power such as sugar processing and offers opportunity for improved plant energy efficiency besides reducing energy costs and providing additional revenue stream through surplus power export to the national grid. A pre-feasibility study on cogeneration by the Ministry of Energy completed in 2007 established that there is potential for generating up to 120MW of electricity for export to the national grid without major investments and about 200MW with modest investments in terms of expanding cane fields and cane crushing capacity. Mumias sugar company took advantage of its cogeneration potential from sugarcane bagasse by generating 38MW out of which 26MW is exported to the national grid. Other sugar companies are expected to diversify into the use of sugar processing by-product value addition through co-generation and bioethanol production. The planned generation capacity from all sugar companies was estimated at 90MW in 2013.

Challenges associated with biomass Co-generation

The related challenges include: i. Use of obsolete, inefficient plant and equipment in the cogeneration industry. ii. Lack of a reliable and continuous supply of bagasse. iii. Limited technical, human and financial resources for cogeneration development. iv. Inadequate technical capacity in commercial and emerging cogeneration technologies. v. Lack of awareness in cogeneration potential in areas where the agro- wastes are available. vi. Inadequate data and documented assessment of resources and potential. vii. Lack of model Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) for cogenerated power in the country. viii. Poor governance in the sugar sub-sector.

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ix. Insufficient information to investors on issues relating to licensing, taxation and feed in tariff policy.

Feed in Tariffs A Feed in Tariffs (FiT) is an instrument of promoting electricity generation from renewable energy sources. It enables power producers to generate and sell Renewable Energy Sources Generated Electricity (RES-E) to a distributor at a pre- determined fixed tariff for a given period of time. The objectives of the FiT Policy are the following: i. Facilitate resource mobilization by providing investment security and market stability for investors in electricity generation from Renewable Energy Sources. ii. Reduce transaction and administrative costs and delays by eliminating the conventional bidding process and lengthy negotiations of PPA. iii. Encourage private sector investors to operate their plants prudently and efficiently so as to maximize returns.

The FiT Policy was launched in April 2008 and applied to three technologies namely wind, small hydro power and biomass (municipal waste and cane bagasse). Since then, submissions from potential investors point to generation tariffs higher than the FiTs due to increases in the cost of generation equipment and financing. To attract private sector investment, a realistic review of the tariffs has to be undertaken, while also widening the scope to cover other renewable energy sources. As at 2012 a number of investors had expressed interest to develop projects under the FiT policy as follows: (a) 20 small hydropower projects with total capacity of 84MW. (b) 23 wind power projects with total capacity of 1327MW. (c) 6 biomass energy projects with total capacity of 270MW. d) 1 sea wave energy projects with total capacity of 100MW.

Challenges associated with Feed in Tariffs The related challenges include:  Insufficient data and analytical tools to inform the level of tariffs for different technologies.  Lack of awareness on FiT among the potential investors.  No clear guidelines on PPA negotiations which results in lengthy negotiations.  Inadequate technical and financial capacity of some community based projects.

Other Renewables Other renewable energy sources and technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or commercialized. These include ocean energy, biomass gasification, bio-refinery technologies and concentrating solar power. Of 159 particular interest is ocean energy, owing to the long coastline which Kenya is endowed. The oceans contain huge amounts of power that can be drawn from different sources and exploited for generating useful energy. The most developed conversion systems use tidal energy, thermal energy, marine currents and ocean waves. A private investor has expressed interest to develop a 100MW electric power plant utilizing tidal waves.

Challenges associated with other renewable sources of energy The related challenges include:  Lack of legal, regulatory and institutional framework for utilization of emerging renewable energies.  Inadequate data and information on potential of renewable energies.  Lack of incentives for utilization.  Inadequate wind energy industry standards due to fast changing technologies and enhanced capacities of turbines.  Competing interest in land use with other commercial activities.  Lack of RD&D in wind technologies.

10.2.3 Environmental Concerns associated with Energy Supply

Fossil Fuels Exploration and production activities can have negative environmental impacts and therefore should be conducted in a way that protects the environment. Offshore and onshore exploration effects can be minimized by limiting the exploration duration and activities as well as employing newer technologies.

Petroleum Major environment, health and safety concerns in the petroleum industry are fire outbreaks and oil spills. The country has witnessed a number of incidents involving petroleum products which have led to loss of life and property. However, these can be addressed through adoption of international best practices in handling safety concerns in the sub-sector and ensuring strict compliance and enforcement of the regulations and guidelines.

Personnel handling petroleum products are exposed to the risks associated with inhalation of product fumes and dermal contact. These concerns can be addressed through use of high standard equipment and use of personal protective equipment.

Coal Concerns in the coal industry include emissions which contribute to acid rain global warming which will accelerate climate change manifestation. However, modern technologies among them the Clean Coal Technology (CCT) can be applied to reduce pollution significantly. Clean coal energy can also be

160 harnessed chemically without combustion with air by capturing 99% of Carbon Dioxide

Renewable Energy Generally, renewable energy is considered as an environmentally friendly option for energy development. However, some concerns exist raising the need for mainstreaming environmental safeguards in projects to ensure minimal impact and also ensure sustainability.

Geothermal Geothermal power generation involves drawing fluids at high temperature from deep in the earth. These fluids carry a mixture of gases which contribute to global warming, acid rain, and noxious smells if released.

To mitigate these, the plants should be equipped with emission control systems to reduce the exhaust. In addition, the practice of re-injecting these fluids into the earth in order to stimulate production helps to reduce the environmental risk. Other mitigation measures include extraction of excess materials for industrial use.

Large Hydro power generations The major concern for hydros is the displacement of people and wildlife where a reservoir is located. Large reservoirs result in submersion of extensive areas upstream, destroying ecologically rich and productive land, riverine valley forests, and marshland and grass land. Dams also have an impact on aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream by disrupting the reproductive cycle, e.g., fish whose spawning grounds are normally upstream. Submerged vegetation - decomposes anaerobically producing methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Appropriate environmental safeguards should be adopted to counter these and other potential environmental and social negative effects.

Biomass A supply-demand imbalance in the use of biomass has negative environmental impact in the form of deforestation. It has been established that charcoal production leads to the depletion of woodlands in Kenya at the rate of 0.5 ha per annum. This is mainly because of the inefficient charcoal kilns used. In addition, the cost of the raw material (e.g. tree replacement) is generally not considered and the wood is regarded as a free good.

Electricity The construction and operation of electricity projects have a direct impact on the quality of the environment either by the emission or discharge of pollutants, poor waste handling, or by changing the ecological systems. The degree of pollution

161 and other ecological impacts are dependent upon the nature of the technology in use as well as the size and the general location of the plant.

A health and safety concern with electricity grid systems and consumer installations is the danger of electrocution and electric shocks.

Nuclear Energy The global, traditional challenge of nuclear energy remains the management of radioactive waste. However, as a result of continued research in the area, radioactive waste management is now within manageable levels. Spent fuel rods can either be safely stored until the radioactive levels reduce to non-toxic levels or be reprocessed and reused in generation of nuclear energy. The waste also requires special handling and storage facilities to reduce the risk of exposure to employees, the public and the environment. A nuclear meltdown may cause release of radioactive materials which can have a negative impact to environment, health and safety of persons. However, further research has led to development of advanced reactors with enhanced security and safety mechanisms that greatly diminish the possibility of a nuclear accident.

10.2.4 Demand Side Environmental Concerns

Solid fuels or biomass fuels are less efficient than oil, natural gas or propane. It takes larger quantities of peat, wood, or coal to do the job and they will produce larger quantities of smoke when they are burned. Solid fuels produce less heat for the amount of fuel consumed and produce more pollution.

The solid fuels lead to increased indoor air pollution which leads to Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (URTI). The challenge is to move consumers up the energy ladder recognizing that biomass, which is at the bottom of energy ladder provides a bout 68% of cooking energy needs in Kenya.

Kerosene is widely used in households for lighting and cooking. In 2008 about 300 thousand cubic meters were used, up from 200 thousand cubic meters consumed in 2003. However, this solid fuels lead to increased indoor air pollution which leads to Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (URTI). The challenge is to move consumers up the energy ladder recognizing that biomass, which is at the bottom of energy ladder provides 60% of cooking energy needs in Kenya.

Kerosene is widely used in households for lighting and cooking. In 2008 about 300 thousand cubic meters were used, up from 200 thousand cubic meters consumed in 2003. However, this causes indoor air pollution leading to cases of URTI, in addition to the risk of explosions of lamps and stoves leading to injuries, loss of lives and property. There is need to move consumers from the consumption of kerosene to LPG and natural gas.

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10.2.5 Net Domestic Use Of Petroleum Fuels By Consumer Category Domestic use of petroleum products is wide spread in the country. Table 57 highlights trends in petroleum consumptions.

Table 57: CONSUMPTION OF PETROLEUM, 2009-2016. ‘000 Tones

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Liquefied petroleum gas 93.6 92.9 149.7 148.6 151.7 Motor spirits(premium 618.5 774.5 903.8 1,107.0 1,227.2 and regular) Aviation spirit 1.8 2.2 2.3 18.7 4.8 Jet/Turbo fuel 671.0 551.3 529.3 635.3 619.2 Illuminating Kerosene 309.0 296.1 300.3 390.1 371.7 Light diesel oil 1,486.3 1,601.2 1,721.4 2,080.9 2,318.3 Heavy diesel oil 20.8 18.7 3.0 0.1 0.5 Fuel oil 437.0 371.0 328.1 357.8 3550.9 Total 3,638.0 3,707.9 3,974.7 4,738.5 5,044.2 User 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Agriculture 22.5 28.5 36.4 29.7 35.2 Retail Pump outlets and 2,234.7 2,573.7 2,791.0 3,414.7 3,717.6 road transport Rail transport 11.6 14.2 15.6 36.9 43.0 Tourism 6.2 5.5 5.1 4.8 5.1 Marine (excluding natural 13.1 25.4 18.6 2.9 2.3 forces) Aviation (excluding 665.5 552.4 530.4 637.7 598.4 government) Power generation 118.7 64.1 98.9 32.3 15.3 Industrial, Commercial 566.1 462.3 451.2 572.1 615.9 and others Government 12.6 7.2 9.3 7.7 11.3 Balancing Item 13.0 25.4 18.6 0.3 0.1 Total 3,638.0 3,707.9 3,937.9 4,738.5 5,044.2 Source: Economic Survey, 2018

10.2.6 Rural Ectrification

The number of customers connected under the rural electrification programme expanded by 38.2 per cent to 972,018 customers as at July 2016 from 703,190 customers in 2015 financial year. As a result, the units of electricity sold increased by 2.3 per cent from 525 million units to 537 million units, over the same period. During the review period, Rural Electrification Authority (REA) completed and commissioned 15 isolated diesel (genset) stations namely: Takaba, Rhamu, El Wak, Masalani, Lokichoggio, Eldas, Laisamis, North Horr, Lokitaung Kamoliriban, Kotulo, Khorondile, Maikona, Lokiriama and Kakuma. Table 58 highlights electricity generation by source while Table 59 highlights Consumption trends.

Table 58 : Electricity Generation by Sources, (‘000 Tones) in the period 2014 - 2016

INSTALLED CAPACITY MW Year Hydro Thermal Oil Geothermal Wind Cogeneration Total 2014 818.3 751.3 573.4 26.3 26.0 2,094.9 2015 820.7 833.8 627.0 26.1 26.0 2,263.2 163

2016 818.2 803.5 652.0 26.1 26.0 2,325.8

Table 59: Electricity Consumption 2014-2016 (Million Kwh)

2014 2015 2016 Domestic and Small 2,963.1 3,254.9 3,315.7 Commercial Large and Medium 3,891.4 4017.8 4,146.3 (Commercial and Industrial)

Off-peak 33.7 25.7 31.8

Street Lighting 22.5 31.4 46.3

Rural Electrification 504.7 496.6 513.1

Total Domestic 7,415.4 7,826.4 8,052.2 Demand Source: Source: Economic Survey, 2017

10.3 TRANSPORT

10.3.1 Intoduction An efficient and effective transport sub-sector is a springboard for rapid and sustained economic development. During the period under review, the Government initiated a number of projects and programmes in the transport sub- sectors including road, rail, air, maritime and non-motorised transport aimed at improving the transport system.

10.3.2 Road transport - Motor Vehicles and motor cycles The total number of newly registered motor vehicles increased by 895 units from 90,176 in 2016 to 91,071 in 2017. The number of newly registered motor cycles went up by 55.1 % from 123,539 units in 2016 to 191,601 units in 2017. This was occasioned by a 55.7 per cent rise in the number of registered motor and auto cycles over the review period. The number of newly registered three wheelers increased by 35.4% from 3,815 units in 2016 to 5,167 units in 2017. The increased number of new registrations for motorcycles is partly explained by the removal of excise duty on motor cycle imports in September 2016.

Railway Transport Freight traffic decreased by 16.9% from 1,380 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 1,147 thousand tonnes in 2017 due to operational challenges faced by Rift Valley Railways (RVR) during the period under review. Passenger journeys though increased by 10.8% from 2,793 thousand in 2016 to 3,096 thousand in 2017 during the sme period. The overall increase in passenger journeys was mainly due to the

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Standard Gauge Railway (SGR) passenger service that commenced in the second half of 2017.

Water Transport Total cargo throughput handled at the Mombasa Port increased by 10.6% from 27.4 million tonnes in 2016 to 30.3 million tonnes in 2017. The total number of vessels that docked at the Port increased by 10.0% from 1,607 in 2016 to 1,767 in 2017. This resulted in a 9.0% increase in the volume of container traffic handled to 1.2 million Twenty-foot Equivalent Units (TEUs) during the review period.

Pipeline Transport Pipeline throughput rose by 10.8% from 5,557.9 thousand cubic metres in 2016 to 6,155.7 thousand cubic metres in 2017. The volume of exports of white petroleum products rose by 6.9% to 1,981.8 thousand cubic metres during the reporting period. Throughput for domestic consumption increased by 3.9% from 4,018.6 thousand cubic metres in 2016 to 4,173.9 thousand cubic metres in 2017. The volume of premium motor spirit transported for domestic consumption increased by 4.3 per cent from 1,177.6 thousand cubic metres in 2016 to 1,228.8 thousand cubic metres in 2017. During the review period, the volume of light diesel oil and jet fuel oil transported via the pipeline for domestic consumption increased by 5.1% and 3.3%, respectively. The volume of kerosene illuminating oil dropped slightly to 446.9 thousand cubic metres in 2017. Throughput for domestic consumption increased by 3.9% from 4,018.6 thousand cubic metres in 2016 to 4,173.9 thousand cubic metres in 2017. The volume of premium motor spirit transported for domestic consumption increased by 4.3 per cent from 1,177.6 thousand cubic metres in 2016 to 1,228.8 thousand cubic metres in 2017. During the review period, the volume of light diesel oil and jet fuel oil transported via the pipeline for domestic consumption increased by 5.1% and 3.3% respectively. The volume of kerosene illuminating oil dropped slightly to 446.9 thousand cubic metres in 2017.

Air Transport The passenger traffic presented by the total number of passengers increased by 3.5% from 9.8 million in 2016 to 10.1 million in 2017. During the review period, the number of domestic passengers handled was 3,991.2 thousand while that of international passengers was 6,121.3 thousand. International passenger arrivals increased by 7.0% from 2.8 million in 2016 to 3.0 million in 2017 while international passenger departures increased by 6.8% from 1.7 million in 2016 to 1.8 million in 2017. The number of international passengers on transit increased by 2.7% from 1,217.8 thousand in 2016 to 1,251.3 thousand in 2017.

The number of passengers handled at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport (JKIA) increased by 2.2% to 7.3 million in 2017 while those handled at Mombasa International Airport (MIA) remained at 1.2 million during the review period. The

165 number of passengers handled in other airports increased from 1.4 million in 2016 to 1.6 million in 2017.

Volume of commercial cargo traffic handled increased by 16.6% from 249.5 million tonnes in 2016 to 290.8 million tonnes in 2017. Cargo handled at JKIA increased by 18.0 per cent to 273.0 thousand tones while that handled at MIA increased by 20.0% to 3.6 thousand tonnes in 2017.

Overall, aircraft movements increased marginally from 344,571 in 2016 to 354,176 in 2017. Total landings increased by 1.4% to 150,960 while total take-offs increased by 0.9% to 150,368 in 2017. The number of over-flights however, increased by 13.1% from 46,739 in 2016 to 52,848 in 2017.

10.4 COMMUNICATION The expansion of the digital economy has contributed to economic growth in recent years and has transformed society as a whole. It has spurred the economy by offering services through online platforms in; the provision of government services, business and e-commerce, research and transfer of knowledge, among others. The Government has continued to invest in the National Optic Fibre Backbone Infrastructure (NOFBI) across the country, with the aim of increasing cost-effective access to internet services. In the period under review, mobile penetration measured by subscriptions improved to 91.9 per 100 inhabitants from 85.9 in 2016. Prepaid subscriptions per 100 inhabitants increased to 88.9 in 2017 from 82.8 in 2016. Total digital subscriptions increased by 12.4% to 4.9 million in 2017 from 4.4 million in 2016.

10.4.1 Fixed Telephone and Mobile Network Services

Analysis on the performance of fixed and mobile network services for the period 2013 to 2017 are presented in Table 14.2. Fixed line capacity decreased by 19.6 per cent to 144 thousand in 2017 from 179 thousand in 2016. The decline was mainly attributed to low usage of wireline and wireless connections. The total connections for fixed telephone continued to decline further from 72.8 thousand in 2016, to 69.9 thousand in 2017.

Mobile subscriptions increased by 9.8% from 39.0 million in 2016 to 42.8 million in 2017, with pre-paid subscriptions accounting for 96.7 per cent of the total mobile subscriptions. The Mobile Numbers Ported (MNPs) increased significantly by 95.8% to 2,575 in 2017, a reversal from the decline of 67.8% recorded in 2016. The growth is mainly attributed to the revision of the mobile number portability service level agreements amongst the Mobile Network Operators (MNOs) and Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNOs), facilitated by Communications Authority of Kenya.

International Trade in ICT Equipment

International trade in ICT equipment based on the Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) is presented in Table 60. During the review period, the value 166 of ICT exports decreased by 42.7% compared to 6.6% growth recorded in 2016. However, the value of office machine exports increased by 22.0 per cent to KSh 80.3 million in 2017 from KSh 65.8 million in 2016.

Table 60: International Trade in ICT Equipment, Millions)

Exports 2015 2016 2017* Office machines 113.3 65.8 80.3 1 A……………………………………utomatic data processing machines, storage 358.5 442.1 231.8 P………unairtts eatncd………… accesso ries 76.2 55.7 29.2 2 M……………………………………onitors and projectors and reception 194.6 398.0 251.6 3 Ra……ppecaerpa tuiosn fo arpp telaevraistiuosn fo…r r adio 12.5 22.1 10.8 4 Rbreocaodrcadisntign egqu…………………ipments 5.9 7.0 3.0 5 Te……………………………………lecommunications equipment 1,303.5 1,209.3 653.3 6…………………………… Total 2,064.5 2,200. 1,260.0 Imports 0 Office machines 1,352.1 1,298.7 2,194.8 A1……………………………………utomatic data processing machines, storage 11,211.7 18,959.4 25,233.2 P………unairtts eatncd………… accesso ries 682.3 700.8 830.0 2 M…oni…………………………………tors and projectors and reception 8,049.7 5,771.0 5,857.3 …… 3 Rappecaerpatuiosn fo arpp telaevraistiuosn fo…r r adio 118.4 1,190.8 190.6 4 Rbreocaodrcadisntign egqu…………………ipments 462.3 344.0 572.3 5 Te……………………………………lecommunications equipment 29,444.0 28,693.9 32,014.7 6…………………………… Total 51,320.5 56,958. 66,892.9 6 Source: KNBS, 2018

Note: 1Electronic calculating machines, cash registers, accounting machines, postage-franking machines, ticket issuing machines, reproducing and displaying 2For office machines and data processing machines 3Include Television sets, decoders etc 4Whether or not combined with sound recording or reproducing apparatus or a clock 5Sound recording, video recording or reproducing apparatus including or not including a video tuner 6Such as computer, laptops, networking equipments etc plus their parts and accessories such as telephone sets, microphones, electric sound amplifier sets Television cameras, digital or video cameras recorders, radio or TV transmission apparatus etc

10.5 MINING

Table 61 presents the quantity and value of mineral production during the period under review. Soda ash output increased marginally from 301.7 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 303.6 thousand tonnes in 2017. Gold and salt outputs recorded significant growths, from 0.2 thousand tonnes and 23.4 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 0.5 thousand tonnes and 43.2 thousand tonnes in 2017, respectively. The increase in goldoutput was partly due to an upsurge in gold mining activities following abolition of the special gold license which was prohibitively expensive. However, fluorspar output declined by 83.8% from 42.6 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 6.9 thousand tonnes in 2017.

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Extraction of Titanium ore increased by 1.5% from 588.4 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 597.0 thousand tonnes in 2017. During the review period, titanium ore concentrates recorded marginal growths of 0.9, 4.3 and 1.0% for Ilmenite, Rutile and Zircon, respectively. Gemstones (rough) output reduced by 76.0 % from 518.2 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 124.3 thousand tonnes in 2017. On the other hand, the quantities of crushed refined soda dropped from 741 thousand tonnes in 2016 to 539 thousand tonnes in 2017, representing a 27.3% decrease.

Table 61: Quantity and Value of Mineral Production Mineral 2015 2016 2017*

Quantities - Tonnes:

Minerals- Soda Ash ...... 319,761.0 301,719.0 303,580.0 Fluorspar ...... 70,096.0 42,656.0 6,945.0 Salt ...... 21,201.0 23,425.0 43,245.1 Crushed Refined Soda...... 614,055.0 741,000.0 538,952.2 Carbon Dioxide ...... 19,750.0 19,550.0 19,775.0

Diatomite ...... 1,090.0 1,237.6 1,278.3

Gold (kg) ...... 336.9 196.9 502.6

Gemstones(cut) in 000 carrats.. - - 22,956.0

Gemstones (rough) ...... 442.0 518.2 124.3

- - 9,125.0 Manganese Ore 596,987.0 Titanium Ore Minerals 549,897.0 588,421.0 Ilmenite ...... 444,999.0 465,728.0 470,240.0 Rutile ...... 78,947.0 87,716.0 91,454.0 Zircon ...... 25,951.0 34,977.0 35,293.0

Source: KNBS, 2018

10.6 QUARRYING

10.6.1 Rock Quarrying

Rock Quarrying and Quarries in Kenya is one of the common but most dangerous industries to work in relative to other industries globally. The workers are exposed to a variety of health hazards. The evaluation of occupational health and safety hazards among the quarry workers are relevant because of the number of high-risk activities involved.

Rock quarrying is one of the common but most dangerous industries to work in relative to other industries globally. The workers are exposed to various hazards because of the high-risk activities involved. Kenya has witnessed various quarry accidents and health complaints associated with quarrying activities, which have not been addressed by the county or national governments.

Quarrying suffers from a number of constraints that call for special attention. These include lack of basic knowledge on safety precautions, poor working conditions, low socioeconomic status, lack of clear quarrying legislation and 168 environmental degradation. Figure 42 shows a typical quarrying site. Some workers get maimed, others become chronically ill, while others die due to these challenges.

Figure 42 : Quarrying for construction rocks on Funzi Island, Kwale County, February 2018 Source: Wachira Mwangi | NMG

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CHAPTER 11: TOURISM, TRADE AND INDUSTRALIZATION

11.1 TOURISM

11.1.1 Introduction Kenya has one of the biggest and most diverse tourism industries in East Africa, with offerings in a range of niches including the meetings, incentives, conferences and events segment and safari ecotourism. However, in recent years challenges have arisen for the sector that have negatively affected the country’s economy. These include, global financial crisis, the terrorist attacks on both the Westgate Mall in 2013, Garissa University in 2015 and continued spread of diseases like Ebola in West African countries, that have had a substantial impact on the country. Tourism earnings, visitor numbers, hotel occupancy rates and hotel stay unit nights have all been negatively affected over the past few years. Following the attacks, a raft of security advisories were issued from countries that traditionally make up a large percentage of Kenya’s target market for tourism, putting pressure on visitor numbers and hospitality revenues. In response, the government and a number of private investors are taking steps to improve security and re-establish Kenya as a safe, attractive destination for visitors.

11.1.2 International Visitors and Revenue International visitor arrivals and tourism earnings are on the recovery path witnessed since 2016 as shown inFigure 43. The recovery was associated with the stringent measures put in place by the Government resulting in tourist arrivals going up by 8.1 per cent to 1,448.8 thousand in 2017. Consequently, earnings rose by 20.3 per cent from KSh 99.7 billion in 2016 to KSh 119.9 billion in 2017. The tourism earnings decreased by 7.3 per cent from KSh 94.0 billion in 2013 to KSh 87.1 billion in 2014. This was attributed to a decrease of 11.1 per cent in the number of international visitor arrivals over the same period. Hotel bed-nights occupancy increased by 11.3 per cent from 6,448.5 thousand in 2016 to 7,174.2 thousand in 2017. The number of international conferences held contracted by 15.9 per cent from 227 in 2016 to 191 in 2017. On the other hand, local conferences held increased by 2.4 per cent from 3,755 in 2016 to 3,844 in 2017 (Economic Survey 2018)

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International tourist arrivals and earnings 2013- 2017 2000 140 120 1500 100 80 1000

Arrivals earnings 500 40 20 0 0 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Years

Arrivals(millions) Earnings(billions)

Figure 43: International visitor arrivals and tourism earnings. Source Economic Survey 2018

The number of visitors to national parks and game reserves rose by 2.6 per cent to 2,345.2 thousand in 2017. However, visitors to museums, snake parks and historical sites decreased by 15.3 per cent to 782.0 thousand in 2017 from 923.1 thousand in 2016.

11.1.3 Number of Visitor-Days Stayed according to the purpose

Figure 44 shows the details of the number of visitor-days stayed by purpose of visit. The total number of days stayed by all categories of departing visitors excluding “Other” visitors expanded marginally from 15,884.6 thousand in 2016 to 16,057.6 thousand in 2017. However, the average length of stay dropped slightly to 13.0 days in 2017 from 13.2 days in 2016.

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Figure 44: Visitor – day stay in Kenya. Source: Economic survey 2018

11.1.4 Hotel Occupancy Trends in the monthly bed occupancy rates are depicted in Figure 45. The overall rate of bed occupancy increased from 30.3 per cent in 2016 to 31.2 per cent in 2017. Bed occupancy rates in July, August and December had higher disparity in 2017 compared to 2016. Bed occupancy rates in May and November were almost the same in 2017 and 2016. The peak in bed occupancy was recorded in July at 37.3 per cent followed by December at 35.6 per cent in 2017. This was in contrast with 2016 where the peak bed occupancy was in December at 42.9 per cent.

Monthly bed occupancy rate 2014-2017 in % 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec overall 2014 2015 2016 2017

Figure 45: Monthly bed and room occupancy. Source: Economic survey 2017-2018

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The number of hotel bed-nights capacity grew by 8.1 per cent from 21,258.5 thousand in 2016 to 22,987.1 thousand in 2017, mainly on account of expansion and refurbishment of existing facilities and construction of new ones during the period under review, an indication of continued confidence in the sector. Similarly, the proportion of bed-nights occupied to the available capacity increased from 30.3 per cent in 2016 to 31.2 per cent in 2017. Figure 46 shows the trends in bed occupancy at the coast.

Figure 46: Bed night occupancy at the coast Sources: Economic Survey 2018

11.1.5 Visitors to National Parks and Game Reserves The trends in the number of visitors to national parks and game reserves from 2013 to 2017 is detailed in Figure 47. The number of visitors to these attraction sites rose by 2.6 per cent from 2,284.7 thousand in 2016 to 2,345.2 thousand in 2017.

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Figure 47: Bed night occupancy at the coast Sources: Economic Survey 2018

11.1.9 Challenges There are various challenges affecting the tourism sector, despite the government’s commitment to providing an enabling environment coupled with successful tourism promotion and diversification of source markets. There has been an increase in number of visitors (cross border arrivals) associated with political stability and re-branding of Kenya. Whereas tourism is creating major contribution to the country socio-economic development, unregulated tourism, especially in unprotected areas, may have serious and deleterious effects on the environment either through pollution loadings from the facilities such as hotels, increasing water usage and demands, increase in waste and potential destruction of environment. It is therefore imperative to promote sustainable tourism measures and practices within the tourist sector.

11.2 TRADE Key indicators of international trade show that in 2014, Kenya’s merchandise trade deficit continued to widen due to a high import bill. This was mainly occasioned by the imports of the aircrafts and associated equipment, road motor vehicles, industrial machinery and petroleum products. During the review period, the import bill increased by 14.5% while the earnings from exports registered a smaller increase of 7.0%.

Carbon Trade The 1997 Kyoto Protocol (KP) is the first legally binding agreement that aims at implementing the UNFCCC’s ultimate objective to prevent dangerous climate 174 change. The KP’s key achievement is that industrialized countries agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). The CDM, a central KP element, institutionalizes a political compromise: CDM projects promote sustainable development without placing mitigation burdens upon developing countries. In turn, buying certified emission reductions (CER) from CDM projects allows industrialized parties to supplement their domestic mitigation actions by ‘off setting’ one tonne of CO2-equivalent (tCO2e) per CER. After long debates, a comprehensive set of CDM rules had been formalized in the 2001 Marrakesh Accords. Yet, it was not before the KP finally entered into force in 2005 that the CDM really gathered steam. Its regulatory framework has been constantly evolving since, and it is important to account for this process.

Impact of Trade to the Environment Although many issues in the trade and environment debate are contentious, a consensus appears to emerging on a few matters. Many participants in the debate now agree that (a) more open trade improves growth and economic welfare, and (b) increased trade and growth without appropriate environmental policies in place may have unwanted effects on the environment. However, in some situations more open trade may also reduce pressure on the environment. This ambiguity occurs because trade policy and trade flows have several conflicting effects on both the environment and resource use. It has proven useful to view the various effects of trade liberalization in three categories: scale, composition, and technique effects. This is now a standard way of thinking about the problem and a helpful tool for analyzing the issues involved. Only through a firm understanding of the linkages involved can well−founded policy advice be formulated.

Scale effect The scale effect refers to the fact that more open trade creates greater economic activity, thus raising the demand for inputs such as raw materials, transportation services, and energy. If output is produced and delivered using unchanged technologies, an increase in emissions and resource depletion must follow.

Composition effect The composition effect stems from changes in the relative size of the economic sectors following a reduction in trade barriers. Lowering trade barriers changes the relative prices between goods produced in different sectors, so that producers and consumers face new trade−offs. Countries tend to focus production in sectors in which they have a comparative advantage; this tendency becomes more pronounced with freer trade. If the difference between abatement costs and the price of resource extraction is sufficiently large, making environmental regulations more important in the determination of comparative advantage, countries with lax regulations are likely to shift away from relatively clean sectors and specialize in more polluting or resource−dependent sectors, thus damaging

175 the environment. If, on the other hand, the base for international comparative advantage is differences in the supply of labor and capital or in the efficiency of technologies, then the impact of changing sector composition (in response to trade liberalization) on environmental quality and resource extraction will be ambiguous. More open trade encourages countries to shift production into sectors that make heavy use of their relatively abundant factors and in which they have a comparative advantage.

The final effect depends on whether the new sector composition is more or less polluting than the original one depends on the relative pollution−intensity of the expanding sectors compared to the contracting ones. Developing countries like Kenya tend to have a comparative advantage in labor-intensive sectors, which are generally cleaner than capital−intensive sectors. But developing countries rich in natural resources may experience an expansion of resource extraction following trade reform. Countries just beginning the industrialization process will naturally experience a rapid increase in the size of the manufacturing sector.

Technique effect The technique effect refers to changes in production methods that follow trade liberalization. Pollution emissions per unit of output do not necessarily stay constant and final intensity depends on a number of sub−components

11.2.6 Green Economy Initiatives in Kenya Kenya affirms, cognizant of the challenges facing us today, that it is committed to undertaking a transition to a green economy in line with the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) held in 2012.

The outcome document of the Rio+20 summit; The Future We Want, (UNCSD, 2012) highlighted transition to a green economy as a means towards sustainable development.

Transitioning could contribute to “eradicating poverty as well as sustained economic growth, enhancing social inclusion, improving human welfare and creating opportunities for employment and decent work for all, while maintaining the healthy functioning of the Earth’s ecosystems.”

The Government has developed a green economy strategy to support development efforts towards addressing key challenges such as poverty, unemployment, inequality, environmental degradation, climate change and variability, infrastructure gaps and food insecurity. The Kenya Green Economy Assessment Report launched by UNEP in 2014 concluded that Kenya is already implementing various green economy approaches and policies, and that a transition to green economy has positive impacts in the medium and long term across all the sectors of the economy. A green growth path results in faster growth, a cleaner environment and high productivity, relative to the ‘business as 176 usual’ growth scenario. In the Medium Term Plan 2013-2017 of the Vision 2030, the Government committed to develop a green economy strategy.

There is also a need to ensure that work designed to transition to the green economy is consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) envisioned at the Rio+20 process. The SDGs cover various aspects of sustainable development from ending poverty and hunger, to health, equality and inclusivity as well as access to energy. Green Economy provides an avenue for functional interaction between Economy and the SDGs. The 17 SDGs provide a framework in which green growth targets can reorient national economic development planning as well as guide the behavior of both the public and private sectors.

11.3 INDUSTRALIZATION

11.3.5 Impact of Industry on Environment Kenya has been championing the growth of industries for promoting manufacturing for economic growth and employment promotion. Some manufacturing firms’ hwever release untreated effluents and solid wastes into the Countries Rivers, lakes, other water sources and environment causing major pollution to the environment.

The manufacturing sector has been associated with the increase use of plastic bags as often used to package manufactured goods and also used to pack purchased groceries. Plastics are non-biodegradable and are the sources of aesthetic pollution that is evident from its presence all over trees, packs and road sides that negatively affect tourism. Plastics are therefore a threat to biodiversity. For instance livestock and wildlife get entangled or mistakenly ingest plastic bags harming their health. While plastic bags filled with water are breeding grounds for malaria carrying mosquitoes. The Kenya National cleaner production center (KNCPC), a semi-autonomous government organization has been created by the ministry of industrialization to introduce the concept of cleaner production in manufacturing to protect environment, save energy, reduce cost of production through efficient processing and promotion of circular economy. The organization will achieve this through Cleaner production, Pollution prevention, Waste minimization, Environmental and social improvement, Environmental protection, minimization of emissions and maximization of product output.

DPSIR Model

Table 62 highlights the issues affecting Tourim, Trade and Industry.

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Table 62: DPSIR: Tourism, Trade and Industry

Themati DRIVERS c area PRESSURE STATE IMPACT RESPONSES Tourism -Natural and cultural -Air emissions -Natural habitats  Biodiversity loss  Environmental regulations attractiveness -Natural resource use fragmentation  Water pollution implementation -Recreational and -Solid waste production -Landscape  Aesthetic pollution  Institutions developed to for cultural demand -Waste water generation changes  Habitats destroyed mitigation efforts eg Beach -Demographic -Water consumption  Beaches have been polluted Management Units Changes  Coral reefs destroyed,  Enhanced awareness creation and -Affordability of  Marine species adversely Policing travel and affected accommodations  Vegetation degraded -Transport Modes and infrastructure -Access to natural sensitive areas /ecosystems Trade -Population growth -Air emissions -Co2 emissions -Loss of biodiversity -Enforcement of Legislations - growth -Natural resources use from transport -Loss of habitats governing Trade -Socio welfare -Land use changes sector - pollution of water resources _ Implementation of - Loss of habitats through transportation environmental laws -Loss of -Awareness creation biodiversity Industry Population increase -Air emissions -Ecosystems  Biodiversity loss -Implementation of relevant -Natural resource use degradation  Water pollution legislations -Solid waste production  Aesthetic pollution -Awareness creation -Waste water generation  Habitats destroyed -Build capacity for enforcement -Water consumption  Beaches have been polluted of relevant legislations  Coral reefs destroyed, -Promote monitoring and  Marine species adversely reporting of compliance levels to affected existing regulations  Vegetation degraded

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CHAPTER 12: URBANIZATION, HEALTH, SANITATION AND WASTE

12.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents environmental issues related to urbanization, health, sanitation and waste management.

12.2 URBANIZATION Kenya has experienced rapid urbanization since independence. Kenyan urban centres are characterized by expansive informal settlements, poor water and sanitation infrastructure. Kenyan urban system is characterized with one dominant metropole (Nairobi city) supported by five other major urban centres (Mombasa, Kisumu, Nakuru, Eldoretn and Thika). Urbanization rate has been at 6% annually while population growth rate in the country has been growing at 3%. It is estimated that about 30% of urban population live in informal settlements without sufficient facilities such as water, sanitation facilities, roads and health facilities.

Rapid population growth has over stretched the available services leading overcrowding and is unable to provide the desired quality of live. It is estimated that only 30% of the Gazzeted urban centers have sewerage systems. This has resulted into serious environmental and health problems. Where they exist they experience frequent breakages and blockages. Factors and other enterprises have been accused of discharging effluents into water bodies causing high population levels. Management of solid waste is also a big challenge in Kenyan urban centres. Most urban centres do not have capacity to collect and properly dispose waste.

12.2.1 Urban population It is estimated that about 34% of Kenya’s population live in urban areas. As the population increases there will be strain on the available resources. By 2030 about 54% of the Kenyan population will be residing in urban areas. This calls for planning for adequate infrastructure so as to meet the needs of people ensuring ecological, physical, political and economic sustainability in urban areas. Urban containment through establishing boundaries of urban centres will contribute to release of more land for agricultural activities, tourism, conservation and rural settlement. Figure 48 show population of major towns in Kenya.

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Figure 48: Population of major towns in Kenya. Source: KNBS, 2018

12.2.2 informal settlements As the population of Kenya increases the number of people who reside in informal settlement is also increasing. An estimated 34% of Kenya’s total population lives in urban areas and of this, more than 71% is confined in informal settlements (UN- Habitat, 2013). Kenya’s annual informal settlements growth rate of 5%, is one of the highest in the world and it is likely to double in the next 30 years if positive intervention measures are not put in place (UNDP, 2013).

12.2.3 Developmental Control The physical planning Act provides for development control in all regions in Kenya. It empowers the County Governments to:  Prohibit and control use of land buildings in the interest of proper and orderly development of the area  Control and prohibit subdivision of land or existing plots into smaller areas.  To consider and approve all development applications and grant development plans  Formulate by laws to regulate zoning in respect to use, density of development plans  Reserve and maintain all land planned for open spaces, parks, urban forests and green belts in accordance with approved physical plans

In most urban centres development control has not been effective resulting into rapid spread of unplanned structures. Inadequate control has also led to

180 development in areas without the requisite infrastructure such as water and sewerage, road among other critical facilities.

12.2.4 Urban planning For sustainable urban land use to be realized, land use plans should be developed and implemented. This will result into:

 Providing a good living environment for all, ensuring safety, amenity, accessibility, energy conservation and environmental protection.  Providing a safe healthy, usable, serviceable, pleasant and easily maintained environment for all commercial, industrial, civil and communal land users.  Ensuring that any conflicting requirements of different land uses are reconciled.  Providing orderly and progressive development of land in urban areas and preserving amenities on land as well as promoting environmental control and social- economic development.

12.2.5 State of urban areas Planning: Many urban centres in kenya do not have physical development plans. This has resulted into presence of informal settlement in most urban centres. Implementation of development plans has been a challenge in Kenya. This is caused by the inadequate financial resources, lack of political good will, lack of plan ownership and inadequate human resource capacity for plan implementation. This results into haphazard and chaotic location of industries, residential and commercial facilities.

Solid Waste management: solid waste pose serious problem in Kenyan towns because large quantities are not collected. Waste handling facilities are also inadequate or nonexistent.

Sewerage and Liquid Waste: In most urban areas, sewerage infrastructure are inadequate. Most of its sewage and liquid waste either ends up in water bodies and/or rivers or it degrades the land. This leads to contamination of water and land.

Urban sanitation

Kenyan urban settlements are characterized by uncontrolled, unsightly, and indiscriminate garbage disposal. Drains are clogged during the rainy season, while streams running through settlements carry polluted water from a combination of sources including sullage (refuse and dirt carried by drains), pit latrine wastes, and drainage. These polluted streams are also sources of drinking water to downstream users.

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Inadequate housing and informal settlements: urban centers in Kenya do not have adequate housing and these areas are characterized by insecure tenure, environmental degradation and inadequate access to basic services which is largely attributed to lack of proper planning and poor implementation of plans where they exist and failure to enforce development control regulations.

Traffic congestion is a common feature in most urban areas. Due to lack of functional and integrated transport systems, most towns experience serious traffic jams and long commuting hours. The major towns are characterized by poor road conditions, poor linkages and connectivity with the hinterland and a low accessibility index. The heavy traffic cause major air pollution at urban centres.

12.3 HEALTH 12.3.1 Environmental related diseases Environmental related diseases such as malaria, respiratory disease, diarrhea diseases, and intestinal worms among others are shown in Table 63. Some of these are a manifestation of poor environmental management.

Table 63: Shows Occurrence of Environmental Diseases

Diseases Number of disease incidences per year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Malaria 8808471 9660992 7663625 8325387 7958213 Disease of respiratory system 14823864 17998237 18264778 19621737 14482269 Disease of the skin inclusive 3648361 4556925 47556915 4409229 3261935 of ulcers Diarrhoea diseases 2226107 3013256 3115168 2892638 2601827 Intestinal worms 349632 357319 326297 763793 763463 Pneumonia 1282996 1509851 1508212 1616913 1208592 Accidents fractures burns 927861 1079953 1154067 1311911 1135456 Rhematism, joint paints 1081245 1352350 1474433 1572172 1246731 Urinary tract infections 1091371 1361275 1541276 1697479 1555733 Eye infection 778073 1002778 788183 1004923 655733 All other diseases 8618536 5145714 5112489 7537918 7466490 Source: KNBS, 2018

12.3.2 Indoor air pollution Indoor air pollution refers to air quality within a building and structures especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants. Indoor air pollution is associated with respiratory diseases. Use of biomass as a source of energy is a major cause of indoor air pollution in Kenya because 83% of households use biomass. Use of paraffin as a source of fuel also causes indoor pollution. It is estimated that about 69.1% of Kenyans use paraffin as fuel (KEPI, 2018). The column graph (Figure 49) shows the percentage of households that use paraffin as a source of energy per county. To address this problem, transition to clean energy such as the use of electricity or improved stoves or LPG gas should be promoted.

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Figure 49 : Population per county using paraffin as source of energy

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12.4 WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid wastes comprise all solid waste material generated by households, institutions, commercial establishments and industries, and discharged from their premises for collection; all litter and clandestine piles of such wastes; street sweepings, drain cleanings, construction/demolition waste, dead animals and other waste materials. The table and line graph show quantities of solid waste generated by Nairobi City from 2013 to 2017. It shows that there has been an increase except between 2014 and 2015 when there was a decline in waste production.

Management of solid waste has been a big challenge facing authorities mandated to undertake this task. There was a slight drop of solid waste collected by NCC from 460.0 thousand tones collected in 2016 to 459.9 thousand tones in 2017 as shown in Figure 50.

Figure 50: Solid Waste Collected in Nairobi Source: Economic Survey, 2018

Most of the urban areas do not have adequate disposal facilities and where they exist they are poorly sited or the capacity is exceeded. Figure 51 show the proportion of waste collected and disposed in dumpsites.

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Figure 51: Percentage of waste disposed in dumpsites Sources: KEPI, 2018

The percentages of solid waste safely disposed indicate a declining trend. This therefore calls for Counties and National Government to develop effective, efficient and cost economical waste management facilities for rapid balanced industrial and enterprise development across the country (GoK, 2017).

Table 64 shows the types of licenses issued by NEMA kenya for the period underreview. This indicate an upward trend in compliance levels.

Table 64: Types of licenses issued,

Type 2015 2016 2017

ODS license 56 80 98

ODS permits 34 37 42

Waste Transport 884 1325 1816 licenses Waste disposal 303 490 630 license Transboundary 10 11 17 waste license Source NEMA Kenya 2017 Table 65 show the number of solid waste disposal facilities per county Table 65: Facility of the solid waste disposal per county

County 2015 2016 2017 Bomet 1 Elgeyo Marakwet 1 Kajiado 3 3 5 Kericho 1 Kiambu 2 2 3

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Kilifi 4 6 4 Kisumu 1 3 Kitui 1 1 Machakos 22 5 4 Makueni 1 Migori Mombasa 9 8 9 Nairobi 17 14 7 Nakuru 1 1 Nandi 1 1 1 Nyamira 1 1 Nyandarua 1 Nyeri Turkana 2 1 Uasin Gishu 1 2 Vihiga 1 Grand Total 67 45 40 Source NEMA Kenya 2017

12.4.1 Licencing of waste water Treatment

NEMA licences waste water treatment facilities in the country and therefore monitors the performance of these facilities on regular baisis. The Owners are supposed to carry out annual audit and give reports to NEMA. Table 66 shows percentage of population with access to waste water treatment. The numbers of licenses issued by the Authority for waste management are indicated in Table 67.

Table 66: Percentage of population with access to waste water treatment

Residence Improved Sanitation Services

Flush to Piped Flush to Flush to Pit Ventilated Pit Latrines Composting sewer system septic Valuable Improved Pit with Slab Toilet tank latrine (VIP)

National 10.6 5.7 2.6 11.8 34.3 0.2

Rural 0.2 1.4 1.4 10.8 34.8 0.2

Urban 24 11.2 4.2 33.7 33.7 0.2

Source: Integrated Household Budget Survey 2015/2016

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Table 67: Licenses issued by NEMA for waste management

Type 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

ODS license 38 44 56 80 98

ODS permits 17 26 34 37 42

Waste Transport 35 396 884 1325 1816 licenses Waste disposal 4 141 303 490 630 license Transboundary 3 7 10 11 17 waste license

12.4.2 Waste Water Treatment To enhance efficiency in tackling waste water treatment, there is need for:

i. Exploring low cost options for wastewater collection and treatment. ii. County governments in partnership with Water Resources Regulatory Authority and Water Sector Trust Fund to consider investing in sewerage infrastructures to augment existing facilities

12.4.3 Solid Waste Disposal Services

There are no adequate solid waste disposal services in the country. To address this challenge, there is need to develop partnerships between local authorities and the private sector. This will facilitate sharing of solid waste management responsibilities towards improving solid waste management. Table 68 shows urban population with access to solid waste facilities.

Table 68: Population in Urban Areas with access to solid waste management facilities

Residence Collected Collected Dumped Dumped Dumped Burned Buried Other Not Number of Community by in the in street in in open stated Household Association Private Company Plot latrine (000 ) Company Drain

National 3.7 5.8 7.8 10.5 1.2 32.9 2.5 4.4 0.3 11,415

Rural 0.3 0.4 0.9 42.1 1.5 40.4 3.2 4.8 0.2 6,442

Urban 8.2 12.9 16.8 16.2 0.8 23.2 1.5 4.0 0.5 4,972

Source: Integrated Household Budget Survey 2015/2016

i. Existing challenges in urban, environmental health, sanitation and waste

could be addressed by: ii. Enforcement of waste management regulations iii. Rigorous development control iv. Development of local and regional plans management plans v. Slum upgrading programme vi. Enforcement of water regulations Water quality 187

vii. Implementation of National spatial plan viii. Allocation of more resources by both National and County governments to expand water infrastructure ix. Community sensitization programs on water treatment x. More investment by national and County governments in urban areas to increase sewerage coverage and on-site sanitation facilities.

DPSIR Model

Table 69 highlights an analysis of the issues affecting urbanization, health, sanitation and waste.

Table 69 DPSIR framework for urbanaiza

Sector Drivers pressure state impact Responses Urbanization Population Rural urban Strained Congestion, Allocate more growth migration infrastructure traffic jams resources for provision of services Economic Waste Pollution, Poor health, Increase access to activities generation accumulation respiratory electricity, promote of waste, diseases use of LPG gas, indoor air efficient cook stoves, pollution enforce laws and relevant regulation, develop waste water treatment infrastructure Land use Unplanned Informal Congestion, Develop plans and change land settlement lack of implement, and urban essential development control sprawl services Environmental Unclean Use of wood Indoor Increase in Increase access to health and Energy fuel pollution respiratory electricity and sanitation sources diseases promote use of improved stoves and LPG gas Waste water Low financial Inadequate Discharge of Increase financial allocation provision of untreated allocation for waste water waste water development of waste treatment into the water treatment services environment facilities Economic Inadequate Accumulation Water Increase allocation activities capacity to of solid waste pollution, air financial allocation for handle solid pollution waste collection and waste enforcement of waste management regulations Poverty Air pollutants National uses Affects County to invest in drives HH to affecting of paraffin are human health promoting greener look for human health very high and well- cleaner technologies cheaper resulting from at69.10% for being, for lighting, better alternative black carbon lighting and leading to ventilated houses and energy such emitted when so the health morbidity, kitchens, and raising as paraffin burning exposure risk and mortality awareness on the for cooking paraffin for is also very implications of using and lighting lighting. high paraffin on human health.

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Population Increase in Static trend in Increase in County and national growth microbiological the overall cases of governments to exceeding pathogens and development waterborne increase investment to national and related disease of access to diseases, expand improved county risks due to improved morbidity sanitation capacity for contaminated sanitation has and infrastructure. investment in water. remained at mortality. improved 51% for years sanitation.

CHAPTER 13: ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS

13.1 INTRODUCTION

Natural hazards include drought, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, cyclones and storms. These occur all over the world and are at times

189 not harmful. However, when they interact with humans, they are likely to cause damage of varying magnitude resulting in a disaster. Disasters thus occur, when the natural hazards interact with vulnerable people, property, and livelihoods causing varying damage depending on the level of vulnerability of the individual, group, property or livelihoods.

Disasters disrupt people’s lives through displacements, deaths and injuries. They destruct livelihoods and drain years of economic gains and development. Natural disasters for instance cause loss of lives and property, displacement of people from homes, destruction of infrastructure like roads, rails and telecommunication lines, contamination of water sources causing diseases or depletion of the same altogether. The magnitude of a disaster depends on the characteristics, the probability and intensity of the hazard and the susceptibility of exposed elements based on the prevailing physical, social and environmental conditions.

Kenya experiences a number of natural hazards, the most common being weather related, including floods, droughts, landslides, lightening/thunderstorms, wild fires, and strong winds. In the recent past these hazards have increased in number, frequency and complexity. The level of destruction has also become more severe with more deaths of people and animals, loss of livelihoods, destruction of infrastructure among other effects resulting in losses of varying magnitudes.

The Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs) of Kenya make up more than 80% of Kenya’s Landmass. They support over half of the livestock population of the country and over 30% of the total human population. The Arid and Semi-Arid Lands are prone to harsh weather conditions rendering the communities within this region vulnerable to natural hazards, mainly droughts. The ASALS, due to their fragile ecosystems, unfavourable climate, poor infrastructure and historical marginalization these areas represent a major development challenge for the affected populations, the Government of Kenya and its development.

Natural disasters disrupt people’s lives through displacements, destruction of livelihoods and property, deaths and injuries. Consequently they take back years of development thus posing a major challenge to the achievement of the Sustianble Development Goals especially the target of halving extreme poverty by 2015. The cyclic nature of natural disasters in Kenya has constantly eroded the recovery capacity of communities especially in the ASAL Counties hence affecting their economic development year in year out. This requires more vigorous attention and planning to mitigate the effects as they have impacted greatly on the country’s fight against poverty and efforts to reduce the number of people living below the poverty-line. The economic cost of the impact of floods, droughts and landslides in the past have been estimated in millions of shillings.

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13.2 RECENT DISASTERS AND HAZARDS

Kenya has experienced several kinds of disasters. The country has a recorded history of hazards and disasters. Disasters that occurred in recent years were from diverse hazards, such as droughts, fires, floods, terrorism, collapsing buildings, accidents in the transport sector and disease/epidemics. It is evident that most of the disasters that have occurred in Kenya are related to extreme climatic variations, improper land use and professional negligence. The African rift run through Kenya and is one of the most earthquake prone areas of the world. Some areas in the Rift Valley and Nyanza basin are prone to earthquakes and volcanic activity. There is currently only one functioning Seismological station in Kenya. This is operated by the Geological Department of the University of Nairobi. There is inadequate seismic data in Kenya and therefore need to extend seismic network through capacity building in areas of personnel and equipment. Kenya should build seismic networks for monitoring seismological activities to evaluate potential earthquake and possible tsunami disasters and disseminate this nformation for planning purposes. Although earthquake damages and casualties have so far been low, recent records of minor, but frequent seismic activities should be closely monitored. Along with this there is need to enhance the knowledge in seismic study through research, monitoring and evaluation in the relevant institutions.

13.2.1 Industrial Hazards Some of the industrial hazards include oil spills, mining and quarrying accidents, radiation, air and water pollution, as well as accidents involving chemicals are all hazards. The risk of fires and explosions is also present in industrial centres as is the case with fuel storage depots. Other hazards are from disposal of waste oils, lubricants and chemicals.

Mitigation Measures The Government in collaboration with the private sector will pursue awareness campaigns on causes and preventions of industrial risks. The private sector will consequently play a major role in mitigation and response. To prevent industrial disasters, the regulatory framework under which industry and housing operates require reinforcing.

13.3.2 Traffic Accidents Most of the traffic related accidents include maritime, rail, aviation, construction and road accidents in Kenya. Many people are killed or injured annually due to the accidents. The government has instituted measures to bring the situation under control. These measures include enforcement of design and building standards of physical infrastructures, standards of equipment installations, amendments to the Traffic Act, Transport Licensing Board Act, Civil Aviation Act, the Insurance Act, imposition of heavy penalties on offenders, and the suspension of licenses to transport operators and owners who violate the Acts and regulations. Measures need also to be enforced to discourage human settlements in and around airports, ports, roads and rail reserves. 191

13.3.3 Lightning

Lightning is a natural hazard resulting from the discharge of static electricity generated in parts of storm clouds. Some parts in the Western Kenya experience about 240 days of lightning discharge per year. Lightning has disastrous effects causing death to human beings, animals, and destruction of buildings, telecommunication, power installations and electronic systems. There is a need to pursue strategies that will promote risk minimising technologies particularly formulation of a code of practice for protection of structures from lightning attacks in addition to erecting arresters in strategic places.

13.3.4 Drought Drought can be described as the naturally occurring phenomenon that exists when precipitation is significantly below normal recorded levels causing a serious hydrological imbalance that adversely affects land resource production systems. Kenya is prone to droughts that impact adversely on the social, economic and environment sectors.

(a) Meteorological Drought Meteorological droughts occur after a reduction in rainfall over a specific period of time, for example a day, month, season or year. Meteorological drought leads to depletion of soil moisture which has impact on crops and wild plants production.

(b) Hydrological drought Hydrological drought occurs when there are critically low groundwater tables and reduced river and stream flow. Low wintertime snow accumulation in higher elevations can result in this type of drought in nearby lowlands. Hydrological droughts are distinguished by a reduction in water resources in reservoirs, lakes, rivers, underground aquifers and streams.

(c) Agricultural Drought An agricultural drought is the impact of meteorological droughts and hydrological droughts on crop yields. This kind of drought is associated with extreme heat. It occurs when extended dry periods and general lack of rainfall result in a lack of moisture in the root zone of the soil. This severely damages the plants that live in the area UNEP (2000).

Drought and Famine

About 88% of Kenya’s land mass is affected by drought experienced on a cyclic basis. This covers most parts of Rift Valley, North Eastern, Eastern and coast provinces. Kenya’s vulnerability to food insecurity is highest among the pastoralists and small-scale agriculturalists in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) of the country. These areas that make more than 80% of the country’s landmass are prone to harsh weather conditions rendering the communities within this region vulnerable to droughts. The ASALS, due to their fragile ecosystems, unfavourable

192 climate, poor infrastructure and historical marginalization, represent a major development challenge for the affected populations and the Government of Kenya.

Environmental issues that exarcebate drought are: inadequate water harvesting and storage capacity, increased destruction of forests due to charcoal burning, clearing forests for agriculture, logging without replacing trees, frequent forest fires, poor management of catchments areas, which includes destruction of forests, bushes, and plants that retain water in the soil without using appropriate soil conservation measures, cultivation on stream banks and steep slopes causing erosion of the topsoil, which silts up dams and pans usually used as dry weather water reservoirs and lack of policy for managing drought

Drought Prone Regions The drought prone provinces in Kenya are: Eastern, North Eastern, Coast and parts of Rift Valley.

Factors Contributing to the Severity of Drought The factors contribute include; i. Inadequate water storage capacity ii. Increased destruction of forests due to charcoal burning, clearing forests for agriculture, logging without replacing trees, frequent forest fires iii. Poor management of catchments areas, which includes destruction of forests, bushes, and plants that retain water in the soil without using appropriate soil conservation measures. iv. Cultivation on stream banks and steep slopes causing erosion of the topsoil, which silts up dams and pans usually, used as dry weather water reservoirs. v. Lack of policy for managing water and drought vi. Inequitable distribution of water resources

Vulnerability Droughts have immense impacts on livelihoods of Kenyans that include: i. Long-term economic and social impacts ii. Loss of livelihoods iii. Poor health leading to vulnerability to diseases iv. Deaths especially for the children and the aged v. General poverty vi. Overall dependence on relief supplies from the Government of Kenya and World Food Programme among other donors. vii. Increased conflicts due to diminished water and food resources, political conflicts and invasion by other communities from the neighbourhood

Economic & Social Impacts of Drought

The short term economic and social impacts include: i. Migration and displacement of families into areas with food supplies or relief foods. ii. Malnutrition causing ill-health

193 iii. Price hikes for commodities like cereals and food products while prices of livestock go lower because they are emaciated and unhealthy. iv. Lack of social amenities like water, food and sanitation services v. Livestock diseases like foot and mouth, lumpy skin disease among others tend to increase during the drought seasons. vi. Low yields or no yields from agricultural activities due to low moisture content in the soil

Issues Increasing Vulnerability

Social Issues Social issues affect community’s access to information on natural hazards, disasters and the risks that come with it. For example cultural aspects of indigenous beliefs, traditions, insecurity and ways of coping shape a people’s susceptibility to natural hazards. In the arid and semi-arid regions of Kenya mainly in North eastern, Eastern and Rift Valley regions social issues have played a significant role in increasing the vulnerability of communities to drought hazards. Insecurity resulting from cattle rustling, ethnic clashes and resource conflicts as people fight over grazing land.

These issues increase their vulnerability to natural hazards specifically drought. Conflict cases seem to increase during the drought and famine seasons as people attack their neighbours to steal animals and other livestock as shown in the map below covering Turkana County. There is also competition for access to pastureland especially at the border areas with Ethiopia, Sudan and Uganda. As the communities are threatened by their neighbours, they tend to move away to more secure zones which may not have pasture, food and water thus rendering them more vulnerable.

Other social issues include literacy levels, perception of risk emanating from natural hazards, effects of traditions and beliefs affect the way the people respond to the drought hazard. The level of literacy and understanding of hazards has been low in drought prone areas as compared to other parts of the country. The harsh weather conditions compounded by traditions and beliefs form a major setback on educational achievement. Girls and women are more disadvantaged as they are expected to play the traditional role of being housewives and homemakers rather than pursue education. They also take care of the homesteads as the men go out in search of pasture, and water for animals. This increases their vulnerability.

Economic Issues The impact of disasters can either push more people below the poverty line or impoverish further the existing poor people due to injuries, displacements, destruction of property and livelihoods among other effects. Most communities in the Kenyan Arid and Semi Aarid Lands depend on pastoralism and agriculture for survival. These economic activities in turn depend on rainfall for water and pasture.

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In Kenya the economic parameters that affect the severity of drought making thecommunities more susceptible to drought and famine are rise in food prices, fall in animals prices, depletion of food reserves without replacement, deterioration of health due to lack of food and clean water among other issues.

Poor infrastructure including impassable roads, poor telecommunication lines and inaccessibility of some regions hampers the transportation of food to these regions either for commercial purposes or relief aid. Poor communication also hampers action in terms of response to distress calls, poor publicity and inability to air the plight of the people.

Once the effects of the drought begin to be felt the health of animals begins to deteriorate due to inadequate pasture and water. The animals also experience Tsetse flies infestation and foot and mouth disease, which are common in drought conditions. This requires use of veterinary medicines, which are expensive and sometimes not accessible by the pastoralists.

Physical Factors This refers to the famous phrase of “living in harm’s way” to mean how much of the Physical assets are exposed to the hazards and are therefore vulnerable. In the arid/semiarid lands the most important physical assets are crops and livestock, which suffer the impact of severe climate conditions causing them to die. Severe malnutrition occurs in animals, which risk contracting infectious diseases like foot and mouth disease, which spreads very fast in case of overcrowded conditions. A large expanse of Kenya’s land is drought prone covering up to almost 70 % of the total of land. This means it is difficult for the communities to migrate beyond the affected regions causing many of them to succumb to the impact of drought.

Environmental Factors Drought impact has been increasing in severity in the past four decades and this has been associated with environmental degradation that has been taking place due to urbanization, development, extension of agricultural land into forests and logging of trees to burn and sell charcoal for economic gains. Wild fires as a result arae a common occurrence in the arid ASALS due to the high temperatures experienced during the drought season. They have thus played a big role in environmental degradation rendering the area even more vulnerable to drought as the vegetation is depleted.

13.3.5 Floods Floods occur due to natural factors like flash floods, river floods and coastal floods. They may also occur due to human manipulation of watersheds, drainage basins and flood plains. For example, in some cases floods have occurred in the river basins even with normal rains because of excess surface water run off occasioned by deforestation and land degradation upstream.

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Kenya is affected by floods following torrential rainfall. These force thousands of people living in the lowlands to move to higher grounds. The people affected are mostly in western and Nyanza provinces and in Tana River County. However slum dwellers in towns like Nairobi who have erected informal structures near rivers are not spared. In Western Province, River Nyando is notorious bursting its banks during the rainy season. In recent times, episodes of urban flooding have been observed in Nairobi City and Narok town.

Figure 52 shows a recent incident where underground fault lines developed in Mai Mahiu Naivasha location cutting off the Mai Mahiu-Narok road. This was caused by floods washing away deep deposits of volcanic ash.

Figure 52: Mai Mahiu-Narok road cut off by floods recently.

Occasional floods are also experienced in dry lands where heavy storms fill up the dry river valleys causing flash floods downstream. Such episodes are common in Turkana, Samburu and eastern Kenya.

Like floods, landslides are triggered by heavy rainfall and are common in hilly areas of the country. They result from the weakening of slope stability due to increased soil moisture. They are common in central and western Kenya. Landslides are not frequent and are highly localized affecting a handful of people. However, they lead to loss of live and livelihood source of the affected families. The Government through the relevant line ministries/department will undertake floods risk mapping and implement integrated flood management projects in flood prone areas.

Areas Affected by Floods Most parts of Kenya experience river floods which are slow onset and mostly predictable. However some parts experience more severe floods than others

196 including most parts of Kano plains in Nyanza region, Budalangi in Western Kenya, resulting from river Nzoia, Narok and the lower parts of Tana River.

The specific areas that experience floods almost annually include: - i. Nyanza Region – Kano plains, Nyakach area, Rachuonyo and Migori ii. Western Region – Budalangi iii. Coast Region – Kilifi, Kwale and the Tana River Basin iv. North Eastern Region – Garissa, Wajir, and Ijara v. Urban Centres – Nairobi, Nakuru, Mombasa, Kisumu. vi. Tana River County (the Lower parts)

Causes and Impacts of Floods Floods occur due to natural factors like flash floods, river floods and coastal floods. They may also occur due to human manipulation of watersheds, drainage basins and flood plains. Some of the impacts are; loss of life, water-borne diseases, starvation and famine, destruction of infrastructure, displacement of people, soil erosion, blockage of drainage systems, silting of rivers and dams, deforestation, encroachment of water catchment areas, poor planning and maintenance of drainage systems in urban centres, climate change - rise in sea level due to global warming, inappropriate agricultural practices, lack of awareness on preparedness and response to floods and inappropriate technology and infrastructural designs.

Flood Mitigation Flood mitigation scheme were based on master plan (1983) however few floods mitigation projects have been accomplished due to budgetary constraints. The study on the national water master plan also emphasized the necessity of flood mitigation scheme and placed the top priority for flood control on the Nyando river basin.

13.7 LANDSLIDES

Landslides cause loss of property worth millions of Kenya Shillings, including coffee and tea plantations and domestic animals in the last ten years in some parts of Central and Rift Valley Provinces. It is estimated that in the last twenty years landslides in Murang'a County alone, caused the loss of more than one million cubic meters of soil in an area of 30 km2. The losses caused by landslides have adverse impacts on infrastructures such as settlements, power transmission, water supplies and irrigation facilities. The government will undertake hazard risk mapping in all disaster prone areas as key to addressing all potential natural disasters.

13.7.1 Characteristics of Landslides Landslides may be presented in many forms including: - Slides, falls, topples, lateral spreads and mud flows among others. They can also result as effects of heavy storms, earthquakes and volcanic activities.

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13.7.2 Factors Contributing to Vulnerability to Landslides In many parts of the Mount Kenya region people have expanded their agricultural land to create room for their farm crops. This deforestation means that trees can no longer stop the earth from sliding down hillsides. When this happens many people are buried with the sliding mud. In Murang’a County there are reports of whole families being buried in the long rains of April and May in 2002 and 2003. In addition to the influence of topography, landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already fragile slopes. Among the factors that increase vulnerability include; i. Population pressure and settlements built on steep slopes of the Aberdares and Mt. Kenya, softer soils and cliff tops which then succumb to gravity when the soil becomes too wet to hold together. ii. Settlements built at the base of steep slopes, on mouths of streams from mountain valleys. iii. Exploitation of the environment for economic reasons. iv. Construction of roads, communication lines in mountain areas. v. Environmental degradation vi. Buildings with weak foundations vii. Buried pipelines and brittle pipes viii. Lack of enforcement of the physical planning act allowing people to build in high-risk areas of the province. ix. Ignorance resulting from lack of understanding of the hazard itself.

13.7.3 Economic and Social Impacts of Landslides Landslides in Kenya have been on the increase in the recent past. This has resulted in both social and economic impacts mainly loss of life, agricultural land and crops as well as destruction of infrastructure. They may burry or sink buildings, rubble and boulders moved to block roads, railways, and lines of communication or waterways. They may destroy all property along their way and render agricultural land unproductive. The casualties of mudflows, massive boulders, rocks and all that can be moved by the landslides may be many people and animals.

13.7.4 Landslides prone areas In Kenya, majority of, the landslides are caused/ triggered by water and/or human activities. Slope saturation by water is a primary cause of landslides (Maina et al 2014). This effect can occur in the form of intense rainfall, changes in groundwater levels, and water-level changes along coastlines, earth dams, and the banks of lakes, reservoirs, canals, and rivers. Landsliding and flooding are also closely related because both are related to precipitation, runoff, and the saturation of ground by water. In addition, debris flows and mudflows usually occur in small, steep stream channels and often are mistaken for floods; in fact, these two events often occur simultaneously in the same area.

Though there are no records of landslides that have been caused by volcanic activity, it is suggested that there are landslides whose triggering may be caused 198 by seismic activity. This could be expected in the mountainous areas that are vulnerable to landslides. The occurrence of earthquakes and/or earth tremors in steep landslide-prone areas greatly increases the likelihood that landslides will occur, due to ground shaking alone or shaking-caused by dilation of soil materials, which allows rapid infiltration of water. This is expected in most parts of the Rift Valley where there have been increased reports of ground failure with devastating effects. Widespread rock falls also are caused by loosening of rocks as a result of ground shaking.

The distribution of the occurrence of landslides in Kenya as recorded by the Mines and Geology Department, 2012 is shown in Figure 53. Most landslides recorded are in the central highlands of Kenya, the Rift Valley, and the western region of Kenya.

Figure 53: Landslides occurrence in Kenya Source Mines and geology Department (2012)

13.8 FIRE HAZARDS

Fires are a major risk especially in industries, forests, buildings and poorly planned and overcrowded settlements with temporary housing structures. Destructive fires experienced so far in the country have been either accidental or deliberate but nevertheless preventable if negligence, regulatory and institutional weaknesses are addressed. Fire hazards are associated with poorly planned urban centres or wild habitat with plenty of dry material particularly during dry seasons. 199

In the recent past, incidents of fires have become very common in Kenya. Fires associated with poor settlement planning, human activities e.g. harvesting honey, charcoal burning, limited resources and inadequate preparedness and uncoordinated response and inappropriate safety practices in industrial, commercial, and domestic set-ups are reported. They are known to cause loss of life, damage to property, infrastructure and environment.

13.8.1 Cases of Fire Outbreaks in Kenya a) Forest Fire There have been serious fire outbreaks in many forests all over the country. This state is attributed to prolonged drought conditions, heavy fuel loads in the forests and inaccessibility of the forests. However, responses to fire has improved greatly in the recent past.

13.8.2 Constraints to Fire Fighting Fire fighting in Kenya is faced with some constraints that include: i. Inadequate firefighting equipment ii. Water and rations are in short supply iii. Coordination of resources in the field iv. Communication v. Mobility of fire fighting crew.

13.8.3 Capacity Required for Fire Fighting The capacity to fight fire in the country should be built by ensuring the following: i. Rations and water ii. First aid equipment iii. Hand tools iv. Hand pumps v. Aerial surveillance vi. Aerial fire bombers

Kenya faces other hazards which include:- i. Frost, fog, strong winds and hailstones ii. Street families and orphans iii. Water hyacinth manifestation iv. Technological hazards v. Oceanic/ lake shoreline changes vi. Dumping of hazardous waste vii. Construction accidents

13.9 POLICY INITIATIVE

The Government need to strengthen formulation of a comprehensive policy that emphasizes proactive and preventive strategies in addressing disaster situations.

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Other line ministries will be responsible for formulation of polices covering disaster risk reduction strategies in line with their respective core functions. This is particularly with regard to reduction of the community’s exposure to risks and vulnerability through promotion of sustainable disaster management systems.

13.10 OUTLOOK

Kenya is prone to several types of disasters. The National Government has initiated several response mechanisms to address disasters. To make the systems more effective, the following must be taken into consideration:

Disaster management must have a multi-agency approach; it needs to be County Government-led and coordinated to incorporate development partners and other stakeholders (ranging from international, national and local NGOs and local civil society organizations).

There is need for effective early warning and quick dissemination of information to all actors in order to elicit quick response to emerging hazards and disasters.

Disaster management requires long-term funding, through combinations of government, donor, NGOs and community resources.

A disaster management system needs a flexible budgeting and rapid financial disbursement procedures, including National and County disaster contingency funds; there must be decentralized decision-making, giving the counties and communities easy access to funds.

The system must facilitate community participation and community capacity building in all aspects of disaster management; considering that communities already have their coping mechanisms and most lives are saved using simple and inexpensive precautions. The system must be able to collect, collate, document and disseminate information based on lessons learnt and undertake research in order to improve preparedness activities at all levels. It must emphasize public education and awareness on disaster management.

More investments should be made into factoring of climate in disaster risk reduction as most of recurrent disasters occur due to extreme climatic variations. And also there should be consultative approach of all inclusiveness in formulation of public policies.

Disaster risk reduction strategy should be institutionalized in all aspects of development planning at all levels to create an interface from relief to sustainable development.

In construction projects, preventive management initiatives such as ensuring proper designs, legal approvals and expert supervision should be enforced to minimize occurrence of accidents. 201

Enhance mitigation and adaption mechanisms to climate change. Climate change risks are particularly high to communities directly dependent on natural resources for their livelihood. Climate change for instance induces spread of diseases, drought and floods, conflict and insecurity in resource use, overgrazing and deforestation, soil erosion and fertility decline, water scarcity, food insecurity and wood fuel crisis.

13.11 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS STRATEGIES

Kenya is a particularly disaster prone country and the disaster risks often affect the most vulnerable people disproportionately. In the pursuit of effective preparedness and timely response to disasters, the Government of Kenya through National Disaster Operations Centre has formulated a National Disaster Response Plan that seeks to strengthening disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels. The Director of the National Disaster Operations Centre (NDOC) is authorized to mobilize procedures to respond and recover from the effects of disaster emergencies or the imminent threat of a disaster emergency. This is undertaken through a set of four phases - Alert, Standby, Activation and Stand Down/activation of recovery.

13.11.1 Operation in Disaster Response Disaster response operation is tiered in levels which include:

Level 1: Localized disaster events dealt within the regular operating mode of the protective, emergency and health services in at the County.

Level 2: Disaster events that overwhelm the capacity of the resources in the County, but which do not overwhelm the capacity of the country resources to respond and recover.

Level 3: Disaster that requires mobilization of national resources to respond and recover. This may prompt seeking of assistance from other external partners.

Level 4: Disaster that overwhelms the existing national response capacity, prompts the President to declare a national disaster to seek external intervention to support response and recovery initiatives.

13.11.2 National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) The Platform is the coordination mechanism for mainstreaming DRR into development policies, planning and programmes in line with the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action. The Platform aims to contribute to the establishment and the development of a comprehensive national DRR system as appropriate in Kenya.

The platform provides for:

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i. Establishment of baseline information for DRR, including disaster and risk profiles, national policies, strategies, capacities, resources and programmes; ii. Identification of gaps, concerns and challenges and setting forth accepted priority areas in DRR; iii. Advocacy for the urgent need for developing or adopting policies and legislations for DRR; iv. Benchmarking progress made in promoting DRR and its mainstreaming into development policies, planning and programmes; v. Development of result-oriented work plans of National Platforms for DRR to coordinate the DRR activities in line with the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA); vi. Coordination of joint efforts among members of National Platforms for DRR to reduce the vulnerability of people at relatively high risk; vii. Monitoring, recording and reporting of disaster risk reduction actions at national and community levels in line with the HFA; viii. Documentation of lessons learned and good practices, and share the findings (including promoting twinning of National Platforms for DRR) at national, regional and international levels and; ix. Working towards better integration of DRR into national planning, policies and programmes in development and humanitarian assistance.

13.11.3 Strategies during disaster response In the event of a disaster, responsible lead agencies are tasked to implement the following strategies and operational objectives; i. Ensure a collaborative and coordinated response to the disaster among all the stakeholders. ii. Ensure food availability/security and good nutrition to affected populations in times of disaster. iii. Ensure Hygiene Promotion, Water Supply, and proper Sanitation. iv. Ensure Adequate Health Services and Health Systems Infrastructure are adequate. v. Ensure availability of Shelter and planned Settlements as well as availability of Non-Food items to displaced populations following disaster.

13.11.4 Disaster Response Coordination in Kenya The implementation of Kenyan disaster response coordination is based on a set of guiding principles which include; i. Promotion and protection of rights of all citizens: All state departments have enacted policy to address the needs of vulnerable groups within their jurisdiction.

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ii. Safety and well being: Kenya has developed a policy that aims to instill a culture of individual and collective efforts to enhance safety at all levels through DRR approach. iii. Devolution and public participation. To promote a culture of accountability and transparency, popular participation is embraced through devolution of resources and decision making. Communities are encouraged to establish mechanisms, building on their traditional coping strategies to share knowledge and technologies and to pool together local resources for disaster mitigation, preparedness, prevention, response and recovery. iv. Multidisciplinary and multi-sectoral approach: The government has endevoured to promote adoption of an inclusive multidisciplinary and multi- sectoral approach. v. Factoring of climate into disaster risk reduction: Climate/weather information (such as Early Warning, technical and scientific analysis) in disaster management has been mainstreamed into disaster management. vi. Regional and International perspectives: The government promotes linkages with regional and international institutions, in order to facilitate collaboration in fostering joint initiatives for DRR and response. vii. Strengthening of Capacities for DM: In view of the dynamic nature of disasters, the government and other stakeholders continue to strengthen capacities through training, mentoring and skills development at all levels. viii. Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Information through Education: Preparedness and Risk Reduction information is widely disseminated and integrated into the curricula in schools and professional training requirements

13.12 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT FOR DISASTERS AND HAZARDS MANAGEMENT

There are several Ministries, Departments, Agencies (MDAs) dealing with Disasters and Hazards issues in Kenya. These include:

National Drought Management Authority

The Authority was established in 2011 through the State Corporations Act following the 2011 drought, the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) leads on drought preparedness and response in the ASALs. It is an authority under the Ministry of Devolution and Planning.

Over time NDMA has progressed and received government, parliament and development partner support. This has been strengthened by the NDMA Act 2016, which gives the authority a stronger legal status. Among other things, the Act gives NDMA the responsibility for policy, coordination of drought response, putting in place systems of drought early warning and linking the country's drought management to international processes. The stability of NDMA is a welcomed

204 approach, which could be replicated across other disaster types – with all the agencies speaking to one overarching institution in government.

In NDMA, there are two coordinating bodies at the national level bringing together various stakeholders in drought preparedness. These are the Kenya Food Security Meeting and the Kenya Food Security Steering Group. At the county level, this is organized under County Steering Groups.

Water Resources Authority Flood preparedness and management brings together the Water Resource Authority (WRA) and the Ministry of Water. WRA coordinates water resource management at the national and county level. For flood preparedness, it maps out flood prone areas; supports communities to develop flood management infrastructure and disseminate early warning information.

The Ministry of Water is responsible for policy issues on water resources. Responsibilities for flood response are more diverse and link up with other agencies. A large majority of people in areas which are more prone to floods are more aware of the work of WRA and especially in the 2015 El Niño where it created awareness about the floods. Over the years, WRA has built infrastructure to monitor flooding and built the capacity of local communities.

National Disaster Operations Centre The National Disaster Operations Centre (NDOC) is responsible for coordinating all disaster response operations in the country – and was leading the country's flood response in 2015. It does this through partnering with other actors such as the police and the Kenya Red Cross NDOC was established in 1997 following the El Niño floods and sits within the Ministry of Interior. Besides response, NDOC also plays a preparedness role by managing the country's disaster loss database. It has also led disaster drills for man-made disasters.

National Disaster Management Unit The National Disaster Management Unit (NDMU) was established through a presidential directive in 2013 and sits within the Ministry of Interior. It is seen as the government unit responsible for disaster risk management in the country, but also carries out some response activities. Led by the National Police Service, its operations cut across both natural and man-made disasters. NDMU has established the country's emergency response plan and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).

Kenya Meteorological Department The Kenya Meteorological Department plays a key role in disaster preparedness by providing early warning information. It is the Government Department that all government agencies rely on for weather information. At the county level, the Department has representatives who could disseminate the weather information to guide disaster preparedness. 205

The Kenya Red Cross The Kenya Red Cross is an auxiliary to the government's humanitarian services and works closely with government and other humanitarian actors. Recognized as a first responder to emergencies, it has gained traction as the go-to institution both at the national and county level.

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Case Study in Mandera and Migori County Capacity for disaster preparedness - Community participation

In Mandera, the Community Managed Disaster Risk Reduction (CMDRR) process enables beneficiaries to inform preparedness processes. The communities take part in drought preparedness by preparing specific and comprehensive community disaster preparedness and response plans and carry out DRR assessments. In Migori County, communities have organised themselves to build resilience through women self-help groups, community drills, community disaster champions, flood management committees, and community awareness meetings.

Gender inclusivity in disaster preparedness In Mandera County, it is a requirement that CMDRR has 30% women representation. In Migori, women in flood prone areas have formed self-help groups to build their resilience. The fact that the current DRM law is championed under the Kenya Women Parliamentarians Association and led by Hon Tiya Galgallo is also an indication of the role that women can play in preparedness. In Migori County Assembly, disaster preparedness is championed by the Environment Committee chair Hon Susan Mohabe.

Humanitarian actors must explore ways of further strengthening women's participation in disaster preparedness at the policymaking level.

Joining-up timely data from the national surveys with what NGOs and other non-state actors collect to make data more interoperable and up to date for use.

A specific strategy by government and the ARC to increase awareness of the ARC and its benefits to Kenya. Kenya has participated in both the Hyogo and Sendai Frameworks and was among the first countries to sign up to the ARC; it also makes the highest premium contribution in Africa to the latter. The ARC should consider including policies on other natural disasters, as it currently only covers drought

An assessment of how the different financial instruments funding preparedness interact and which instruments would have greater impact on preparedness planning. These instruments would need to be promoted as fit for purpose under a no-regrets approach.

At the county level, better government budget allocation and timely disbursement would ensure better preparedness and response. But this in turn would rely on stronger accountability mechanisms at county level and it is recommended that good practices in this area are further understood and applied. This would also help substitute allocations from national government and non-state actors.

Roles of the national and county government in disaster preparedness should be clarified in the law and standardized across other counties. County government officials should benefit from knowledge strengthening on: disaster and resilience measurement, climate change dynamics, modeling, disaster response triggers and thresholds.

Knowledge strengthening can include post-event debriefing meeting of stakeholders where lessons from past disasters like El Niño preparedness are analyzed to improve future response.

Source: Development Initiatives (2017)

13.13 OUTLOOK Kenya experiences both natural and human-made disasters. Most common natural disasters are attributable to hydrometeorological factors precipitating hazards such as floods and drought. Their severity has been escalated by climate change manifested through rise in atmospheric temperature and rainfall. Human

207 stimulated disasters such as accidents, fires, civil unrest and conflicts, terrorism and industrial accidents are also frequent. The country has put measures in place to ensure effective disaster preparedness and response. However, there is need to mobilize adequate resources and embrace modern technology in disaster management strategies. It is also evident that disaster resilience among communities in Kenya is low and hence the need to enhance it at all levels through capacity building.

In order to enhance efficiency in Disasters and Hazards management, there is a need to: i. Promote a disaster awareness culture and capacity building for disaster preparedness at all levels

ii. Enhance awareness on the legal, policy and institutional framework on DRR management. iii. Establish an Institutional and legal framework for effective and efficient disaster management in the country iv. Promote linkages between disaster risk management and development establishing Disaster Relief Trust

v. Strengthen disaster management institutions in the country through allocation of adequate resources vi. Strengthen regionally and internationally partnership with other agencies in the field of disaster preparedness and response.

DPSIR Model

Table 54 highlights an analysis of the issues on environmental disasters and hazards

208 table 70: DPSIR for Environmental Disasters and Hazards

Thematic area DRIVERS INDICATOR PRESSURE STATE IMPACT RESPONSES Drought Deforestation Increased Reduced  Increased GHGs  Promotion of Population growth Demand for forest and concentrations in the afforestation/reafforestation Enchroachments in forest Products tree cover atmosphere programmes Forests  Socio-economic (poverty)  Investment in clean Inappropriate  Habitat destruction (extinction development mechanisms Land use practices and redistribution)  Reduced population growth  Loss of livelihoods rates thro family planning  pollution,  Promotion of conservation of  degradation (Soil erosion and natural resources land eg cover change),  Promotion of Environmental  Change of rainfall patterns education and awareness  Over use of Agro-chemicals  Development of relevant Policies &legislations, strategies  Compliance and enforcement of legislations  Education, awareness & capacity building  Agro-forestry Floods Flash floods, river Devegetation Flooding Loss of life,water borne diseases, • Promotion of flood forecasting floods, coastal starvation and famine,, destruction and warning system, floods of infrastructure, displacement of • Community participation and Human people,soil erosion,silting of rivers Capacity building, manipulation of and dams, Watershed,drainag • Improve catchment e basins and flood conservation and protection so plains as to retard surface run –off; • Construction of flood control dams and dykes in the flood prone areas; • Develop option for inter- basins transfer of excess flood water;

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• Implement upstream engineering measures for soil and water conservation for flood protection; • Develop infrastructure design parameters and regulations to ensure that structures can sustain flooding at the design return periods; • Enhance data recording and information management systems, particularly of extreme events, to enable design for protection against floods Landslides Deforestation, Devegetation Land slides Loss of life, Loss of agricultural Development of relevant Cultivation occurence land and crops, destruction of legislations ,construction, infrastructure, displacement of Awareness creation Inadequate people,soil erosion,silting of rivers Build capacity for enfocemet of enforcement and dams, relevant legislations capacity for physical planning act, Inadequate awareness on hazard Fire Hazards Unplanned urban High demand Fire Loss of life, Damage to property, Develop Surveillance systems Centres, poor occurences infrastructure and environment Build relevant Capacity for settlement planning response Human activitieseg Create awareness honey harvesting and charcoal burning, Poor safety services in industrial, commercial and domestic set ups

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CHAPTER 14: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION, INFORMATION AND AWARENESS

14.1 INTRODUCTION Environmental education, both formal and informal, is vital to changing people’s attitude to appreciate environmental concerns. Formal environmental education is important in increasing awareness, improving extension services, sensitizing people on environmental issues and building institutional capacities. Non-formal environmental education benefits people outside the formal education system. It empowers the public to develop a strong sense of responsibility on environmental issues. Environmental programmes taking place on the ground are led by the government, civil society organizations as well as indigenous communities. These activities include raising awareness, providing capacities and skills, and empowering people and communities to create more sustainable futures. Further, environmental awareness is aimed at making citizens better-informed on environmental issues so as to actively participate in restoration and conservation programmes. Therefore, there is need to develop and use appropriate models of communication that will serve to transmit and disseminate information on importance of protecting the environment. However, communication of environmental information to all stakeholders is still a challenge in Kenya and more needs to be done by both relevant institutions and citizens to promote environmental education which is key to enhancing our country’s efforts in environmental conservation.

14.2.1 Formal Education In Kenya, education and training is the principle catalyst towards realization of the social pillar in vision 2030. This is because it places great emphasis on the link between education, training and the labour market as well as the need to create entrepreneurial skills and competencies that improve the wellbeing and livelihood of citizens. Therefore, there’s great reliance on education and training to create a sustainable pool of highly trained human resource capital that will be utilized to promote and enhance the national ambition of supporting being a knowledge-based economy.

14.2.2 Environmental Programmes in Kenyan Universities The nature of programmes offered in various universities is largely determined by the nature of the institution’s establishment, market forces, availability of resources, controls by professional bodies, availability and adequacy of space, facilities, and teaching staff among other factors. Table 71 highlights proportion of Programmes per cluster in Public Chartered Universities

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Table 71: Proportion of Programmes per cluster in Public Chartered Universities

Number of Programmes in Public Chartered Universities Cluster Bachelor Post Graduate Master PhD Total Proportion Diploma Agriculture, Forestry 140 8 115 61 324 12.7% and Fisheries Architecture 17 0 5 4 26 1.0% Business and 110 7 85 34 236 9.2% Administration Computing 62 2 22 12 98 3.8% Education (Arts) 57 11 95 49 212 8.3% Education (Science) 25 1 14 7 47 1.8% Engineering 85 2 34 13 134 5.2% Environment 48 2 46 24 120 4.7% Health and Welfare 92 5 107 38 242 9.5% Humanities and Arts 102 4 127 65 298 11.7% Journalism and 33 1 16 9 59 2.3% Information Law 5 0 1 0 6 0.2% Life Science and 164 5 116 47 332 13.0% Physical Science Manufacturing 7 0 1 1 9 0.4% Mathematics and 44 6 43 24 117 4.6% Statistics Security and Conflict 16 4 13 7 40 1.6% Resolution Services 40 0 9 5 54 2.1% Social and Behavioral 45 8 43 16 112 4.4% Science Teacher Training 20 4 16 7 47 1.8% Veterinary 10 0 12 9 31 1.2% Others 7 2 2 1 12 0.5% Totals 1129 72 922 433 2556 100.0%

Source: CUE State of University Education Report 2016

The proportion of programmes per cluster in public chartered universities varied significantly among the four levels. The most popular clusters across the levels were Life Science and Physical Science with 332 programmes, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries with 324 programmes, Humanities and Arts with 298 programmes, Health and Welfare with 242 programmes, and Business and administration with 236 programmes. The clusters with the lowest number of programmes were Law with 6 programmes; Manufacturing with 9 programmes; Architecture with 26 programmes; Veterinary with 31 programmes; Security and Conflict Resolution with 40 programmes and unidentified cluster classified as others with 12 programmes.

The table similarly highlights the number of programmes per level, and out of the total 2,556 programmes in public chartered universities, bachelors’ level had the highest number with 1,129 programmes, followed by master’s level with 922 programmes; doctoral level followed with 433 programmes while post-graduate diploma level had the least number of programmes within the clusters with only 72

212 programmes. Environment programmes comprise of 4.7% of the total programmes offered in public chartered univerisites.

In private chartered universities, concentration of programmes was more in the Humanities and Arts cluster with 127 programmes (Table 72). This was followed by Business and Administration with 97 programmes, Education (Arts) and Health and Welfare each with 48 programmes, social and Behavioral science with 46 programmes and Computing with 44 programmes. Environment programmes comprise of 1.5% of the programmes offered in privste chartered universities.

Table 72: Proportion of Programmes per cluster in Private Chartered Universities Number of Programmes in Private Chartered Universities Cluster Bachelor Post Master PhD Total Proportion Graduate Diploma Agriculture, Forestry 4 0 2 2 8 1.5% and Fisheries Architecture 0 0 0 0 0 0.0% Business and 50 0 40 7 97 18.2% Administration Computing 31 0 12 1 44 8.3% Education (Arts) 27 3 12 6 48 9.0% Education (Science) 5 0 0 0 5 0.9% Engineering 7 0 0 0 7 1.3% Environment 5 0 3 0 8 1.5% Health and Welfare 32 1 14 1 48 9.0% Humanities and Arts 47 4 57 19 127 23.8% Journalism and 8 0 3 1 12 2.3% Information Law 6 0 0 0 6 1.1% Life Science and 12 0 1 0 13 2.4% Physical Science Manufacturing 1 0 0 0 1 0.2% Mathematics and 7 0 3 2 12 2.3% Statistics Security and Conflict 5 0 2 0 7 1.3% Resolution Services 8 0 1 0 9 1.7% Social and Behavioral 23 0 18 5 46 8.6% Science Teacher Training 16 5 5 1 27 5.1% Veterinary 1 0 0 0 1 0.2% Other 3 0 2 2 7 1.3% Totals 298 13 175 47 533 100%

Source: CUE State of University Education Report 2016

The least popular clusters were Architecture, Manufacturing, Veterinary, Education Science and Law programmes. Bachelors’ level had the highest number of programmes across the clusters with 298 programmes, followed by master’s level with 175 programmes, PhD level with 47 programmes while post-graduate diploma had the lowest with 13 programmes.

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Tables 73 and 74 shows trends in Bachelors Graduates in Private and Public Chartered Universities respectively which appear to be small proportion compared to other programmes.

Table 73: Bachelors Graduates in Private Chartered Universities

Cluster Year 2012 2013 2014 2015 M F M F M F M F TOTAL Agriculture, Forestry and 35 15 34 16 40 24 44 22 230 Fisheries Architecture 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Business and 2,229 2,700 2,824 3,153 2,979 3,134 2,624 3,222 22,865 Administration Computing 663 402 915 468 893 439 844 455 5,079 Education (Arts) 433 703 1,288 2,181 1,440 2,040 2,454 2,988 13,527 Education (Science) 232 151 308 203 383 285 696 2,605 Engineering 5 2 11 4 15 0 0 0 37 Environment 7 15 15 17 12 25 6 9 106 Health and Welfare 247 218 510 446 585 586 635 870 4,097 Humanities and Arts 220 252 308 302 335 368 363 296 2,444 Journalism and 144 353 113 302 124 332 183 315 1,866 Information Law 99 106 147 232 275 367 328 284 1,838 Life Science and Physical 4 5 6 6 7 15 8 20 71 Science Manufacturing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mathematics and Statistics 3 5 1 3 30 38 35 47 162 Security and Conflict 0 0 9 4 5 13 87 72 190 Resolution Services 5 29 8 19 2 17 18 30 128 Social and Behavioral 180 342 177 389 183 452 222 443 2,388 Science Teacher Training 212 486 187 219 164 430 127 236 2,061 Veterinary 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other 277 330 244 324 242 299 267 387 2,370

Totals 4,995 6,114 7,105 8,288 7,714 8,864 8,941 10,043 62,064

Source: CUE State of University Education Report 2016

Table 74: Bachelors Graduates in Public Chartered Universities

Cluster Year 2012 2013 2014 2015 M F M F M F M F TOTAL Agriculture, 256 141 620 323 829 511 1,206 796 4,682 Forestry and Fisheries Architecture 74 31 81 36 222 78 467 166 1,155 Business and 3,033 2,248 3,617 2,778 5,153 3,926 5,100 3,756 29,611 Administration Computing 731 315 761 258 1,060 349 1,048 414 4,936 Education (Arts) 2,220 1,883 2,084 1,951 3,047 2,831 3,349 2,980 20,345 Education (Science) 774 415 772 556 1,023 482 1,262 682 5,966 Engineering 968 333 1,106 205 2,085 410 1,568 341 7,016 Environment 428 148 297 219 346 283 586 363 2,670 Health and Welfare 392 330 784 635 1,096 993 1,597 1,491 7,318 Humanities and Arts 842 629 1,208 1,184 1,548 1,557 2,345 2,765 12,078 Journalism and 209 148 279 295 597 513 428 598 3,067 Information

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Law 199 198 287 311 775 588 357 448 3,163 Life Science and 574 361 839 488 1,018 606 1,662 999 6,547 Physical Science Manufacturing 63 11 74 15 46 13 38 19 279 Mathematics and 329 177 382 242 532 283 816 412 3,173 Statistics Security and 159 68 124 75 536 274 470 142 1,848 Conflict Resolution Services 96 143 158 128 182 214 261 348 1,530 Social and 543 345 296 238 515 509 665 500 3,611 Behavioral Science Teacher Training 76 75 109 145 102 202 218 261 1,188 Veterinary 0 0 0 0 43 18 64 20 145 Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Totals 11,966 7,999 13,878 10,082 20,755 14,640 23,507 17,501 120,328

Source: CUE State of University Education Report 2016

14.2.3 Enrolment in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics In terms of, enrolment in both public and private universities, most students were registered in Business and Administration (22.3%) followed by Education Arts (14.7%) and Humanities and Arts (8.9%). This means that almost 50% of all students at Universities are enrolled in these three areas. This is in contrast to the science, technology and innovation courses whose enrolments account for less than 15%; and yet these are the areas that have been identified a being crucial for achieving vision 2030, and ensuring that the country moves to the next level of becoming a middle income economy. Although, several Government policies have identified the need to promote training in STEM, little effort has been put in place to ensure increased enrollment of students in these subjects at the university level.

14.2.4 Educational Institutions by Category

Table 75 highlights a list of education institutions by category in the country:

Table 75: Educational Institutions by Category, 2013 - 2017

Category (Public & Private) 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Pre - primary 40,145 40,219 40,775 41,248 41,779 Primary 28,026 29,460 31,333 33,202 35,442 Secondary 7,834 8,747 9,440 9,942 10,665 Teacher Training Colleges 256 267 271 282 414 TVET Institutions 753 755 874 1,300 1,962 Universities 52 53 53 58 59 Source: Economic Survey Report 2018

Figure 54 shows the Pre – Primary Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) and Net Enrolment Rate (NER)

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Figure 54: Pre – Primary Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) & Net Enrolment Rate (NER) Source: Economic Survey Report 2018

14.2.5 Role of Education in Enhancing Sustainable Livelihoods

Education improves the recipient’s employment and business prospects hence making them less directly reliant on the natural resources and thereby preventing their overexploitation. The educated populaces are also better able to appreciate contemporary environmental problems such as climate change, to internalize and apply environmental ethics and to be more attuned to environmental considerations when weighing the pros and cons of operational options. Education is not only a tool for informed decision making but also facilitates constructive community engagement. Literacy statistics are therefore important for policy makers to determine how best to reach the populations they serve. In addition, education is identified as a crucial component for achieving sustainable development goals and an essential tool for informed decision-making and constructive community engagement (SDG Goals).

14.2.6 Literacy Levels This indicator seeks to measure the percentage of population who can read and write at age 15 and above. The Constitution of Kenya, 2010 provides for the right to free and compulsory basic education to every citizen. Similarly, education and training have been cited as fundamental to the social transformation envisaged under the social pillar of the Vision 2030. SDG Goal 4 seeks to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Both formal and informal education programs are key in transforming environmental goals into realities through increased awareness.

Baseline results on national literacy levels were at 78.02% by 2015 in the country. Introduction of the free primary education and the free tuition secondary

216 programmes in 2003 and 2008 respectively has resulted into remarkable success in raising literacy levels. Most counties have registered literacy levels of over 70% apart from Tana River and Garissa whose literacy levels are at 52.10% and 60.90% respectively.

14.2.7 Proportion of Population which is Literate Figure 55 presents the national trends in literacy levels in Kenya since 1990s and projected to 2020, while Figure 56 shows national trends in adult literacy levels..

Figure 55: National trends in literacy levels Source: Economic Survey Report 2018

Figure 56: National % Literacy Levels for Population Over the Age of 15 Source: World Data Atlas, Knoema, 2016

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County Literacy Levels Figure 57 highlights percentage of counties literacy levels above age 15 Years. The literacy levels are lowest in the Arid and Semi-arid counties. Table 76 shows and analysis of the issues affecting literacy levels in Kenya.

Figure 57:County Distribution Map of % literacy levels above age 15 Years

Table 76: DPSIR on Literacy Levels in Kenya

Driver Pressure State Impact Response Population Poor literacy is Declining trends Literacy brings State and county growth correlated with in adult literacy environmental to investment exceeding poor from 82% down to awareness leading to more in literacy education understanding of 78%. sustainable education, and system the environment use of resources and enhance capacity to and leads to reduced incidences of the E&NRM teach literacy unsustainable environment-related material in the use of resources issues and greater curriculum. adoption of green technologies and climate change mitigation and adaptation.

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14.3 CAPACITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERTS This indicator is a measure of proportion of the optimum number of registered EIA experts. As education sector expands, so should the Natural Resources Management (NRM) information and knowledge through training of increased numbers of NRM experts. It is estimated that at least 10 environmental experts are required for a 100,000 population.

The Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act, 1999, the legislation that governs Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies list the projects for which EIA is mandatory. The Act also provides for the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) whose objective and purpose is to exercise general supervision and coordination over all matters relating to the environment and to be the principal instrument of the Government in the implementation of all policies relating to the environment. According to these regulations no proponent shall implement a project likely to have a negative environmental impact or for which an Environmental Impact Assessment has not been concluded and approved in accordance with these regulations.

With increased industrial development, more development projects are on the rise particularly in the construction sector. The service sector is therefore increasingly contributing to the economy. Most of the time there isn’t adequate environmental information for planners regarding how specific choices would impact in the overall environment. The service sector has been characterized by the following: Low environmental information especially in the service sector (tourism, banking, among others) Constructions within sensitive ecosystems (waterways, catchments, national parks, among others) Uncontrolled use of fertilizers and chemicals in agriculture Over-exploitation of water resources (e.g. upstream of river Tana)

The total number of registered environmental experts (Lead and Associate experts) national wide is 1797 against an optimum number of 4952. Overall, most Counties especially in arid and semi-arid areas have less than 20 registered environmental experts. Figure 58 illustrates the distribution of registered environmental experts.

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Counties.

Figure 58: County Distribution Map of Registered Experts Source: KEPI INDEX, 2018

With increased development and industrial growth, more environmental experts are able to avail adequate environmental information for planners regarding how specific choices would impact in the overall environment. It’s a requirement by EMCA law for any development project to have an EIA study prior to subsequent licensing by National Environmental Management Authority( NEMA).

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14.3.1 Recommended Responses The number of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Experts licensed by NEMA have increased over time. Table 77 show trends in licensed EIA Experts. Table 78 show Percentage of Licensed EIA Experts in County per 10,000 population 2016

Table 77 show trends in licensed EIA Experts

Year 2015 2016 2017 Number of Experts 1,467 1,797 2,138 Population 44,156,577 45,847,857 46,600,000 Required Experts 4,416 4,585 4,660 Shortfall in Expertise 2,949 2,788 2,522 % Experts vs Required 33.22 39.19 45.88 Source. NEMA 2017

Table 78: Percentage of Licensed EIA Experts in County per 10,000 population 2016

County No. of Licensed Population % Licensed EIA Target Number of EPI Score EIA experts (2016) Experts/ 10,000 Licensed EIA (2016) Pop Experts Nairobi city 960 4,463,149 215.1 446 100.0 Mombasa 65 1,184,988 54.9 118 54.9 Kiambu 100 1,868,208 53.5 187 53.5 Kajiado 40 870,721 45.9 87 45.9 Nakuru 77 2,031,247 37.9 203 37.9 Kisumu 42 1,132,264 37.1 113 37.1 Embu 19 559,766 33.9 56 33.9 Uasin Gishu 33 1,132,603 29.1 113 29.1 Nyeri 23 798,428 28.8 80 28.8 Machakos 33 1,191,325 27.7 119 27.7 Isiolo 4 155,465 25.7 16 25.7 Elgeyo- 12 468,835 25.6 47 25.6 Marakwet Tharaka-Nithi 9 396,115 22.7 40 22.7 Kisii 28 1,346,547 20.8 135 20.8 Kericho 19 944,576 20.1 94 20.1 Baringo 14 703,697 19.9 70 19.9 Laikipia 10 505,712 19.8 51 19.8 Taita-Taveta 7 358,173 19.5 36 19.5 Homa Bay 22 1,126,270 19.5 113 19.5 Meru 26 1,470,801 17.7 147 17.7 Garissa 11 623,060 17.7 62 17.7 Makueni 16 959,022 16.7 96 16.7 Trans Nzoia 17 1,037,455 16.4 104 16.4 Siaya 16 984,251 16.3 98 16.3 Kilifi 22 1,399,975 15.7 140 15.7 Kitui 17 1,097,687 15.5 110 15.5 Murang'a 15 1,084,871 13.8 108 13.8 Wajir 9 661,941 13.6 66 13.6 Kirinyaga 8 607,881 13.2 61 13.2 Nyamira 9 699,113 12.9 70 12.9 Bungoma 19 1,553,434 12.2 155 12.2 Nyandarua 8 686,379 11.7 69 11.7 Kakamega 20 1,875,531 10.7 188 10.7 Nandi 10 953,978 10.5 95 10.5

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Bomet 9 916,175 9.8 92 9.8 Migori 9 1,071,803 8.4 107 8.4 Narok 9 1,077,719 8.4 108 8.4 Vihiga 5 626,707 8.0 63 8.0 Lamu 1 128,144 7.8 13 7.8 Kwale 6 820,199 7.3 82 7.3 Marsabit 2 315,936 6.3 32 6.3 West Pokot 4 649,418 6.2 65 6.2 Busia 5 840,251 6.0 84 6.0 Samburu 1 283,780 3.5 28 3.5 Turkana 3 855,399 3.5 86 3.5 Mandera 3 1,025,756 2.9 103 2.9 Tana River 0 303,077 0 30 0.0 Total 1,797 ######### 39.2 4585 39.2 (Reference: NEMA, database 2018)

From the results, the following recommendations will ensure that the economy has adequate registered experts to influence project planning. i. Train more environmental experts ii. Incorporate environmental information in all planning instruments iii. Strengthen capacity of relevant institutions to monitor impact of development initiatives on the environment.

Table 79 shows an analysis of the issues affecting capacity of environmental experts.

Table 79 : DPSIR on Capacity of Environmental Expertise

Driver Pressure State Impact Response Increasing Insufficient The total EIA Inadequate National and County population, expertise to expertise is at environmental Government to invest industrialization offer expertise 45% of optimum management and more in capacity and economic services to the requirement, monitoring of building of growth, people on EIA, falls short by compliance, environmental experts, placing greater SEA for 2500 additional and insufficient strengthening of demand on mitigating staff. support to promote relevant institutions need for more environmental green technologies and hiring more environmental degradation in leading to qualified expertise to expertise. development increased monitor impact and incidences of compliance. environment issues and poor waste management.

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Tertiary Level Graduates on ENvironment and Natural Resources Management (E &NRM)

Table 80 shows the Tertiary Level Graduates on E &NRM per gender for both public and private universities

Table 80: Tertiary Level Graduates on E &NRM

2016 Grand E&NRM Course Cluster Public Universities Private Universities Total No. of Student Graduates M F T M F T Agriculture, Forestry & Fishery 3,339 5,381 5,777 2,042 265 131 396 Environment 1,978 3,231 3,337 1,253 40 66 106 Total Students (All E&NRM) 5,317 8,612 9,114 3,295 305 197 502 Total Other Courses 78,419 134,650 208,215 56,231 34,987 38,578 73,565 Total Students (All subjects) 217,329 % of students graduating in E&NRM 4.19 EPI Score (%) 41.94 Source : Reference: Commission for University Education

Table 81 shows an analysis of the issues on Tertiary Level Graduates on E &NRM

Table 81: DPSIR on Tertiary Level Graduates on E &NRM

Driver Pressure State Impact Response Population Limited of Less than 5% of Limited capacity State and County growth exceeds capacity in students of qualified to increase tertiary level E&NRM leading graduating with experts in investment in capacity to to poor adoption tertiary E&NRM various E&NRM E&NRM tertiary educate of green courses sectors education sector graduates in technologies means reduced leads to a brown to cater for green E&NRM and ratio of green pathway in economy growth. green expertise vs economic and technologies required industrial growth numbers leading to unsustainable practices

14.4 EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (ESD)

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is holistic and transformational education which addresses learning content and outcomes, pedagogy and the learning environment. It achieves its purpose by transforming society (UNESCO, 2014). The ESD provides an opportunity for Kenya to develop and implement an

223 education system and programme, which develops values that promote viable, alternative approaches to sustainable development. Its conceptual basis, socio- economic implications, environmental and cultural connections make it an enterprise, which potentially touches on every aspect of life. This translates into objectives of the UN ESD Decade, to: Improve quality of education at all levels for sustainable development; Reorient education at all levels for sustainable development; Enhance public understanding and awareness of sustainable development; Build capacity for sustainable development

Kenya has developed an ESD strategy to provide an enabling environment and capacity for all sectors and stakeholders to effectively contribute towards the achievement of sustainable development. The strategy is aimed at: Enhancing the role of education and learning for equitable, efficient and sustainable utilization of the country’s resources; Promoting quality education through diverse learning and public awareness for improved quality of life and productive livelihoods; and Promote teaching and learning that inculcates appropriate values, behavior and lifestyles for good governance and sustainability.

Over time, the education system has infused aspects of environmental education (EE) in most subjects as a response to teaching about environmental sustainability. However, this has been inadequate as environmental education (EE) is a subset of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) as it does not adequately address issues on society and economy.

14.4.1 Policy Frameworks International commitments relevant to ESD include: The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summit, Earth Summit), The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio +20) UN Decade of ESD (2005 -2014) GAP Endorsement 2013 and launch 2014 ESD Implementation Strategy for Kenya - 2008 Vision 2030 Constitution of Kenya 2010; Basic Education Act 2013 National Education Sector Plan (2013 – 2018) National ESD Policy 2015

Education for Sustainable Development Policy

Environment and natural resources in Kenya are valuable national assets that must be sustainably managed for present and future generations. Education for Sustainable Development is one of the tools for attaining sustainable development in Kenya through appropriate learning, capacity-building programmes and

224 development of skills in sustainable use of resources at all levels. This will inculcate environmental values among the citizenry aimed at influencing informed decisions on environmental conservation. In turn, this will improve the quality of learning through better understanding of natural, social and economic processes. The aim of the National ESD Policy, therefore, is to provide a framework for mainstreaming education which inculcates sustainable development as a life-long learning practice in all levels of education in Kenya in line with the regional and international ESD frameworks. It proposes a broad range of measures and actions responding to key educational issues and challenges and seeks to re-orient education to ensure that the citizenry attain life-long learning principles towards sustainable development.

Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 This policy paper recognizes the integral role of education and training in promoting national development and re-affirms the government’s commitment to the provision of quality education and training for national development. The Sessional Paper upholds the need to address global issues such as environmental concerns, technology, gender disparities, among others, through education.

Environmental Management and Coordination Act, CAP 387 It provides a framework law that provides for effective coordination and regulation of all actions directed at or likely to have influence on the environment. However, a prominent feature of Kenya’s environmental legislation is its provision for promotion for environmental education.

Vision 2030 This provides a convergence point between education and sustainable development. The vision emphasizes on the provision of appropriate manpower training on environmental management and calls for the provision of a basis for shifting mindsets towards positive environmental behavior.

Constitution of Kenya 2010 It has a number of entitlements within the bill of rights which support ESD. Article 42 states the right of every Kenyan to a clean and healthy environment. This is supported by Article 53 which entitles every child with a right to free and compulsory education. Article 69 of the constitution emphasizes the need for sustainable exploitation, utilization, management and conservation of the environment and natural resources.

14.4.2 STATUS OF ESD

Government Initiatives Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (2005–2010): The Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (KESSP 2005–2010) was the result of the Ministry of Education Session paper No.1 of 2005 (MOEST, 2005a) which outlined

225 the overall government policy to achieve Education for All (EFA). It was a five- year plan in which investment programmes are prioritized. It focused on the programmes that aim to enhance access, retention, quality and equity for the most under-privileged (MOEST, 2005b). Further, KESSP has contributed to a number of achievements in terms of sustainable development in the country.

The Kenya Government’s Economic Recovery Strategy (2003) played a key role in the promotion of ESD as the policy focused on growth, employment and poverty reduction. The strategy also promoted teaching and learning approach based on skills training to youth, women and other vulnerable groups.

The Kenyan school curriculum has been reviewed to incorporate life skills. Targeted themes include conflict management, social cohesion and ethnic tolerance, survival skills, and gender equality, among others. The Kenya Institute of Education has developed, piloted and implemented the curriculum, and trained the teachers and education officers at the national scale.

The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation have developed a national school health policy that guides a comprehensive school health programme. The objectives are: (i) to promote the teaching of positive values and life skills (ii) to promote gender related issues in schools; (iii) to promote hygiene, sanitation and the use of safe water (iv) to provide conducive, fully accessible and inclusive environments for learners with special needs and disabilities and (v) to ensure that mechanisms are put in place for assuring the longevity of school health programmes.

The Ministry of Education is currently working with various ministries in order to implement ESD initiatives.

Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) in collaboration with NEMA are implementing a pilot on ESD in schools. The pilot project encourages teachers to use projects in delivering of curriculum.

NEMA as a lead implementing agency for the government has collaborated with the private sector, formal and non-formal education institutions, NGOs, CBOS and religious groups to undertake:  Awareness campaigns focusing on the root causes of unsustainable outcomes in social, environmental, cultural and economic ventures of development;  Continuous consultation (information exchange and feedback) with all actors in order to build ownership and shared vision;  Partnership and networking to build synergies at various levels. At the international level, NEMA has established networks with SADC-REEP, WWF ESARPO and RCE Denmark;

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 Capacity building and training, where over 20 Government Ministries and Departments have been trained on ESD. NEMA has been part of the RCE capacity building modules targeting RCE Coordinators in Africa;  Research and innovation is being conducted in collaboration with institutions of higher learning and research institutions. NEMA in collaboration with KIE has been conducting three pilot projects; (i) 20 primary and secondary schools’ green school programme (ii) a botanical garden at Pwani University and (iii) use of environmental education packs to promote positive behavior change for pupils.  Monitoring and evaluation using outcome mapping model on a continuous basis. To date, 100 primary, 100 secondary and 100 tertiary institutions have been monitored on ESD Implementation.  NEMA and KIE have carried out a nation-wide baseline survey to establish the level of awareness, determined the practice, identified ESD resources within learning institutions, and the participation level of learners and teachers on ESD.  NEMA has spearheaded the formation of nine RCEs.  Development of an ESD Policy for Kenya in collaboration with the parent Ministry. 14.5 CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS

Wildlife Clubs of Kenya (WCK) provides conservation education to youths and supports wildlife clubs through training, information sharing and advocacy. WCK seeks to share knowledge and stimulate interest on ESD, especially about wildlife conservation and biodiversity. This is supported through (i) a teacher-training programme and (ii) an annual student competition on ESD best practices. WCK has also published and distributed a number of ESD related materials including thematic pack on; conservation of forests, energy, water, wildlife and combating climate change. As part of awareness creation WCK carries out an annual community conservation day and support radio programmes on Environment and the Youth. WCK also has a mobile education environmental outreach programme to schools and tertiary institutions.

Lake Victoria Catchment Environmental Education Programme is coordinated by World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the programme aims to empower catchment communities, schools and regional partners in sustainable use and management of natural resources. This is done through a whole school approach, looking at heath, sanitation and food security (nutrition) and children right to education which is infused through training. While the programme covers four countries, Kenya has eight pilot schools (1 in Nandi, 1 in Homabay, 2 in Trans Mara and 4 in Kisumu town). The programme has a capacity building component, where eight trainers from each country have been trained since the inception of the project. This has strengthened the capacity of teachers and teacher trainers in delivering environmental education as part of their daily educational activities

227 including: the development of various environmental education materials; raising awareness and understanding on the conservation of freshwater ecosystems; capacity-building on the topic of conservation for riparian communities; and the creation of a partnership mechanism for environmental education. The LVCEEP has also developed a number of resource materials including; Learning sustainable ways and methodologies for the future-a guide to develop education for sustainable development, both aimed at teachers and trainers.

African Fund for Endangered Wildlife is an organization that provides support for environmental education programmes on wildlife conservation with a special emphasis on endangered species. The African Fund for Endangered Wildlife (AFEW) has established a resource centre and developed a programme for training trainers. AFEW has produced ESD teaching and Learning Pack for High school and transcribed it into Braille and has a draft for the Primary level pack. As a member of RCE Greater Nairobi, AFEW has taken part in key policy developments and is also keen on research and innovation and has supported three studies on ESD needs assessment with regards to resources utilization.

Jacaranda Designs - Chanuka Express is an ESD mobile outreach programme on safety, peace, health, hygiene and sanitation, environment, youth and community development for young people run by Jacaranda Designs in collaboration with UNESCO.

Kenya Organization for Environmental Education (KOEE): KOEE is mainstreaming ESD into the primary and secondary school curriculum based on an environmental action-learning approach in the Eco-Schools Programme and ESD teacher training programmes. The programme focuses on the following areas of ESD: (i) reorientation of existing education systems at all levels to address sustainable development (ii) raise public understanding and awareness of sustainability through schools (iii) conducts training in ESD through micro- projects which involve school communities (iv) adopts a multiple stakeholders approach during micro-projects implementation and (v) encourages schools to development own ESD strategies. KOEE is also working with Faith Based Organizations (FBO) in raising awareness and building capacity on ESD.

UN - UNESCO UNESCO has participated in the development of the national ESD implementation strategy in Kenya, the ESD implementation guidelines for the National and County levels, the ESD monitoring and evaluation tool, the establishment of RCEGN, and the production of the RCEGN documentary. UNESCO also supports HIV/AIDS education in Kenyan schools. In addition, UNESCO was instrumental in the development of ESD Media Training Kit. UNEP’s Directorate of Environmental Education ESD activities focuses on higher education and works through universities. It has three main programmes; education, networking and training.

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 In education, the UNEP inspires universities to re-orient their curricula towards sustainability. This is done by provision of tools – higher Education curriculum re-orientation guidelines, support workshops and provision of resource persons. A pool of resource persons has been established and supports local institutions e.g. Wangare Maathai Institute which has benefitted from the same. UNEP is also repackaging the concept of greening universities, as a reference point for teaching and a living laboratory.  The networking programme provides a platform for sharing knowledge, expertise and resources. It also facilitates the Monitoring for Environment and Security in Africa (MESA) programme whose membership comprises six Kenyan universities.  Training is mainly on scheduled courses for university dons conducted in selected 10 universities in the World including Dresden and Juen.  UNEP also supports environmental education activities in Kenyan schools and universities. It is involved in provision of support to community education for the Nairobi river rehabilitation and restoration project. Nairobi was part of the survey.  In collaboration with Tangy University of China conducted a survey of the status of water in Africa.  There are number of publications on ESD. These include; (i) Higher Education curriculum re-orientation guidelines (ii) Greening University tool kit, (iii) Graduate curriculum development source book on (a) ecosystem management and (b) green economy.  UNEP also facilitates the biannual Youth Council, which will be held in Kenya in November 2012.  UN-HABITAT is a member of the ESDA project (ESD joint project between UNU-ISP and Kenyatta University). It also provides technical support on urban issues.  UNU (United Nations University): Education for Sustainable Development for Africa Project (ESDA) is jointly implemented UNU Institute for Sustainability and Peace (ISP) and Kenyatta University in Kenya. The project is aimed at developing and testing graduate-level education programmes for professionals potentially engaged in sustainable development in Africa.

14.6 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION, INFORMATION AND AWARENESS PROGRAMMES 14.6.1 Adopt – A – River Initiative Urban wetlands are among the most threatened ecosystems in Kenya. This is due to their direct conversion into built up areas (either planned or unplanned). This has led to acute pollution related problems including uncontrolled domestic and industrial discharges; and irresponsible dumping of commercial, municipal and institutional wastes. There have also been drainage concerns; direct biodiversity habitat loss; overexploitation of wetland plant and animal species; and increased

229 prevalence of invasive alien species. In response to the challenges, the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) and World Student Community for Sustainable Development Kenya (WSCSD – Kenya) with the support of various stakeholders partnered to address these challenges through the implementation of the ‘Adopt-a-River Initiative’.

This is a ‘people-driven’ wetlands monitoring and restoration project that is being piloted within Nairobi River Basin before up scaling to other parts of the country. The project entails adoption of a nearby river by university/college student groups, community youth groups and other interested institutions. The groups are expected to subsequently monitor the adopted river over time, identify sources of its pollution and take local action towards its restoration and conservation. The project is being implemented with technical backstopping from University of Nairobi (UoN), School of Biological Sciences.

The health of rivers will be measured using Mini Stream Assessment Scoring System (miniSASS), a simple, user-friendly river health bio-monitoring tool. The tool uses composition of macro-invertebrates in the river and is based on their sensitivity to varying water quality levels. It is therefore hands on, especially in the application of the dichotomous key. A selected number of your students will be trained on the tool before start of the exercise and provided with all the necessary materials and equipment. They will also work closely with NEMA to identify the sources of pollution and necessary corrective measures.

Overall Project Objective The aim of the project is to strengthen the link between the curricula and addressing real sustainability challenges in Kenya. This is by mobilizing students in universities, colleges and secondary schools to collaborate with community youth groups to champion for clean and healthy river ecosystems and other wetlands. This will be achieved through regular monitoring of the health of the rivers coupled with various conservation and restoration efforts.

Specific Objectives Specifically the project seeks to; i. Strengthen monitoring of the Nairobi River Basin streams by local stakeholders ii. Steer restoration of polluted streams within the Nairobi River Basin to make them more clean and healthy iii. Make learning of biology, especially the dichotomous key more interesting and hands-on for secondary school students iv. Enhance knowledge on and spur interest in community led ecosystem conservation among youths.

Activities of the Project i) Mobilization of participating institutions and youth groups

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ii) Identification and mapping of sampling points iii) Procurement of equipment and materials for sampling iv) Training Curriculum Development v) Training of Trainers (ToT’s) vi) Onsite training of participating institutions and youth groups vii) River monitoring and uploading of data viii) Reporting on findings ix) Restoration activities – clean-ups, tree planting  Enforcement based on findings  Awareness creation

Project Partners The project partners include; i) WSCSD – Kenya ii) UoN iii) National Museums of Kenya (NMK) iv) Wildlife Clubs of Kenya (WCK) v) African Fund for Endangered Wildlife (AFEW – K) vi) Kenya National Commission for UNESCO (KNATCOM) vii) Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) viii) Universities and colleges ix) Secondary schools

Steps in Implementation of Project Activities  Planning meetings  Identification of institutions  Training of Trainers workshop  Development of Awareness materials  Procurement and distribution of equipment  River Health monitoring using miniSASS

14.6.2 NEMA Strategic Partnerships The Department of Environmental Services (DES) has been spearheading partnership with the Private Sector through a platform dubbed, Private Sector Dialogue on Environment initiated in 2012 during the World Environment Day celebrations. The platform is aimed at public and private collaborations to boost green economy initiatives by industries. It has been sustained over the years providing an opportunity for the private sector to participate in environmental activities. The initiative was motivated by the realization that the private sector has many opportunities which could be exploited including financial capital, innovations, technologies and expertise that can support environmental conservation. Private sector movement towards corporate environmentalism has created new opportunities which NEMA can take advantage of towards collaborative environmental management in Kenya.

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These collaborative approaches are performance based and allow for flexibility, stakeholder engagement and consensus building. Partnerships provide companies opportunities to develop innovative environmental improvements such as reduced pollution, improved compliance levels and conservation of resources. One of the most significant outcomes of these partnerships is to improve compliance to environmental standards and enhance the quality of the environment. The current trends of devolution of government service delivery have stocked interest in Public Private Partnerships (PPP) in environmental management within the Country.

Rationale for Private Sector Partnerships NEMA’s engagement with the Private sector is aimed at achieving diverse benefits, which include; • Promote a green economy in Kenya through greening operations for industries by efficiently using their raw materials, energy and water. • Enhance cross sector collaborations with Public and Private sector actors in the management of the environment. • Improve compliance to environmental standards and new initiatives to enhance conservation of environment. • Use of both human and financial resources from the private sector for resource mobilization and advocacy. • Creating enabling forums to explain government policies and help mainstream environmental issues into the programs of private sector actors (green investments) • Promotion of the concept and culture of sustainable development, eco- efficiency and public participation in environmental issues

• Stimulating pragmatic and replicable solutions to some of the most widespread environmental problems affecting urban and rural dwellers countrywide.

The Authority has since upgraded the Private Sector Dialogues into a work plan activity held at least once every quarter. At the County level, it was proposed that the private sector dialogue meetings be held every six months thus making the forums bi-annual. However, the CDE’s have not been able to hold these forums due to budgetary constraints.

Objectives of NEMA’s Engagement in PPPs NEMA’s engagement with the private sector is guided by the following objectives  To consolidate and streamline private sector environmental sustainability engagements  To provide a forum for dialogue, planning and knowledge sharing on environmental sustainability interventions among private sector players  To enhance efficiency and effectiveness of private sector contribution to

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environmental conservation

NEMA Engagement of the Private Sector NEMA engages the private sector using the process captured here below:  Grouping them into sectors  Convening quarterly stakeholder meetings  Conducting M & E on private sector engagements  Organizing Gala dinners  Undertaking sporting activities e.g. Golf tournament  Participation and support in Global Environmental events- WED, WDCD

Thematic Areas NEMA and Private Sector stakeholders agreed to work collaboratively on 7 thematic areas namely: • Waste Management and Recycling; • Rehabilitation of degraded sites; • Rainwater harvesting technologies; • Support to environmental events and initiatives • Support to Environmental Awards • Environmental sustainability reporting • Joint Resource Mobilization

Outcomes Expected From Private Sector Engagements • Public and private sector actors actively participate in environmental conservation initiatives while implementing their mandates. • Private sector actors demonstrate corporate social responsibility towards environmental conservation as they advance their own business interests. • Enhanced deeper and broader collaborations between NEMA and private sector to combine capacities, experiences and resources in conservation efforts. • Movements by private sector towards self-regulation and compliance (Corporate environmentalism). • Sharing knowledge, information and best practices in the PPPs.

Achievements NEMA has benefitted from partnerships established within sector institutions (Table 82).

Table 82: Partnerships Matrix

NO. NAME OF PREFERRED AREA SPECIFIC AREAS OF TIMELINE ORGANIZATION OF PARTNERSHIP PARTNERSHIP

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1. Kenya Commercial Bank - Support to - Support to WED 2017 On-going (KCB) Environmental documentary on Events and “Connecting people to Initiatives. Nature” - Environmental - Adoption of Corporate Awards sustainability reporting as a best practice.

2. Bamburi Cement - Waste management & - support to recycling of 2017/2018 FY recycling plastic bags - -environmental sustainability reporting - support to environmental awards

3. Safaricom - Waste Management - Support to eco-bags On-going - Capacity - SMS blasts on the plastic development Ban - Advocacy - Trainings on - Support to electromagnetic Environmental radiation and EIA/EA Events issues for the masts/BTS. -environmental messages on scratch cards. - Support to development of awareness materials

4. Green Belt Movement -Advocacy -Support to Adopt -a On-going (GBM) -Capacity Building River program through -Waste management community mobilization -Joint resource -Support to groups mobilization undertaking recycling of plastic bags

5. GIZ - Capacity -Support to Adopt a River development program (provision of - Rehabilitation of equipment) On-going degraded sites - Support ABS

6. Faith Based Organizations -Advocacy -plastic awareness On-going (FBOs) sensitization at the NCCK -capacity development conference in Limuru, Catholic Bishops conference (held in Mombasa from 24th to 29th September,2017) - Friends Church /Quakers engaged in sensitization of the ban on plastic carrier bags done on 25/08/2017

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7. Kenya Alliance of -Advocacy -Advocacy and On-going Residents Associations - waste management development of (KARA) promotional materials for distribution to KARA members.

8. TEAM Environment Kenya -Advocacy Advocacy through social On-going Youth Group media and participation in exhibitions on alternative carrier bags- KICC/ NGONG

9. Retail Traders Association -Advocacy -Media campaigns to On-going of Kenya (RETRAK) - Waste management sensitize consumers -Support to CSR efforts -Members to advocate for take back system for used carrier bags

10. Kenya Association of - Advocacy - Sensitization of KAM Manufacturers (KAM) - waste management members on On-going environmental regulations - Green investments/initiatives

11. UNEP -Capacity -Provision of financial, On-going development technical support and -Joint resource capacity development mobilization -Support to UNEP Conference on Ban of Plastics -Capacity development- WEEC, KGUN

12. The Nature Conservancy -Joint resource -Data Mobilization for On-going (TNC) mobilization decision making using GIS platform.

13. WWF -Advocacy - Oil and Gas mapping On-going - Support to - Provision of awareness environmental events materials

14. County Governments -Advocacy -Training of gazzetted 2017/18 -Capacity CECs development - Capacity development -Waste management on devolved functions -Joint Resource mobilization

15. NTSA - Waste management -Partnerships in On-going - Advocacy monitoring of highways for littering.

16. KENHA (Kenya National -Advocacy - Partnering to brand 2017/2018 FY Highways Authority) bridges and flyovers with - Support to environmental messages environmental events

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17. Matatu Owners -Waste management Installation of waste bins On-going Association -advocacy in the PSVs

18. MEDIA -Advocacy Partnership on Advocacy On-going and Public education & awareness on plastic ban - FM stations, Print, TV, Documentaries Source: Department of EEIPP, NEMA

14.7 REGIONAL CENTRES OF EXPERTISE

Regional Centres of Expertise (RCE) on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is a unique global initiative that serves as a platform to facilitate stakeholders to implement holistic ESD strategies to address local sustainability challenges. RCEs bring together ESD stakeholders across knowledge, sectoral and geographical boundaries in a particular region, for information sharing, social learning and forming community of practice network. As enablers of multi- stakeholder engagement processes, RCEs in Kenya have an important role to accelerate the search for sustainable solutions in local communities through ESD. RCEs within the country have integrated key ESD elements of knowledge, practical skills, perspectives, values and issues into their flagship programmes and other activities to transform education approaches and community livelihoods in their regions. A total of nine (9) RCEs have been formed and operate under key thematic areas as indicated here below:

i) RCE Greater Nairobi Region - Kenyatta University: addressing issues of urbanization (waste, pollution, slums, transportation, and ethnic intolerance). ii) RCE Mau Complex - Egerton University: addressing issues of deforestation, indigenous rights, Indigenous knowledge, climate change adaptation and mitigation. iii) RCE Western Kenya - Masinde Muliro University: dealing with Indigenous knowledge, land degradation, flood risk mitigation and siltation. iv) RCE Nyanza - Maseno University: dealing with waste management, soil erosion, quarrying/mining and flood risk mitigation. v) RCE North Rift Region - Moi University: dealing with agriculture and, land degradation vi) RCE South Rift Region - Narok University: dealing with land degradation, climate change, biodiversity, water and health issues. vii) RCE Coast - Pwani University College: dealing with Land degradation, wetlands and biodiversity viii) RCE Central - Kenya Kimathi University College: dealing with climate change adaptation and mitigation & agriculture. ix) RCE Upper Eastern - Kenya Methodist University: addressing issues on quarrying/mining, Indigenous knowledge and pollution.

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14.8 KENYA ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION (KEIN)

Kenya Environmental Information Network was a project initiated by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) together with the NEMA. KEIN initiative aimed to together Kenyan institutions that generate environmental data. The network created a framework for cooperation and coordination amongst various stakeholders thus preventing duplication of information.

Objectives of KEIN i) To build capacity for the development and management of core datasets. Support and initiate institutional networking and develop capacities related to the management of data and information at the national, sub-regional, and regional levels. ii) To facilitate open access to environmental data and information .To strengthen capacity at national level for managing and communicating information on environmental assets in such a manner as to provide opportunities for sustainable development. iii) To generate information products to enhance country negotiation status with respect to assets within the context of Multi-lateral environmental conventions.

Expected outputs of KEIN The expected outputs of KEIN include capacity building for harnessing professional skills and methodologies for analyzing data and generating policy oriented information and for integrating such information into sustainable development, development of infrastructure and support mechanisms for comprehensive and harmonized national sustainable development and data foundation, using information and communication technologies to manage data and information and to facilitate access to information and communicate information to decision makers at various levels of society and the public.

Beneficiaries The network has generated a range of useful environmental information that is aimed at supporting policy and decision making processes at various levels. This has increased networking among international and national institutions and agencies as well as improved access to and exchange of relevant information. Further, it has improved the skills to carry out environmental assessment, early warning systems, state of environment reporting, reporting to international conventions, policy briefs, information catalogues and metadata - base at National level. Beneficiaries include: decision makers, researchers, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and any other person who needs authoritative information and data on environmental matters.

Partner Institutions Generating Environmental Data

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The following institutions generate data / information

i) Ministry of energy ii) Ministry of State for Planning National Development and Vision 2030 iii) Nature Kenya iv) National Environment Management Authority v) National Museums of Kenya vi) Kenya Agricultural Research Institute vii) Kenya Forestry Research Institute viii) Kenya meteorological department ix) Kenya Industrial Property Institute x) Kenya Institute of Public Policy Research and analysis(KIPPRA) xi) Kenya National Cleaner Production xii) Kenya Wildlife Service and xiii) Department of Resource Survey and Remote Sensing (DRSRS)

14.9 NEMA GREEN POINTS The earth is under extreme pressure to meet the food, energy, water and other demands of an expanding global population that has surpassed the 7 billion mark. This goes with the attendant increase in the emission of pollutants to the atmosphere. The global population must strive to live within the earth's limits. This is because the earth’s resources and her ability to cope with the waste we generate is finite. There is a universal call for countries to embrace the green economy concept, i.e., one that is inclusive, resource efficient and low on carbon emissions. These are matters that are of critical importance to Kenya, as she enters a period of ambitious growth across all sectors as envisaged in Vision 2030. In an endeavour to contribute to a green economy in Kenya, NEMA developed the Green Points initiative. The Green points have been conceptualized in order to practically interpret the green economy concept in our context here in Kenya. The design and function is meant to lead to as small an ecological footprint as possible. This will be achieved by incorporating aspects such as rainwater harvesting, waste water recycling technologies, low energy consumption, among other features. The green points are intended to improve and expand the advisory role of NEMA in the counties especially on issues related to the promotion of sound environmental management that can support the green economy, in conjunction with the private sector. This will demonstrate the public-private partnership spirit in the communities - a policy direction that the government has been advocating for. A Green Point therefore is a one stop shop for all NEMA activities and advisory at the county but also a demonstration and learning centre for innovation.

Services offered at the Green Points include: i) NEMA operational functions such as review of Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) applications and inspections.

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ii) Advisory functions to county government, business people, and the wider community on environmental issues. iii) Exhibitions of appropriate green technologies/innovations by the local business community. iv) Host academic visits. v) Act as an environmental information resource centre.

Seven Green Points have been strategically put up across the country including Uasin Gishu, Homa-Bay, Isiolo, Embu, Taita Taveta, Kajiado, Kilifi and Lamu. Plans are underway to develop others across Kenya. These Green Points have been constructed through funding from Danida.

All Green Points in Kenya will combine “normal NEMA office functions and facility” – with an open public meeting information and demonstration area; the design is based on a functional, accessible and open concept including: i. Eco-friendly and creative architecture ii. Design responds to local conditions – Climate and Geography iii. Open space for various exhibits iv. A culturally acceptable design v. Functional quality – a maintenance friendly design based on solid local materials

14.9 Kenya National Library Services collaboration with NEMA The NEMA Library and Information centre was set up to provide a place where users can access information materials mainly on environmental issues so as to enhance public awareness on environmental matters as well as support planning and research activities of the organization. A significant aim of any library is to make information available to users with minimum impediments and the NEMA library is not an exception. The library has assorted stock of environmental content both in digital and print media. It serves an important information resource centre for both NEMA Staff and other stakeholders from outside the Authority who need to access environmental materials.

NEMA Library services are continually being enhanced to cope with occasional practical problems in the acquisition, processing, circulation, storage and the general handling of documents and records. A proposal is underway to introduce new technologies aimed at significantly enhancing effective and efficient delivery of library services to the users. This is through automating all environmental materials via an automate library where all the procedures are computerized and to a digital library where information materials can be accessed electronically in full text.

In addition, NEMA has collaborated with Kenya National Library Service (KNLS) branches to ensure environmental education and information is available to the public. So far, collaboration is with eight KNLS branches namely: Nakuru,

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Mombasa, Kisumu, Kakamega, Embu, Nyeri and Nairobi which are both National and Public libraries.

14.10 COUNTY RESOURCE INFORMATION CENTRES

The NEMA Library is constantly collaborating with the NEMA County Environment Offices and NEMA Green Points in availing space, bookshelves and environmental content for use at grassroots level by communities. Materials are continuously disseminated and stocked at the County Resource Information Centres for ease of access by the public. This is a continuous process which is highly dependent on availability of information materials. The Authority develops, prints and disseminates its own awareness materials and as well collaborates with UNEP and other key institutions who donate assorted environmental information materials which are then disseminated to the NEMA county offices, KNLS and other partners.

14.11Environmental Education Information and Awareness Initiative (EEAI) This is an initiative spearheaded by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry in collaboration with NEMA and various lead agencies aimed at providing a platform to inform, educate and engage various stakeholders. The goal is to enhance voluntary initiatives and participation in environmental conservation activities by every Kenyan through education and awareness campaigns. This is expected to foster inclusiveness and partnerships in environmental conservation and management. The implementation of EEAI has so far promoted effective stakeholder involvement and resource mobilization in environmental management.

Objectives of Environmental Education Information and Awareness Initiative (EEAI) The objectives EEAI are to: i) Increase environmental awareness and participation in environmental activities. ii) Mobilize the general public to get involved in the protection and conservation of the environment and especially catchment conservation. iii) Encourage media to embrace effective, positive and informative environmental coverage in order to enhance awareness and prioritization of the environment.

EEAI Activities EEAI activities mainly cover seven key areas that include Public awareness campaigns; Outreach and education; Tree planting; Clean-up campaigns; Creating awareness of environmental challenges and solutions; Promotion of best practices and Dissemination of environmental messages through mass and folk media

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EEAI Expected Outcomes

These include: i. Positive change of attitude and participation in environmental conservation among the Kenyan public ii. Enhanced prioritization of the environment among stakeholders and iii. Enhanced partnerships in environmental governance between MEMR and stakeholders.

14.12 NON FORMAL EDUCATION (NFE)

This refers to any organized, systematic educational activity outside the established formal system, whether operating separately or as an important feature of some activity, that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives. NFE is operationally defined as any organized, structured and systematic learning service delivered outside the framework of the formal school system to a specific segment, group or sub-group of the population for a specific objective, at low cost, in terms of both time and resources. It is by its nature and process supposed to be absolutely learner-centred and provide learning objectively. It could be hierarchically organized, but not rigidly structured. It has to be flexible enough to accommodate the needs of the learner without compromising the quality of either its inputs or its outputs. Four categories of institutions which provide non-formal education in Kenya include: • Centres for religious education • Non-formal primary schools • Adult education centres • Skills training centres.

The main providers of non-formal education are NGOs, parents and communities, the National Government and local authorities. Table 83 highlights Categories of NFE Schools and Centres. Table 84 shows the founders of NFE Schools and Centres.

Table 83: Categories of NFE Schools and Centres

Type Kisumu Mombasa Nairobi NFE Designated Centres 13 2 7 Early Childhood Development Centres (ECDC) 1 1 2 including orphanages and day care centres Religious oriented centres including Madrassas 3 2 5 Probation centres including borstals and remand 1 2 homes Community/Association/Youth Rehabilitation Centres 6 21 13 Adult Education Centres 2 Pre - Primary Schools 12 Source: Non-Formal Education in Kenya: by Ekundayo J.D. Thompson

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Table 84: Founders of NFE Schools and Centres

Individuals Kisumu Mombasa Nairobi Total 13 12 16 41 Department of Adult Education 3 5 8 Government 1 15 Church 1 2 12 3 Muslim Organization 2 1 13 Community 4 7 2 2 Committee/ Groups 2 Associations 1 1 Source: Non-Formal Education in Kenya: by Ekundayo J.D. Thompson

The following clubs shown in Table 85 can be used to foster environmental conservation.

Table 85. Clubs in Schools

No. Club Type Thematic Area

1. 4K Club Agriculture 2. Wildlife Club Environmental Conservation 3. Environmental Club Environmental 4. Scouts Movement Environmental, Social 5. Girl Guide Movement Environmental, Social 6. Debating Club Communication 7. Drama Club Communication 8. Science Club Disciplinary 9. Agriculture club Agriculture 10. History Club Environmental Conservation 11. Tree planting Club Disciplinary, Environmental 12. AIDS Awareness Group Social, Health 13. Art & Craft Disciplinary 14. Choir Social 15. Boys and girls Brigade Religious 16. Music Club Disciplinary, Social 17. Young Farmers Club Agricultural 18. Agro-Forestry Environmental 19. Poetry Communication 20. Christian Union Religion Source: Innovative Environmental Education Methodologies (Ayub M. – PhD)

14.12.1 NEMA’s Collaboration in Non-Formal Education NEMA has adopted both formal and non-formal approaches to environment education in its outreach efforts and taken a leading role in curriculum development of environmental education programs adopted by various institutions in partnership with key institutions such as Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD). Other non-formal education programmes aimed

242 at creating awareness on environmental education geared towards reaching a critical mass of citizens include the following:  Commemoration of environmental days such as World Day to Combat Desertification, World Environment Day and World Wetland Day.  Preparation of awareness creation materials and posters some which are hoisted on billboards in major towns.  Awareness efforts through media, the NEMA website also provides a platform for sharing critical information on environment aimed at reaching wider audiences. Apart from NEMA, other organizations contributing to environmental education objectives include line ministries such as the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources who are actively involved in raising awareness, building resilience and enhancing adaptive capacity to the impacts of climate change. Other partners who have an active role in supporting the public’s behavioural changes include the non-governmental organizations and civil society organizations.

RECOMMENDATIONS

 Develop a National Environmental Education Curriculum examinable at the Primary, secondary and tertiary levels.  Document, disseminate and encourage the use of indigenous knowledge in environmental protection and conservation.  Strengthen capacities for acquisition, packaging and dissemination of Environmental information.  There is need to implement the differentiated unit cost, as a way of promoting university enrolment in STEM subjects; and to put in place other measures to promote STEM.  There is need to ensure that at least 40 per cent of enrolment into science- based university academic programmes are female students.  Establish and strengthen environmental resource centres at all levels.  Harmonize ESD activities by different institutions.  Use an appropriate framework in National ESD Mapping.  Develop a communication network across all sectors in order to synergize efforts towards ESD.  Create a platform on which to share information and harmonize ESD activities and efforts.

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CHAPTER 15: ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE

15.1 INTRODUCTION

Proper governance structures, instutions, legal and policy instruments together with rigorous implementation and enforcement are prerequisite for effective environmental governance (Gok, 2013). Environmental governance refers to the broader processes and institutions through which societies make decisions that affect the environment (Oakerson, 1992). Some of the community governance structures that have been adopted in Kenya include the following; Community Forest Associations (CFAs), Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs) and Beach Management Units (BMUs) among others. It is important to note that these associations are anchored in the various laws and legislations.

Environmental governance is critical in finding lasting solutions to environmental challenges facing society at global, regional and national levels. Governance therefore, comprises policies, legislations and institutions that shape how man interact with the environment (Nagi, 2009). This incorporates the processes of decision-making involved in controlling and managing the environment and natural resources.

Good environmental governance takes into account the role of all actors that impact on the environment. Effective environmental management is key to ensuring formulation and implementation of national environmental policies and legislations as well as domestication of Multilateral Environmental Agreements at all levels.

In Kenya, many sectoral policies and laws still remain un-harmonized with the Constitution. These include policies and laws concerning agriculture, land, water, forests, trade and industry, which have significant implications on the environment. The sectoral rather than integrated and ecosystem approach to management of natural resources has proved inadequate in addressing environmental challenges. In addition, weak enforcement of laws and weak implementation of policies remain a major issue of concern in Kenya’s environment sector.

Proper governance structures, legal and policy instruments together with rigorous implementation and enforcement are prerequisite for effective environmental governance (Gok, 2013). Environmentalgovernance refers to the broader processes and institutions through which societies make decisions that affect the environment (Oakerson, 1992). Some of the community governance structures that have been adopted in Kenya include the following; Community Forest Associations (CFAs), Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs) and Beach Management Units (BMUs) among others. It is important to note that these associations are angered in the various laws and legislations.

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15.2 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS 15.2.1 Institutional Arrangements The multi-faceted nature of the environment and the need to integrate environmental considerations in all development planning and activities calls for cooperation and consultation among responsible government agencies and stakeholders at all levels. It is particularly important to recognize the existing institutional mechanisms and consider ways and means by which coordination and cooperation can be enhanced between the many institutions whose mandates relate to the environment.

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) is the national regulatory agency coordinating with the decentralized entities. There are various committees on standards enforcement and action plans to support NEMA’s performance in matters of environment quality standards and planning. The multi- sectoral National Environment Council (NEC) is the apex national environment policy making organ while the Directorate of Environment in the Ministry plays an oversight role in policy formulation as well as monitoring the implementation in relation to other sectorial policies

Kenya National Cleaner Production Centre The Kenya National Cleaner Production Centre (KNCPC) was established in July 2000 as part of the global UNEP/UNIDO National Cleaner Production Centre program. It was a Project of the Government of Kenya under the UNDP/GoK Country Co-operation Framework (CCF) of 1999-2003. The Government counterpart support is provided through the Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute (KIRDI). The Kenya National Cleaner Production Centre program formed part of the Government of Kenya’s Natural Resources Program Support Document (PSD) with UNDP. The then Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources housed the PSD program management secretariat and was the executing agency. The program supported Kenya in the management, protection, regeneration and use of its environment and natural resources with a focus on the integration of environment with economic activities within the overall sustainable development and poverty eradication strategy.

The Centre was transformed into a Trust under the then Ministry of Trade and Industry in August 2006. Like all other centres, the KNCPC is expected to become a self-sustaining entity in the long term raising funds from donors and Government to support SMEs.

Community Forest Association

The Community Forest Associations plays a critical role in the reduction of pressure on forests by forest adjacent communities for forest products and services. To tap the opportunity, deliberate effort should be directed to build on the community’s strongpoints of concern for using the forest resource for livelihood improvement. For communities to contribute meaningfully to

245 sustainable forest management, they have to attain a reasonable level of socio- economic development, which will lead to the reduced use of primary or natural resources like forests for basic needs such as food, shelter and fuel. There is also need for sensitization and awareness raising on environmental issues in order to change their attitude towards the forest resource management (KEFRI, 2009). Figure 83 shows the number of CFAs in various ecosystems.

Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs) WRUAs are associations of water resource users, riparian land owners and other stakeholders who are formerly and voluntarily associated for the purposes of cooperatively sharing a common water resource. They promote controlled and legal water use activities, efficient and sustainable use, minimize resource use conflicts and promote catchment conservation to improve water quantity and quality. Challenges facing WRUAs include:  Inadequate documentation of activities and achievements. There is also no data base of stakeholders  There is need for capacity building  Application of science/ research in waters resource management has been given a low priority  There is need for a coordinated basin wide monitoring and evaluation and also most catchments lack abstraction surveys.

These associations are provided for under the Water Act. They, like the Forest associations are tasked with matters water within their areas of jurisdiction.

Beach Management Units (BMUs) According to the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO), a BMU is defined as ‘an organization of fisher folk at the beach (boat crew, boat owners, managers, charterers, fish processors, fishmongers, local gear makers or repairers and fishing equipment dealers) within a fishing community’. The aim is to better management matters fisheries within their areas of jurisdiction. These BMUs are found in the coast ( Figure 59) and at the Lake region. There are also BMUs in the inland lakes of Kenya.

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Figure 59. Beach Management Units at the Coast. Source: Kenya Coastal Development Project Component; Beach Management Units needs assessment report 2013

Incident Management at NEMA

NEMA has set up an incident management unit at its headquarters. This is where an environmental incident is reported for action. Table 86 shows the number and categories of incidents reported at NEMA while Table 87 shows environmental crimes reported at NEMA.

Table 86. Number and categories of Incidents reported at NEMA

Year Number of Category incidents A B C D Unclassified 2012 85 7 33 24 21 2013 987 12 446 450 19 60 2014 480 11 77 352 8 32 2015 131 5 51 63 2 10 2016 545 18 449 67 8 8 2017 775 57 640 69 1 8 Source: Incident desk (NEMA, 2018)

Table 87: Environmental Crimes Reported to NEMA

Type of case year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Air pollution 13 72 57 74 97 Water pollution 34 79 52 17 11 Soil pollution 11 71 44 11 23 Illegal movement 8 46 59 229 253 or dumping of waste Totals 66 268 212 331 384 Source: KNBS,2018

Figure 60 shows the number of environmental crimes reported to NEMA. It covers cases on air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution and illegal movement or dumping of waste. The data indicate that there has been an increase in environmental crimes reported every year. Most cases reported were on illegal movement of waste followed by air pollution related cases.

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Figure 60: Number of environmental crimes reported to NEMA

The total number of environmental crimes reported to NEMA shows an increase every year. Environmental crimes related to air pollution, illegal movement of waste or dumping have increased every year while crimes on water and soil pollution increased from 2013 to 2014. However, these declined for the period 2014 to 2017.

Biodiversity Access Biodiversity access applications and permits issued over the period 2010 to 2017 are shown in table 88. Table 89 shows Permits issued for access to biodiversity and genetic resources

Table 88: Applications for access

Year Number of applications 2015 12 2016 13 2017 14

Table 89: Permits issued for access to biodiversity and genetic resources

Year Number of permits issued 2015 12 2016 3

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2017 19

Source: Biodiversity desk (NEMA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Project and Study Reports

Table 90 shows trends in projects and study reports. There was a slight decline in EIA reports for some sectors in 2017 as compared to 2016, this could be attributed by political uncertainties and 2017 being an electioneering period. Table 90: Trends in EIAs study and project reports. ; SECTOR 2015 2016 2017 Transport And Communication 738 636 522 Energy 399 422 501 Tourism 22 11 8 Mining and Quarrying 27 28 51 Human Settlements and 691 545 434 Infrastructure Agriculture and Forestry 34 21 31 Commerce and Industry 190 150 228 Water Resources 70 61 67 TOTAL 2191 1872 1842

Some sectors such as energy together with commerce industry increased study reports due to high rise in investment. There were more investors in solar, oil and gas during this period. Sector Environmental Audits

Table 91 shows the number of Environmental Audit (EA) by Sector, 2013-2017

Table 91: Number of Environmental Audits by Sector.

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Number of Environmental Audit (EA) by Sector, 2013-2017 Sector 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Transport and Communication ………………………………………………………..273 432 758 1690 2241 Energy …………………………… 245 326 399 968 1353 Tourism………………………………………………………..………………………….. ……………………………… 20 16 22 133 173 Mining………………………………………………………..……………………….. and Quarrying ………………………………………………………..28 27 27 12 19 Human settlements and Infrastructure ………………………………………………………..412 455 691 70 57 Agriculture and Forestry ………………………………………………………..45 47 34 58 58 Commerce and Industry ………………………………………………………..108 196 190 243 218 Water Resources ………………………………………………………..22 64 70 4 12 TOTAL 1,153 1,563 2,191 3,178 4,131 Source: National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) County Environment Action Plans

According to Environmental management Coordination Act every County develops a County Environment Action plan every five years. The process involves undertaking an environmental assessment, using tools such as a DIPSIR (drives, pressures, state, and impact response) methodology. Environmental profile of the County, a list of Environmental issues for the County and the proposed responses and actions generated. Currently 11 counties have developed CEAPs. It is therefore important to encourage counties yet to develop their Environment Action plan to move fast so as to implement environmental management in a systematic manner.

15.3 POLICY FRAMEWORKS

15.3.1 MEAS implementation A multilateral environmental agreement (MEA) is a treaty between willing countries with binding international obligations between themselves, in written form and governed by international law. These obligations contain commitments to meet specific environment-related objectives. Binding commitments under MEAs are substantive provisions which oblige a member party to act or not act in a certain way in order to protect, conserve or enhance the environment. These provisions in a MEAs may take the form of quantifiable targets, instituting standards or limitations, specific bans and can also focus on processes.

Multilateral Environment Agreements (MEAs) have been used to establish management frameworks through which to structure practical international activity with respect to environmental protection and conservation. MEAs represent one of the most outstanding achievements of the global community in the management of the environment. Concerns relating to effectiveness of domesticating these MEAs have arisen particularly in developing countries where there are capacity constraints and strategic assessments are not done to inform the processes of MEA ratification.

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Kenya is a signatory to several multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) that address varied sectors of the environment. Some of these MEAs include: Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Ramsar Convention, and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS), Ramsar Convention, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species (CITES), Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent (PIC) among others.

Over time several concerns have arisen with respect to implementation of MEAs in individual member states. These concerns relate to aspects on effectiveness, international regulatory congestion, timeliness, efficiency, duplication and overlap of institutional mandates (UNEP, 2001). These concerns arise particularly in developing countries where there are capacity constraints and strategic assessments are not done in determining the ratification of MEAs. A report of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) on development of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs), asserts that ratification of the various conventions and protocols on the environment represent one of the most outstanding achievements of the global community in the environmental field to date. However it goes on to say that “while the international environmental agenda may indeed be fully covered by international agreements, the sheer quantity of international conventions should not be automatically interpreted as assuming success on the part of those instruments in addressing and resolving the key environmental issues and problems, which prompted their negotiation in the first place”(UNEP, 2001).

15.3.2 The Constitution of Kenya The Kenya Constitution is the supreme law of Kenya. It establishes the structure of the Kenyan government, and also defines the relationship between the government and the citizens of Kenya.

The Kenya constitution 2010 gave a lot of emphasis on environmental conservation and sustainable development. Some of the Articles of the constitution emphasizing the need for environmental conservation include:

• Preamble which states that “We, the people of Kenya – Respectful of the environment, which is our heritage, and determined to sustain it for the benefit of future generations.”

• Article 2(5) of the Constitution states that the general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya.

For the purposes of protection of the environment several principles of international environmental law which act as a guide on development of environmental legislation have been identified. Some of the principles are:

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• The polluter pays principle; • Principle of public participation; • Principle of sustainability; • Principle of inter & intra- generational equity; • Principle of prevention; • Precautionary principle • The principle of sustainable development is entrenched in Article 10 2(d) of the Constitution as one of the National values and principles of governance.

The Constitution guarantees the right to a clean and healthy environment at Article 42. Article 42 further guarantees the right to have the environment protected for the benefit of present and future generations through legislative and other measures particularly those contemplated in article 69 and the right to have obligations relating to the environment fulfilled under Article 70 while Article 69 imposes obligations on the State.

The state is required to do the following: a) Ensure sustainable exploitation, utilization, management and conservation of the environment and natural resources, and ensure the equitable sharing of the accruing benefits; b) Work to achieve and maintain a tree cover of at least ten per cent of the land area of Kenya; c) Protect and enhance intellectual property in, and indigenous knowledge of, biodiversity and the genetic resources of the communities; d) Encourage public participation in the management, protection and conservation of the environment; e) Protect genetic resources and biological diversity; f) Establish systems of environmental impact assessment, environmental audit and monitoring of the environment; g) Eliminate processes and activities that are likely to endanger the environment; and h) Utilize the environment and natural resources for the benefit of the people of Kenya.

Article (69) (2) imposes obligations on every person, to cooperate with state organs and other persons to protect and conserve the environment and ensure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources.

Article 70 provides an avenue for redress for any person who alleges that the right to a clean and healthy environment has been, is being or is likely to be denied, violated, infringed or threatened. The Court is empowered to issue preventive, cessation or compensatory orders accordingly.

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Article 70 relaxes the rule on locus standi as a result of which, there is no need to prove loss or injury by an applicant. Anyone may institute a claim seeking to enforce the environmental rights and obligations stipulated in the Constitution.

Enforcement contemplated by Article 70 will be done through the Environment and Land Court established under Article 162 (2) (b). The Court has the same status as the High Court. This effectively denies High Court jurisdiction over environmental matters under Article 165 (5) (b).

15.4 OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS

A number of legislations were formulated for Environmenta Management. Some of these are outlined below:  Water Act 2016  The Environmental Management and Coordination Act, 1999 ammended in 2015 to be EMCA Cap 387  Climate Change Act of 2016  The Forest Conservation and Management Act 2016

15.5 DEVOLUTION AND ENVIRONMENT

Kenya’s constitution 2010 devolves powers to the country’s 47 counties. As part of the devolution process, each county government is responsible for providing and delivering services. In order to help fund the provision of these services, each county receives funds from Kenya’s central government and the allocated amount is based on specific weighted criteria. The goal for this new devolved system of government is to improve service delivery and equity in public resource allocation. The objectives of devolution are elucidated in Article 174 of the Constitution as follows:  To promote democratic and accountable exercise of power;  To foster national unity by recognizing diversity;  To give powers of self-governance to the people and enhance the participation of the people in the exercise of the powers of the State and in making decisions affecting them;  To recognize the right of communities to manage their own affairs and to further their development;  To protect and promote the interests and rights of minorities and marginalized communities;  To promote social and economic development and the provision of proximate, easily accessible services throughout Kenya;  To ensure equitable sharing of national and local resources throughout Kenya;  To facilitate the decentralization of State organs, their functions and services, from the capital of Kenya; and  To enhance checks and balances and the separation of powers

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Devolved Environmental Governance The constitution of Kenya allocates functions to both the National Government and the County Government. Devolved environmental functions include:  cemeteries, funeral parlours and crematoria; and (g) refuse removal, refuse dumps and solid waste disposal.  Control of air pollution, noise pollution, other public nuisances and outdoor advertising.  museums;  sports and cultural activities and facilities  county parks, beaches and recreation facilities.  Animal control and welfare, including— (a) licensing of dogs; and (b) facilities for the accommodation, care and burial of animals.  Implementation of specific national government policies on natural resources and environmental conservation, including— (a) soil and water conservation; and (b) forestry.  County public works and services, including— (a) storm water management systems in built-up areas; and (b) water and sanitation services (GoK, 2010).

15.5 ENVIRONMENTAL FUNDING 15.5.1 Funding Mechanisms Sound environmental protection and management require sustainable financing mechanism. The government’s budget is the single largest source of funding for protection and conservation of the environment and natural resources. However, the current allocation to environment and natural resources is inadequate. As such, there is an urgent need to complement government funding by harnessing additional funding from multilateral funding mechanisms, development partners, private sector and civil society organizations.

Adaptation Fund under UNFCCC There are several small grants available under the Climate Finance Readiness Programme to help national implementing entities (NIEs) provide peer support to countries seeking accreditation with the Fund and to build capacity for undertaking various climate finance readiness activities. 15.5.2 Funds Established under EMCA, CAP 387

National Environment Trust Fund This is a fund established under EMCA to be known as the National Environment Trust Fund whose contributions are from the following: (a) Such sums of money as may be received in the form of donations, endowments, grants and gifts from whatever source and specifically designated for the Trust Fund; (b) Such sums of money or other assets as may be specifically designated to the Trust Fund by the Authority out of its general fund.

The Trust Fund shall be vested in the Authority and, subject to this Act, shall be administered by a Board of five Trustees to be appointed by the Cabinet

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Secretary by a notice in the Gazette on such terms and conditions as he deems fit. The trustees shall be persons holding at least post-graduate degree from a recognized university in the fields of environmental law, economics, environmental science or natural resource management at the time of their appointment.

The object of the Trust Fund shall be to facilitate research intended to further the requirements of environmental management, capacity building, environmental awards, environmental publications, scholarships and grants. The Board of Trustees may, on the recommendation of the Council, determine that certain donations to the Trust Fund shall be applied specifically and reserved only for prizes and awards for exemplary services to the environment. Such prizes and awards shall be applied by the recipient exclusively to the management of the environment.

NETFUND Green Innovations Award The National Environment Trust Fund (NETFUND) in 2015 launched the NETFUND Green Innovations Award (NETFUND GIA). The award is a unique scheme that identifies and rewards and nurtures innovative ideas and projects into income generating green enterprises that contribute to poverty alleviation. The fund GIA winners receive grants of up to KES 2,000,000 to upscale their projects. Innovations selected for business incubation win support of up to KES 5,000,000 as technical and business support. Successful graduates of the NETFUND incubation program may also receive Seed funding of up to KES 2,000,000.

The key target groups for phase III of the award are Women Groups, Schools, Individuals, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) while the thematic focus areas are Waste management, Agribusiness, Energy and Water.

National Environment Restoration Fund The Restoration Fund sources are the following: (a) Such proportion of fees or deposit bonds as may be determined by the Authority from time to time; (b) Such sums as may be donated or levied from industries and other objects proponents as a contribution towards the Restoration Fund.

The Restoration Fund shall be vested in the Authority (NEMA) and, subject to this Act, shall be administered by the Director-General. The object of the Restoration Fund shall be as supplementary insurance for the mitigation of environmental degradation where the perpetrator is not identifiable or where exceptional circumstances require the Authority to intervene towards the control or mitigation of environmental degradation.

The Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, issue orders for the levying of funds from project proponents towards the Restoration Fund 15.5.3 Funding Research under the National Research Fund The National Research Fund (NRF) is an advisory institution of the Government of Kenya on matters of national science, technology, innovation and research.

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Research, which is a major tool for generating new knowledge and turning it into new products and services, is crucial for the advancement of the national socio- economic growth and for mankind as a whole.

For this reason the Science and Technology Act, Chapter 250 of the Laws of Kenya, under Section 4, established the NACOSTI to advise and regulate matters of research among other functions in the country.

Policy Statements  Provide adequate resources for environmental protection and management through annual budgetary allocation.  Promote participation of individuals, public and private partnership through fiscal incentives and voluntary agreements pegged on environmental performance indicators.  Broaden the revenue and funding base to ensure financial sustainability of environmental management institutions.

15.6 COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT ASPECTS Kenya has about 23 institutions with compliance and enforcement mandates provided in their respective laws. These institutions have the legislation, compliance tools, tools for enforcement and capacity of the institutions to enforce. Enforcement tools provided within the Environmental law include: issuance of orders, notices, seizures, sanctions, easements, prosecutions, conditional approvals, cessation orders, and improvement orders.

An analysis of these institutions reveals some gaps that act as barriers to effective compliance and enforcement (Table 92)

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Table 92 : Legal and Institutional Frameworks for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement Institution legislation Sectors Compliance tools Enforcement Capacity Powers tools NEMA EMCA, CAP -Tourism/hotel -EIA regulations -orders - -seizures 387 development and guidelines -Notices environment -closures -shipping/sea -EA guidelines(101) -easements al inspectors -inspection pollution -waste -sanctions -prosecutors -investigation -urbanisation regulations(121) -seizures /garbage -Waste water accumulation/sewag regulations(120) e disposal -licences -permits Kenya Fisheries Act -Fishing/over -mesh size specs -licences -Fisheries -arrests Fisheries 2005 fishing- -vessel specs -permits scouts(few) -seizures Services trawling/habitat -fish handling -notices -fisheries -inspection destruction permits -seizures inspectors Kenya Kenya -settlement/ -boat licence -seizures Wardens -seizures wildlife wildlife human-wildlife -game trophy -prosecution -prosecute services services Act conflict/poaching regulation -arrest 2007 -Tourism/visitor -wildlife protection -investigate pressure -inspection Public Health Public -population/ -sanitation licences -prosecution Public health -seizures Health Act sanitation/pollution/ -public health -notices inspectors -arrest cap 242 epidemics licences - -prosecution administratio -inspection n suctions -seizures -orders Occupation Factories Industrialization/safe -safety permits -notices -factory -inspection Health and cap 373 ty/pollution -closures inspectors -prosecution Safety office /discharge standards -prosecution Kenya Forest Forestry Act -settlement, -logging permits - notices -forest -arrest Services 2006 commercialization/d -charcoal permits -prosecution guards -prosecution eforestation/logging -timber trade -seizures -inspectors -seizures /charcoal burning permits -closers -closers -arrest - administrativ e sanctions Water Water Act -population/ -water abstraction -notices -water meter -arrest department 2002 sanitation/pollution permits -prosecution inspectors -disconnections of water sources/ -waste water -seizures -seizures discharge permits -water supply permits Kenya Maritime Act -shipping/sea -vessel permits -notices -pollution -arrest? Maritime 2007 transport/pollution/s -bilges/ballast -prosecution inspectors -seizures? Authority tandards discharge licences -inspection -lodge ships? Kenya Ports KPA Act cap -shipping/cargo -vessel permits -inspection -ship -arrests Authority identity -garbage discharge -prosecution inspectors -prosecute permits -prosecutors Local Local -urbanization/ -licences - notices -Council notices Authority government development/planni -permits -prosecution askaris -prosecution Act cap 265 ng/sanitation/waste -orders -seizures -Council -seizures disposal/ -approvals -closers Inspectors -closers standards -development plans -arrest -Council -arrest -building codes - prosecutors -administrative administrativ -court sanctions e sanctions Physical Physical - -physical -cancel -none -cancel of plans planning planning act urbanization/develo development plans approvals department No.9 of 1996 pment/planning Tourism Tourism Act Tourism/hotel -hotel licence -closures None closures department cap development/planin -hotel levy -licence -licence g/carrying capacity -park fee withdrawals withdrawals -urbanization /garbage accumulation/sewag e disposal Kenya Customs Act -Trade/ -import regulation -seizures -Custom -seizures Revenue cap import and permits -confiscation inspectors -confiscation Authority/ export of HSN and -export regulation -arrest -custom -arrest customs risk/transit permits -prosecution police -prosecution permits/economic -tarrifs -inspection incentives

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Kenya Bureau KBS Act cap -Trade/quality -quality assurance -seizures -quality -seizures of standards assurance/disposal -confiscation inspectors -confiscation of condemned cargo -prosecution -prosecution -inspection -inspection Tana River TARDA Act -Rural -none -none -none none development 443 development/planin Authority g/settlement/defores tation/water abstraction Coast CDA Act 449 -Rural -none -none -none none development development/planin Authority g/settlement/defores tation/water abstraction

15.7 PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP 15.7.1 Introduction Kenya’s development blue print, vision 2030 envisions a prosperous middle income country with a higher quality of life in a nation with a clean, secure and sustainable environment. The government bears responsibility for delivering a clean and healthy environment to the people of Kenya as enshrined in the constitution. This calls for innovative strategies to meet this constitutional requirement. One of the recommended strategies recommended for achieving the environmental goal specifically in the water and sanitation sector in vision 2030 is commissioning of public private partnerships (PPP).

A PPP in Kenya is defined as a Performance-based contract under which the Private Sector supplies public services over time and is paid by the Public Sector, end user or a hybrid of both. In exchange for providing that service or function, the private party receives a benefit by way of compensation from a public fund, charges or fees from users or consumers of the service or function provided to them, or a combination of such compensation and such charges or fees.

The need for public private partnerships emanates from the fact that governments have limited budgets and collaborating with the private sector may bridge this gap and bring on board professional expertise and efficiency associated with the private sector in providing public services. The government’s commitment to promoting PPPs has been demonstrated through the development of the legal and institutional framework through enactment of the PPP Act of 2013 and the establishment of a specialized PPPU unit within the National Treasury of Kenya. The Act stipulates a clear institutional framework for development and approval of PPP projects that includes the Cabinet, PPP Committee, PPP Secretariat, Contracting Authorities and the role of Treasury in fiscal risk management and Contingent Liabilities.

Whereas the legal framework for public private partnerships is a relatively recent development, PPP arrangements have been applied in environmental conservation especially in management of parks and wildlife management for a longer time. These PPPs have been in the form of concessions for lodges, hotels and luxury tented camps in the protected areas. However, the focus of these partnerships has

258 been provision of infrastructure and hospitality services to tourists visiting the parks with conservation being a secondary consideration.

Another area of public private partnerships though on a lower scale has been in the sanitation sector where the defunct Nairobi city council partnered with private individuals and companies to manage public toilets within the city.

At a larger scale, PPPs have been applied in the energy sector especially in promotion of clean energy from Geo-thermal and Wind. This has been with Independent power producers at Olkaria and Menengai Geothermal wells as well as the Lake Turkana Wind power project. Table 93 highlights Projects supported under PPP

Table 93: Projects supported under PPP

Project Title Sector Nyali Bridge, Mombasa Transport/Roads Nairobi- Thika Road ( O&M) Transport/Roads Two sections of Mombasa – Nairobi – Malaba Road (Mombasa Transport/Roads – Mariakani, Naivasha-Mau Summit ) Nairobi Commuter Rail Transport Kisumu Sea Port Transport/ Airport Nairobi Jomo Kenyatta Airport Expansion Transport/ Airport 2nd Container Terminal Mombasa Transport/Ports Liquefied Natural Gas Plant, Mombasa Power 560MW Geothermal IPPs, Olkeria Power 400 Geothermal IPPs, Menengai Power 800 MW Geothermal , Menegai Power Shared Gov’t services platform ( Land Automation) ICT Kenyatta University Students Accommodation Education Housing for Security Forces Accommodation Karen Medical Centre Health Mombasa Conventional Centre Tourism Source: Ministry of Finance

15.7.2 Opportunities for PPPs in environment management Opportunities exist for provision of environmental goods and services through PPPs especially in urban waste management. The national and county governments should get into PPP arrangements for the development and management of sanitary landfills in some of our cities and major urban centres. The investing companies can construct the requisite infrastructure and recoup their investments by charging tipping fees

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CHAPTER 16: EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

16.1 INTRODUCTION

UNEP defines emerging environmental issue as those that “must be recognized as very important by specific scientific community, but has not yet received adequate attention from the policy community”. Hence it is considered an “emerging issue” from the perspective of the policy community. These issues are taken as critical to the community and can be positive or negative and with a large spatial scale. Such issues require to be given priority in the planning process for environmental management. The issues may include cross-cutting issues which affect communities. 16.1.1 Climate Change and Effects on Food Security, Nutrition and Incomes. Shift to irrigated agriculture, change to crops that adopted to increased temperatures, loss of soil fertility due to land degradation and continual certain cropping systems that mine the nutrients.

16.2 EMERGING LIVESTOCK DISEASES

Livestock diseases that emerged internationally and were a threat to the country some of which are zoonotic and vector-borne diseases that affect humans. Previous research work have indicated new patterns emergence of livestock diseases that will also affect humans.

16.3 EMERGING CHANGE OF LAND USE Quantified change of land use was not documented, it occurred in the following context:  Clearing forests and converting grazing land for irrigation of using for e.g. Galana ADC Ranch and Kulalu ADC Ranch as model farm.  Human settlements near watering points in the ASALs and subsequent human activities.  Urbanization in ASALs e.g. Kajiado County (Kitengela urban expansions) in the Southern rangelands and main urban centers of the Northern rangelands.  Mining and quarry activities sand, gravel, gold, precious stonnes, marble), in Turkana, Taita Taveta, Isiolo.  Sub - division of group ranches in the Southern rangelands - Narok, Kajiado, Transmara, and Coast.

16.4 MIGRATION TO THE ASALS In Kenya, there has been increasing movement of people into the ASALs due to the discovery of minerals, oil and gas in the dry lands. This has resulted into unplanned shifts in human settlements in the ASALs, near water points sprouting of urban areas. The settlements induced increased human activities. The activities resulted into undocumented destruction of woodlands, reduced grazing land, vegetation cover, soil erosion: all attributed to the consequences of cultivation, grazing, fishing, food, fuel wood, honey, herbal medicine harvesting, water utilization and other uses. Lack of alternative livelihoods especially in the arid and semi-arid lands has driven communities into accelerated mining of land and forestry resources

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16.5 INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES Woody encroachment by Prosopis juliflora, Tarchonanthus camphoratus, croton dichogamus, Acacia reficiens and Acacia Mellifera invaded vast areas of the Northern range lands. Invaded areas had reduced density of preferred forage plants and reduced grazing capacity. Shrubs that increased included; Senseveria fruticosa, opuntia spp, dodonae viscose, etc attributed to degradation of the Asals grazing lands. .

16.6 HABITAT DEGRADATION/POLLUTION.

The uncoordinated artisanal gold mining in various parts of the country using dangerous chemicals like mercury poses a great danger to both the artisanal miners and the ecosystem. The discovery of sufficient quantities of coal in Mui Basin in Kitui poses great environmental challenges in its exploitation with the same strength natural gas discovery along the Kenyan Coast and petroleum oil in Ngamia I in Turkana will pose serious environmental challenges in their exploitation.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Critically endangered plant species in Kenya

Family Species Subspecies or variety Amaranthaceae Cyathula braunii Burmanniaceae Afrothismia baerae Cyperaceae Bulbostylis hispidula subsp. intermedia Cyperaceae Cyperus boreobellus Cyperaceae Cyperus kwaleensis Cyperaceae Cyperus microumbellatus Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia tanaensis Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia taruensis Fabaceae Gigasiphon macrosiphon Fabaceae Rhynchosia holstii Fabaceae Rhynchosia holtzii Gesneriaceae Saintpaulia ionantha subsp. rupicola Gesneriaceae Saintpaulia teitensis Lamiaceae Karomia gigas Lamiaceae Premna discolor var. discolor Loranthaceae Taxillus wiensii Marsileaceae Marsilea fadeniana Melastomataceae Memecylon buxoides Meliaceae Turraea elephantina Oleaceae Jasminum grahamii Plumbaginaceae Plumbago stenophylla Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe classenii Zamiaceae Encephalartos kisambo Zamiaceae Encephalartos tegulaneus

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Appendix 2: Conservation status of some Kenyan bird species

Common name Scientific name IUCN Red List status Population trend White-headed Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis Critically Endangered Decreasing Taita Thrush Turdus helleri Critically Endangered Decreasing Taita Apalis Apalis fuscigularis Critically Endengered Decreasing White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus Critically Endengered Decreasing Rüppell's Vulture Gyps rueppelli Critically Endengered Decreasing Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus Critically Endengered Decreasing Sokoke Pipit Anthus sokokensis Endangered Decreasing Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis Endangered Decreasing Madagascar Pond-heron Ardeola idae Endangered Decreasing Grey Crowned-crane Balearica regulorum Endangered Decreasing Turner's Eremomela Eremomela turneri Endangered Decreasing Saker Falcon Falco cherrug Endangered Decreasing Spotted Ground-thrush Geokichla guttata Endangered Decreasing Amani Sunbird Hedydipna pallidigaster Endangered Decreasing Sharpe's Longclaw Macronyx sharpei Endangered Decreasing Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Endangered Decreasing Sokoke Scops-owl Otus ireneae Endangered Decreasing Clarke's Weaver Ploceus golandi Endangered Decreasing Basra Reed-warble Acrocephalus griseldis Endangered Stable Taita White-eye Zosterops silvanus Endangered Unknown Lappet-faced Vulture Torgos tracheliotos Endangered Decreasing White-winged Apalis Apalis chariessa Vulnerable Decreasing Karamoja Apalis Apalis karamojae Vulnerable Decreasing Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca Vulnerable Decreasing Black Crowned-crane Balearica pavonina Vulnerable Decreasing Southern Ground-hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri Vulnerable Decreasing Zambian Yellow Warbler Calamonastides bensoni Vulnerable Decreasing Papyrus Yellow Warbler Calamonastides gracilirostris Vulnerable Decreasing Aberdare Cisticola Cisticola aberdare Vulnerable Decreasing Greater Spotted Eagle Clanga clanga Vulnerable Decreasing Sooty Falcon Falco concolor Vulnerable Decreasing Taita Falcon Falco fasciinucha Vulnerable Decreasing Chapin's Flycatcher Fraseria lendu Vulnerable Decreasing Madagascar Pratincole Glareola ocularis Vulnerable Decreasing Blue Swallow Hirundo atrocaerulea Vulnerable Decreasing Maccoa Duck Oxyura maccoa Vulnerable Decreasing Abbott's Starling Poeoptera femoralis Vulnerable Decreasing Matsudaira's Storm-petrel Hydrobates matsudairae Vulnerable Uknown Hinde's Babbler Turdoides hindei Vulnerable Decreasing

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Appendix 3: Invasive plant species in Kenya Species Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle) Acacia melanoxylon (Australian Blackwood) Agave americana (Century Plant) Agave sisalana (Sisal) Ageratina adenophora (Crofton Weed) Ageratum conyzoides (Billygoat Weed) Ageratum houstonianum (Blue Billygoat Weed) Allium neopolitanum Anredera cordifolia (Madeira Vine) Antigonon leptopus (Coral Creeper) Areca catechu (Betelnut Palm) Argemone mexicana (Mexican Prickly Poppy) Argemone ochroleuca (Mexican Poppy) Azadirachta indica (Neem) Azolla filiculoides (Red Water Fern) Brillantaisia lamium (Nees) Benth Brugmansia suaveolens (Angel's Trumpet) Bryophyllum delagoense (Mother-of-millions) Bryophyllum proliferum bowie ex Hook. Canna indica (Wild Canna Lily) Capsicum annum Cascabela suaveolens Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar Periwinkle) Cereus jamacaru (Queen-of-the-night) Cestrum auranticum Chromolaena odorata (Chromolaena) Cirsium vulgare (Spear Thistle) Clidemia hirta (Koster's Curse) Cuscuta campestris (Golden Dodder) Dahlia imperialis Datura ferox (Fierce Thorn Apple) Datura inoxia (Downy Thorn Apple) Datura stramonium (Common Thorn Apple) Desmodium uncinatum (Jacq.) D.C. Echium plantaginium Eichhornia crassipes (Water Hyacinth) Euryops chrysanthemoides (African Bush Daisy) Foeniculum vulgare Mill Hedychium coronarium (White Ginger) Helianthus annuus L. Hyptis suaveolens

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Jacaranda mimosifolia (Jacaranda) Lantana camara (Lantana) Leucaena leucocephala (Leucaena) Mimosa pudica (Common Sensitive Plant) Mirabilis jalapa (Four o'clock) Myriophyllum aquaticum (Parrot's Feather) Nicotiana glauca (Tree Tobacco) Opuntia engelmannii (Prickly Pear Cactus) Opuntia ficus-indica (Sweet Prickly Pear) Opuntia monacantha (Drooping Prickly Pear) Opuntia stricta (Common Prickly Pear) Parkinsonia aculeata (Parkinsonia) Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium Weed) physalis peruviana Pontederia cordata (Pickerel Weed) Prosopis juliflora (Prosopis or Mesquite) Psidium guajava (Guava) Ricinus communis (Castor Oil Plant) Rubus riveus Thumb. salvinia coccinia Buchoz ex Etl Salvinia molesta (Kariba Weed) Senecio madagascariensis Poir. Senna didymobotrya (African Senna) Senna obtusifolia (Sicklepod) Senna occidentalis (Coffee Senna) Senna septemtrionalis (Smooth Senna) Solanum campylacantha A. Rich Solanum incanum (Sodom Apple) Solanum mauritianum (Bugweed) Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl Tecoma stans (Yellow Bells) Tephrosia vogelli Hook f. Tithonia diversifolia (Mexican Sunflower) Tithonia rotundifolia (Red Sunflower) Verbena bonariensis (Purple Top) Xanthium strumarium (Large Cocklebur)

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