Promoting Excellence in Preparation and Excellence in Practice Volume XXXI, 2005 No. 1 Winter 2005 No. 2 Spring 2005
A refereed publication of The International Honor Society for Professions in Technology. The Journal of Technology Studies
A refereed publication of The International Honor Society for Professions in Technology.
Editor The Journal of Technology Studies (JTS) (ISSN 1071-6048) is the flagship, peer- Dennis W. Cheek reviewed journal of Epsilon Pi Tau, Inc., a nonprofit, academic and professional honor Co-Editor Jerry Streichler society. Headquarters and editorial offices are located at the Technology Building, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403-0296. Use this address or [email protected] for subscription matters or purchases. Editorial Board Copyright 2006 by Epsilon Pi Tau, Inc. E. Stephanie Atkinson Howard E. Middleton University of Sunderland School of Vocational Technology The opinions expressed by the journal’s authors are not necessarily those of the Board School of Education and Arts Education Hammerton Hall, Gray Rd. Faculty of Education of Directors, staff, or members of Epsilon Pi Tau. Sunderland, U.K. SR2-8JB Griffith University [email protected] Nathan 4111 Queensland Two print issues per year are mailed to all members of the society upon request and to Australia academic and general libraries around the globe. Issues that are published online only, Wan-Lee Cheng 61.7.3875.5724 Department of Design and Industry fax: 61.7.3875.6868 the aforementioned printed issues, and past issues are available free online at San Francisco State University [email protected] scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTS. 1600 Holloway Ave. San Francisco, CA 94132 Sam C. Obi The journal is currently indexed in Current Index to Journals of Education (USA), 415.338.2211 Department of Technology fax: 415.338.7770 San Jose State University International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS) (UK) and the International [email protected] One Washington Square Vocational Education and Training and Research Database at http://www.ncver.edu.au San Jose, CA 95192-0061 Marvin Sarapin 408.924.3218 (Australia). (representing the Board of Directors) fax: 408.924.3198 [email protected] Separate articles or complete issues are also available in a variety of media forms from Michael J. Dyrenfurth National Archive Publishing Company P.O. Box 1346, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 or Department of Industrial Technology Christopher J. Shelley CMfgE Purdue University W. L. Gore & Associates EBSCO Publishing, 10 Estes Street, Ipswich, MA 01938-0682, USA 1410 Knoy Hall, Room 461 705 Guido Dr. West Lafayette, IN 47907-1410 Middletown, DE 19709 The JTS welcomes original manuscripts from scholars worldwide focused on the depth 765.496.1203 302.598.7289 and breadth of technology as practiced and understood past, present, and future. Epsilon fax: 765.494.0486 [email protected] [email protected] Pi Tau, as perhaps the most comprehensive honor society among the technology profes- Xeushu Song sions, seeks to provide up-to-date and insightful information to its increasingly diverse Marie Kraska Department of Technology Educational Foundations, Leadership, Northern Illinois University membership as well as the broader public. Authors need not be members of the society and Technology Dekalb, IL 60115-2854 Auburn University 815.753.1349 in order to submit manuscripts for consideration. Contributions from both academics 4036 Haley Center fax: 815.753.3702 and practitioners are equally welcome. Auburn University, AL 36849-5221 [email protected] 334.844.4460 A general guide to the breadth of topics of potential interest to our readers can be gained fax: 334.844.3072 [email protected] by consideration of the 17 subclasses within “Technology” of the classification scheme of the Library of Congress, USA
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Table of Contents Volume XXXI, Number 1, Winter 2005
2 The Engineering of 49 Electronic Performance Technology Education Support Systems and Gerhard L. Salinger Technological Literacy George R. Maughan 7 The Ingenuity Imperative John W. Hansen 57 Computer Assisted Fluid Power Instruction: A Comparison 13 Speculations on the Insights of Hands-On and Computer- and Perceptions of Professor Simulated Laboratory William E. Warner Experiences for Post- Regarding the Status Secondary Students. of Technology Education Scott B. Wilson and Its Future James J. Buffer, Jr. 62 Books Briefly Noted 19 Ethics for Industrial 65 Table of Contents Technology Volume XXXI, Number 2 Kurt A. Rosentrater and Radha Spring 2005 Balamuralikrishna 30 Evidence Related to Awareness, Adoption, and Implementation of the Standards for Technological Literacy: Content for the Study of Technology Jill F. Russell 39 The Gary Plan and Technology Education: What Might Have Been? Kenneth S. Volk Articles The Engineering of Technology Education 2 Gerhard L. Salinger
This paper is based upon a talk given at the sorts of requirements may be thought of as 75th Anniversary Epsilon Pi Tau Breakfast at activities. the ITEA Conference in Kansas City on April 5, Suppose I change the goal to be that stu- 2005. The opinions, findings, conclusions and echnology Studies dents should be technologically literate - maybe recommendations are Gerhard Salinger’s alone fluent. and do not necessarily reflect the views of the nal of T NSF. What would that mean? In a recent report by David Barlex, on developing what is being
The Jour Engineering technology education (as dis- called Engineering Colleges in England - High tinguished from Engineering Technology educa- School Academies, he states: tion) is a design problem. In engineering, an important consideration is to determine the goal “In England perception of engineering of the design. What is the desired result? For stretches from oily rag to mainframe. Much whom is it desirable? What are the unintended of the activity requires a sound understand- consequences? I continue to raise the question ing of science and mathematics but this is of what should the goal be for technology edu- insufficient. Major engineering activity will cation. What are the design issues? not be successful unless those involved have an equally sound grasp of design, In the last few years I have become enam- managing finance, appreciating local politi- ored with the monograph, Understanding by cal and social conditions and meeting the Design, by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe requirements of sustainability and minimiz- (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). Their use of ing environmental impacts.” (Barlex, 2005) design is probably more synonymous with pur- pose. In this book the initial chapters are six Thus, the study of engineering is not voca- facets of understanding - explanation, interpre- tional; it is a way of thinking. tation, application, other people’s perspectives, empathy and self-knowledge. Then they There is an international concern that stu- describe a “backward design” process. The first dents are not pursuing careers in science and question is “what is the goal?” The second ques- engineering. (OECD, 2005) Engineers in the tion is “what is the evidence you will accept that U.S. are concerned that enrollments have been the goal is achieved?” This does not mean how dropping in engineering schools for some time you obtain the evidence - but what success and the number of new engineers is below that looks like. What will you know and be able to needed. How do students learn about engineer- do if you reach the goal? Then, and only then, ing in our present system of schooling? For a the third step is to develop the activities to reach long time engineers recruited among high the goal. school students proficient in mathematics and science because the engineering taught in good Wiggins and McTighe ask educators to engineering schools was engineering science determine the essential questions and keep them and not engineering practice. Engineering as goals. So what is an essential question for schools continue to recruit the science and technology education? What I detect is that the mathematics proficient students. But in the last goal technology education has set is that there ten years industry has complained that the engi- should be a strand - a set of courses - in K-12 neering students were smart and knew a lot of education called technology education taught by techniques, but they took too long to train to be technology educators. We would know it hap- useful in industry. They “lack design capability pened when there was curriculum in technology or creativity, lack understanding of manufactur- education taught mainly by qualified technology ing or quality processes, [have] a narrow view educators. (Very few of the science and mathe- of engineering, weak communications skills, matics curricula have yet achieved similar quali- and little skill or experience in teamwork.” ty control.) The standards, curricula and teacher (Prados, 2005) Engineers require strong techni- professional development programs with all cal capability, but also skills in communication The Journal of Technology Studies 3 here e w ell. mance work- gical Education The goal of the echnolo T gy education as w w to be educated to teach it hat mathematics is needed y schools. ith the emphases in Career o major responsibilities at W anced y tw lem. ve expertise. Technology education Technology expertise. ve Adv y about other dimensions lik o-year college level and preparation for level college o-year rades there is no gap between learning between gap there is no rades gicall ed hard on the issue of the content of its The criteria demonstrate that engineers demonstrate that The criteria One of m The technology education profession has The technology ard engineering in technology education also education ard engineering in technology e adapti v w ork of boys and girls in technology education class- education technology girls in and of boys es. that linking with educated and must be broadly for the choices does not narrow engineering The but education broadens them. technology education technology liaison strengthens be connected to a disci- it would because now in both the academic and pline that has stature an business communities. Engineering provides education. technology intellectual base for the base is not without cost, since one However, technology between of the major differences - scientif- use of analysis and engineering is the When ninth grade science ic and mathematical. courses become too mathematical, students cause major issues in tech- This may complain. The complaint courses; but not. it should nology not learned the be because students have may can apply methods so that they mathematics by little attention is paid Very situations. it in new to the question of w earlier g earlier in this prob compe- Education on increased Technical and science and mathematics, the move in tency to provides opportunity support to gain from this provides community. NSF is the Program - technician education - not training - Program at the tw that in the secondar technicians who The object is to develop place. ha the base. In fact the teacher edu- should provide men- explicitly program ATE cation part of the educators. In tions the education of technology the interest of full disclosure the most direct degree route for students in this pro- four-year to do - is to want gram they what - if that is engineered K- So a well engineering technology. education can lead to in technology 12 program engineering technolo program is to increase the quality and quantity program of technicians for the high perfor (ITEA, 2000); but perhaps needs to think more strate discipline and on ho The present situation in can it get support? w ning, the ork effec- y affect y affect y teams; xts; y for engineering e know about e know ning; ery well to them. ery well hat w rom w omen are underrepresented in , formulate, engineering and solve ning. lems; omen and minorities in lear ware of contemporary issues; ware age in life long lear identify prob responsibility; in global and societal conte science, and engineering; and interpretas analyze data; to meet desired needs; engineering tools necessar practice; and ue that w • communicate effectively; • communicate effectively; understand impact of engineering solutions • • understand professional and ethical • • design and conduct experiments as well as well design and conduct experiments • design a system, component, or process • • function on multidisciplinar • manage a project. • apply the knowledge of mathematics, the knowledge apply • • eng • be a use the techniques, skills, and modern• For a variety of reasons the Accrediting of reasons the a variety For aging w y of thinking. F echnology (ABET) criteria include abilities to: echnology a The Accrediting Board for Engineering and The T and persuasion, ability to lead and w lead and ability to and persuasion, tively as part of an understanding of a team, tively forces that profoundl non-technical commitment to decisions, and a engineering life-long lear (ABET) Technology and Board for Engineering procedures for engi- changed the accrediting 1) Table (see criteria The new neering programs. on definingplace strong emphasis program mission of the consistent with the objectives institution and learningi.e., the intel- outcomes, A graduates.lectual skills of the 2005) (Prados, Gorham (Gorham, 2003) ago Douglas years few the ABET criteria with compared the new found and Literacy Technological Standards for that the standards matched v be due to the influence that a group of This may Academy the National engineers appointed by had on the Standards of Engineering to review ABET of the fourteen a review them. However, is a criteria also demonstrates that engineering w eng particularly Women broader goals are helpful. respond to learning It is in meaningful contexts. still tr engineering schools, but there are reports that at Table 1: ABET Criteria Table
The Journal of Technology Studies 4 as examples; theMaterials World Modules (http://www and therevision of Active Physics mention thede materials andtechnolo between developers ofscienceinstructional design. Thus thereisanationalpushforunderstanding nology asrelatedtosciencearebeingdiscussed. being revised andtheideasofdesigntech- Assessment ofEducationalProgress (NAEP) is tant strength. The examination forNational 2003 (Bybee,2005). Yet itmeasuresanimpor- emphasis onproblem solvinginmathematics e students toapply knowledge. As you might y examining oneoftheareas indepthevery three reading, mathematicsandscienceliterac (PISA) measures15y Student Program forInternational Assessment the mathematicsstandards(NCTM,2000). 1993; NRC,1996). nology ofthesciencestandards(AAAS, arepart nolo levergreatest fortech- forincreasinginstruction methodologies similar(Salinger, arevery 2003). respecti the same.Iha school sciencelaboratories. The issuesaremuch inhigh NRC (NRC,2005)isstudyinglearning They toohave alonglistofobjectives. The studied by engineeringeducators(Feisel, 2005). technology orengineeringlaboratorieshasbeen ers inotherdisciplines. nologically literateby collaboratingwithteach- forstudentstobecomemoretech- opportunities accessible when itisusefulinothersituations. to provide ascaffold thatmakes theknowledge knowledge tonew situations. The context helps inwaysdents learn sothatthey cantransferthe thatauthenticcontexts helpstu- studies agree NRC, 2002,Donovan, 2005).Someofthese Academies (Bransford, 1999;Pellegrino, 2001; excellent studiesby committeesoftheNational lear beha administrators andteacherstouneducational movement. The highstakes testsseemtodrive schools isconstrainedb xpect, USstudentsdidnotdow ears. The examination focusesontheabilityof ning scientistsassummarizedinsome gical literacy inschools. Designandtech- We areseeingmoreand cooperation Working withscienceeducatorsisthe Technology educatorscanincreasethe vior, despitetheresultsfromcognitive and v e goalsareinquir .its-about-time.com/htmls/ap.html) v v e conjecturedthatalthoughthe elopment of Applications aretoleratedin a ls capabilityin ear olds’ gy educators.Iw y theaccountability What is to be learned in What istobelearned y anddesign,the Active Chemistry ell inthe ould y b The y Laboratory Experiences Laboratory Table 2:GoalsofEngineering theme issueofthe tion ispaidtotheissueofdesign(Seealso assessment thatthecontentislear example. Ineach,thedesignofsomethingis (www coherent lear nolo directions. We areaskinghow scienceandtech- being redirected, we arediscussingpossible new Education andHumanResourcesatNSFis lution.) or onecanalsoinvestigate thesourceofpol- also onecandosomethingtothewater athand al answers dependinguponthepollutant;but tion asksforaction.(Noticethattherearesever- intrigued. myThe scienceisthesame,but ques- Creek sothatIcandrinkit?Heisvery What doIhave todothewater inHoney I suggestedthatthequestioncouldalsobe: question: CanIdrinkthewater inHoney Creek? 2005) who usesastheexample ofaninquiry sations withaleadingscienceeducator(Krajcik, inquiry inthecontext ofcontentemphasizedin inquiry sions tomodeling,engineeringdesignand year,For we thefirst arelimitingtheprogres- process throughouttheeducationalexperience. Education, Vol.39 Students shouldbeab gy educationw As thefundingforDirectorate • • • understand impactofengineeringsolutions • demonstrate levels ofindependentthought, fromunsuccessful • identify andlearn • design, build, orassemble apart, data; • analyze andinterpret • devise anexperimental approach, • identify strengthsandlimitationsof .materialsworldmodules.org) areanother appl engineering tools. select, modify in globalandsocietalconte world problems; and creati outcomes; a product,orsystem; components, orsystems; to characterizeengineeringmaterials, data and procedurestotake andinterpret specifying andimplementingequipment theoretical models; software toolstomake measurements; y appropriateinstr vity, andcapabilityinsolvingreal ning pro (3), 2002).Ihave hadconver- J ould lookiftherew ournal ofIndustrial Teacher , andoperateappropriate le to: g ressions ofcontentand umentation including xts; ned andatten- ere The Journal of Technology Studies 5 , y of . . vides .C.: Academ , pro au and . Washington, . Washington, T ashington, D oundation (NSF). He is W y Speaking ain, mind, experience . e of Epsilon Pi g d Salinger is a Program Officer is a Program d Salinger echnicall lassroom T PISA 2003: An introduction PISA 2003: lication of the National -at-lar Benchmarks for science literacy for Benchmarks Atlas of science literacy . Gerhar w people learn: Br Dr Another area is after school programs. Another area is after The pub . London: Specialist Schools Trust. . London: Specialist Schools atory in undergraduate engineering atory in undergraduate Ho many other excellent suggestions (Pearson, other excellent many in to seeing the increase 2002). I look forward emphasis on both scientific and technological educators with science and technology literacy together. working at the National Science F his Distinguished Service Citation in received 2005. a Member Engineering, to me that students are frustrated that students to me cannot if they it. cannot read they because something know they are when they annoyed of how But think read cannot they something because cannot do The to do is far more motivating. it. Being able scores reading improve can we question is still be and experiences through technological had rejected an earli- We true to the technology? group,er proposal from this the doing because neglected. of science had been a Learning provides through the ideas of design to learn that from context that is very different look subject matter may The same in schools. and the students learn about very different This can be simultane- design at the same time. In reading ability. coupled to improving ously of informal there are many education, the world that pro- exhibits opportunities for technological vide insights into engineering experiences. bor ut , b y ole of the la The r , mathematics, and science in the c y educated - both ed on the literac lems. It then occurred A.L., & Cocking, R.R. (1999). Becoming an engineering college ork A.J., (2005). A.J., y Press. y of students with science rades 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10? wn, . Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Academy DC: National Washington, . . Journal of Engineering Education Vol. 94(1) pg. 121-130. Vol. . Journal Education of Engineering ., Bro y had w Academ mation and to make sound mation and to make .D . and Rosa They became enormously excited, enormously became They The , J and environmental issues related to issues related and environmental processes; technological laboratory in writing experience and orally; and infor judgments in formulating conclusions problems. about real-world w students learn: History • communicate effectively about the communicate effectively • in teams; effectively • work with highest ethical standards; behave • the human senses to gather use • • identify and deal with health, safety, with health, safety, identify and deal • lems. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Oxford University NY: York, New and school 2005. pg. 4-7. Winter The Journal of BSCS. The Natural Selection: education At the elementary school, the emphasis is DC: AAAS. uction look in g National Ho w are teachers successfull eisel, L.D Students should be able to: be able should Students F American Association for the Advancement of Science (2001). Advancement for the Association American Bransford (Eds.), & J. Donovan (2005). Introduction. In M.S. J., M.S. and Bransford, Donovan, Bransford Bybee, R.W., Kilpatrick, J., Lindquist, M, and Powell, J.C. (2005). J.C. Lindquist, M, and Powell, Kilpatrick, J., Bybee, R.W., American Association for the Advancement of Science (1993). Advancement for the Association American References the standards. If the goal were to have students to have the standards. If the goal were with the use of design by reach a competency would school, how high leave the time they instr Ho preservice and inservice - to deliver this kind of preservice this and inservice - to deliver education? met with on reading and mathematics. I recently in had success a group have of people who increasing the literac materials. In the discussion, “read about.” the science was I brought up the possibility of using design prob (2005). David. Barlex, because they had already experienced success had already experienced because they with these kinds of prob Table 3: Laboratory Goals Table
The Journal of Technology Studies 6 National Academy ofEngineering(2002). Krajcik, Joseph,University ofMichigan, private communication. Inter P National Councilof Organization forEconomicCooperationandDevelopment (2005). National ResearchCouncil(2005). National ResearchCouncil(2002). National ResearchCouncil, Academy ofSciences(1996). Gorham, D., (2002). W Salinger Prados, J.W., Peterson, G.D., Latucca,L.R.(2005).Qualityassuranceofengineeringeducation elle iggins, G.P National Academy Press. National Academy Principles forEducationalResearch.Shavelson, R.J. and Towne, L.Editors. Washington, DC: for Super Reston, VA: Author. Vol. 61(7)pg.29-42. Literacy. Pearson G.and Young A.T. Editors. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press. enrollment inscienceandtechnology. Assessment. Washington, DC:National Academy Press. standards mathematics Comparative perspectives. GandMiddleton,H.Eds. Martin, Technology Foundation of America. through accreditation. design ofeducationalassessment national Technology Education Association (2000).Standardsfortechnological literacy. g rino, J., Chudowski, N., &Glaser, R.(2001). , G.L.(2003), ., &McT vision andCur . Washington, DC:National Academy Press. . Reston, VA: Author. Teachers ofMathematics(2000). Engineering andstandards for technological literacy. ighe, J Engineering intheK-12curriculum Journal ofEngineeringEducation Vol. 94 . (2005). riculum De Systems for statescienceassessment researchScientific ineducation . Under W v ashington, DC:National elopment Technically speaking Paris, France: Author. standing bydesign Kno Principles andstandar wing w . Initiati hat studentskno . 2nded. . Committeeon Technological Academ v Conference ondeclining . Committee on Scientific . CommitteeonScientific National scienceeducation es intechnolo (1) pg.165-184. . Boardof Testing and Ale y Press. The TechnologyTeacher xandria, ds for school w: The scienceand gy education: V A: Association The Journal of Technology Studies 7 gy in our entium it from these veloped world, veloped wing thought, “Which y to prepare students for e tr ou, is this strate This scene captures the essence orld do not benef vileged few. Of course, most of the few. vileged e try to envision our students’e try to envision world e? Intel released the 200 MHz P Intel released processor Internet fraud and viruses imaging Biological students for of your prepare any Did you in the last 100 has changed more Our world think the future, 2020 will What do you movie favorite one of my you Let me show Hold on to the follo We all want to know the future; we try to the future; we to know all want We As educators, w ue for most of us in the de antages and it will be the challenge of future antages and it will be the challenge of ime Machine. three books would you take into the future to take you three books would What enduring civilization?” build a new carry you into the future to would knowledge are currently you Is it what world? build a new capture the class? I hope you teaching in your will Our world importance I am saying. of what these changes and new technologies? these changes and new humani- of than in all the preceding years years and more productive. safer, are healthier, We ty. a single dominated by in a world live We species’ have We and not nature. technology and living work improved lives, healthier longer, travel, conditions, global communications and This and unparalleled access to art and culture. is tr not just a pri pro- be frank, we To that is unknown. a world skills, and dis- vide to the students knowledge, during our time, valuable positions that were decades ago. I ask y Or best interest, to prepare kids for our past? should w our curriculumand revise to prepare them for this future? look lik The movie, Wells clips from the original H.G. T I am talking about. of what people of the w adv will be like. the world predict what generations to spread the positive aspects of our generations to spread the positive the world. throughout innovations ut e v y” matics y Stor e a long time, b o eynote Address Address eynote given ilm “T as designed t seem lik le space telescope ears doesn’ As en y ork as rapidly evolving technologies creat- technologies evolving ork as rapidly Cell phones internet Wireless Hybrid cars PD MP3 players The Genome Project Viagra Lipitor Stem Cell Research Nanotechnology Genomics, proteomics, bioinfor on discovered was The presence of water the moon The presence of life on Mars DVDs The Hubb Smart weaponry The Boeing 777 w Pixar created the first computer generated full length feature f T When I looked carefully at the attendance carefully When I looked xas. e let’s quickly look at what has developed since has developed what look at quickly let’s 1995: at the Texas Technology Education Professional Education Technology Texas at the 2005 in 24 -27, July Conference Development Texas. Corpus Christi, I realized that a number list for this conference, year, at this conference every been have of you the last For as I have. for the past ten years, with pleasure of working had the decade I have attempted to create a better, as we of you many of I think few But Texan. technologically-savvy understood the future importance of us really our w The tomorrow. complex ed an increasingly make we is the result of the choices future really actually decide and do, today, What we today. matters to history and will determine the land- I ha scape for decades and centuries to come. today something important to share with you in education about the future of technology T This paper is based on a K This paper The Ingenuity Imperative Ingenuity The Hansen John W.
The Journal of Technology Studies 8 more connectedelectronicall and accesswillchangeastheworld becomes result fromnanoengineering. ultra denseelectricalandopticalcircuitswill organs, nanoelectronicsystems,andultrafast, detections agents,thecreationofbiological aware. These claimswillbelargely accepted. computer willclaimtobeconsciousandself- capacity of1,000humanbrains.In2039the the samecomputerwillhave thecomputing computing capacityofthehumanbrain.In2029 those needs. andwilladaptitsbehaviorhumans itserves to tem willbedirectedatmeetingtheneedsof become smar le w rapidly.But thesesystems aredegrading Our ph chemical agents. the transpor weapons. We willneedabetterunderstandingof use new chemicalandbiological discoveries as ture str organ functions. will aidincommunicationandmonitoringour tomized foreachindividual. Embeddeddevices clogged willbecus- andblocked Drugs arteries. nanobotswillcleanour through ourarteries, barbaric equivalent asewer ofrunning snake withoutinvasiveparts surgery. Ratherthanthe allow ourbodiestoreplaceinjuredordiseased medicine may leadtonew technologies thatwill reduced. Tissue engineeringandregenerative be eradicated. The effects ofagingcanbe the celllevel, diseasesthatwe know today will breakthroughs inhumanphysiology. Working at share afew thingswe know areonthehorizon. you thinkthenext decadewillbring?Letme decisions oftomor How arewe preparingthekidsoftoday forthe be dramaticall v ater treatment, w ysical infrastr el. En Our perceptionsofconnectedness,location, W In 2019a$1,000computerwillhave the The UnitedStateshasprobably thebest Nanoengineering willcreateandmanufac- withexciting The futurewillbefilled What willthefuturelooklike? What do e willstr uctures atthemolecular vironmental cleaningagents,chemical t characteristicsofbiological and t. Every product, service andsys- product,service t. Every y different inthenext decade. uggle withthosew ucture inthedeveloped world. aste disposal,transpor row? y . Ev , e v er ho attemptto en atomic ything will tation, en to mitigate theriskstohumanhealthand ifweand productsmustbecomemandatory are design, commercialization,anduseofprocesses economic prosperity. Greenengineering,the tions totheprob eration aswe develop new technological solu- the world’s economy andstability. tions ofwater scarcity. Water supplieswillaffect lem. Currently, 2billionpeoplelive incondi- world sometypeofwater willface supply prob- and accesshave tobeaddressed. al security. At thesametimeissuesofprivacy security, ourlifestyles,andsenseofperson- will impactournationaleconomy, national andmaliciousattacks. accidental, terrorist, This itbecomesmorevulnerableinfrastructure to replacement andredesign. and ener gy toda ences, the the re-educating y dents willneedtoaccepttheresponsibilityfor Itreallynot true. never was. You andyour stu- to know foralife-time in afour-year is degree everythingthat apersonlearns heorsheneeds total bodyofknowledgeThe notion ofafield. for ustounderstandthe increasingly difficult co accumulate knowledge. We alsovalue thedis- entif our nationalprowess by thestrengthofoursci- we understandings.Infact, judge deep scientific principles. Westernentific societyvalues its energy ideasthatviolateknown onfanciful sci- edge andexperience prevent usfromwasting is gained by doing,notimagining. Tacit knowl- g from theirexperiences. Tacit knowledge is their work isnotinthedirectpursuitof ious, theinnovators, northe inventors. While we don’t value oftheingen- thecontributions human endeavor. But,foravariety ofreasons, er thesesuccessestorepresent theheightof wepainters, writers,ordancers. In fact, consid- rounded inobjecti v vironment thatw y doitnotonly withafoundationinthesci- eries ofthehumanities,w Ecological sustainabilitymustbeaconsid- In thenext 20years, every nationinthe As we dependmoreontheinformation What w When engineersbegin sketching adesign ic discoveries andtherateatwhich we y willdoub gy systemsareinseriousneedof y alsousethetacitkno e kno ourself. lems we createifwe aretohave w aboutscienceandtechnolo- le in10y e ha vity . Itisthekno v e created. ears. Itwillbecome hether by poets, wledge gained wledge that enduring truth and wisdom, the technology they shortages, water shortages, the loss of the rain create plays fundamental roles in meeting forests, and so forth are creating significant 9 humanity’s materials needs and aspirations. L. world-defining problems. To solve those prob- The Jour Sprague de Camp in the book The Ancient lems we create more technologies. We are now Engineers (1963), states, discovering that the technologies we create,
themselves, create unanticipated problems nal of T Civilization, as we know it today, owes it which are often more complex than the original existence to the engineers. These are the problems. So, we have technological growth echnology Studies men who, down the long centuries, have problems and population growth problems. learned to exploit the properties of matter and the sources of power for the benefit of Problems require human ingenuity, innova- mankind. By an organized, rational effort to tion, and inventive solutions if they are to be use the material world around them, engi- sustainable. There is a possibility that we may neers devised the myriad comforts and con- be approaching an “Ingenuity Gap.” As popula- veniences that mark the difference between tion and technological growth increases, new our lives and those of our forefathers thou- complex problems are created and there may be sands of years ago. a point at which we will not have the inventive, innovative or ingenuity capabilities for solving The ingenious, the innovative, the inventive them. are driven by a deep passion to conceive new technology, to build it, and to make it work. This is an interesting concept for us to Innovations and inventions occur when a need grapple with because we’ve always believed in arises or an opportunity presents itself. Science “Yankee Ingenuity” and how we would always rarely translates into technology directly. Many solve whatever problems were encountered. advances of technology occurred before we Looking around the world, we already see many knew about the science. But this is a model that countries where the creative workforce capabili- is now no longer valid. Human-made artifacts ties are not sufficient to solve its current prob- are now principally designed through rules, lems. The only solution for these countries is to principles, and predictions rather than trial and import the intellectual capabilities. error. Today we find that the work of scientists and engineers are growing closer together and The “Ingenuity Gap” theory, developed by are sometimes indistinguishable. The thrill of Thomas Homer-Dixon is an alarming conceptu- the scientific discovery and the engineered cre- alization and potential call to arms for educa- ation are intellectually challenging and satisfy- tion. We’ve always been able, as a nation, to ing. develop more solutions than problems. A signif- icant part of the American high quality of life is The goal of science is to discover the laws related to innovation and ingenuity. But, we may of nature and understand its behavior. The goal be approaching a point, somewhere around year of engineering is to create technology that meets 2020, when we might we are unable to solve our the needs and wants of humanity. “Science deals present problems. That is, when our present with what is, comprehending nature as it exists; intellectual capabilities are insufficient for solv- engineering focuses on the future. It creates new ing the new problems. We would have an material environments, producing products, “Ingenuity Gap.” The “Ingenuity Gap” is a criti- processes and systems that did not previously cal theory that we must consider now if we are exist.” (Lewis, 2004) to “head off ” its devastating consequences.
I see three overwhelming threats to our The second threat is a new division of American way of life that I believe, we as tech- labor. Many current jobs are being replaced by nology and pre-engineering educators can automated machines and low-cost labor. We address through a single strategy: Ingenuity teach about the effects of automation in our Education. robotics classes. The secondary and postsec- ondary education system was unprepared for the The first threat is related to human and rapid changes in the labor force as a result of technological growth. The world population is, the application of information and computer as we know, increasing and the problems created technology. Many of the jobs we are preparing because of this growth are complex. Energy students for are no longer available. If they are,
The Journal of Technology Studies 10 trib done insomeplacecheaperthanNor itcanbe be toomuchlongerbeforethey find g ask: inordertoincreasereliabilityandgive food preparersinthebuilding. Why, you might in Nor Dakota. North You give your ordertotheperson –he/sheisin is notlocatedinthatbuilding up tothewindo ing theordertakingprocess? When you drive food restaurantisexperimenting withoutsourc- know inSt.Paul, Minnesotathatanationalfast you gotallyour friesandburgers. Didyou toopenthebagandcheckmake sure learned order ory restaurant drive-through? You getthewrong complaint when you gothroughafast-food lifestyle. will have onsustainingahighquality American think we areignoringtheprofoundeffects this another shiftworker processingyour request.I different timezonesaroundtheworld, there’s tion isstaffed 24hoursaday. Itmay bethat,in itisnotthatasingleloca- for their24/7service, offshore locations. When you callacompany allo attention to. the American way oflife thatwe needtopay speak y Electronic communicationtechnolo maticall andcomputertechnologyInformation have dra- the building jobs. building They are highwage jobsthatsup- ity-based jobs. creativity, innovation, imaginationandingenu- absolutely nocreativity required. duction typework withlimitedthinkingand body withne to thenext level tosome- oftechnical support, of theirscript,sotospeak,they’ll transferyou a seriesofquestions.Oncethey gettotheend foryousupport new appliancethatthey askyou flowchart. Notice thatwhen you calltechnical required istofollow theprocedures,follow the sourced andeasily automated. All thatis solutions, areeasily programmed, easily out- procedure-based jobsthatdon’ to bebasedontwo concepts. Oneisrule-based, reater customersatisf y arelow-paying jobs. non-family supporting ution oflaborandprobab wed many jobstobecompletedindistant, I thinkw Outsourcing. What’s your thenumberone The seconddi th Dak our order y impactedtheway inwhich we work. ou’re missingsomething! You’ve This new division oflaborisgoing w scriptofquestions.Itsmasspro ota who thentransmitsittothe e areexperiencing amassive redis- These arehigh-v w , thatthepersontalkingtoy , tothelittlebo vision oflaborwillbethe action. Itprobab ly a redefining of ly aredefining t requirecreati alue, econom x w gies have here y th Dak l y w ou on’ ota. ou y v e t - tainability, andeconomicgrowth. ofNewpart Zealand’s strategy forsurvival, sus- of itsnationaleconomicdevelopment plan.It’s a Zealand hadmadeinnovation educationapart cators fromNe totalkwithseveralopportunity technology edu- suf w shrinking. Newindustries is,infact, talent,if talent poolthatfeedsthehightech,mar technologically literate. The citizensofthe not pro educationsystemdoes maker andthecurrent e gies thatw solve andtheadoptionofsometechnolo- may be creatingmoreproblems thanwe can literacy. Reconsideringthe“IngenuityGap,we planning anddecisionsbasedontechnological sideration. First, we need bettertechnological American pub education is,tragically, ofthe notapart tect theirfutures? intellectual capabilitiesofouryoungsters topro- minimized. destructive radicalinnovator/inventor mustbe ties ifitistowinthewar onterrorism. The ter technolo tion ofcreative talentistogeneratenew ideas, por an increasingl will protectustomorrow.” requires The military simply,stated very “Thosewe educatetoday consider. The issueishomelandsecurity. He forusto important Ehlers, andIthinkitisvery one which IheardfromCongressman Vernon J. ative talentpool. attheshrinkagein alarmed American cre- new, problems. andrecurring We shouldbe their mindstodevelop new solutionstocurrent, tainment sector. These arethepeoplethatuse als, communicationspecialists,andtheenter- people,lawyers,finance healthcareprofession- ogists, people, leaders,managers,business musicians,technol- designers, educators,artists, jobs includescientists,engineers,architects, to lookattheissuesbeforeus.Creativity-based national “IngenuityImperati impending creati v e’re lookingatitfromthatperspective, isnot en halted. rorism willrequiremoreadv f t ahighqualityoflife. The economicfunc- icient forthefuturedemands.Innovation Let mesuggesttw What arew The thirdthreat–securityandsafetyis vide oppor gies, andsolutions.Ithinkthereisan e createshouldbereconsidered or What arew This requires an informed decision This requiresaninformed y sophisticatedsoldier lic educationsystem.Ihadthe w Zealand e todo? vity crisisthatwillleadtoa tunities forstudents tobecome o solutionsfory e doingtofosterthe The ho indicatedNe ve.” We really need American creati anced capabili . Counter our con w gin v - - e - future, the students of today, need to be better What’s the first thing that one does when informed about technology – they will be mak- confronted with a problem? After a considerable 11 ing technological decisions that can alter amount of reflection, I narrowed it down to only The Jour humanity and they must be able to make ration- four options. First, one can do nothing. al decisions about whether the nation should Sometimes that’s the right decision – to do noth- choose to develop or use a plethora of new tech- ing. Second, one can adopt what others have nal of T nologies. done. One does a search of how others have
solved the problem. This is a part of our prob- echnology Studies Second, we should also think of creating lem-solving methodology. Third, one can adapt better technology through increased ingenuity, a solution. One looks at what others have done innovations and inventions. Good decisions and says, “That doesn’t quite fit; let’s tweak it; about technology I think are important, but it is let’s modify it; let’s be innovative; let’s change it not enough. Engineers and technologists are just a little bit and it will meet our needs.” The those prepared to imagine, design and build a fourth option is to invent a new solution. The better world. We and our societies change with ability to adopt, adapt, invent and evaluate tech- the diffusion of technology. We don’t understand nology to positively influence the community what’s happening and we don’t even see what’s and the environment is what technological deci- happening until it actually happens. So, we need sion-making encompasses. The ability to con- to understand the place and role of existing and sider these decisions options is a fundamental new technologies in their social organizations as part of a technologically literate society. well as their future impacts on society as a whole. The ingenuity component of my solution is something new. As you know, there’s tremen- I developed the concept Five Pillars of dous effort – millions and possibly billions of Technological Literacy, which I believe support dollars are spent for science and mathematics sustainable technological and economic education. We need new solutions and better advancement. These are characteristics that I solutions, and increased math and science capa- would like to see evidenced by all kids: (1) I bilities are important. But, I ask you, if we have want a kid who walks into a situation and says, already spent millions and billions of dollars in “I can solve this. I’m not afraid of this technolo- trying to increase math and science education as gy.” We refer to this as technological self-effica- a solution to this problem, why are we in a cre- cy. That’s the kind of kid I want working for me ativity crisis? Why are we in a situation where or preparing for my future. (2) I want kids that America is no longer the world’s innovation can say, “I’ve made a good decision.” They have powerhouse? I believe we find ourselves in this a rational decision-making process. They’ve situation because mathematics and science edu- actually thought about not only the process but cation are directionless. Without coupling these the decisions they’ve made. (3) I want kids that capabilities to the creative abilities of our stu- say, “You know, I understand the issues of tech- dents we will continue to lose dominance as an nology. You know, I do understand the science innovation nation. Ignoring the ability to be also, and I do understand the social impacts that innovative, ingenious and inventive is a tragic are related to this.” I refer to this as pre-requisite and potentially catastrophic mistake of our pub- knowledge and skills. (4) I want kids that can lic education policy. Science and mathematics say, “This is a good application. We chose the education is only one aspect of this sustainable right technology for this problem.” So, there’s economic future. Innovation, ingenuity, and critical application. (5) And certainly we want inventiveness must be a part of every child’s kids who are able to say, “Let me rethink this. education. It is something we can contribute to Let me make sure that the solution that I creat- as technology educators. ed, that I adopted or adapted or invented is the right one.” They reflect on why they did what I think we are at a critical moment in they did in order to make sure that it was a good American economic history. A tremendous decision, and to try and improve their own amount of money is being spent once again for thinking processes. The Five Pillars of mathematics and science education, which is Technological Literacy are dispositions which critical to the development of new technologies. are important for us to foster in our students. The old trial and error method that we used Technological literacy supports these character- (what I affectionately refer to as successive istics. The Journal of Technology Studies 12 NAE (2004). The engineerof2020: Le Levy, F. R.J. andMurnane, (2004). deCamp, L.S.(1963). References We teachkidshow toplan, how tocombine, that we doinourlaboratoriesandclassrooms? How’sart.) that! Geewhiz, isn’t thatsomething tion, invention, thinkingoutsidethebox and tical ingenuity, and(3)creativity (i.e.,innova- identif they threeattributes engineer. Lookatthefirst tion andsuggestedseveral ofa2020 attributes they couldfosterchangeinengineeringeduca- on theseitems. The NAE wanted toseehow my supposition Engineering (2004),confirms released by theNational Academy of – Visions ofEngineeringintheNew Century abetterworld.tunity tobuild engineering educatorsmustembracethisoppor- technologists andconcerned andpre- informed think w v sis. hasleftuswithacreativity cri- trial anderror), appro Homer-Dixon, T.(2000). ation, ingenuityandinvention education.I wis, E.E.(2004). We have nonationwideplanforK-16inno- Press: and design job mar An interestingbook ximation which soundsmuchbetterthan ied –(1)stronganalytical skills,(2)prac- e needtoactnow onthisissue. We as Washington DC. ket . PrincetonUni . Prometheus: Amherst, NY. Masterw The ancientengineer The Engineerof2020 The ingenuity gap or v ks oftechnology: The storyofcreative engineering, architecture, ersity Press:Princeton,NJ The new divisionoflabor: How computers are creating thenext Visions ofengineering in thenew century s . Alfred A. Knopf: New Knopf: York.. AlfredA. . Doub , leday: New York. of EpsilonPi Tau. He isamemberofthe Alpha LambdaChapter and Technology attheUniversity of Texas, Tyler. Department ofHumanResource Development instruct futuregenerationsforabetterworld.instruct own innovative andinventive capabilitiesasyou join usinunleashingyour own ingenuity, your nation toabettertomorrow. So,Iaskyou to do nothing? This isourdecadetoleadthe ity? Will we, instead, protectourpast,orwillwe by even usingourown innovation andingenu- seize theproblem andsolve itby what we know, ence inpublic education,andIwonder, willwe This isthedecadewhen we willmake adiffer- States. are impor for engineersin2020.Ithinktheseattrib theNAEare theattributes thinksareimportant ho w toadaptthingssolve problems. These . Dr. John W. Hansenisaprofessor inthe This is Technology Education’s decade. tant forevery citizenintheUnited . National Academies utes The Journal of Technology Studies 13 the are of y including w es were important es were t of this presenta- v ere a ts Association and ho w Ar gy education toda au. Both initiati T e get into the hear ho promoted the creation of the ain such acceptance, he worked dili- ain such acceptance, he worked rity of industrial arts educators. uted so much to the conceptualization of g arner composed of teacher and the second o g alk and talked the talk,” so to speak. He the talk,” alk and talked Jerry Striechler challenged me to “get into Clearly, Warner was a man who “walked a man who was Warner Clearly, as is acknowledged Warner In addition, T W . ere guidelines for the development of bac- ere guidelines for the development The EPT Challenge Warner’s head” and speculate how Warner, who Warner, head” and speculate how Warner’s contrib the profes- view education, would technology the recent accomplishments and what sion’s I analysis, on my expand To future holds for it. groups: one com- solicited feedback from two or studied with worked prised of associates who Dr person w American Industrial Epsilon Pi educators or leaders w to elevate the level of professional and scholarly of the level to elevate of industrial arts education as a cur- recognition riculum specialty and to support the profession- al inte the w his involve- by as indicated example taught by undertakingment of graduate students when his of projects. Many and scholarly creative collabora- students worked master and doctoral docu- monumental to create historically tively Curriculum to Reflect ments including “A “Plans for the Exemplary Technology,” Three and “The ‘Laboratories of Industries,’” which Degrees—Assumptions and Patterns,” w leadership responsibili- and have work Warner’s ties in technolo calaureate, master, and doctoral programs in and doctoral programs calaureate, master, left to industrial arts education. Nothing was Warner. chance with Dr. with the leadership of the negotiating gently Office and the National of Education U.S. with the Association, particularly Education Art Division. president and past presidents of its left to chance. nothing was said, As previously and I’ll a master at “networking,” He was address this process and its political implica- tions as w tion. oted v yes ere de , all e gies w s presentation and And ho recommended w to begin my presenta- my w to begin y good friend and colleague, ork and scholarly contributions ork and scholarly illiam E. Warner. Without a Without Warner. illiam E. ou Don and rest assured that I ofessional Mission W s Pr er stopped talking. ’ Thank y e were beginning to form to beginning up into teams e were . ner Warner was a tall, distinguished looking was Warner As I pondered ho I feel honored to make this presentation on I feel honored to make We trained hard, but it seemed every time but it seemed every trained hard, We w to learn I was be reorganized. would we new tend to meet any later in life that we a won- and what reorganizing; situation by be for creating the illu- derful method it can producing confusion, while sion of progress (Petronius and demoralization. inefficiency, A.D.) ca 60 Arbiter, y wn the aisle, and after taking a seat in the ar ell, including m W dressed and impeccably always was man who demeanor attracted the attention and whose respect of others. I recall an incident at Ohio into a meet- walked Warner Dr. when University ing during another professor’ the speak tion on this momentous occasion, I reflected on tion on this momentous occasion, I reflected the historical w of Professor of industrial and cultivation to the development arts education. doubt, the man was an intellectual genius whose doubt, the man was personal and professional ener that I give this presentation. Lux was one of this presentation. Lux was that I give and doctoral advisees, a good friend Warner’s and professional colleague of his at Ohio State, and analyst. advocate Warner is an excellent Warner Don learned his leadership skills from I am here that is why and including delegation, toda will do my best to represent Professor Warner best to represent Professor will do my with dignity and distinction. instructed that he could the speaker front row, proceed. now Professor Donald G. Lux, w as he strolled quietly Warner seemed to be on do the 75th anniversary of the founding of Epsilon of the 75th anniversary conducted initiation was (EPT). My own Tau Pi are There in Chicago at Chi Chapter in 1957. very Warner Dr. knew persons in this room who w Prologue, Warner the Scholar! Warner Prologue, James J. Buffer, Jr. Jr. Buffer, James J. Speculations on the Insights and Perceptions of Perceptions and Insights on the Speculations the Status Regarding Warner E. William Professor Its Future and Education of Technology
The Journal of Technology Studies 14 Table 1:ResultsofQuestionnaire another oneof Warner’s doctoraladvisees. 1972 underthedirectionofDelmarOlson, pleted atNor Latimer’s on doctoraldissertation Warner com- written by orabout W. E. Warner including David Mohan,andreadnumerouspublications video interview of Warner conductedby Dr. Warner afterherhusband’s death,watched a givencorrespondence tomeby Mrs.Ellen historical collectionofDr. Warner’s personal analysis. ofthisprocess,IreviewedAs part a knowledge of Warner thatintomy andbuilt responses. Ialsoreflectedatlengthonmy composite analysis andsynthesisoftheir ensure anonymity. Myrolewas toprovide a were to assuredthatnoonewould beidentified related organizations. par on technology education teacherpreparationand education. and collegiate programs thatfocusontechnology teacherpreparation. ITEM 10. technologyThe statusandprominenceofinternational educationK–12programs to enhancethegeneraleducationgoalsandobjecti ITEM 5. The vitalityoftechnology educationasasubjectareainK–14anditsmission education foralllearners. ITEM 3.Recognition oftechnology education asasubjectareavalued ofgeneral aspart d. Doctoralpro c. Master’ b. Accredited teachereducationprograms atthebaccalaureatelevel. a. Middleandsecondar ITEM 1.Cur resource de ITEM 9. The evolution ofcollegiate level industrialorengineeringtechnology andhuman activity-based andskillswithtools,materials,processes. learning technology activities comparedtopastefforts thatfocusedonproblem solvingand ITEM 8. practicesthat linkengineeringandinformation Appropriateness ofinstructional of technolo ITEM 7. programs, andactivities instructional arereflectiveThe extent curricula, towhich current ITEM 6.ImplementationoftheITEA schools thatha terminology,ITEM 2.Curriculum, activities andinstructional inherentinmiddleandsecondary pro ticipation inITEA,EPT, CTTE, AERA, or g Respondents were asked tobefrankand rams andstudentenrollment RU I:TRANSISTIONS TO ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY (2.87 GROUP III: Average) s de gy v elopment pro th CarolinaStateUniversity in rent statusof . g v ree pro grams toensureandsustainteachereducation/leadershippool. grams e GR v RU I CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION (2.97 Average)GROUP II: olv OUP I: grams designedtoenhanceprofessionalpracticeanddevelopment.grams ed fromwhat was known education. asindustrialarts y schools. grams andresulting demiseofinstitutionsandprograms thatfocus grams tec PROGRAM STATUS AND VITALITY (2.40 Near Average) hnolo in: g y education Standar ds for Technological Literacy in 2004basedonthenumberofacti v es foralllear and remainsanenigmatoday! would bequiteachallenge because Warner was probab tions, speculatingonwhat Dr. Warner would response to“qualify”orexpand ontheirpercep- Respondents couldalsoincludeawritten described theirperceptions(see Table 1). respondents selectedthevalue thatbest tus, and5=outstandingprogress orstatus, progress orstatus,3=average progress orsta- cation. Usingascaleof1=notsatisfactory statusandfutureoftechnology edu- the current cally review eachofthestatementsthatrelateto the “mind”ofDr. William E. Warner andcriti- Respondents were asked toplacethemselves in piled tobesharedwiththeprofession. theirresponseswere100% return, thencom- uted torespondentsviamailore-mail,andupon Copieswere distrib- the two identified. groups from collect thedataandanecdotalinformation Questionnair A for ners. ly say. And yes, Irealizedthatthistask mal questionnairewas developed to e—Review andAnalysis in theUnitedStates. v e 2.42 3.31 2.69 3.08 3.15 2.80 2.54 2.23 2.50 2.69 1.69 2.35
GROUP IV: LEADERSHIP AND DEVELOPMENT (3.41 Average +) ITEM 4. Leadership activities that help to improve the status and vitality of technology education 15 3.31 across the K–12 curriculum and Higher Education. The Jour ITEM 11. The mission, goals, and outcomes of professional organizations Warner helped to estab- lish (ITEA & EPT); and their influence on enhancing the status, vitality, and growth of technology 3.50 education programs (K–12 and Higher Education). nal of T
GROUP V: OTHER OBSERVATIONS echnology Studies ITEM 12. Please provide comments regarding other issues, topics, or concerns that you feel Professor Warner would offer on the 75th anniversary of the founding of EPT. For example: a. How would Warner, who contributed so much to the conceptualization of technology education, view the profession’s accomplishments? b. What would Warner have to say about what the future holds for the profession? c. How would technology education be different if William E. Warner had not existed? d. How would technology education be different if Warner and most of his opponents had worked together to improve the program and its goals?
Note: Questionnaire used scale of 1 = not satisfactory progress or status, 3 = average progress or status, and 5 = outstanding progress or status.
To help quantify and analyze the results, I practicing teachers are now selecting combined the 12 statements into five groups. A other specializations for graduate study brief synthesis of the results for each group fol- as security for alternative career place- lows. Those seeking a more comprehensive ment. analysis and discussion of the study along with 3. The number of doctoral programs in copies of the instruments may request them by technology education has declined dra- contacting the author at [email protected]. matically, and the future professorial Group I: Program Status and Vitality pool has dwindled. In 2003 about a dozen doctoral graduates matriculated in The general consensus was that Warner technology education, and career oppor- would not be pleased with the current status or tunities in higher education appear to be vitality of technology education programs, pri- minimal. marily because of the dramatic reduction of pro- grams (K–12, teacher preparation, and teacher On the bright side, there are approximately education) over the past three decades. He 40 technology education programs nationwide might even be “confused” if he made some site that are accredited through ITEA/CTTE/NCATE visits to various technology education programs guidelines. This is a fairly constant number and, across the country. He would see programs that hopefully, in the future this number will are familiar to him (e.g., hands-on problem increase. solving using a variety of tools, materials, and equipment). But, he would also see many pro- Also, given Warner’s involvement in inter- grams made up of nothing but computers and/or national education, he would be pleased with a few technical modules and might wonder what the international activities of technology educa- was going on. tors across the globe as evidenced by collabora- Furthermore, he would not be pleased to tive curricular efforts in Japan, the Netherlands, learn that: Taiwan, Australia, New Zealand, England, Finland, South Korea, and Hong Kong. 1. Many teacher education programs have been replaced with majors in human Group II: Curriculum and Instruction resource development, training & devel- The ITEA standards have clearly influenced opment, and management or engineering the evolution of curriculum, terminology, and technology. instructional activities from industrial arts to 2. Master degrees are no longer required technology education. Many states and localities for licensure or certification and many have upgraded their content for these programs
The Journal of Technology Studies 16 comes coming from formal collaboration with comes coming fromformal sion andgoalsheprofessedaspar new programs arenotconsistentwiththemis- studying computerprogramming. heater orinstallag b sumer needs.For example, onecannottrou- ofmaterialstomeettheircon- change theform ety of“tools”andprocessesthathumansuseto too simplistic.Onemustalsoconsiderthevari- However, Warner thisexplanation mightfind a cur ingly digital,which appeartobeappropriatefor processes. Tools have changedandareincreas- the needtoincludenew technological toolsand past two decadesandthathewould understand ourpracticeinthe that hasbeentransforming of the“technological problem-solving method” to thehealthofournation. ascomputers)isessential (not narrowly defined national leadersthatthestudyoftechnology And, we needtoimpressuponourstateand technolo dwindle anddie. allo andthatthenhave platform industrial arts on teachingandlear will focusonw resource pro technolo ment ofteachereducationinfavor ofindustrial appointed withthealmostnationwideabandon- education programs. Warner would dis- bevery teachers andwe areclosingtoomany teacher primarily becausewe arenotproducing enough Technology Group III:Transitions toEngineering education withoutalaborator that almostany teachercouldteachtechnology much uniquenesstothef Fur nology education T Prospectus Literacy based onthe cer ec leshoot andreplaceather ned abouttheasser hnolo thermore, hewouldthermore, say thatthereisnot w Warner would thatthe notbeconcerned Associates feltthat Warner mightapprove A fe As mentionedearlier riculum designedtoreflecttechnology. ed theteachereducationpro . Hopefully, programs theinstructional gies shapeourhuman-madeworld. gy w respondentse g y , engineeringtechnology, orhuman . Rather and g Standar rams thatha hat we dobest,namely, “hands Curriculum toReflect has littleornoidentitytoday. , hew rab barinasho ning” abouthow industrial ds for Technological tion thatthename xpressed positi ould bemorecon ield an , vitalsignsarebad ve onan beenbuilt mostat onaw y. ymore toapoint g t ofthe w rams to er solel v ater e out tec - y b h - - y b context. “industrial” heritagewithinthesocial-cultural education shouldcontinuetofocusonour mendation thatgeneralstudiesintechnolo value of“doersversus talkers” andhisrecom- forget hismany pronouncementsofteachingthe technology.neering andinformation Onecannot ing, especially asonebegins tolinkwithengi- and practicedaboutactivity andactivity learn- not leave behindwhat we have solongknown society, hewould alsoremindusthatwe ought with ourtechnological andculturalshiftsin new innovations tokeep up asbeingimportant alike. both disciplines,engineeringandeducation can becomeamutuall soul were devoted toteachereducation, and because respondentsdid considering thesignif schools. Ho tion” oftechnology withothersubjectsinthe cation teachers. preparationoftechnology ofpreservice edu- ery engineering depar ha most par and ha have hadtodealwithglobalizationforexample each hasmoved forward withthetimes. Both have remainedsupportive ofeachotherwhile and theprofession. scholarly recognition totechnology educators much goodforpro Warner. Clearly, bothorganizations have done the work andcommitmentof William E. a strok Development Group IV: Leadershipand project updates. steps toresolv Standards Project’ technology.instructional Iamaware thatthe something todowithcomputerinstr ogy education persons didcommentthat in ourprofessionover thepastfew years. A few y theStandardsProjectsuppor v e stimulatedandcontrib Results oftheearlierGalluppollsponsored While Warner would embracesomeofthe National leaders report thatEPTandITEA National leadersreport The creationofEPTandITEAwas clearly ve adaptedwell tothisinfluence. For the e ofgeniusandw t, respondentsfeltthatEPTand ITEA w e e thisissueaspar ver, onemustbecautiouswhen really was. Mostthoughtithad And frommy perspective, this tments, especially inthedeliv- s leadershipstaf viding professionaland icance ofthoseresults y beneficial outcomefor y beneficial as duealmostsolel not W uted tomajorchange ar know what ner’ t the“inte t oftheirrecent f hastak s hear uction or t and technol- g gy en ra y to - The Journal of Technology Studies 17 as no rams seemed g xamples include le e A Curriculum to Reflect Technology for All for Technology ral to the teaching of g uctional pro as to become. Related to this in 1947 has been built the philo- on gnized by the general public such as the general public gnized by project. As such, the profession must coalesce and But the profession was not “unified”But the profession was like First, we should feel good about our profes- we First, Warner would have been open-minded have would Warner e been or w v gy education. Instr strive to focus on a core set of subject titles that strive can be reco issue is the fact that as a profession, we have not have issue is the fact that as a profession, we definedsatisfactorily education or technology implemented it as part of the successfully school curriculum, thus causing much confusion and a lack of national support for the field. sophical principles and foundations described in sophical principles and foundations described that document. Some notab at Ohio efforts the curriculum development Wisconsin— of University State University, of Maryland in the 60s Stout, and University reflected the work to some extent, and 70s and, in the ITEA-sponsored Americans math or science; and as a result, there w or agreement industrial single voice as to what education should arts technology education or ha Technology Group V: Other Observations— Other V: Group & Future Accomplishments Expectations the over sional accomplishments and progress academic subject matter past century as a new the past century with roots over has evolved from the study of manual training, to emerging technol- manual arts, to industrial arts, and now o to be focused and inte “industrial technological” concepts. “industrial technological” self-congratulatory) to enough (and somewhat been conceptualized has see that much of what of since the publication ence. Some concerns focused on loyalty and Some concernsence. on loyalty focused support political creating or continuation for the in K–12. For education technology vitality of education department if a state example, recom- education elimination of technology mends the the the continuation of as it announces programs as experiences education of technology delivery part one of science and social science classes, that NSF reason to believe must ask if there is that from happening. intervene to prevent would education technology independent would And, part as of the continue to be offered programs common school curriculum? - - y ed ork as a ould ratulated y w , he w ner w ar W vist and clearl rassroots political arenas. orking and getting others to sup as an acti As mentioned earlier es and their adoption/adaptation b v riculum. ITEA is to be cong ner w as also suggested that ar It w W Our profession has created and maintained has created and Our profession ner would probably have liked to see liked have probably ner would t his mission and goals. As such, he would t his mission and goals. ar applaud ITEA’s demonstrated efforts to collabo- efforts demonstrated applaud ITEA’s to rate with other professional organizations education. promote the study of technology Warner associates felt that several However, ITEA been ambivalent—praising have would (e.g., funding successes with NSF for its work and consequent standards and cur- and NASA, but disappointed in its riculum development) ability to capitalize on these successes in the local and national g to assistance from ITEA particularly aggressive those local educational agencies and state tech master at netw por W are under programs where organizations nology siege. representa- included different have most likely as part of his educational and political tives counsel rather than math, engineering, or sci the profession will be indicators of their long- the profession will be indicators of their edu- in restructuringterm the technology value cation cur local and state educational agen- for involving cies, teachers, and supervisors in these develop- mental efforts. with other educational and political in harmony to promote the causes of technolo- organizations gy education. relationships with accreditation groups with accreditation relationships as such placing our field of in the position NCATE, accreditation standards along superior having The subjects in our schools. with the other core Standards’ also a great addition. were initiatives to how teachers struggle knowing However, use of them as far good as the curriculummake is concerned.with a writ- ITEA has responded edu- technology standards-based ten innovative, Through their Bright Ideas cation curriculum. Curriculum Online and ICON (Innovative source for informa- there is a “central Network) and innovation tion dealing with technology and world” about the human built innovated and Technological it is correlated of to the Standards curricu-These appear to be excellent Literacy. lum initiati questioned EPT’s decision to extend its mem- its to extend decision EPT’s questioned and servicesbership “industrial to nonteaching fields.technology” The Journal of Technology Studies 18 responsibility that in the futureprofessorateandleadership. teacher educationprograms aswell aspreparing g cate theneedforre University. Thus, Warner would strongly advo- Arizona StateUniversity, andPennsylvania State Colorado,UniversityNorthern of West Virginia, Polytechnic andStateUniversity, University of University, University ofIllinois, Virginia Minnesota, Uni University ofMaryland, University of toral recipientssince World War II,including uni matic focus. This includesmostoftheprominent in pro as evidenced by theirclosure,severe reductions teacher educationarevir benef ity and ence, math,andengineeringeducatorsareareal- in Technical Education(ACTE) shouldalsobe CTTE andthe Association forCareer& professional or ITEA leadershipspearheadedsuchefforts. Other states and, ifthe perhaps,itwould bebeneficial tions andpoliticalpolic tiati ensure theattainmentofcommongoals. political inter ITEA. Particularly, hewould encouragegreater tions hehelpedtocreate;namely, EPTandthe profession, especially throughthetwo organiza- podium inproviding leadershipeducationforthe colleagues withw the collective studentsand intelligenceofformer education andthestudyofcomputers. recognize thedifference between technology perhaps inafew years thepublic willbeable to ment basedonthe2000contentstandards,and develop- toengage incurriculum opportunities come to or woods, metals,anddrafting.Colleaguesmust us. been successfulinitsown way like science. chemistry, physics, andlifesciences.Mathhas what sciencehasdonewithitssubjects:biology, raduate pro v olv v The public probably only knows usasshop v ersities thatg And finally, leadership mustbea“shared” Doctoral leadershipprograms intechnology that I amcertain Warner would have in faith The othersubjectareashave 100years on e needstoreachtheg icial relationship. gram andfaculty,gram and/orchangedprogram- ed intheseef , hopefully, thiswillbecomeamutually gether toacceptthechallengeand g vention by technology educators to rams toensuretheoperation of ganizations suchasEPTand v ersity ofMissouri, raduated themajorityofdoc- hom heenjoyed sharingthe vitalization ofouruni for v olv ts. P y decisionmak tuall es uni ar rassroots organiza- tnerships withsci y nonexistent today v ersity faculty, T e xas ers inall This ini- versity A&M - w pro out adoubt,we would have enjoyed more ogy educationhascomeintoitsown. And with- an ar AIAA (which laterbecameITEA)andEPT Warner’s insightsandleadershipincreatingthe islative without support Warner. Butgiven cation) completewithfederalfundingandleg- that ofastep-childtradeandvocational edu- cational subject(andnotnecessarily relegated to nology educationmighthave evolved asaprevo- William E. Warner. From my perspective, tech- would belike today withouttheinfluenceof toouryouthservices andnation. education andtoensurequalityinstr this professionalrevitalization oftechnology process ifwe aretobesuccessfulinmanaging agency, organization, orentitymustdominatethe improvement Noone ofqualityinstruction. and provide toensurethedelivery support and have theprofession aresponsibilityto“serve” Professionalassociations ers, andsupervisors. ofeducation,classroomteach- state departments let usremindour colleaguesoftheirmoral nology education program forthis new century, to sponsor. As we prepareforcreatingthe tech- comes ofany professionalinitiative they choose impactontheout- sion willhave asignificant responsib that thepersonalityandleadership styleofthose the professionalw responses! w often pioneersbecomepopulartargets, which he students suggested, championsare pioneers and technology education. And asoneofhisformer lution andpromotionofwhat we now know as Nevertheless, hewas a“champion”fortheevo- achieve what he thoughtwas important. “master” atmanipulatingthepower chainto egotistical, self-centered, overly anda confident, outstanding leader!Hew visionar was intelligent,professional,aneducational very into hishead, sotospeak.Ontheplusside,he unique personanditw sar this dialogue andcelebrationofthe75thanniver- In Retrospect ork as andclearl y ofthefoundingEPT gress if gress Warner andhiscolleagueshad Some asked what technology education One lessonw I’m delightedtoha ed inhar ra y ofcur y, successfulinnovator, avery andan le forchar mony toachieve common goals. y hisbeha ricular e shouldlear ork of ting thecourseofourprofes -related initiati as abitdif v vior ofteninvited such e beenapar W as alsothoughttobe illiam E. Warner is . Warner was avery n fromstudying f icult toget ves, technol- uctional ticipant in - The Journal of Technology Studies 19 - - ard g onder- w ver, belong to a ver, e w , ho gy tain misconceptions re And, its future is in your hands, its future is in your And, th and be the best you can! the best you th and be gists in the United States in key areas gists in the United States in key veying) in licensing and maintaining the in licensing veying) ied as engineering, engineering technolo en though cer inally, my expectation is that William E. William that is expectation my inally, v The college education of engineers and The college Dr. James J. Buffer, Jr. is Horace G. Fralin G. is Horace Jr. Buffer, J. James Dr. All fifty with the NCEES states work F profession! profession! Introduction technolo such as construction, manufacturing, communi- cations, and transportation manifests itself in the form degree that can be of three broad programs identif Engineering and industrial technology. gy, a long history in the U.S., degree have programs and e professional competence of engineers Engineering technology (http://www.ncees.org). and industrial technolo class of degree that have programs newer Professor and Dean Emeritus, College of and Dean Emeritus, College Professor Dean of Associate Tech; Virginia Education, of Education Emeritus, and Professor Research Alpha of He is a member Ohio State University. Distinguished Service his Chapter and received Citation in 1987. still exist ing the profession of the engineer may it is fair to state that among the general public, understood well the profession is relatively at among high school students and the public large. (National Council of Examiners for Engineers and Sur ful so go for Warner’s final be a reminder would admonition Warner’s to be a been and continues that this has - le to assume that ves. ves. es recommendations from xamines various resources xamines various gists, e ree programs may not have adequate not have may ree programs g ds or This paper takes aim at one specific,This paper takes as Petronius Arbiter said, “… reorganizing … “… reorganizing said, Arbiter Petronius gy de ell as basic, need in teamwork and interdisci- ell as basic, need in teamwork eyw K Ethics, Industrial Curriculum Development, Professionalism, Societal Technology, Obligations Abstract w plinary projects – ethics and its implications for A preliminary study sug- professional practice. gests that students majoring in industrial tech- nolo opportunity in eth- study and engage to formally vis-à-vis the practices ical aspects of technology of the profession. It is reasonab an industrial tech- the ethical dilemmas faced by parallel those of engineers and would nologist this issue, this paper iden- address To managers. consti- tifies that would a domain of knowledge tute a necessary background in ethics for indus- trial technolo Ethics for Industrial Technology Kurt A. Rosentrater and Radha Balamuralikrishna for teaching, and mak point of view. a pedagogical responsibility to reach out and embrace the gen the and embrace reach out to responsibility eral membership to share in the refinement to share eral membership of professional initiati goals and and confusion, indifference, could produce been these factors have Clearly, demoralization.” education but technology in apparent, not only not visit disciplines. Let’s in numbers of other but consequences, as incen- them as negative and prosper as to grow and motivators tives the field. envisioned Warner
The Journal of Technology Studies 20 ethics attheinstitutional, industrial,andnation fessions isunderscored by theemphasison of ethicstothesetechnicalpro- The importance implementation strategies forsuchanendeavor. riculum, ande sion ofethicsintheindustrial technology cur- inclu- ing amoresubstantialcasefor theformal The restofthispaperisdirectedto separate courseorblended intothecurriculum. should includetheteachingofethicseitherasa designed toprepareindustrialtechnolo neers. Duetothisreasonalone,acurriculum safety andpublic healthequalsthatofengi- industrial technologist’s responsibilitytowards trial technology. From asocietal viewpoint, the engineering, engineeringtechnology, andindus- ser there shouldbeacorebodyofknowledge that and innovations. At themostfundamentallevels, front ofpresentandfuturetechnicalmarvels of thesethreeprogramsatthefore- oftenserve trial technolo engineering, engineeringtechnolo existing differences instatus andmissionof (http://www neering andengineeringtechnology programs similaritieswithengi- riculum sharessignificant ing e (www.nait.org/jit/jit.html), thereisoverwhelm- distinctive competency ofindustrialtechnology (www.nait.org). pool continuestoexpand onayearly basis nologists in today,American industry andthat community ofengineeringandindustrialtech- States. remainsthatweThe fact have alarge among educatorsbasedoutsidetheUnited confusionformany,pose significant especially ing technologist” and“industrialtechnologist” sally understood;however, “engineer- theterms state thattheprofessionof“engineer”isuniver- to states.Itisalsofair neering inany ofthefifty tional requirementstoseeklicensureinengi- industrial technology doesnotmeettheeduca- examination. To date,however, in adegree ify forthetitleof“professionalengineer”by holding engineeringtechnology toqual- degrees statesdoallowagencies. Certain graduates trial technologist” arenotregulated by statutory sions of“engineeringtechnolo the past30to40y g 2003). The four-year “technology” pro- degree generall rams have beeninpopularexistence foronly v es tounitetheclosel Although muchhasbeensaidre vidence thattheindustrialtechnolo y eludedpublic knowledge (Minty, .nait.or gy v , studentsg en moreimpor ears, and currently theprofes- ears, andcurrently g). Notwithstandingthe y relatedprofessionsof raduating froman tantl gist” and“indus- gy y w , discusses , andindus- ards prepar g arding the gists gy cur- y - - ula. ethics intheengineeringandtechnolo (http://www annual national alone, 78papershave beenpresentedatthe al le status ofre successfull Engineering (FE)examination, which mustbe is oneofthecoreareasinFundamentals kno “ethics” intherequiredcontentdomain(i.e., Technology (ABET),have clearly specified the similar standardsforengineering,established by Colle g The accreditationstandardsforb to achieve success(Ward andDugger, 2002). inorder plines suchasengineeringandbusiness disci- best practicesofotherclosely affiliated the disciplineneedstoadaptandadoptfrom industrial technolo (http://www.nait.org). in Leadersandexperts minal de industrial technology programs today have ter- 25% ofregular membersthatteachin faculty e more laborator (b) industrialtechnolo intensive asstandardengineering coursesand (a) thesearegenerally notasmathematically flair (e.g.,knowledge base) withthecaveat that nology coursesoftenpossessan“engineering” industrial technolo of responsible foraccreditationandcertification the discipline.NAITbody isalsotheofficial constantl also provides foritsassociatesto aplatform Technology (NAIT) provides leadershipand 2004). The National Association ofIndustrial areas ofengineeringandtechnology (Helsel, ofthedisciplineincore plished by affiliates levels,and international have beenaccom- bothatthenational contributions, significant (Minty, 2003;www.epsilonpitau.org). Even so, we know ittoday hasarelatively history short Technology Current Statusof Treatment ofEthicsinIndustrial into theexisting statusofethicsinthe industrial similar study xperiential lear rams estab Accreditation BoardforEngineeringand wledge base).Moreo vels. In fact, during the last five yearsvels. duringthelastfive Infact, The disciplineofindustrialtechnology as Short ofconducting anationalsurvey or Short giate SchoolsofBusiness(AA grees inengineering grees y expand boththebreadth anddepthof y completedby peopleseeking the gistered orprofessionalengineer lished by the American Assembly of .asee.org) thatdiscussteaching , aneffective meanstogain insight y orientedwithemphasison ASEE conferences ning gy have acknowledged that gy programs. Industrialtech- Additionall gy coursestendtobe v er , engineeringethics y usiness pro- , morethan CSB), and gy curric- . The Journal of Technology Studies 21 - fec xist for wledge and vironmental laws, vironmental gists much along s kno grams should clearly gy pro ely involved right from the ini- involved ely v ASME (American Society of velopment requires industrial technol- velopment le in critical operational areas such as areas such critical operational le in In a recent study (Helsel, 2004), an ef ell as other operational areas, could poten- operational areas, ell as other ther to state that accreditation standards for gists to be acti tially pose a myriad of ethical issues. For exam- issues. For of ethical a myriad pose tially the industrial area, quality approval ple, in the responsibility to the have may technologist continued ISO 9000 certi-maintain records for fication, parts being sold that are either approve might or she/he or end user, to another vendor incoming parts the authority to approve be given of a multi- think One can easily from a supplier. that relate to these respon- tude of ethical issues sibilities including integrity of data, integrity of appropriate confidentialityprocess, maintaining products of new The development and privacy. and services in the 20th century demand of interdisciplinary collab- unprecedented levels and the 21st century oration and teamwork, greater challenges in even promises to provide The these areas with attendant ethical issues. engineering mode of to a simultaneous switch product de a code of establishing made for case was tive ethics for industrial technolo quality approval, workplace hazards and safety and hazards workplace approval, quality compliance with en standards, one of these, with customers. Each and dealing as w o the lines of those codes that already e specify ethics in the content domain of knowl- edge and outcomes assessment. the Certified Industrial Contemporaneously, should reflect appro- examination Technologist priate testing of a candidate’ skill in dealing with potential ethical issues of the profession. accountab tial concept design stage, thus posing greater in product safety and environmen- involvement work- both the individual tal issues affecting as society in general. place as well been ratified respec- have by engineers, which such as NCEES, professional bodies, tive AIChE (American Institute of Chemical ABET, (American Society of Civil ASCE Engineers), Engineers), Mechanical Engineers), ASQ (American Society Mechanical Engineers), for Quality), and IEEE (Institute of Electrical this ways, and Electronics Engineers). In many paper complements and bolsters that argument. agree delineated position, but with the go We fur industrial technolo - y - e gy pro AIT gree cur- el management gy de v ic requirement. gists is in its infan- AIT accredited Bachelor’s AIT accredited y accept junior le gy curriculum the stan- examine is to as the certification as well gy programs hich this paper seeks to address. It is ving made its first appearance in 2003. Graduates of industrial technology pro- Graduates of industrial technology Additionally, an examination of curricular an examination Additionally, , w rect this by ensuring that competency in ensuring that competency rect this by , ha rams typicall oid y xams for industrial technologists. The curricu- technologists. xams for industrial g Current Needs in Treatment of Ethics Treatment Needs in Current quick- or rise to this level roles at the entry level a critical link between often provide They ly. senior management, and the operating staff, As hands-on professionals, engineering team. but also responsible are often not only they degree programs are summarized by its accredi- by are summarized degree programs 6.1 Table # 6.3.5; specifically, tation Standard said clause (www.nait.org). embedded under the that ethics is not reveals A study of this section subject matter competency one of the required receive areas. It is truemay that some students some background general edu- in ethics through the However, electives. cation courses or open compe- a student gains wisdom in hoping that assuming that they chance or in ethics by tency professional benefitsare not going to gain from questionable. is highly this knowledge Furthermore, certification the NAIT cites exam areas: production planning competency four key and management quality, and control, safety, in and supervision. competency Here again, be worth- stated. It may ethics is not explicitly for certifi- exam noting that this national while cation of industrial technolo c requirements across a broad range of N that very accredited degree reveals programs in ethics under coursework institutions offer few the auspices of their industrial technolo the k riculum that mandates a course bearing that this observation realize We “ethics.” word a case for the lack of in itself does not make of ethics in the curriculum. However, coverage be a strong indicator of the presence of a it may v assume that programs that several quite possible in ethics will be acquired through competency We general education courses or open electives. assert is the case, the assumption is that if this and attempts should be made to flawed likely cor ethics is spelled out as a specif dards for both the accreditation of industrial of the accreditation for both dards technolo e for N lar requirements technolo gram (http://www.nait.org). We were unable to unable were We gram (http://www.nait.org). single out an industrial technolo
The Journal of Technology Studies 22 the tab ful. mon engineeringethicste curricula. ethics intomainstreamindustrialtechnology of componentstosuccessfulintegration essary ods, andasubsequentplanofactionareallnec tent domain,teachingresources,meth- necessar technolo Thus, tohelpf fession sothatitwillremainrele ofadaptingtotheneedspro- long history Addressing theNeeds nology anddesign arereally applicationsof for- student shouldunderstandthat industrialtech- ing problems withmoraldilemmas. Third, the major theoriesthatareused, andtoolsforsolv- ofethicalthought,the including abriefhistory e fessional careers.Second, thestudent shouldbe study andwhy itwillbeessentialfortheirpro- w should begin withanintroductiontoethics, focus areasforthistypeofcourse. The course the authorsrecommendessentially seven major are outlinedin Table 2. As thistable delineates, the ethicsofindustrialtechnology. These themes and utilizedinanappropriatecoursede of commonalitythatshouldbeamalgamated books individually, several areas hasidentified the substanti nolo ofindustrialtech- equally applicable tothefield covered inengineeringethicstexts would be ination oftab the disciplineofindustrialtechnology, anexam- content domainforethicswhich isapplicable to exists. Thus, inorderto establish anappropriate cated tothedisciplineofindustrialtechnolo time, however, noethicstextbook solely dedi- books which beingused. arecurrently At this tial coursecontentisthee An effective mechanismforestablishing poten- course devoted toindustrialtechnology ethics. provides aframework fromwhich todevelop a traditional engineering. This bodyofknowledge which separatefrom,thatof isrelatedto,but encompasses adistinctbodyofknowledge Content Domain xposed tothefoundationsof ethical theor here thestudentisintroducedtothisareaof These aredepictedin gy aswell. The field ofindustrialtechnology hashada The field Examining Table 1,aswell asdelvinginto As adiscipline,industrialtechnology le itise y toconsider. Specifically, coursecon- gy programs, several key elementsare v les ofcontentsfromse e contentdomainsofeachthese vident thatman ill this current needinindustrial ill thiscurrent xtbooks would beuse- T xamination ofte able 1. Throughout y ofthetopics vant over time. v eral com v oted to xt y , gy - - - ness (Tables 5and6). namely, engineering(Tables 3and4)busi- ofindustrialtechnology,ly intersectthefield dent shouldbea of technological applications.Finally, thestu- well asenvironmental consequencesasaresult concepts,as business including international impacts thatindustrialtechnology canhave, the studentshouldbeaware ofthebroad becoming ubiquitousintheprofessionalworld, Sixth,withglobalization upon graduation. have asbothemployees aswell asprofessionals common rightsandresponsibilitiesthey will arenas. Fifth,aboutthe thestudentshouldlearn abounds, especially inthedesignandoperations technology hasmany areaswhere uncertainty risk andsafety, ofindustrial becausethefield the studentshouldunderstandconceptsof Fourth, responsibility areessentialtothisfield. mal e ty toreachreasonable resolutions. Becauseof sional careers,andwillhopefully have theabili- situationsthatmay arise intheirprofes- cific elucidate ande oftheworkare part force,they willbeable to mation andskillstostudents, sothatoncethey type ofcourseshouldbetoteachpracticalinfor technology course. The mainobjective ofthis should notbeanendinitselfforindustrial nings ofethicslays essentialgroundwork, it Teaching Methods according tothetw Moreover, thesereferencesarecategorized ies, isprovided below in Tables 3through6. many ofwhich provide amultitudeofcasestud- recent textbooks aswell websites, ascurrent Therefore, acomprehensi rials areabsolutel industrial technology, teachingmate- supporting implement entireethicscoursesdevoted to semester, aswell asthosewho may designand coursework atappropriate locationsduringthe modules intoe educational individual, specific incorporating T 2004). common ethicsforthisprofession(Helsel, institute acodethatformally delineatesthe one established, to thereismomentumbuilding of industrialtechnology have doesnotcurrently ethics forotherdisciplines. Although thefield eac hing Resour Although teachingthetheoreticalunderpin- For who bothinstructors areinterestedin xperimentation, andthussafety xisting industrialtechnolo xamine themoralissuesofspe ces ware ofprofessionalcodes y essentialtosuccess. o disciplinesthatmostclose v e listingofboth gy - - - this necessary focus, a strong emphasis must be specific learning modules, into existing course- placed in the classroom on the examination of work. Many approaches have been found to be 23 real-life industrial case studies (Pritchard, 1992). quite successful (Dyrud, 1998). Some of these The Jour avenues include integrating focused ethics com- Case studies offer students the ability to see ponents (theory as well as case study analyses) beyond the confines of their own educational into specific technical courses (Alenskis, 1997; nal of T settings and personal experiences, and to peer Arnaldo, 1999; Case, 1998; Krishnamurthi, into the challenges, problems, environments, 1998; Whiting et al., 1998), examining ethical echnology Studies and operating conditions of the real world issues during technical problem solving in spe- which, unfortunately, many students are never cific technical courses (Rabins et al., 1996), exposed to until after graduation. Moreover, issues and topics for ethical review during cap- well-defined, thorough case studies offer stu- stone experiences (Pappas and Lesko, 2001; dents insights into the strengths as well as the Soudek, 1996), ethics components in course- frailties of the human condition under the stress work dedicated to professionalism (Bhatt, 1993; of the working world, which they are soon to Fulle et al., 2004), topical seminars (Alford and enter themselves. Ward, 1999), as well as integration throughout the entire curriculum (Marshall and Marshall, Introducing and analyzing case studies in 2003; Davis, 1992; Leone and Isaacs, 2001). the classroom provides opportunities to teach students how to formally and methodically Conclusions examine industrial scenarios, and thus hone The steady growth in the number of indus- moral problem solving skills. By using this trial technology programs, both at the two-year approach, students can practice discerning rele- and four-year levels, during the past thirty years vant facts from opinions, identifying specific challenges associates of the discipline to con- moral dilemmas and disagreements, breaking stantly look for ways to identify gaps in the down ethical issues into components, weighing existing college curriculum and address these risks and benefits of possible actions, choosing issues to further increase the value of its gradu- a course of action, justifying this action, and ates, bolster their qualities and abilities, and accepting possible repercussions from the choic- enhance the image of the discipline. Our prelim- es made (NIEE, 2005). inary research indicates that industrial technolo- gy programs should immediately address the A challenge for educators is to either devel- lack of a core body of knowledge in ethics op or find appropriate case studies for use in specifically aimed to be of service to its stu- their own classrooms. The aforementioned dents, alumni, and affiliates. Moreover, because teaching resources, which include a fairly exten- this is such an essential area of training, future sive listing of textbooks and websites, offer a revisions of the NAIT accreditation standards plethora of case studies. Even though the should specifically include ethics as a core com- authors have tried to be exhaustive, many more petency requirement, and the Certified websites exist which are not listed here, and the Industrial Technologist examination should duly reader is encouraged to explore the Internet for emphasize ethics as an area of testing. more. Dr. Kurt A. Rosentrater is a Lead Scientist Plan of Action with the United States Department of As already discussed, within the context of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, in the industrial technology discipline, the essential Brookings, SD. He is a member of Zeta Chapter need for ethics education is currently not being of Epsilon Pi Tau. met. To adequately cover the extensive range of topics relevant to this proposal (i.e., Table 2), Dr. Radha Balamuralikrishna is an associ- the authors recommend a full-semester stand- ate professor in the Department of Technology alone course. Understandably, not all academic at Northern Illinois University. He is Co-Trustee programs will be able to accommodate this of Zeta Chapter of Epsilon Pi Tau. addition with all other programmatic require- ments currently in place. Therefore, it is benefi- cial to examine other mechanisms for incorpo- rating ethics instruction, either as individual topics, components, or units that can be used as
The Journal of Technology Studies 24 e d c b a Notes: Table 1:SampleTables ofContentsfromEngineeringEthicsTexts SeveralContemporary 1 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Chapter McGraw HillHigherEducation. Schinzinger Fledder Martin, M.andR.Schinzinger.Martin, 2004. EthicsinEngineering.New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Mitchum, C.andR.Duvall. 2000.EngineeringEthics.Upper SaddleRiver, NJ:PrenticeHall. Belmont, CA: C.,M. Pritchard,Harris, andM.Rabins.2004.EngineeringEthics:ConceptsCases. 1 0 mann, C.2004.EngineeringEthics.UpperSaddleRiver, NJ:Pearson Education,Inc. Fledder T Right the Doing & Research in Ethics E of Responsibilities & Rights Accidents R Techniques Solving Problem E Understanding Ethics of Codes & Professionalism Introduction h ngineers Problems thical s,Safety, isk, E i , R.andM.Mar n x g p WadsworthLearning. Thompson e r mann imentation a tin. 2000.IntroductiontoEngineeringEthics.Boston,MA: Reliability Integrity, Honesty, Engineers R Principles Organizing P Moral for Methods Problem the Framing Case the Making Ethics: Engineering Har Ethics P E I Environment the & Engineers E as Engineers L Safety, Risk, nternational olmSolving roblem oesoaim& rofessionalism n m i esponsible a gineering b p ris i l l o ity b y e e s Textbook Leaders C Engineers of Rights Employers R Safety for Responsibility E S as Engineering Theories Ethical & Reasoning Moral Ethics of Aims & Scope Mar niern Codes Engineering Sample M as Engineers Issues Global ocial xperimentation o sosblt to esponsibility a n n s tin agers, u l t c a n s & ts, Loyalty Professionalism M Institutions & Ethics Theories Ethical Ethics of Dimensions Different Exploring Relative? Ethics Is Mitcham Environment E C E E Consent Informed Responsibility Honesty gneig&the & ngineering n thical o dl of odels iern & gineering n lc Resolution flict d lblIssues Global Rights & Responsibilities W Safety to Commitment S as Engineering Theories Ethical & Reasoning Moral Engineering of Profession Schinzinger E Sample E ocial n xperimentation orkplace g i n e rn Codes ering e The Journal of Technology Studies 25 porations and economics vironment ardship vs. society national cor w yee responsibilities yee • Status of the en vs. corporations and industry• Stewardship vs. government • Stewardship • Ste • Minimalist care • Reasonable • Good works • Inter transfer Technology • and practices • International values • International rights • Human rights • Stewardship vs. economics and costs vs. economics • Stewardship vironmental Ethics En Employee relationships Employee Emplo Ethical responsibilities Impediments to responsibilities Honesty Integrity Reliability Confidentiality Conflicts of interest Professional rights rights Employee blowing vs. whistle loyalty Company International business Professional Codes of Ethics Professional Workplace Responsibilities and Rights Responsibilities Workplace Global Issues lem solving lic risk tainty in design Technology as Experimentation Technology y study ethics? tue • What are they? • used for? What are they • limitations? What are their • • Personal ethics • Personal • Professional ethics uthfulness ir r ersonal risk vs. pub Risk-benefit analysis Reducing risks Risk and uncer P Industrial standards for design Definitions of safety Need for responsible experimentation Need for responsible Methods for moral prob Design process as a process of experimentation Self interest and ethics Professional commitments Customs and ethics Religion and ethics Ethics of Duty History of ethical thought Ethics of Utilitarianism Ethics of Rights Corporate climates and ethics Codes of ethics Moral dilemmas Defining morals Defining ethics Professional environments for industrial technologists for industrial environments Professional Design processes Importancein professional life of morals Wh V T Accidents Assessing risks Accepting risks Accountability in design Commitment to Safety Design and Ethical Theories and Moral Reasoning Theories and Moral Ethical Introduction to Ethics Introduction Table 2: Essential Content Domain for an Industrial Technology Ethics Course Ethics Technology an Industrial for Domain Content 2: Essential Table
The Journal of Technology Studies 26 Table 3:EngineeringandTechnology EthicsBooks W W V Unger, S.1995. T Spinello, R.2002. Spier, R.2001. Spier, R.2001. Se Seebauer Schlossberger, E.1993. Schinzinger P Pincus, R.,L.Shuman,N. Hummon,andH. Wolfe. 1997. Mitchum, C.andR.Duv Ma M.andR.Schinzinger.Martin, 2004. Low, N. 2001. King, K.andHumphre Jonas, H.1985. Johnson, D. 2000. Johnson, D. 1990. J.Hekert, 2000. C.,M.Pritchard,Harris, andM.Rabins.2004. C.,M.Pritchard,Harris, andM.Rabins.1997. Gunn, M.,M.Mehalik,andP.Gorman, Werhane. 1999. Flowers, W. andC. Whitbeck. 1998. Flores, Fledder Davis, M.1998. Beder, S.1998. Alcor ourciau, L.1999. a esilind, P. and A. Gunn.1998 eston, ilco v v y, L.,S.Collins-Chobanian,andK. Wong. 2002. ani, H.2003. erson, R.1997. Hill HigherEducation. Van Nostrand ReinholdCompany. and Risk–LessonsLearnedfr Macmillan Education. of ElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,Inc. Thompson Engineering. River, NJ:PrenticeHall. University ofChicagoPress. 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The EthicalEngineer. ys. 1999. T ec hnology: EthicalIssuesinan Age ofInformation andCommunication Engineering Hold P Fundamentals ofEthicsf om theSpaceShuttle. Engineering andEn Engineering Ethics. . UpperSaddleRiver, NJ:PrenticeHall. What EveryEngineerShouldKno onic Inf Ethics inEngineeringPractice andResearch. Ethics inEngineering Intr gement inEngineering aramount: The Engineer’s ResponsibilitytoSociety ormation Ethics. oduction toEngineeringEthics. ormation inthe Upper SaddleRi , Ethics,andtheEnvironment Temple University Press. Engineering Ethics:ConceptsandCases Practicing EngineeringEthics CRC Press. Routledge. Brunner Routledge. Brunner Upper SaddleRiver, NJ:PrenticeHall. Ethical andEnvironmental Challenges toEngineering Applied Ethics: Ne vir Upper SaddleRi w Cambridge Uni onmental Ethics: A CaseStudy Approach Shar or ScientistsandEngineer Y Engineering Ethics:BalancingCost,Schedule, ork, NY . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. T ver, NJ:Pearson Education,Inc. w . Uni . UpperSaddleRi pe. enty-F versity Pressof America. Upper SaddleRiver, NJ:PrenticeHall. : OxfordUni A Multicultural Approach ir w st Century. About Ethics. ver, NJ:PrenticeHall. versity Press. . CambridgeUni Boston, MA:McGra . New York, NY: Institute Holt Rinehart and Holt Rinehart Winston. ver, NJ:PrenticeHall. versity Press. Purdue Uni Oxford University Press. Cambridge University Press. s . OxfordUni Marcel Dekk . Belmont,CA: . versity Press. v . UpperSaddle New York,NY: ersity Press. w v . . ersity Press. er . . The Journal of Technology Studies 27 . . Wiley. nia Press . Amacom. . . . Sage Publications. South Western South Western ersity of Califor ver, NJ: Prentice Hall. NJ: Prentice ver, v estern Publishers. College . Oxford University Press. . Oxford University W . South Western Western . South Uni versity Press. versity . y Wadsworth Publishing. Wadsworth er, NJ: Prentice Hall. er, v South Blackwell Publishers. Blackwell Academ y & Sons. Prometheus Books. w Hill. . McGraw Hill. . McGraw Oxford Uni Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, ile Upper Saddle Ri Upper Saddle ell Publishers. W . Rowman & Littlefield.. Rowman McGraw Hill. McGraw versity Press. versity Warner. . McGra . . Oxford University Press. . Oxford University John . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. . Upper Saddle River, Blackw Upper Saddle Ri Blackwell Publishers. Blackwell . Chicago, IL: Irwin McGraw-Hill. . Blackwell Publishers. Blackwell w Challenges for Business Schools and Corporate and Corporate Business Schools for w Challenges Blackwell Publishers. Blackwell Business Ethics. . Quirk Books. . McGraw Hill. . McGraw Oxford Uni . Praeger Paperback. . Praeger Teaching International Business: Ethics and Corporate International Business: Ethics and Corporate Teaching Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases. Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making Theory and Business. Theory and ven Cases that Shook the Toolbox. els: Se Ethical Contemporary Issues in Business Ethics. Contemporary Work and Integrity: The Crisis and Promise of Professionalism in America in of Professionalism The Crisis and Promise and Integrity: Work Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, Wake-Up Calls: Classic Cases in Business Ethics. Calls: Classic Wake-Up A Primer on Business Ethics Business Ethics: Ne Managing Business Ethics: Straight Talk About How to do it Right. About How Talk Business Ethics: Straight Managing Case Studies in Business Ethics. Management Ethics. Ethics. Management A Philosophical Reader Business Ethics for the 21st Century the for Business Ethics . Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Business Ethics Issues in Business Ethics on Controversial Views Sides: Clashing Taking national Business Press. y kwell Guide to Business Ethics. Guide kwell Perspectives in Business Ethics Perspectives Work: Basic Readings in Business Ethics. Work: . Inter Century Ethical e’s No Such Thing as Business Ethics No Such e’s st Business Ethics: Concepts and Cases Annual Editions: Business Ethics 03/04 Annual Editions: Business Ethics 04/05. Just Business: Business Ethics in Action Business: Business Ethics in Just Bringing Business Ethics to Life: Achieving Corporate Social Responsibility Corporate Achieving Ethics to Life: Bringing Business The Business Ethics Activity Book: 50 Exercises for Promoting Integrity at Work at Integrity Promoting for Activity Book: 50 Exercises The Business Ethics Business Ethics: Case Studies and Selected Readings. Business Ethics: Case Studies and Selected Ethics and Excellence: Cooperation and Integrity in Business and Integrity Ethics and Excellence: Cooperation The Ethics of Information Technology and Business. Technology The Ethics of Information The Cheating Culture: Why More Americans are Doing Wrong to Get Ahead to Get Wrong Doing are Americans More Why The Cheating Culture: Perspectives in Business Ethics Perspectives flin Compan My First Book of Business Ethics Book of My First Meeting the Ethical Challenges of Leadership: Casting Light or Shadow of Leadership: Meeting the Ethical Challenges Ther Business Ethics. A 21 An Introduction to Business Ethics. An Introduction Business Ethics: Mistakes and Successes. McGraw Hill. McGraw Business Ethics: A Kantian Perspective. Business Ethics: The Blac Scandals and Scoundr Business Ethics: Ethics at Ethics, the Heart of Leadership Business Ethics: A Stakeholder and Issues Management Approach and Issues Management A Stakeholder Business Ethics: Sharpe. . 2003. T. and N. Bowie. 2003. Bowie. and N. T. ge Publishers. y Bass. . 1993. T , R. 2004. W. 2001. Business Ethics. Wadsworth Publishing. Wadsworth 2001. Business Ethics. W. ell, J. 2003. ell, J. y , Leaders. Josse College Publishers. College and Society. Social Responsibility Harvest Books. Houghton Mif ASQ Quality Press. ASQ Quality Colle tle w 2002. W. w, wie, N. 2002. 2002. wie, N. eston, A. 2000. eston, eterson, R. and O. Ferrell. 2004. Ferrell. eterson, R. and O. W White, Velasquez, M. 2001. Velasquez, 2002. J. Weiss, Trevino, L. and K. Nelson. 2003. L. and K. Nelson. 2003. Trevino, Solomon, R. 1993. Sternberg, E. 2000. and L. Shulman. 2004. W. Sullivan, Sha Sha 2001. Humber. and J. Almeder, M., R. Snoeyenbos, Richardson, J. 2004. Richardson, J. Robin, R. 2004. Pincus Hartman, L. 1998. Richardson, J Newton, L. and D. Schmidt. 2003. L. and D. Newton, P Maxw 2002. L. and M. Ford. Newton, Jennings, M. 2002. Johnson, C. 2004. 2003. Chester. and J. T. MacHan, Hartman, L. 2001. 1996. Jackson, J. Gopalkrishnan, R., P. Iyer, and G. Iyer. 2000. 2000. and G. Iyer. Iyer, Gopalkrishnan, R., P. Har Donaldson, T. and A. Gini. 1995. and T. Donaldson, 2001. and L. Ferrell. Fraedrich, J. O., Ferrell, Cuilla, J. 2004. Cuilla, J. R. 2003. De Jorge, McCall. 2004. and J. DesJardins, J. Callahan, D. 2004. Callahan, D. Caroselli, M. 2003. Bowie, N. and P. Werhane. 2004. 2004. Werhane. and P. N. Bowie, M. 2000. Boylan, Beauchamp, Beauchamp, 1999. N. Bowie, Bo Andersen, B. 2004. B. Andersen, A. 2004. Axelrod, Adams, D. and E. Maine. 1997. and E. Maine. Adams, D. Table 4: Business Ethics Books Ethics 4: Business Table
The Journal of Technology Studies 28 Table 5:EngineeringandTechnology EthicsWebsites T Center forEthicsandBusiness–Loyola University, Marymount &JahrUSAPublishing,Case StudiesinBusinessEthics–Gruner Business EthicsCenter–Junior Achievement Worldwide, Business EthicsCaseStudies–ColoradoStateUni Business Ethicsca– The CanadianResourceforBusinessEthics, Business Ethics–SharonStoer Public Accountants, American InstituteofCertified The CenterforBusiness Ethics–University ofSt. Thomas, Houston, EthicsW Ethics Update–University ofSanDiego, EthicsCenter.ca Policy, –CanadianCentreforEthicsandCorporate Ethics CaseStudies–SharonStoerger, University ofIllinois, Complete GuidetoEthicsManagement: An Ethics Toolkit forManagers– Authenticity Consulting,LLC, Center fortheStudyofEthics–Utah Valley StateCollege, Center forEthicalBusinessCultures–Uni Case StudiesinFailures andEthicsforEngineeringEducators–University of Alabama, Case StudiesinEconomicsandEthicsanEarly BiomedicalEngineeringClass– Vanderbilt University, The OnlineEthicsCenterforEngineeringandScience, http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/ubcase.htm#physics The NationalCenterforCaseStudy Teaching inScience–StateUniversity ofNew York at Buffalo, forCivilThe Internet Engineers, http://myweb.lmu.edu/jkasmith/phil330.htm Philosophy 330:EngineeringEthics–Loyola University, Marymount Murdough CenterforEngineeringProfessionalism– Texas Tech University, Murdough CenterforEngineeringProfessionalism–NationalInstituteEthics, Engineering EthicsCaseStudies–Lake SuperiorStateUniversity, Engineering Ethics–University of Virginia, EngineeringResearchInstitute, Earthquake Center fortheStudyofEthicsinSociety– Western Michigan University, Center fortheStudyofEthicsinProfessions–IllinoisInstitute Technology, CEE 440:DesignSeminar–University of Washington, able 6:BusinessEthicsW http://www.inc.com/guides/growth/20806.html http://www http://www.e-businessethics.com http://www http://www http://www http://www.stthom.edu/cbes/ http://www http://ethics.acusd.edu http://www.ethicscentre.ca/ http://www.web-miner.com/ethicscases.htm http://www.mapnp.org/library/ethics/ethxgde.htm http://www.uvsc.edu/ethics/curriculum/business/ http://www.cebcglobal.org/ http://www.ethicsandbusiness.org/index3.htm http://www http://www.onlineethics.org/ http://www.icivilengineer.com/General/Engineering_Ethics/ http://www.coe.ttu.edu/ethics/ethics.htm http://www http://asl.lssu.edu/ethics/cases.htm http://repo-nt.tcc.virginia.edu/ethics/ http://www.eeri.org/home/programs_ethics_previous.html http://ethics.tamu.edu/ http://ethics.iit.edu/ http://courses.washington.edu/cee440/ http://www.eng.uab.edu/cee/faculty/ndelatte/case%5Fstudies%5Fproject/ eb .ca, .ethicsweb.ca .ja.or .businessethics.ca .w .aicpa.or .vanth.org/docs/003_2002.pdf#search='engineering%20ethics%20case%20studies' .niee.org eb-miner g/ethics/case_studies.shtml g/antifraud/spotlight/030409_cases.asp .com/b usethics.htm ger , Uni ebsites versity ofIllinois, v ersity ofSt. versity, Thomas, Minnesota, The Journal of Technology Studies 29 (1): 1-8. Virginia Tech. Tech. Virginia Annual Conference & Annual Conference (2): 1-8. ASEE Journal of Industrial Technology Technology of Industrial Journal Journal of Industrial Technology 20 Technology of Industrial Journal American Society for Engineering ved 01 June 2005]. ved American Society for Engineering Education Society for Engineering American American Society for Engineering Education Annual Education Society for Engineering American Annual Conference & Exhibition. Session 1347. Annual Conference & Exhibition. Session The communication-centered senior design class at rating ethics into modeling courses in engineering. Proceedings rating ethics into modeling courses in engineering. Journal of Industrial Technology 18 Technology of Industrial Journal g ton, R., and Cailie, R. (1998). 1998 American Society for Engineering Education American Society for Engineering Education ur lock. Proceedings of the 2001 xamples. 1996 ASEE Annual Conference Proceedings, Session 1661. ASEE xamples. 1996 T ., . (2001). ning b o, J rated lear thi, M. (1998). Inte . A. (1997). Integrating ethics into an engineering technology course: an interspersed interspersed an course: IntegratingA. (1997). technology an engineering into ethics . ., Shaeiwitz, J g W (4): 1-5. Proceedings, Session 2213. students. 1993 ASEE Frontiers in Education Conference Proceedings, p. 415-418. in Education Conference Proceedings, ASEE Frontiers students. 1993 Proceedings, p. 64-68. in Education Conference ASEE Frontiers 1992 Society for Engineering Education 20 responsibility through e ABET and AACSB. NAIT, making. Available online: http://www.niee.org/pd.cfm?pt=AECM [retrieved 01 June 2005]. [retrieved online: http://www.niee.org/pd.cfm?pt=AECM Available making. http://ethics.tamu.edu/pritchar/an-intro.htm [retrie of the 1998 American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference & Exhibition. 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Articles Evidence Related to Awareness, Adoption, and 30 Implementation of the Standards for Technological Literacy: Content for the Study of Technology Jill F. Russell
Over the past twenty years American educa- here as STL. The information presented is in
echnology Studies tion has seen many changes, and most notable part related to the data generated through the have been those related to accountability and external evaluation of the Technology for All
nal of T assessment. One aspect of these changes has Americans Project. Methodology will be been the movement toward more specified stu- described briefly and findings reviewed. dent learning outcomes. In discipline after disci- Conclusions as to progress will then be present- The Jour pline content standards have been developed ed. outlining that which students should achieve as Background a result of their schooling. The field of technol- ogy education has been no exception. Early in A concern regarding the achievement of the game, in the 1980’s, standards for technolo- technological literacy for all Americans is that gy education programs (although not for student although technology education has been taught achievement, per se) were developed. Then in in schools for years, it has often been delivered the fall of 1994, the International Technology as a single short course. In that context, there is Education Association (ITEA) initiated the limited opportunity for significantly influencing Technology for All Americans Project. This the technological literacy of the general public. project received grant support from both the Yet as the years have passed, technology has National Science Foundation (NSF) and the advanced at an exponential rate such that it now National Aeronautics and Space Administration has a huge impact on life for almost every (NASA). American. As a result, the citizens of the United States are somewhat handicapped by this heavy To this point the Technology for All reliance upon, but lack of knowledge about, Americans Project has included three phases. technology. Simultaneously, Trends in Cumulatively the following have been devel- International Mathematics and Science Study oped: (1) a rationale and structure for technolo- (TIMSS) testing has revealed math and science gy education (ITEA, 1996); (2) content stan- achievement among youth in America does not dards elaborating what K-12 students should compare well internationally. All of this con- know and be able to do with respect to technol- tributes to a potentially weakened scenario in ogy (ITEA, 2000); and (3) standards for tech- relation to maintaining the Nation’s quality of nology education programs, professional devel- life, defense, and productivity (National opment, and assessment of student achievement Academy of Sciences, 2002). (ITEA, 2003). As such, these efforts over the past decade have constituted an important In an effort to assess, at a broad level, the movement for the promotion of technological American public’s views about technology edu- literacy both within technology education and in cation, the International Technology Education related circles. Association sponsored a Gallup Poll on the topic of technological literacy (Rose and Although the development of the various Dugger, 2002). A follow up poll was conducted standards has been an important task, imple- in 2004 (Rose, Gallup, Dugger, and mentation becomes the critical next step if the Starkweather). The results of these polls further standards are to ever reach fruition. The most document the importance of technological liter- well-conceived, quality-crafted standards do lit- acy. In both national samplings, three-quarters tle good if they sit on the shelf unused. The pur- of all respondents indicated they felt it was very pose of this paper is to examine the evidence important “for people at all levels to develop related to awareness, adoption, and implementa- some ability to understand and use technology.” tion of ITEA’s Standards for Technological And in general, the respondents felt the study of Literacy: Content for the Study of Technology technology should be included in the school (ITEA, 2000). The standards will be referred to curriculum. The Journal of Technology Studies 31 . y in STL STL STL STL ears as to xplain the : provide . STL STL , and accountability; Standards for Standards gy educators; and Familiarity with the Familiarity e continuity and stan- v alidity , v Those results are presented in lic; gi ell as K-12 education generall hat. w as almost unanimous both y , viability to have a significantto have on technol- impact A similar survey was made available at the made available was A similar survey As a follow up to item 5 (in Table 1) above, Table up to item 5 (in As a follow the technol- these respondents value Clearly Table 1 shares the respondents’ 1 shares Table familiarity viduals completed and returned the survey STL aried some gy education standards, understand and can credibility warranted. their teaching, is likely at regis- visible, 2005 ITEA conference (highly promised entryThe survey into a tration area). Ninety-six for an Ipod Player. prize drawing indi 2. Table of the 1548 conference attendees, constituting a questions The 2005 survey 6.2% response rate. v Technological Literacy. Technological 2004 from 57% to 86% from 2003 to has grown attendees responding to for ITEA conference increased The ratings of quality have the survey. positive Although period as well. that time over one-third rating the just over with initially, half rated the in 2003, almost as excellent the expectations in 2004. Likewise, as excellent for education in general, education and K-12 ogy expect- both increased from 2003 to 2004 (69% ing a significant educa- impact on technology a significanttion, and 51% expecting impact on K-12 education in general – both in 2004). Opinion w were felt the standards they why asked when range of a important, the respondents provided representative opinions, including the following reportedThey that the reasons. political enable goals; serve as a guide; offer for communicat- a means momentum; provide ing with the pub dardization for teaching; reflect and e is integral to respond to the fact that technology America today. life in o the perceived importance of the perceived best thinking of technolo articulate their importance, the stan- and expect dards to impact both the field of technology education as w As such, a conclusion that some portion of these to incorporate efforts make people may survey (22% of those present at the conference), at the present (22% of those survey regis- conference total (1042) 125 of the as did (constituting a 2004 conference trants at the of participation).12% rate about the with and views - - - wing if areness of ITEA’s w vations and an interview vations ic data collection initia visors, and others. In addi y about a ecutive Director of ITEA, and ecutive e v t sur y teachers, teacher educators, technol A shor The findings will be presented in accor- This article will present data and informa- Of course technology educators would educators technology Of course . In terms of this author’s work, data collec- work, . In terms of this author’s gy education super Surveys at the ITEA Annual Conference Annual at the ITEA Surveys Findings dance with each specif includ- was literacy standards for technological for all attendees of packet ed in the registration Conference in Nashville Annual the ITEA (spring Albuquerque (spring 2003) and in included a brief request for The survey 2004). input from the Ex the promise of inclusion in a prize dra tive. Two completed and submitted. was the survey hundred and sixty-three of the 1195 conference in 2003 completed and returnedregistrants the tion has included both surveys and tion has included both surveys At each of the ITEA interviews/observation. 2005 a annual conferences of 2003, 2004, and of participants their awareness survey regarding about, the standards for techno- of, and views This target conducted. was literacy, logical education teachers, group included technology elementar o education teacher of technology tion, a survey specific conducted preparation institutions was data The to the topic of teacher preparation. will be presented generated from those surveys A visit to the Boston Museum of herein. Science included obser President for Research, Vice with the Senior provided who Production, and Development, further information. STL tion collected by this author, and others (see author, this tion collected by section entitled Related Evidence) regarding adoption, and implementation of the awareness, Methods agree, and many would argue further argue that tech- would agree,many and within the should be delivered education nology it articulated of a K-12 context – whether model educators, or technology by is taught solely the curriculuminfused throughout and taught by The technological disciplines. in many educators helped to cre- has standards movement literacy prompted discus- of the need and ate awareness implementa- large-scale sion of the issues. But in forward move to actually tion will be required the by literacy technological achieving American populace.
The Journal of Technology Studies 32 and Views Aboutthe Conference Respondents’ FamiliarityWith Table Results –2003and2004 1:Survey 5) 4) 3) What impactwould you expect the 2) 1) Are you familiarwiththeITEA’s Question What impactwould you expect the es Ye s Ye V Very Good Very LittleImpact Significant Impact Significant Impact Significant T T Do y response optionin2004) How would you rate thequalityof ar T Technological Literacy No Response Don’ No No Response Don’t Know No Impact Some Impact No Response Don’t Know No Impact Some Impact No Response Don’t Know Poor Fair Good Excellent No Some echnological Literacy ec echnological Literacy er e impor hnological Literacy y LittleImpact ou thinkthe t Kno what w tant? Why? Standar ? ? to ha to ha 0 0.7% 3 2 98.1% 258 3.0% 0 8 3.4% 3 9 47.9% 126 44.5% 117 2.7% 00%7 00%3 91 61.6% 162 7.2% 00%19 2.7% 00%7 15.9% 42 40.0% 105 34.2% 90 5.7% 15 97 57.4% 151 N % ( Note: STL ds f 2003 ve onK-12education? v e on Technology Education? 34.6% 36.9% or 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% “Good” was notoffered asa T 0% 0% ec Standards for Standar Standards for hnolo Standar gical Literacy N% 4.8% 0.8% 6 4.8% 1 6 00 40.8% 51 48.0% % 60 4.8% 6 12 85.6% 107 2 0.8% 0 1 97.6% 122 3 00% 5.6% 0 7 40.8% 51 51.2% 64 0.8% 1 00%00%0 38 68.8% 86 0.8% 1 ds for 2004 ds for 30.4% 9.6% 1.6% 2.4% 0% 0% 0% Survey Results Survey Table 2:2005ITEAConference 3) Please provide your opinionastothequalityof 2) Do you believe the 1) Question 5) If you answered above or thatyou were ‘very’ 4) Ar es Ye Very Familiar Very Little Very Good Excellent Standar 20) alsoknown as (2003), in rfsinlDvlpet andProgram Standards Professional Development, smwa’familiar with ‘somewhat’ technology education? (2000) are having apositive impactupon Literacy Contentfor theStudyof Technology Literacy: technological literacy amongK-12students? education? de professional standards-based student assessment, these standards willassist you inpreparing for Do you believe the Somewhat Greatly Limited Impact Some Impact Great Impact No Response No Not Sure Not Familiar Some No Response Poor F air v e y T lpet andprograms intechnology elopment, ec ou familiarwith what Familiar hnolo ds f have thepotentiallong-termtoimprove or gical Liter Technological Literacy Standards for Technological Standar acy: AETL Adv ancing Excellence AETL Student ds for Technological ? 1.0% 22.9% 76.0% 1 22 73 12.5% 42.7% 12 41 43 414.6% 19.8% 14 65.6% 00%19 63 15.6% 28.1% 15 54 27 1.0% 1 50.0% 00% 39.6% 9 48 38 N % doyou think , Assessment, : 44.8% 56.3% 9.4% The Journal of Technology Studies 33 . It and velop- -based STL , that . These STL STL tfolios STL STL xpectations to in their teach- porated within viation 42.94 10.27 STL ely influenced by the influenced by ely Standard De ve updated their pro- updated ve . in their programs. STL and the professional de STL through various courses and through various This is lik ic to . This has been accomplished in a . . STL benchmarks incor STL 40 rams assure graduates’ knowledge 8.5 STL STL g . The majority of the respondents offer . STL Median ram, and that posters and por g STL These respondents ha received 15 responses were Although only Table 5 describes how these teacher prepa- 5 describes how Table Table 3 describes the participating 3 describes teacher Table 4 presents information extent on the Table , students are required to have a copy of the a copy to have , students are required , students are required to prepare e been introduced specific to the v volved with volved rams, student assignments, and e ment standards. field-work changes that program experiences, ha programs indicated the students study and prac- programs tice with the there are the pro g that could be helpful to others at of ways myriad the alignment process. the point of beginning these respondents are all very to this survey, in STL ing, and their faculty are familiar with relat- participate in outside-the-department work ed to align with is evident these respondents have gone to great have these respondents is evident lengths to address STL lesson plans, graduates use a course specif ration pro with respect to the and competency reflect the Almost all of the respondents indicated they Almost all of the respondents addresses agree explicitly that: their program of Idaho, University of Maryland of Eastern Shore, University of Idaho, City State Valley and State University, Utah University. aver- The in terms programs preparation of size. these insti- by of students enrolled age number fifty-two students, with an average tutions was to graduate expected that year. of eleven addressed have these programs to which ) 11.4 52.4 Mean STL , con- STL ed v Technological or ere recei ds f 2-45 Range 15-200 , and approximately two- , and approximately will be useful in assisting Standar AETL , Mankato State University, versity, St. Cloud State versity, AETL ogram Demographics ifteen responses w ersity v . F y was extended by the Executive Director Executive the by extended y was ersity, Southern Utah University, University Southern Utah University, ersity, acy Although the data will be presented in the Although the data will be presented in In the spring of 2003 a survey was conduct- was a survey In the spring of 2003 The 2005 results were very positive. Most very positive. were results The 2005 e v v able 3: Pr rams to reflect the 2) How many graduates in technology education do you expect for 2002-2003? for expect education do you in technology graduates many 2) How Question program? in your enrolled are majors undergraduate education technology many 1) How T stituting a 29% response rate. Fourteen of the stituting a 29% response rate. Fourteen fifteen (93.3%) reported respondents accredita- Accreditation the National Council for tion by Education (NCATE). Teacher of aggregate, the fifteen responding institutions are named here to demonstrate their representative- Ball State State University, Appalachian ness: Indiana Illinois State University, University, State Uni North Carolina State Millersville University, Old Ohio State University, University, Dominion Uni Uni of ITEA to those fifty-one organizations. The of ITEA to those fifty-one organizations. primary to ascertain purpose was of the survey the teacher preparation to which the extent in their pro- making changes were organizations g Liter ed of teacher preparation organizations. The organizations. ed of teacher preparation institu- based upon the ITEA’s mailing list was out of the Fifty-one tional membership category. total list of fifty-nine institutional members rep- in the resented teacher preparation organizations to participate in the The invitation United States. sur Survey of Teacher Preparation Programs Preparation Teacher of Survey thirds feel the quality is either excellent or verygood. Eighty- either excellent quality is or very are somewhat they four percent say familiar with the them in preparing for standards-based student them in preparing for and pro- development, assessment, professional grams. respondents believe the content standards ( standards content the believe respondents are having a positive impact and have the poten- the and have impact a positive are having tial for long-term benefits students’ for K-12 percent Almost ninety literacy. technological feel the the 96 respondents) (89.6% of
The Journal of Technology Studies 34 Table 4:TheExtenttoWhichthePrograms HaveAddressed the 6) Our facultywork withstatedepartment 5) We have a course thatconcentrates primarily 4) Ourfacultyare very familiarwiththe 3) Our teacherpreparation studentsare required 2) Our teacherpreparation studentsare 1) The Statement Ag Agree Agree Agree Agree Ag to prepare alessonplanthisis their coursework. implementation ofthe or teachers ink-12schoolstosupport or localtechnolo on the r are addressed explicitly withinourprogram. Content f Strongl Disag Strongly Agree Strongl Disagree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongl Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disag Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Agree teacher preparation program? To what extent dothefollowing statementscharacterize your technology education equired tohave acopy ofthe ree ree Standards for Technological Literacy: ree ree y Disag y Disag y Agree STL or theStudyof Technology (STL) . ree ree gy educationsuper STL . 6.7% 40.0% 1 6 8 33.3% 00% 66.7% 00%5 10 46.7% 00% 46.7% 1 7 7 40.0% 00% 26.7% 6 5 4 0 60.0% 0 6 9 46.7% 0 53.3% 00%7 8 00% N % STL STL -based. f visors or STL 53.3% 33.3% 40.0% 6.7% 0% 0% 0% . 8) Our TECA studentgroup hasengaged in 7) Our facultypresent onthe Statement 11) Our facultyhave andimplemented identified 10) Our graduates make useofthe 9) We auser’s would find guidefor the Ag Agree Agree Agree Agree STL TECA organization): represent the12outof15respondents witha very helpful. state/regional conferences). orat in-services for aschool/district, at courseof department offerings(e.g. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongl Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongl No Response Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disag expected outcomes specific tothe expected outcomesspecific teacher preparation students. the foundation for theirteaching. ree -based activities (thestatisticsfor item8 ree y Agree y Agree 33.3% 7 4 20.0% 40.0% 00%3 6 6 6.7% 60.0% 00% 33.3% 1 9 5 6.7% 66.7% 00%1 10 4 13.3% 1 53.3% 00% 26.6% 26 8 4 00%1 STL STL N % outside STL STL STL as 58.3% 26.7% 40.0% for 6.6% 8.3% The Journal of Technology Studies 35 standards . Its purpose is y STL , and (4) professional arded to the Museum w ricular materials, (3) an gical Literac echnolo T y address a number of The museum has established the National The museum has established The activities in which they have engaged have they in which The activities Exhibit is being developed Wars A Star Funding has been a elopment, (2) cur v and benchmarks. This exhibit will be construc-This exhibit and benchmarks. in its approach. It will open firsttivist in Boston exhib- become a traveling and will subsequently resources will be Web it across the country. for teachers to use before and after a available classes. visit to the exhibit Center for to: create educational products that promote conduct research about literacy, technological teaching and learning related to technological to and reach out to other organizations literacy, share useful information technological regarding The Center has multiple means through literacy. and standard (1) advocacy it works: which de are ambitious. They include the following They are ambitious. (2005)): (Boston Museum of Science web-site (with help from Lucasfilm will Ltd.) which implicitl educational resource center development. high school tech- and middle level to develop are being Teachers courses. nology/engineering process. used in the development TE STL through all methods, subject areas, and educational methods, subject areas, through all as an STL STL gy emphasis en these steps. arious important cri- and state content standards is posted in all classrooms and state content standards . In addition, the NCA STL STL here the Senior Vice President for Vice here the Senior y had already tak ed (L. Bell, personal communication, are addressed through fieldare addressed through and student teaching experiences based are integrated learning with outcomes w Original question was stated as follows – How does your program assure graduates’ program does your – How stated as follows Original question was vie The Boston Museum of Science has been Another indicator of the impact of the coursework STL STL in class addressed Students study, evaluate and practice and practice evaluate Students study, ricular alignment with v ganizing mechanism in their work. in their work. mechanism ganizing 8) 6) A poster of the 6) a standard also present They are required to complete a portfolioStudents 7) that relates to the standards. 5) 3) Benchmarks are included in all courses 3) Benchmarks are included being include an assessment of those standards are required to prepare lesson plans that Students 4) 1) courses and/or designing new – changing to the undergraduate made program were 2) Revisions or Research, Production, and Development was Research, Production, and Development inter science focus from an almost exclusive moving to a broader science and technolo is evidenced by the activity underway at the underway the activity by is evidenced are the Boston Museum of Science. Following conclusions from a visit to the Boston Museum of Science w offered March 6, 2004), and a personal tour was to the author. criteria for technology education programs were education programs criteria for technology based on ITEA input. In that sense, it developed to been easier for these programs have may respond to the questions posed in the survey because the Activity Boston Museum of Science The museum hopes years. the past several over in lead- to serve as a “lighthouse” organization to techno- within the museum world ing the way used the have They literacy. logical fact 14 of the 15 respondents indicate they that accreditation, and that NCATE- NCATE have institutions are already in the mode of approved cur teria, such as the Table 5: Means of Assuring Graduates’ Knowledge and Competency Competency and Knowledge Graduates’ Assuring of 5: Means Table Provided Examples Note: Literacy? Technological for with respect to the Standards and competency knowledge
The Journal of Technology Studies 36 with technolo respondents were asked toratethe agreement Technological Literacy published accountsoftheirwork andprogress. ed tonationalaudiences.Inaddition,they have professionals, schoolandpresent- staff have ontheiractivities reported tomuseum initsadoptionofthe “high-profile” pro the standardsbeingtaughtin teacher preparation pedago the extent and towhich substantialcurricular standards from professionaldevelopmentand thecorollary T 2003 to123f preparation programs was of sentinthefall intechnologyvidual faculty educationteacher rent approach. as being“theguidingforce”andthe“mostcur ti date tousethestandards,bemorecompeti- program improvement, to addressastateman- cited forimplementingthe w already implementedthe that timealmost30%oftheprograms had dards. educators were readytoadoptthenew stan- gy teachereducation,andwhether ornotteacher pro focused onthee 51% responserate.Hisresearchquestions technology educationprograms, andreceived a Cardon hadsurveyed 102institutionsoffering Teacher EducationConference(Cardon,2002). Educators” attheMississippi Valley Technology Technological Literacy by Technology Teacher the “Acceptance ofNationalStandardsfor standards. awareness, adoption,andimplementationofthe Related Research technology the teachereducatorssupport w 55% responseratewas achieved. The survey eac v ere intheprocessofdoingso. as designedtoassess:(1)thede e, andbecausethestandardsw vide directionanddri g The BostonMuseumofSciencehasbeen Daugher A survey conductedby ofindi- Daugherty The survey resultssharedindicatedthatat on In October2002PhillipCardonreported Related researchhasbeenconductedon rams. her EducationDir gical changeisvie When thestandardswere stated, and ty (2003) found much support for ty (2003)foundmuchsupport aculty listedinthe gy teachereducation pro ” Advancing Excellencein xtent towhich the ectory (ITEA, 2003),and(2) v STL wed as beingneeded. e refor STL (Bell, 2002). and another62% included: for The reasons ms intechnolo Industrial ere perceived g ree tow STL STL g rams w . The ould STL A hich - - occurred. needed, feltthatsuchchangehadalready Many ofthoseindicatingmajorchangewas not “major changewas calledforinthefield.” over 62%oftherespondentsindicatedthat gies.” oftheperceived Interms needforchange, andbiotechnolo- “core conceptsofagriculture “core conceptsofmedicaltechnologies,” and between were 3(undecided)and4(agree), The two lowest rateditems,receiving arating and “effects oftechnology ontheenvironment.” “role ofexperimentation inproblem-solving,” technology,” ofthedesignprocess,” “attributes The highestrateditemswere: “coreconceptsof rating between and5(strongly 4(agree) agree). items except two (outof22)received amean preparing individuals toteachthoseitems,all F or theiralter They contactedthestate technology supervisor technology education,includinguseofthe ducted asurvey ofthestatesastostatus Technology for All Americans Projectstaff con- the U.S. Survey ontheStatusof Technology Educationin variation among thenew textbooks released input astotheinfluenceof ers intheselectionprocess,b primar resources. textbooks andothercurriculum The STL examined theextent towhichspecifically the rials published sincetheyear 2000. The review hensive andrigorousreview mate- ofcurricular NSF-funded projectthatconductedacompre (Britton et.al,2005),sharestheresultsofan Curricular Resources About theDesigned World Education intoK-8Classrooms: A Guideto W frame STL own materialsonthe standardsandcurricular states indicatedthey “have eitherbasedtheir thatmorethanhalfofthe Dugger reported respond totheitem.Inaddition,Meadeand they didnotknow; andtwo percentdidnot 14% saidthatitisnotused;fourpercent state, district,orlocalle thatthe states (80%)reported (Meade andDugger, 2004): Forty ofthefifty ollo est Ed/Edw In thespringandsummerof2004 F A new publication, w or alignedtheirstandardsandcur wing aretheresultsre w indings indicate thatalthoughthereis ere incor y intentoftheprojectw orks withthe ar nates tocollecttheirdata. d (Ted) BrittonResearch porated intomajortechnology STL vel withintheirstate; Bringing Technology . ” g arding ut italsopro STL as tohelpteach STL is usedatthe . STL ricular usage vides STL - - . The Journal of Technology Studies 37 - in STL y there le to meas- and believe . These . These include , the impact on nationall STL e chosen to align v STL STL y be insufficient to . Inter el orld ha STL ards the w ould lik among technology educators is among technology is being incorporated textbooks in ork in the areas of teacher prepara STL ts with the STL uction to . for since its publication in 2000. Broad aware- in since its publication Any single piece of evidence that has been single piece of evidence Any Cumulatively, the data from these various the data from these Cumulatively, America, due to its Change in education in . However, in combination, the data are sup- in combination, . However, STL tive of change taking place. As the choice is of change taking place. tive y take some time to detect variation in the some time to detect variation y take is evidence of interest in the standards. is evidence Researchers are looking at the use of the and in school teacher preparation, in textbooks, that implementation is an activity True districts. behind closed classroom happens primarily doors, and hence can be less amenab STL and curricular outside Organizations materials. the traditional K-16 w in the desired direction is urement. But progress underway. presented here w of adoption of of extent the question answer por made in more and more states, districts, schools, classrooms to orient curriculumand individual and instr will become and competency student knowledge This will require, though, evident. increasingly continued w STL purchased materials in its importance;have they and participated in professional development. in that Adoption is claimed in a number of cases states, districts, and teacher preparation many with made the choice to align institutions have the multiple documents have been prepared which been prepared have documents multiple serve to the supplements as and curricular grade levels for various materials specific and resources guides, courses, program In addition, the standards. to help implement and curriculumthere are numerous development at institutions underway efforts assessment across the country such with funding from of Academy sources as the National National Science Engineering and the Foundation. Conclusions sources support has been the conclusion there related to the promotion of activity extensive of the adoption, and implementation awareness, ness of the the value certain.fairly Many their ef the goal yet localized nature, can be slow, highly Americans for all literacy of technological Although it in momentum. appears to be gaining ma tion, professional development, and assessment. and assessment. tion, professional development, STL have ther had been STL STL , the books gen- , the . Advance the Advance w, and over that and over w, STL STL . This offering has This offering . This figure is above lication date, the ears no STL s Center to ’ eral y v . innish, and Japanese (for fur STL ds Specialists does not guarantee adoption or implemen- Through ITEA Since the 2000 pub As a part of the Technology for All for Technology As a part of the At the point of preparation of this docu- A doctoral dissertation entitled “District- man, F anslation to Other Languages ould be available to districts, states, and pro- ould be available r Teaching of Technology and Science (CATTS) Technology of Teaching Supplementary Materials informationthe international on translations, via email: wdug- Jr. Dugger, William contact It is [email protected]). both an international national role in promoting the and literacy. use of standards for technological T in Chinese, has been translated and published Ger been in place se 85 presentations/ time period approximately to almost 3,500 been delivered have workshops also standards specialists have The participants. articles and supplementaryauthored various materials in support of the and beyond the distribution of copies as a part and beyond Americans Project dis- All for Technology of the Although purchase of the semination efforts. tation, it is a prerequisite step. Standar educators Americans Project, six technology identifiedwere who as standards specialists w presentations to provide fessional organizations on the and workshops STL been sold (August, 2005). Sales of STL ment, almost 15,000 copies of the level Predictors of Implementation of the level Florida” in Literacy Technological Standards for reported to which that the extent school districts in Florida implemented in 60 among a number of vari- related primarily, was 2003). to district enrollment (Loveland, ables, to have likely more districts were That is, larger adopted Doctoral Dissertation in Florida Doctoral since the publication of the the publication since erally do address the standards and benchmarks. and the standards do address erally address certain that some books Britton notes a ideally than others, and that areas better textbooks, several access to have teacher would infor- use of the best could make so that he/she from each. activities mation and
The Journal of Technology Studies 38 Russell, JillF. (2005).“TheStandardsfor Technological Literacy: Today theBostonMuseum Britton, Edward; Long-Cotty, BoDe;andLevenson, Toby (2004). Boston MuseumofScienceweb-site (2005):www.mos.org Rose, Lowell; Gallup, Alex M.;Dugger, William E.Jr.; andStarkweather, Kendall N. (2004). Rose, Lowell andDugger, William E.,Jr. (2002).“ITEA/GallupPoll Reveals What Americans Think Meade, ShelliandDugger, William E.,Jr. ontheStatusof (2004).“Reporting Technology Education Lo Inter International Technology Education Association (2000). International Technology Education Association (1996). Technology for All Americans: A Rationale Daugherty, Michael(2003). “A ChangingRolefor Technology Teacher Education,” presented Cardon, Phillip(2002).“Acceptance oftheNational Standardsfor Technological Literacy by Bell, T.P. (Ed.)(2002). References National Academy ofSciences(2002), be demonstratedmorequickly. This standards- enhanced K-12studentachievement willlikely not be attributed exclusivelynot beattributed tothe overall adultpopulation(andeven so,itcould ofresponsesonaGallupPollpattern ofthe v eland September. Think About Technology,”Reston, VA: TechnologyInternational Education Association, “The SecondInstallmentoftheITEA/GallupP Florida. for Technological Literacy inFlorida,” unpublishedUniversity doctoraldissertation, ofSouth VA: International Technology Education Association. Literacy: Student Assessment, Professional Development, andProgram Standards Association. fortheStudyof and Structure Technology. Reston, VA: International Technology Education November 6-7,2003. at theMississippi Valley Technology Teacher EducationConference,Nashville, TN, Education Conference,St.Louis,MO, October31–November 1,2002. Technology Teacher Educators,” presentedattheMississippi Valley Technology Teacher Thousand Oaks,CA:CorwinPress. into K-8Classrooms: A GuidetoCurricularResources About theDesigned World of Science, Content for theStudyof Technology and ofIndustry Department Technology, MillersvilleUniversity ofPennsylvania, Millersville,PA. About in theU.S.,” More About Technology national , Thomas R.(May, 2003).“District-level PredictorsofImplementationtheStandards T echnolo T echnolo T The Technology Teacher omor gy gy Education Association (2003). ,” Reston, VA: International Technology Education Association, March. ro Industrial Teacher EducationDirectory w the World,” . Washington, DC: The National Academy Press. STL The Technically Speaking: Why All Americans NeedtoKnow ), . Reston, VA: International Technology Education Association. , October. T ec hnolo oll and gy Teachergy 64 progress. effort givesbased reform clearevidence of Massachusetts. to thePresident College, ofSpringfield Advancing Excellencein Standards for Technological Literacy: Dr. JillF. RussellistheExecutive Assistant What ItRe (40 (4). th Bringing TechnologyEducation Ed.), CTTEandNAITTE, veals astoHow Americans T ec hnolo . Reston, . gical The Journal of Technology Studies 39 - - As lic Alice inancial , York City. York or y w here, suggest wey at wey w under the Pub gy, as well as an as well gy, nment. Mitchel was ocational training in er v s election as ma m, PEA often advised the uption and poor management. r ws studied under De ro Association (PEA) of Ne e approaches used else v w York City at the turn City the 20th centu- of York w ati Ne Hall, the political Tammany Dominated by Before Mitchel’ v xperiment” for pre-v ocational Guidance Survey y was a growing and dynamic place, full of and dynamic place, a growing y was ed that “it would be most profitableed that “it would and practi- carried out along the lines devel- cal if it were Indiana” (p. 230). oped in Gary, Columbia University and like Wirt, was greatly was Wirt, and like Columbia University One outcome philosophy. Dewey’s influenced by of occupations and the vocational of her review the recom- in schools was training being offered the ages of mendation that all children between in broad experiences 14 and 16 should receive (industrial) education, so as to pre-vocational be con- meet the “practical demands of industry, sistent with democratic ideals, and be f elementary and being familiar schools; with inno Barrows (later Fernandez) was heading up the was (later Fernandez) Barrows V 1914, City” (Barrows, York practical for New ly also recommended “to make p. 230). Barrows an e Education promoting progressive organization As a private educational refor Board of Education on matters (S. Cohen, 1964). Bar r ener economic and industrial According to Bonner immigrants. influx of new 70% of the (1978), during the first over decade, classifiedstudents were as foreign-born, with Germans, comprising and Italians Russian Jews, total The thirds of the school population. two also increasing around school population was placing great the city pressure on 5% each year, Despite being consid- schools. to complete new of educa- ered “one of the marvels of the world were tion” (S. Cohen, 1968, p. 96), the schools not without problems. the city was machine of the Democratic Party, noted for cor Mitchel was the Fusion candidate, John Purroy in 1913 and brought a “progres- elected mayor efficiency” for business-like passion (Mohl, sive 1972, p. 41) to city go also sympathetic to reform and progressive soon became the in education, which efforts focus of his administration. - y w m its ts and y through secondar y all sides, culminating xamined as to ho gy Education y. The cast of characters y. ears of position papers, pos anda b y the same, with corporate gy education through the recent echnolo T riculum features that fostered y actually started years about 100 y actually t as a consultant to transfor ir W y as it accentuated manual ar fered from primar national This stor was The Gary plan of “work-study-play” This article first presents the issues, actors, vite What Might Have Been? Might Have What S. Volk Kenneth The Gary Plan and Technology Education: Education: GaryThe Technology and Plan Standards for Technological Literacy Technological for Standards (Inter Association [ITEA], 2000) are examined as to Association [ITEA], 2000) are examined their potential for success, based on the out- comes and lessons learned from the past. ago and continues toda ago and continues remains essentiall parents, educationalists, interests, government, in ideological involved and students being coer- reform.debate about education fear, Hope, promises of a panacea all cion, intimidation, and supporting challenges to the roles—with play of tradition status quo and the questioning threads throughout this tale. remaining common (1874-1938), Wirt William the brainchild of of the philosophy influenced by though largely 1907 to (1859-1952). Introduced in John Dewey Superintendent Indiana, by the schools of Gary, the GaryWirt, plan had organiza- of Schools tional and cur hands-on activities relating to occupations and relating to occupations hands-on activities in considered progressive life. It was daily nature, with an articulated and broad program being of training, forerunners to today’s technology edu- technology training, forerunners to today’s cation programs. surrounding the Garyand events plan and asso- The City. York ciated reform in New efforts inclusion of manual arts educa- and vocational tion as a fundamental feature of the plan also the politics of described. On a macro level, American education is e grades. The increased notoriety of the plan’s grades. City social and financialYork benefits led New to in sev- were What followed schools. overstretched eral acrimonious y turing, and propag of the The demise end to the plan. in a swift in other and then slowly York Gary plan in New it locales throughout the nation that introduced been, might have raises questions as to what especiall been influenced by other reform have efforts and to improve efforts factions. Finally, various change technolo
The Journal of Technology Studies 40 T able 1:Four 3:15-4:15 2:15-3:15 1:15-2:15 12:15-1:15 11:15-12:15 10:15-11:15 9:15-10:15 8:15-9:15 Time pose ofallo Cohen &Mohl,1979). As forgirlsinthepro- ofteacher-artisans(R. under thesupervision plumbing needswere alsodoneby students,but school’ printshops, studentsw chairs, bookcases,andcabinets.Inthe w wouldStudents inuppergrades beexpected in home andcommunity”(Wirt, 1937/1995,p.32). an en would in “inarealindustrialbusiness participate repair itemsfortheschool.Inthisway, students ed ineachschool,b and training,withindustrialschoolshopssituat- plant andunderthesamemanagement”(p.23). library, andtraditionalschoolcombinedinone playground, garden, work shop,socialcenter, According to Wirt (1937/1995),“theschoolisa fromeachother.the sameschoolinordertolearn studentswould andsecondary tary behousedin school, sothatinanidealsituation,bothelemen- adopted Dewey’s ideaofacommunitywithinthe and shop(Rich,1992). Wirt’s program also gym, suchasart, equippedfacilities specifically Rs by specializedteachers,theotherstudiedin so thatwhilewas onegroup receiving thethree plan divided schoolpopulationsintotwo groups, “work-study-play” or“platoon”system,theGary innovative schoolsystem. Also known asthe superintendent, w ne Gar national attention.Founded in1906by H. Elbert oodw th Grade Student Schedule Under Gary Plan th GradeStudentScheduleUnderGary F different classesgive someofthethings they have indynamicform intheir classrooms.” beenlearning minutesofsinging,ledby thesingingteacher.Auditorium—fifteen “Therestofthetimechildrenfrom Play—most ofthishour isgiven tofreeplay, althoughsuggestedandguided by aplayground teacher. mechanical dra Reading, Writing, threemonths,music,secondmonths Arithmetic—Or may substituteforthefirst Reading, Lunch—cooked by andserved girlsinthecookingclass. Histor Shop w Reading, Writing, Arithmetic. studyandrecitation periodinaregular classroom. A formal Activity dif w industrialcityofGary, Indiana,hired Wirt as or e y, ofUnitedStatesSteel,the thechairman Wirt was also a firm believerWirt inmanualarts was alsoafirm W ferent par vironment similartotheold-timeindustrial illiam Wirt’s plan”was “Gary receiving xample, students inthefoundr s printingneeds.P orking shopstoperhapsb y andGeo ork (forthreemonths,follo Writing, wing studentstoactuall ts ofanautomobile b wing, etc. g here hequickly developed his raph Arithmetic. ut oftenwiththeaddedpur ould handleallthe y . Another formal recitationperiod. Another formal ainting, electrical,and Another formal studyandrecitation. Another formal y themachineclasses. uild desks, wed by drawing, science). y classcantellfour y b uild and - th g four of they studentswouldgrade alsohelpintheeducation inte losoph of hise ing thenamesoftoolsandtakinginwithall foundr be tohelp“theseventh boys grade inthe studentmight activities grade foranelementary helping himselftolear thousand questionsoftheolderworker .thus system. intheGary part The littleboy asksa continued,Dorr ofsilencehasno “thedreadrule scheduled timestohelptheolderstudents. As would alsobeallowed intotheshopsatregularly car flattened against theglass,peeringintently ata is commontoseethelittleoneswiththeirnoses “curiosityissoonaroused,euphoric terms, andit (1915),asocialreformer, describedin Dorr seeing olderchildrenatwork. As RhetaChilde withthemby tobecomefamiliar opportunity itgavethroughout thebuilding, childrenan aged children. With theshopstobedistributed whichschool- includedelementary curriculum, of industrialeducationintotheregular school and otherprocesses”(Dor lear “b work thatwas beyond theirstrengthorability, g ram, they were generally todo notpermitted rade studentsabout acastingoraboutthe ut withtheselimitationsassumed, agirlmay pentry orprintingclassatwork.”pentry Children g n cabinetmaking,printing,electricwiring th g Reflecting De The Gary planalsoincludedtheabsorption The Gary rated anddemocraticmanner y y mouldingthesandforcasting,learn- y , ounger students. Table 1shows atypical rade student’s day accordingtoBarrows. es ho Alice Bar w thecastingsaremade. w ro e ws (1915)explained that y’s by “learning doing”phi- n. ” r, 1915). , theupper ” Inan The Journal of Technology Studies 41 aluated and that his board v een Churchill and Mitchel y e ailed due to the state not backing it, he versight and efficiency; this versight but when , most progressives wanted “experts” wanted , most progressives w” attitude on implementation, as they er y f ed his appointment as president of the v v e One leader of the rising criticism was criticism rising leader of the One also an impor- The Board of Education was professional also had their own Teachers native to the expected overcrowded condi- overcrowded to the expected native e superintendents implement policy. w v as not adequatel reater o William Ettinger, the associate superintendent of superintendent associate the Ettinger, William enthu- the plan with viewed initially schools. He fact-finding an early siasm after trip to Gary, but he elected mayor, the newly Indiana, with it as he felt the disillusioned with soon became curriculum equipment and costs for changes too great Mohl, 1979). His (R. Cohen & were edu- manual and vocational “Ettinger plan” for one group of secondary stu- have cation would other stu- the while a week, dents in school for to real work in pairs, be assigned, dents would that site, they At in a business. experiences the company, limited training by receive would a small salary. counseling, and even vocational introduced to several also being His plan was (competi- as an alternative seen schools and was tor) to the Gary plan for secondary school stu- of the relative also skeptical dents. Ettinger was ele- experiences and limited vocational value receive. actually mentary school students would Thomas Churchill in this debate. tant player recei in 1913, and like board from the past mayor became disillusioned with the plan, but Ettinger, 1978). Churchill reasons (Bonner, for different and not to more power the board to have wanted ha Ho As an economic progres- running the schools. the Mitchel proposed reducing Mayor sive, 7 for number of board members from 46 to g resorted to other means to secure his agenda. the Board of to have What Mitchel did was funds deny Estimate that controlled all public increased funding for schools in 1916, thus any other logical making the Gary plan the only alter tions. Hostility betw the plan with Churchill believing then escalated, w lose authority and control. Eventually, would with a smaller board Mitchel prevailed, Mayor and a new bill passing in the state legislature elected as Wilcox, William Mitchel-supporter, board president in 1916. example, and personal opinion of the plan. For a Association urged Teacher’s City York the New “go-slo initiall - en - v , more tunity hich children gical and e mer took illo vironment in w wed as having enormous economic bene- as having wed While the for ves like Barrows and Dorr, the plan pro- the plan and Dorr, Barrows like ves With the plan gaining momentum to the plan gaining With For Mayor Mitchel and his Fusion party’s Mayor For With advocates like Mitchel, Barrows, and Barrows, Mitchel, like advocates With However, as this story was unfolding, there as this story was However, as vie ressi xpand to other schools, the strength and progressive enthusiasm for efficiency, the plan for efficiency, enthusiasm progressive w fits, overcrowd- could reduce the physical as it buildings. ing of schools and demand for new the serious budget important, given This was social pro- facing. For the city was problems g vided a natural en Dorr supporting Wirt’s program, the plan was the plan program, DorrWirt’s supporting elementary public in 1914 into two introduced 45 and P.S. 89 in Brooklyn schools (P.S.)—P.S. to be it was a test before in the Bronx—as first the schools, they convert To expanded. with five-floor be extended needed to additions $150,000 to cost approximately expected to be was 1915). Provision School,” (“Fitting made for a foundry with a in the basement An office also to for the instructor was cupola. can be maintained exper- “in which be included, and rooms Tool etc.” imental models, drawings, to be placed modeling were a room for clay about 4,000 With adjacent to the foundry. to be sub- space, it was square feet of additional such as woodworking, into other shops divided The and electricity. mechanical drawing, to be used for the home- remaining floors were making model apartment, science labs, and additional classrooms. learned by doing. “Barrows and her friends rec- doing. “Barrows learned by efficiency of the new the technological ognized school plan, but the more efficient for them pur school had broader and more humanistic poses—more freedom, more oppor resolve of the opposition’s opinions and actions of the opposition’s resolve also increased. Bonner (1978) described the sit educational enrichment.” “Technology, in other “Technology, educational enrichment.” to be but it was accepted as a given, was words, used for humanistic, rather than impersonal business ends” (R. Cohen & Mohl, 1979, p. 64). and groups that were other individuals were their opinions about the Garyabout to voice plan. e critics, the Gary plan uation at the time: “For a the Gary an issue; for advocates, plan was was cause. misleading positions in the Gary debates, the latter occupied a high-minded and hamstrung political stance” (p. 154).
The Journal of Technology Studies 42 wrote aseriesofpiecesfor progressive intellectual RandlophS.Bourne versy over theplandaily readingmatter. The the membersofpress,who madethecontro- (“Professor Dewey ofColumbia,” 1915). convinced thatitsvalue isestablished” schools inthecity. Onthecontrary, Iamalready ther e the de “In my opinion,thework-study-play planas to beexpanded tomore schools,Dewey stated, aboutthelackofevaluationcerns beforeitwas the planinNe plan inhis1915book plan inpositive even terms, praisingtheGary g applying theirmindstowork meanta todothingswiththeirhandsandbyopportunity “industrial ar make inany himanexpert vocation.” The plan’s boys andgirlsundertheageof11was “notto 1917), thetwo hoursaday shopexperiences for the plan. According toSnedden(“Tell of Value,” Snedden andJohnDewey lenttheirnamesto views fortheopposition(Metcalfe,1915a). Grady, anEttingerschoolsupporter, presenting also beinattendanceprincipalssuchas William itive aspectsoftheplan,thereregularly would at schoolparent-teachermeetingsaboutthepos- 89 andP.S. 45,respectively, would oftenspeak and P.S.Angelo Patri, principalsof“Garyized” ally notinfavor oftheplan. While Alice Ritter ration, notteaching.Principalswere alsogener- additional hourwas tobeusedforlessonprepa- the planrequiredeachday, even thoughthe generally objectedtotheonemorehourofwork reasons,teachers 1978, p.177).For moreselfish were (Bonner, notconvinced ofthebenefits Gary plan(i.e.,“TheNewGary School Plans,” 1916; T Clubwomen Impressed”1916). ries solidly infavor oftheplan(i.e.,“Visiting Dail also re 1916).NewspapersSchools (Bourne, would later compiledintoabookentitled Columbia Uni never visitedGary, Indiana. As aprofessorat (Dewey &Dewey, thathe 1962),despitethefact school pagepromotingtheplan inthe wouldexample, RhetaChildeDorr have adaily ro imes v wth inexperience.” Dewey alsodescribedthe eloped by Mr. Wirt doesnotneedany fur- Mail y Mail Stoking the fires ofthispublic debate was Stoking thefires Even respectededucatorssuchasDavid v w gularl aluation beforeitise as alsopublishing stories touting the being fromIndianaandpublishing sto- , nodoubtduetothene y tak ts .af w v ersity, healsowas of asupporter Y e positionsinthedebate.F ork City forded thechildren Schools of To-morrow . Respondingtocon The Ne xtended toother The New York w o w Republic The Gar wner of New York y or - , assured schools b specif Steel connection,thecityofGary, Indiana,was orJohnD.Gary Rockefeller. Regarding theU.S. Some sa (Metcalfe, 1916b). Forcing SchoolPlan” Adoption ofGary (Metcalfe, 1915c),and“EstimateBoardis and MuchLessShopEquipmentProvided” Teachers” (Metcalfe,1915b),“LessPlay Space “Emphasis PutUponSa his positioncanbeseenintheheadlines: defense oftheplanwere unending.Examplesof toanyness, andrebuttals statementmadein attacks ontheBoardofEstimateforitsstingi- of ChurchilltoheadtheBoardEducation, the Metcalfe, who hadadaily educationcolumnin vidual was moreinfluentialthan Tristam Walker tem” (i.e.,Barrows, 1915). and authoritative accountofthe Wirt schoolsys- aclear inthisdepartment that they “willfind Tribune and tothepress.Hertwice-weekly and herown progressive philosophy inmeetings secretary, sheskillfully presented Wirt’s agenda hired as William Wirt’s personalsecretary. As influential was thevoice of Alice Barrows, now Wm. G. Willcox Urges,” 1915).Perhaps most and theBoard of Estimate;socialprogressives ef about theGar New York Experimentin The EndoftheGary Education Board—af planGeneral andpro-Gary Rockefeller-financed Education w tw 46). Adding credencetothisperceptionwas that for American capitalism”(p. out ‘wage slaves’ as being“designedtostiflemobilityandturn perceived planforNew theGary York schools and Mohl(1979)alsodescribedhow unions industrial machine”(Gilroy, 1917).R.Cohen of steelworkers cogs inthe tobeefficient entire systemwas designedtotrainthechildren pany. unionsfelt“the Itwas thusnotsurprising tendent’ union meetingsabouttheplan(Bonner, 1978). f o ofMitchel’s appointeestotheBoardof iciency progressives suchas Mayor Mitchel New YorkGlobe Trade unionswere alsoagainst theplan. On theopposition’s side,certainly noindi- For nearly fouryears, thepublic debate icall s work ofthecom- by supported officers Tribune w itabeingplande articles promoting the Gary plan promotingtheGary articles uilt ondonatedland y b ere alsoassociatedwiththe uilt tohousetheworkers, withthe y planraged.Ononesidewere the readers inthebannerheader . Hisearlierpublic backing act re ving inBuildingsand gularl , andthesuperin vised b y broughtupin New York y Elber t H. - The Journal of Technology Studies 43 er v une’s rib T y wo Girl Graduates,” Girl wo xplained as “limiting roup (see Figure 1). roup (see Figure s associations from o hile the pro-Gar y g gy” (“T anized Labor on Industrial g as later e ticular beliefs. One such meeting on , an anti-Gar ty Concerns were also being raised by groups also being raised by Concerns were in day Headlines about the meeting the next Opposition groups were also being formed. also being groupsOpposition were also heard at were parents by Testimonies y would be ostracized by fellow students for fellow be ostracized by y would this issue was sponsored by the Guardians of sponsored by this issue was Liber Education, and parent’ of 10 schools present, the three groups in favor the plan, including the Gary School League, outnumbered. vastly were release-time reli- to have proposal Wirt’s about this gious instructionWith as part of the plan. times to be released two feature, students were local to attend instruction at their own per week Along with Constitutional church or synagogue. issues about the separation of church and state, be pressured by fears students would there were their teachers to attend a specific church, or that the their par Accuse the Globe stated “Liberty Guardians Catholics” (1916), w “Gary Ends in Disorder” (1916). Meeting was consider- “there was how described Tribune The of the speakers several confusion when able made attacks upon the Catholic Church. . . . 1916). With opposition groups opposition such as With 1916). Association, Mother’s of Parent’s Federation School York, Council of the City of New Association, Bronx Anti-Gary Welfare League, Conference of Or One such group was the Mothers’such groupOne was Anti-Gary of students attending mothers League formed by Through a peti- in Brooklyn. 89 Garyized P.S. Education and to the Board of tion submitted objections were 400 mothers, over signed by raised concerning of issues including a number due to the diversi- of academic work the neglect As 1916). Signed,” ty of interests (“Petition of and Mohl (1979), many R. Cohen noted by being the other “anti-Gary leagues” that were pushed by actually formed at schools were politicians and school principals. Tammany meetings to present both sides of the public often heated These meetings were Gary debate. hearing public At one large and very emotional. held at the Board of Education, each speaker the to be limited to five minutes. However, was to exhibit able lack of control the president was at this meeting w of conversation worth with an hour’s a woman to five minutes is sure to enact a certain amount of misdirected ener - - and consid y the e to “cre xist in the v une ws at school y mentioned tisan” and Tribune rib T hich e objecti While the ; teachers; and unions such ; teachers; and unions Globe omen presented their vie lic Education. n industrial conditions w . On the other side were interests that may side were . On the other The main parent’s group leading the charge The main parent’s Another group formed in September 1917 yized schools. By the late summer of 1917, med “for the purpose informing of voters the wey and David Snedden. In their committee and David wey roup of w ered the committee to be “non-par for carried on in the work about the constructive during the last the city government schools by 1917), the Globe to Learn,” (“Voters four years” Fusion Mitchel’s labeled it as part of Mayor campaign committee for his upcoming re-elec- Value,” of of 1917 (“Tell tion in November Michael headed by The committee was 1917). & Company, Altman president of B. Friedsam, but also included academics such as John De statement issued on the subject, the in the very first paragraph the upcoming elec- tion and the other candidates’ ate passion and obscure facts” (“Voters to ate passion and obscure facts” (“Voters furtherThey stressed that “under 1917). Learn,” moder York and in New most intense form in the world opportunity for recreation and the experi- City, that come ence, skill and character development from the use of tools . . . must be met b schools.” as the New York City Teacher’s Association. Teacher’s City York as the New and voice to be the organization it was However, that put an abruptof the parents and students end to the plan. called the Gary of the Gary plan was in favor An out- in 1916. School League, organized Municipal League, the Women’s of the growth Gary School League consisted of reform-mind- Mrs. John elites, among whom ed women This the most noted from academia. was Dewey g in news- for interviews available meetings, were visitors to papers, and used automobiles to take Gar of a sponsored the showing the league even a what to view motion picture for the public be like in a Gary school would typical day 1978). (Bonner, called the Committee to promote the plan was on Pub be considered more self-serving, with William more self-serving,be considered with of superintendent the associate Ettinger, of the Churchill, president Thomas schools; Metcalfe, Walker Tristam Board of Education, writing for the Times such as Alice Barrows, Rheta Childe Dorr, Childe Rheta Barrows, Alice as such as well S. Bourne,Randolph Dewey; and John the such as newspapers as liberal
The Journal of Technology Studies 44 Figur and violentactionsofthestudentsthatdeter of politicalcontroversy, itwas but thesudden planremainedatthecenter backdrop, theGary When schoolended tents anddragooned themintotheb duced. P a schoolwhereplan was theGary justintro- ofboyslarge group refusedtogointoP.S. 171, System.”Against Gary before, a The morning 16th ofOctober1917was “1,000 PupilsRiot planinNew oftheGary mined thefate York. w tioned why many ofthebestfeaturesplan w party. Hylandwas squarely against theplan, HillquitfromtheSocialist date, andMorris candidate, JohnF. Hylanasthe Tammany candi- Ma even louder(R.Cohen & andMohl,1979). schools Garyized, theopposition voices became scheduled inNo autumn of1917. With municipalelections quickmannerinthe tled thedebateinavery both sides,itwas thestudentswho actually set- ing tomake thisaCatholicnation.” w schools ofusingtheforpur “I accusesomeoftheteachersinpublic would result.” Onespeaker attherally stated, fights It looked forawhile asthoughfists ere ne hile Hillquitwas moreneutralandeven ques- hich the y or Mitchelw The headlineinthe Despite thepropaganda andefforts from e 1. Poster for anti-Gary meeting e 1.Posterforanti-Gary v olice quickly “roundedupthe malcon- er implemented. Against thisheated y w ere notintended—thatofattempt v as r ember , theactualriot star unning ag , andonly 30outof680 Globe ain astheFusion on T uesda uilding. ted pose of y the , with ” - - stones thro Bronx (Bonner, 1978). Police were injuredfrom ed over 4,000. schoolswerenumbers fromtheparticipating Strike,” 1917).Police estimatedtheincreased ag Hillquit, aswell asthechantingofslogans the Socialists,assignswere waved supporting schools. The pressimmediately placedblame on continued thatday andspreadtoseveral other Meeting,”at Gary 1917).P.S. 171problems also ence uponthepublic schoolsystem”(“Trouble operation oftheplanandRockefeller influ- thepractical were “concerning notsatisfactory demonstration” aftertherepliestoquestions intoa“riotousanti-Gary plan,alsoturned Gary a meetingforparentsandstudentstoexplain the taking aleadingpar mothers encouragedthee spread was thisangerthateven and “fathers windo f Education toremove any superintendentswho tion, Hylanbe twice asman in a Tammany landslide,withHylanreceiving Mitchel. Intwo weeks time,he losttheelection damage tothecandidacy ofJohnPurroy instigated thestrikes, theriotscausedserious protect theirchildren,orpolitical“operatives” agement totheirmo schoolday,shorter teachersgave subtleencour- dents actedontheirown toa inordertoreturn thing todowiththeevents. nation of the Gary planfromschools nation oftheGary being ar Ev (“10,000PupilsinBrooklynpart Out,” 1917). demonstrations, withanestimated10,000taking in Brooklyn andtheeastsideofManhattanhad things continuedtogetworse. Several schools date, andnottheSocialists,ma evident that Tammany membersandtheircandi- Ho only afew minorincidentsatafew schools. T Gar mothers withbannersinscribed“Down withthe dren smashedwindo a uesda v , withanestimated5,000studentsoutinthe ainst Mayor Mitchel(“1,000SchoolChildren en atanelementar wever, by thattime,itwas becomingmore ored theplanin ordertoe y System”and“Down with Mitchel.” By theendofweek, thestrikes escalat- The next day atP.S. 147,whatoutas started While itma ws broken and students arrested. Sowide- ws broken andstudentsarrested. y the23rdwas considerably quieter, with rested. wn, resultinginse y v g That ne an topressuretheBoardof otes. Soonafterhisinaugura- y ne t.” v v ws andw y schoolinBrookl ement, parentsdesiredto er beknown whether stu- xt Monda vent” and“girlswere xpedite theelimi v ere joinedb eral students y ha y , October22, v e hadsome- yn, chil y their - - The Journal of Technology Studies 45 - gula . Bush Goals W and The more- ould lead to developed by developed ge H. er federal re ation w New American New ould require radical en, 2000; Rodgers & y w hile the other w y President Geor anLeeuw V hat had traditionally been accepted hat had traditionally velopment Corpor , & m w m, 1984) promised fe No Child Left Behind Act No Child Left Behind initiated b Reform efforts in technology education Reform in technology efforts As for the teachers’As for the Germinario position, reform,Resistance to educational agen- the mody hools De Mahler, 1994), a lack of public understanding 1994), a lack of public Mahler, 2002), and a lack of under- Young, & (Pearson & Daugherty, educators (Gray standing by and 2004). ReferringWeischadle to 2000 and practiced (i.e., industrial arts), there has teachers (Bussey, been a lack of acceptance by Dor Sc Bush W. the administration of President George contradictions and fos- also reflects, for many, The historical role of ters a lack of acceptance. of funding to adequately local schools, the level support which and the degree requirements, by curriculum change in order to and pedagogy pressures are issues match goals and evaluation this piece of legislature. raised by also had obstacles and contradictions. have in the mid-1980s to Since major endeavors transfor and Cram (1998) described how resistance to resistance (1998) described how and Cram itself in both subtle and not change can manifest Illusions of support, manipula- so subtle ways. to cooperate or outright refusal behaviors, tive The in schools. exhibited are resistant behaviors teachers’ reaction to the Gary plan in the early of these features. 1900s contained all and inherent contra- da of competing interests, occurred other education- in many dictions have intro- since the Gary plan was al movements would 1900s. One example duced in the early be reform in the 1960s and 1970s to both efforts and to increase parental influence on schooling To (Katz, 1987). reduce racial segregation implement one polic decentralization, w The schools. and more heterogeneous larger edu- and control over of federal initiatives level is another area of contention and cation policy in the 1980s, example, contradiction. For Party platformsRepublican (Republican Platfor tions and less intrusion into local governments, such as the initiatives yet seemed to contradict this position. recent agenda. Many did not accept the religious did not accept Many agenda. These elements instruction the plan. feature of led students the frustrationscoupled with felt by insurmountable problems. to almost - - value. value. potential ed and/or had w as part of a “Rockefeller” ere present. Initially placing ere present. Initially y plan so fla alues and ideas. While it is pos- alues and ideas. o schools without adequate train y, these were not enough. these were y, ticular v as the Gar entuall v The debate over the Gary plan can also be The debate over W Years later, reflecting on the Gary reflecting plan, later, Years ferent arenas contained politicians, adminis eischadle (1990) identified the elements of alue led to a huge lack of trust. Certainly, looked at as a conflict over knowledge and knowledge at as a conflict over looked (Spring, 2002). One arena includes those power their ideas placed in schools, seeking to have schools to teach chil- another arena wants while dren par ing for staff, not having the schools fully not having ing for staff, then rushing to the program to expand equipped, proven other schools without demonstrating its v to help the progressives made by attempts were the teachers and prepare educate and convince public their many as witnessed by the public, debate appearances and writings for the press. But e also be a may they can overlap, these two sible York’s The actors in New source of contention. dif politicians, school boards, progressives, trative labor unions, corporate interests, groups/organi- parents, and students. zations, media, the public, that schools view the public’s it was Perhaps a perception There was should be traditional. that manual training w few features that were acceptable that it would acceptable features that were few and Weischadle been accepted? have never W time, trust, team, and training as necessary ele- a chance at successful ments in order to have change. It appears that with the attempted of implementation of the Gary plan, little if any these elements w the plan in tw Obstacles to School ReformObstacles “One must not (1937/1995) stated, Wirt William opposition is to be expected that recognize only . . . as a rule is made because of oppo- progress that the must recognize sition. Sometimes one the can be estimated by proposal of a new value As reflected 112). of the opposition” (p. extent York of the Garyin the example plan in New very difficult it was to initiate and sustain City, in particularchange, with teachers very resist- the strength of as witnessed by ant. However, features of there were it, perhaps against resolve of greatthe Gary plan that were (“Elimination of Gary Plan,” 1918). Gary of (“Elimination Plan,” as an reputation Ettinger’s William Recognizing Hylan the plan, Mayor opponent to outspoken that superintendent new Ettinger in as the swore 1918). (“Supt. Ettinger,” May
The Journal of Technology Studies 46 article. notebooks ofthelateDr. Edgar Barney, whichsourcematerialforthis containedmuchoftheprimary I would like tothankmy mentorandfriend, ProfessorRon Todd, mewith thepersonal forentrusting Acknowledgement impact. Time willtellifthe accept them,willultimately their determine teachers andthepublic, aswell ashow students implemented. no stand thetestoftime?Inessence,are movement thatwilltranscenddifferences and that areliable tochange,orwillitdevelop intoa tive, public, andprofessionalinterests corporate, a societywithdivergent political,administra- planasashort-livedthe Gary effort forcedinto efforts. aspastreform same fate Will itparallel ciencies inmeetingsomeoftheseconditions. (Sanders, 2001; Wicklein, 2004)pointoutdefi- health ofthetechnology educationprofession cessful change,perhapsthelimitedinroadsand forhavingteam, andtrainingasnecessary suc- Weischadle’s (1990)elementsoftime,trust, just like the Gary plan. just like theGary of technology education, footnote inthefield presented totheprofessionforse This may suggestthatthe education by teachersanduniversity professors. lum consensusaboutthecontentoftechnolo asubstantial lackofcurricu- (2004) identified Despite thisoptimisticassessment, Wicklein (p.8). isnotaneducationalfad” instruction maintained that “standards-based confidently school districtsaccountable” (p.8). They also [and that]stateboardsofeducationareholding ing hasbeeng “the useofstandards-basedteachingandlearn- (Metcalfe, 1916a;Vance, 1916)? plan raised atthetimeaboutGary Standards Literacy w , ma The recent Merrill andComerford(2004)statedthat Merrill y stillnotbeuni (ITEA, 2000)may muchthe alsoface a “fad,” exactly thesameconcerns Their genuineacceptanceby aining signif Standards for Technological v ersally acceptedor Standards icant attention. Standards v eral y , although become a ears gy would beadifferent today. story accomplishments oftechnolo happened, nodoubtthehealth,status,and the focalpointinschools—andshouldthishave ginalized gy educationpro elsewhere beensuccessful,insteadoftechnolo- planinNewlabs. HadtheGary York Cityand band,ized areasinchorus, oreven technology “activity period”forstudentstoattendspecial- upper elementar teachingin schools, suchasdepartmentalized features oftheplanremaininmany oftoday’s needs throughexperiential, hands-onactivities. onsocialconditionsand that centeredlearning lation touse.Italsoembodiededucationideals fortheentireschoolpopu- school hadfacilities programs, andthe andsecondary elementary education, therewas between cleararticulation schoolstudentsinvolvedondary intechnical Forgrams. planhadallsec- example, theGary appreciated intoday’s technology educationpro- 1995), itfeaturedmany aspectsthatwould be early (Petrina manualandindustrialarts & Volk, on socialprogressive philosophy thatinfluenced influenceontechnologygreat education.Based Conclusion Epsilon Pi Tau. Emirates. HeisamemberofPhiChapter Colle Applied Research inEducationattheHigher While the Gary plandidnotlastlong,some While theGary planhadthepotentialtobea The Gary Dr g es of . K , the enneth S. Volk isUNESCO Chairfor T ec y w hnolo y grades andanend-of-dayy grades g ould ha rams remaininglar gy intheUnited gy Arab v e remainedmuchmore gy education gely mar- The Journal of Technology Studies 47 , . New York York New . New York Globe York New American Quarterly, 10 American Quarterly, e time enough for essentials. . . v . ds for technological literacy: Content literacy: technological ds for . flin. Journal of Technology Education, Education, Technology of Journal y did not ha ving in building and teachers—No pro New York Tribune York New New York Globe York New Standar New York Globe York New . New York: E. P. Dutton. (Original work Dutton. (Original work E. P. York: . New . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. University . Cambridge, MA: Harvard New York Globe. York New New York Tribune York New ork Tribune ork (2), 5-19. Y York Globe. York w w Ne Ne ho claimed that the . VA: Author. VA: w York vocational survey: Summary of the report. Industrial Industrial report. of the Summary survey: vocational York w Change for public education: Practical approaches for the for approaches education: Practical public for Change . Boston: Houghton Mif . Boston: Houghton The paradox of progressive education: The Gary plan and urban The Gary plan and urban education: of progressive The paradox The Ne Schools of to-morrow Schools (2), 8-10. hools ork Globe ork . Reston, Y w , 15, 39-72. y to teachers w Ne The politics of the introduction of the Gary plan to the New York City school school City York New the Gary plan to the of of the introduction The politics eacher, 64 eacher, (5), 229-230. y plan. (1915, April 9). y plan. (1915, T . New York: Columbia University, Teachers College. Teachers University, Columbia York: . New . . The Gary sc y Progressive and urban school reform: The public education association of New York of New education association The public reform: school and urban Progressive g Reconstructing American education . Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Education. . Lanham, MD: Scarecrow as her repl ournal of Technology Education, 15 Technology ournal of . (1915b, December 3). Emphasis put upon sa J . Port Washington, NY: National University Publications. University National NY: Washington, . Port gazine, 2 gazine, W Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ Brunswick, New dissertation, doctoral Rutgers University, Unpublished hnolo . gogica Historica gogica ork Globe ork T ec A. (1972). Schools, politics and riots: The Gary plan in New York City, 1914-1917. City, York The Gary plan in New A. (1972). Schools, politics and riots: Y T gram. V. (1917, July 2). The anti-Gary case. 2). (1917, July V. w (1), 4-17. , aeda xperiment stopped. y or the study of technology ne, R. (1916). national Technology Education Association. (2000). Education Technology national f e P Ne although more pupils are to be put into each school. The Evening Mail. pro posal made to reduce size of schools or classes. published 1915) published 21st century City, 1895-1954 City, system. schooling Arts Ma 95-109. New York Globe York New that such w of technology education in New Mexico public schools. public Mexico in New education of technology 12 rows, A. (1914, November). November). A. (1914, rows, itting school to Gar Metcalfe, T. W. (1916a, March 31). Those whose children attend Garyized schools in the Bronx want children attend GaryizedThose whose schools in the Bronx want (1916a, March 31). W. T. Metcalfe, Mohl, R. Inter Liberty accuse Catholics. (1916, January guardians 21). much less shop equipment provided, space and (1915c, December 22). Less play W. T. Metcalfe, (1916b, October 30). Estimate board is forcing adoption of Gary school plan. W. T. Metcalfe, Metcalfe, F & Cram, H. C. (1998). V., Germinario, Gilro education that influence students to enroll in technology M. (2004). Factors M., & Daugherty, Gray, Katz, M. (1987). An integrated approach. and mathematics standards: Technology M. (2004). Merrill, C., & Comerford, Elimination of Gary (1918, January plan from schools has been begun. 4). (1916, January 21). Gary meeting ends in disorder. Dorr, R. C. (1915, July 8). Great conference on industrial education to be held in city. be held in city. 8). Great conference on industrial education to R. C. (1915, July Dorr, tells audience 89 Brooklyn, principal of P.S. Alice Ritter, 9). Mrs. (1915a, November W. T. Metcalfe, Cohen, S. (1968, Spring). The industrial education movement, 1906-1917. education movement, The industrial Cohen, S. (1968, Spring). Cohen, S. (1964). Bonner, M. W. (1978). W. M. Bonner, (2000). Some factors the adoption predicting D. VanLeeuwen, & J., T. Dormody, M., J. Bussey, A. (1979). R. Cohen, R., & Mohl, Barrows, A. (1915, November 1). What is the GaryWhat plan? 1). (1915, November A. Barrows, Bour References Bar Dewey, J., & Dewey, E. (1962). & Dewey, J., Dewey,
The Journal of Technology Studies 48 V Pearson, G.,& Young, A. T. (2002). Rich, J. M.(1992). (1984).RetrievedRepublican platform 4,2005,fromhttp://edition.cnn.com/allpolitics/ Party January Professor Dewey ofColumbia,says value ofwork-study-play hasalreadybeenestablished— W V Spring, J. (2002). Sanders, M.(2001).New paradigmoroldwine? The statusoftechnology educationpracticeinthe Rodgers, G.E.,&Mahler, M.(1994).Non-acceptanceoftechnology educationby teachersinthe Petrina, S.,& Volk, movement's K.S.(1995).Industrialarts history, vision,andideal:Relevant Petition signedby hundredswhoseschoolinBrooklyn childrenattendGaryized listsseven featuresas plan.(1917,October17). 1,000 schoolchildrenstrike; holdparadeagainst Gary system.(1917,October16). 1,000 pupilsriotagainst Gary The new 18). schoolplans.(1916,January Wm. G. Willcox urges adoption of Wirt plan:Member, boardofeducationcomesoutstrongly. Wicklein, R.C.(2004). Criticalissuesandproblems intechnology education. W V T Trouble meeting.(1917,October17). atGary 10,000 pupilsinBrooklyn out.(1917,October22). T Supt. Ettinger, swomn [sic]inby themayor, begins work. (1918,May 2). wo ofnew girlgraduates systemshouteddown by antis.(1916, April 8). ell ofv oters to learn workoters tolearn ofschoolsunderFusion.(1917,September15). ance, R. isiting clubw eischadle, D irt, irt, W. (1995). lockout in The great America’s citizenshipplants.InD. Glines, Year-Round Education.(Originalwork published 1937) in America’s citizenshipplants:Past asfuture 1996/conventions/san.diego/facts/past.platforms/gop84/index.shtml forstudents.(1915,December 16). richer opportunities New YorkGlobe. United States. field. contemporary, unrecognized—Part usedbut I. not lik technology (1915, January 2). (1915, January 64 McGraw-Hill. shared leadership. (4), 6-9. alue ofGar A. (1916,Januar The Journal of Technology Studies,20 ed. (1916, January 13). ed. (1916,January . E.,& omen impressedf . Washington, DC:National Academy Press. Conflict ofinterest: The politics of American education Journal of Technology Education, 12 Innovations ineducation:Reformers andtheircritics y plan.(1917,October19). W New Jersey ASCD Focus onEducationJournal, 2 New YorkTimes eischadle, M.P. and (1990).School-basedmanagement:Schoolrestructuring y 10).F a v orab eatures ofGar Ne Technically speaking: Why all Americans need toknow more about w YorkGlobe ly by schoolwork. Gary (1916,June5). . New YorkTimes New YorkGlobe Ne (1), 15-20. y schoolplanthatteacherscondemn. w (pp. 1-118).SanDiego: National Association for . Journal of Technology Studies,21 New YorkGlobe Y ork Globe (2), 35-55. . New YorkGlobe New YorkTribune . . . Ne w YorkTribune ,18-22. . Boston: Allyn &Bacon. (4th ed.).Boston: New YorkGlobe Ne . w YorkTribune . The Technology Teacher, Ne The gr New YorkTribune w Y (1), 24-32. or . eat lockout k Mail . . . . The Journal of Technology Studies 49 folding can y observed in jour- y EPSS are begin- ning, scaf wledge enabling the user to real- wledge enabling , as the task is performed, con- , as the task is performed, e, and v version tables, schematics, and flow dia- schematics, and flow tables, version Traditional pre-work and on-the-job train- pre-work Traditional In EPSS, information the per- regarding This article the relationship explores mance of technical work is cumulative, mance of technical work uction of kno ymen and master technicians. Performance lended with social lear xpansi the development of broader technological litera- broader technological of the development & Süß, 1999). (Wittmann cy that in some a way in such evolved ing have process in the work cases training is embedded the promise of cost itself. In the past decade more efficient and provid- labor initially savings 1995). By elim- (Gery, ed the impetus for EPSS traditional training of work- inating much of the a smart electronic coach, indi- ers and providing viduals can use performance support systems to and at the same time have learn working, while instant access to vital support information such as con grams. By harnessing computer systems to accumulate information, coach, and respond to user requests, contemporar ning to fulfill their promise of efficiently sup- porting the performance of tasks. EPSS may greater benefits even deliver than first imagined learn through individ- as these systems actually ual user interaction. for e tributes to knowledge constructed by the user. constructed by tributes to knowledge These features are frequentl ne as techno- technical as well contribute to new and the both in the workplace literacy logical classroom. in the EPSS used to assist workers between performance tasks and the complex of support systems provide prescriptive informa- prescriptive support systems provide a user to accomplish a task such tion to enable as locking-up a piece of stock in a vertical milling machine. Expanded information in the form rubrics, case studies, of troubleshooting and calculation wizards summaries, workflow of the specific in the context are also provided interaction with this information A user’s task. thinking and the con- can lead to higher level str ize concrete and abstract concepts and princi- When ples (Hambrick, Kane & Engle, 2005 ). b - - - ork m tasks y con y inte- a grams. As y agile in er w highw y others. EPSS are Technology has Technology ers to be v x workflow, traditional x workflow, wledge and skills, and ork ention b v The nature of modern work w kno ming a task. y changing conditions in the w uctured to provide users with information uctured to provide mit them to do their jobs or perfor Whether it is planning ne Electronic performance support systems It is because of this evolving and complex It is because of this evolving uction, calibrating a stamping machine, or uction, calibrating a stamping machine, hen perfor George R. Maughan Electronic PerformanceElectronic Support and Systems Literacy Technological rated within a comple str humans cannot escape a tricycle, assembling and materials using information, tools, energy, w forming a force in the world, become a powerful totality that is difficult to understand as a whole 1993; 1977; Postman, Winner, (Ellul, 1954; Sismondo, 2004). and rapidl Introduction place demand that w Abstract learning alternative oppor- (EPSS) can provide traditional classroom or tunities to supplement benefit students may Today’s training strategies. that and strategies from educational settings In using EPSS to will use in the future. they litera- of technological nurture the development higher and students can achieve workers cy, perform they tasks. skills while cognition level unique challenges to the Although there are to over- and use of EPSS, efforts development wide- come these challenges are becoming more spread. their use of information, and mate- tools, energy in learning. engage rials, and continuously in advanced that work nature of technology requires skill societies frequently technological the scope beyond development and knowledge of standard education and training pro tasks become more systemic and highl g prepare workers. training fails to adequately While traditional training and job aids predomi Electronic Performance nate, increasingly to sup- Support (EPSS) are employed Systems in real- development port skill and knowledge An 1995). station (Gery, time and at the work EPSS is a configuration software, of hardware, or students employees by and content accessible and str to per with minimal inter an important link between task support,an important the between link acquisition of ne
The Journal of Technology Studies 50 literacy (p.15) Figur these themesintotheirwork isconsidered. trainers andtechnicaleducatorsasthey integrate cy isdiscussed.Finally, by thechallengesfaced ship tothedevelopment oftechnological litera- cognition andconstructivism andtheirrelation- Third, within theroleoftheoreticalconstructs how work they areusedtosupport isexplored. systemsand support electronic performance of technological literacy isdescribed.Second, Several themesarediscussed.First, thenature development ofoverall technological literacy. thesesystemscanmakecontributions tothe F acting, andcapabilitiesareconceptualized.(See Three axis:knowledge, ways ofthinkingand ner inwhich technological literacy isdescribed. most intriguingaspectsofthework istheman- toaddressthissituation.Oneofthe do theirpart K-12, highereducationandadultto spread useoftechnology. The authorschallenge technological literacy in themidstofwide- p.1). lowThis paradox isthecurrent level of knowledged paradox” (Pearson & Young, 2002, executive by summary describing“anunac- lished book the NationalResearchCouncil’s jointly pub- Technological Literacy theories andprinciples. trol units. examples ascellphones andprogrammable con- recognize andusetools,includingsuchdiverse Finally, capabilitiesrefertoskillsandabilities making decisionsabouttheuseoftechnology. in askingquestions,seekinginfor thinking andactingreferstoone’s participation large systems,aswell astheirimpacts. Ways of ty, includingbothdevices andtechniques ous ways technology isrepresentedinoursocie- about” andbeingable torecognize thenumer- igure 1.)Kno The National Academy ofEngineeringand e 1.Dimensionsoftechnological This alsoincludestheabilitytoapply Technically Speaking wledge represents“kno , opensthe mation and wing b scan toolsusedinautomobileser good example. This device functionslike most such asthescan-toolmarketed by Snap-onisa played alongsidework information. A device by Many isdis- querying. timesthisinformation requirestheusertoseekorpullinformation but available totheuserwhile thework ison-going w lists,inventory as parts andpriceinformation T access device information. withexternal cation illustratesthenetworking oftheuser’s sive databaseviaasatellitelink. This communi- There thesignalistransmittedtoacomprehen vehicle parkedwith theservice inthedriveway. appliance. The laptopcommunicateswirelessly his/her laptopw to is quitecommontoseeatechnicianreferring interf database, thelaptopdoesnotdirectlyexternal ances. Although thelaptopisnetworked toan laptop computerswhenhomeappli- servicing application, man tion. ontheactualsysteminques- instrumentation operate inreal-timeandcanalsoprovide live lems andpossible solutions. These functions work-context answers toquestionsaboutprob- “troub Yet, by thistoolgoesastepfurther providing tioning engine,transmission,and ABS systems. Systems Support Electronic Performance systems nological world. and provide insightintothelarger tech- greater ingaining newassist learners ways ofthinking EPSSmayWhen coupledwithsociallearning, tasks intheworkplace (Wittmann &Süß,1999). knowledgecomplex struct toperform necessary Through theuseofEPSS,employees may con- thinking andactingwilldevelop (Fox, 2001). ing, itisquitelikely thatknowledge andways of technology andactively questioningandlearn- suggeststhatwhentheory auserisengaging logical literacy develops. Constructivist learning alone y pro echnicians cancheckmodelnumbers against ell asvie In anotherexample ofa stand-aloneEPSS EPSS exists as It iswithinthesedimensionsthattechno- ace withthemalfunctioningappliance.It leshooting” advicetotechniciansand viding troub electronic performance support ismade support electronic performance embedded w diag hile diagnosingorrepairingan y Searsser rams andillustrations. leshooting codesformalfunc stand-alone in thework process. vice techniciansuse systems oras vice settings Stand- - - The Journal of Technology Studies 51 - ysi Mini . Sets of . s x plans or ations y step le lack of ph le support struc- ab v or Helper Step b . y comple e possib el atech.edu/ubicomp/614). v elv Single ideas or small sets . Assistants, ers. Each is tailored to a related ds m relati roups, the obser ds, ork ork tasks, the level of task complexity ork tasks, the level izar instructors to perform a task. W the system queries and prompts that enable to perfor solutions. Coaches or Guides Cue Car of facts. Explanations or Demonstr concepts or processes, lessons that explain or graphical of the effect presentations (heat, pressure, time, etc) of variables on materials. Wearable EPSS systems are no longer rele- systems are no longer EPSS Wearable of the degree of embeddedness, Regardless ork task (triton.cc.g cal contact with the aircraft by the pilots, who the pilots, cal contact with the aircraft by on the EPSS to guide heavily seemed to rely their preflight inspection, prompted researchers context to suggest additional study of the task using EPSS so when context and environmental discriminate between to that users will be able interacting with the EPSS and performing the w commands or instructions. For these systems to these systems or instructions.commands For article, in this as described as EPSS qualify they information, pre-created only provide would learned information, real-time information or interventionwithout the of people. ago, years A few to the movies. gated of studied the use Tech researchers at Georgia computers for task guid- stand-alone wearable The equipment con- ance in aircraft inspection. figuration consisted of very small computer software recognition voice with data storage and on a belt, a head strap with monochrome worn The task performed a microphone. and display the external EPSS was subjects using the by Three of a Cessna 172. preflight inspection groupsexperimental performed from the task taken or using photographs using text, memory, from the operating manual of the aircraft. Although no significant found was difference among the g EPSS consists of tw varying for each. Imagine each of the following varying being used to support the multi-step task of heater or per- replacing a residential hot water forming inspection of a single a pre-flight These structures, adapted from engine aircraft. Gery include: (1995, p. 52), tures for w set of w le are mation A com- earab vailable to pro- vailable vies, w ord processing softw xample, when beginning xample, when y pushing some infor or e electronic performance support ork b iction and action mo ord processing document with “Dear acation wizard” is also a ” Intuit’s Turbo Tax is another example of a is another example Tax Turbo Intuit’s Embedded A unique aspect of stand-alone or embed- Finally, another example of a stand-alone example another Finally, w w mance of w e help?” to the user as well as responding to user queries. to the user as well of an embedded EPSS sys- A simple example tem is the ubiquitous w as that corrects misspelled words or underlines Another type of sup- one types on the computer. the task one is port is the feature that recognizes support via an to provide performing and offers intelligent agent. F plete “v user-friendly embedded support system that user-friendly prompts users for information of and is capable An on-line exam- running calculations. complex embedded system is powerful ple of a relatively Here, the system found at www.expedia.com. and responds to information the user provides seeks clarification necessary when before launching a search for airlines or hotels. is provided by devices that are interfaced into devices by is provided suggestions and provide They process. the work information to the user during the per- relevant for a ne to offer query you the intelligent agent may Sir,” reads, that box a text displaying assistance by you Would writing a letter. you’re “It looks like lik vide assistance to those who are “vacation chal- are “vacation vide assistance to those who lenged. Demonstrated feature. ded EPSS is the wearable in science f as miniature been portrayed have EPSS devices panels in glasses or headbands that pro- display ear pieces and imageryvide text along with tiny activated voice and microphones that provide EPSS is that of a European automobile manu- automobile a European is that of EPSS a “guided fault-finding”facturer that employs A laptop service technicians. by system used for the decision-branches provides computer consis- in order to ensure to follow technician dealerships. across efforts in diagnostic tency documenta- This support system also provides The system is work. tion of the technician’s procedure that based on a prompt-and-response to respond at each stage requires the technician tracking work- thereby of the guided process documentation is then transferredThe to flow. memory to stick and presented the technician’s cal- payment or the service manager for analysis culations.
The Journal of Technology Studies 52 and themannerthroughw by thetypeofwork thesystemissupporting intoit. of intelligencebuilt Access isinfluenced of accessauserhastothesystem,andlevel w of w accommodate theindividual needsofanumber yet can information, als who requirespecific por sink andreplacingwindows. The variety ofsup- maintenance taskssuchasreplacingakitchen forrelatedhome structures nied withsupport wouldment tasksupport probably beaccompa- also besupported. The hotwater tankreplace- a singletask-setissuppor into thecreationofEPSS.Ofcourse,morethan w enced usersfrequently requiring multiplepath- strate def text andimagery, isdesirable. A “text only” access pointsandcontextual feedback-allwith vide alternative views, multiplereferenceand thatpro- in theEPSS.Graphicaluserinterfaces devices have uniqueimpactsonnavigation with- screens, visualdispla such asopticalscanners,keypads, touch- andnavigatesfaces withinthesystem.Devices ty problems onamotorcycle, itcouldbeembed- an EPSSwere available fordiagnosingdrivabili- orkers orstudentsisinfluencedby themeans a ys tothesameinfor ault israrely adequate. Access pointsand t str orkers. of flow ordecisiontrees. charts or processes. Checklist tables,charts, andgraphs. glossary, safetyprecautions,specification Searchable Reference The degree towhichThe degree EPSS cansupport dealofeffort goes It isapparentthatagreat in sometypeofpin-pointdiagnostic. used asself-assessmentand/ortoengage Assessments or exercises todevelop skills. Practice Activities situations. problems userstounique ortoalert Tips or processproblems. Templates solutions tosimilarproblems. Examples Process Map gies canv uctures pro . Hintstooptimizeefficiency, avoid . Minichecklistsofflow charts . Minicasesrepresenting . Pre-existing solutionstodesign ar y between novice andexperi- . Clustersofquestionstobe . Graphicalrepresentation vides fle ys orv mation. F . Sampleproblems ted; relatedtasksma hich theuserinter xibility forindi . Presentationsof oice controlled or e xample, if vidu - y - w w knowledge toprovide suggestionstooverall Truly intelligentEPSS may acquiresufficient taskaswell asuniversalspecific taskissues. about theuser’s experience inrelationtothe users’ sent thepower ofEPSStoadjustvarious two levels, dynamicandintelligent,thatrepre- f ingaps withnew knowledgehelping fill and sumers orhobb In addition,lear consider andaddsmeaningto new knowledge. other lear ing, calculatingandviewing, collaborationwith In additiontoengagement throughdoing,read- are actively experience. engaged inthelearning (Maughan & tunities producenew conceptsorideas gained andknowledge oppor- learning isbuilt, tion andpaste knowledge drawing upon pre-existing informa- vie logical literacy isconstructivism. Constructivists ance ofworkers anddevelop abroadertechno- theperform- practice ofusingEPSStosupport theor Although anumberoftheoriesmay apply, the byinformed various theoriesoflearning. Cognition Constructed Knowledgeand useful totypicalusers.Ho ios of“ifthis,thenthis.” These featuresarevery able andcreatingmorestandardizedtaskscenar- avail-updating changesinthebasicinformation they progressto learn, insophisticationby with thetask. As systemsaregiven thecapacity frequently asked questions/answers associated procedures,or aboutspecifications, information 2004). A staticlevel may ofinformation be dardized, dynamicandintelligent(Cichelli, have beendescribed:static,maintained, stan- levels Inc.,five SI International, ofintelligence According toJanetCichelli,Chief Technologist, how thesystemcanacquirenew knowledge. mine how adaptable canbeand theinterface the technicianwithpossible repairstrategies. engine isunderdifferent loadsandsupplying while whenperformance identifyingfaults the provide displays real-timegraphical ofengine ded intoadynamometer(Maughan,2005)and acilitating higher orderthinking. orkflo ell assimpletaskcompletioninfor w thelear Training andeducationactivities are Levels intoEPSSdeter- ofintelligencebuilt y thatrelatesmosttothefundamental entr w, as previous unconsidered efficiencies, ners provides perspectives alternate to y levels information andlinklearned ner asactively new constructing Anderson, 2005).Mostw xperiences. yists tothelear ners bringe w As e xperiences ascon e v er ning process, xperience is , itisthetop mation. ork ers - The Journal of Technology Studies 53 y mance tant to rec- gical literac ferent than those ts that there y through the use of vel of thinking within a of thinking vel e le ould look dif v orkplace, it is impor vidence suppor uction of technolo gical literac , 1993). In their recent book, Salas & usiness w enger Repetition or scaffolding techniques applied techniques or scaffolding Repetition be accessed and inte- may LTM One way The constr W roup. Recent e xists “direct and indirect relationships between xists “direct and indirect relationships to information in STM may cause it to become cause it to information in STM may generally is Once there, LTM stored as LTM. – in fact, time it can be theo- not influenced by rized that once information into is accumulated Problems reside there indefinitely. it may LTM relate to accessing informa- usually with LTM tion and integrating smaller bits of information from which concepts and principles into larger Furthermore, thinking might occur. higher-order to apply capacity to plan how the cognitive information from memory to perform a task, functioning, can influence executive as known These of using EPSS. effectiveness the overall very processes become important to cognitive consider in their relationship to the development of technolo EPSS. grated is through interaction with others. By the communicating across the workgroup, assimilation of information can result in the (Lave of knowledge levels of various evolution & to understand- a key (2004) postulate that Fiore process and performance is team cog- ing work nition, the collecti e through the use of EPSS requires an understand- functioning, and tasks, cognitive ing of work design principles for electronic perfor The and interfaces. software, support devices, or learningsocial learning occurs in a work that high-level contributes to individual environment Although these thinking and team knowledge. and subsequent systems are often con- variables sidered in the w seconds or minutes. The variance among indi- variance The or minutes. seconds to their ability by be influenced may viduals be learned is to the nature of what attend and Kane, & Engle, 2005). (Hambrick, g operationaliza- various and team effectiveness mem- among team tions of common cognitions 2004, p.11). Woehr, bers (Rentsch & the potential of EPSS in schools. Most ognize of performance sys- the development certainly tems in b in schools (Sleight, 1992). Educators are encouraged to think about the comprehensive and select those nature of EPSS development features and systems that can be created and - y, wl- wn and orking memor , and 3. kno el, Bro v rams are also based g med. y training pro wer’s “understanding and some degree of wer’s The potential of achieving higher-level cog- higher-level The potential of achieving Learning requires activity and is best facili- and is best Learning requires activity The process of turning information as a Fox (2001) explains that learning explains (2001) construct- Fox ysis. On a conceptual le ning en-route to successful completion. wledge transfer is not easy hile tasks are perfor nition from the use of EPSS is probably depend- nition from the use of EPSS is probably ent on the relationship among w Duguid (2000) offer three distinctions: 1. three distinctions: Duguid (2000) offer 2. is associated with an individual, knowledge kno on edge acquisition requires assimilation based the kno to benefit an commitment” (p. 120). Obviously, must inform practice. knowledge organization, that means that knowledge In the workplace, an individ- by must contribute to the act of work ual or through collaboration with workgroups. The third distinction relates to a direct benefit assimila- of the use of EPSS since the learner’s sit- tion occurs within, and because of, the work the learneruation in which is committed to lear short-term memory (STM), and long-term & Süß, 1999; (Wittmann memory (LTM) Hambrick, Kane, & Engle, 2005). STM is influ sensory input of informationenced by in the sights, common domains of language, text, This information remains sounds and smells. a matter of only for individual to the available tated through action. For example, one can bet- one example, For tated through action. if he/she of torque ter understand the concept has turned the wrench on a bolt and felt a torque across move the pointer watching tension while education and vocational Technology the scale. long recognized have and career tech programs learning. the importance of this type of active Most industr the on a praxis or doing model. EPSS engages information relevant highly providing learner by w as it is conceptual- commodity into knowledge stringent involves scientists cognitive ized by anal ed by the individual can be achieved in many be achieved can the individual ed by to learning and that the paths not are ways the realize The learner may compatible. always is incorrect take decide to path they and learn the of the experience thus, mistake; from this the learning has assisted in mistake process. to information need to be Multiple pathways the learners. Facilitating for different provided demand for information, and in when learner’s form what the learner important prefers, is an function of EPSS.
The Journal of Technology Studies 54 these arehandheldanddesktop computers. trainers andteachers. The most fundamentalof systems areavailableand information tomost Alternatives tofully communication integrated through e employees knowledge orstudentsalsoconstruct traditional linearmodelaswell as models where cation towork), toaparadigmthatincludesthe (trainingfollowedadigm ofinstruction by appli- as trainersandteachersmove from alinearpar- the following describesfourcategories. teachers developing andusingEPSSaremany, Challenges forfullyinfrastructure developed systems. used insettingsthatdonothave theresourcesor to or Knowledge management de resources mustbeinplaceforthepurchase, systemswhileformance doingwork. Financial Str intheworkdecreased efficiency process. that inappropriateapplicationwillnotresultin symbiosis between theEPSSanduser, so through polic ofuseEPSSmustbeclarified and degree teamapproach. multidisciplinary The situation teach thesystemtorecognize his/hervoice. f tasks the forthe toacquiresupport necessary ficiency to beable toaccessthesystematalevel ofpro- In suchcasesEPSSusersmustundergo training large organizations system. by their enterprise neous users. high inordertoaccommodatemultiplesimulta- In mostcases,thespeedofdatatransferisvery bases andconnectedtoreal-timeprocessdata. motion videow from delivering tofull- text-based information wireless devices. Network capacitycouldrange from cabled bench-topcomputerstowearable ornodesmayvision ofaccessterminals vary many organizations (Maughan,2001). The pro- policy, isachallengeto support andfinancial devices, networks, developer skills,application comprisedofuseraccess tion infrastructure Communication andcomputerinfrastructure ace isafeatureoftheEPSS,usermust v uctural changesinanor elopment, andmaintenanceofthesystem. Although thechallengestotrainersand Kno EPSS de The creationofaseamlessEPSSinforma- g anizations moving towards theintegration y perform. Inaddition,ifvoicey perform. inter- wledge management isalsoachallenge xperience orwiththesuppor This capability is best served in This capabilityisbestserved v y inordertooptimizethepotential elopment generall arehoused inmulti-layered data- g anization ma y requiresa t ofper- y occur Moore, 2005). the next execution & cycle (Darling,Parry canbeimproved structures that thesupport for tion needsshouldbepro aswell corrections as newinformation informa- w fundamental toachie andconcepts ofrelatedattributes integration continuum ofdifficulty, oftenrequiresthe but this isnotmerely aninvestigation intoalinear skills, knowledge andability. Inmany cases chical f basiclevels,some atvery continuinginhierar- process duringwhichisoffered tasksupport – envision multipleaccess pointswithinthe ments. The taskfordevelopers ofEPSSisto is rarely environ- doneineducationorindustry pre-test orscreeninginstr adv site knowledge or asbasic, intermediate, ofpossessingprerequi- be categorized interms atively new content.For any can task,learners advanceders bringtothetaskoflearning orrel- unscientif Usability cles. that consistsofthreeslightl 2001). This zoneisthecenter ofavenn diagram EPSS (Dick “The Performance Zone”when developing Presentation infor appropriatetothetask, information formance: greatly fromorganization toorganization. ofworkgroups,terns thatinpractice,alsovary tion dependsonthevarying communicationpat- communicating knowledge acrossanorganiza- it mustbeacknowledged thatthepracticeof and usefulways (Siemens,2004).Furthermore, making knowledge available tousersinflexible capturing knowledge, indexing knowledge, and from theactivity andinvolves identifyingand mustbederived oftaskperformance support work settings.Knowledge managementinthe logical independentofapplicationsor fashion epistemo- treat contentinanabstractorformal tendto Traditional andschoolcurricula industry fortrainersandteachers. can bedifficult workate contexts ofparticular processes. This into smallerchunksandplacedintheappropri- amounts ofknowledge andorganized besorted of EPSS.EPSSrequiresthatrelatively large ork anced. Trainers andteacherstendtodevelop an Performance specialistsfrequently referto mation appropriate tothepersonand ers or students perform iterativeers orstudentsperform tasks, These threecriticalelements enab ashion to very advancedashion tovery levels ofentry ic assessmentofthekno This assessmentcanbev elman, 1995;Degler &Battle, ve success.Ideally, as vided tode uments, althoughthis y o v erlapping cir wledge lear v erified with erified elopers so le per - - n- The Journal of Technology Studies 55 - . vard vard Performance Performance e Haute (1), 23-35. err T Harvard Business Harvard , Performance Improvement Performance sity ercome these challenges are becom Boston: Har v gies and tools for performance ts to o Traditional approaches to developing tech- approaches to developing Traditional of is Professor R. Maughan George Dr. ation of Wearable Computers for Task Task Computers for Wearable ation of w strate for ing more widespread. Additional research in this ing more widespread. and educators with trainers area could provide ne enhancement. stand the relationship between support struc- between the relationship stand of specific for the development tures and skills to performthe develop- tasks and knowledge The are on-going. levels cognition ment of high learning attempts to characterize disparate many and high performance workplaces organizations point. illustrate this through formal literacy and education nological expand. must continue and training programs learning alternative EPSS can provide However, opportunities class- to supplement traditional students Today’s room or training strategies. benefitmay settings and from educational will use in the future. In that they strategies tech- of using EPSS to nurture the development and students can workers literacy, nological they skills while cognition higher level achieve Although there are unique chal- perform tasks. and use of EPSS, lenges to the development ef Education at Indiana Technology Industrial State Univer estig v (Trans. By J. Wilkinson). Grand Rapids, MI: Wilkinson). By J. (Trans. e of information. y In ord Review of Education, 27 Review ord el v (1) pp 23-30. gical Oxf Preliminar The social lif ic skills and lished in 1954. (n.d.). (1) pp 47-93. gy els of performance support. Retrieved on April 21, 2006 els of performance on support. Retrieved ork pub v vement Quarterly, 8 vement Quarterly, o e le The technological society. The technological v echnolo i T (7) pp 34-42. elopment of specif v , July-August, 2005, 84-92. , July-August, . ( 2004) F ormance Impr ences erf gia Institute of Certainly the improvement of organization the improvement Certainly Improvement Quarterly, 8 Quarterly, Improvement Inspection.Aircraft Guidance in April 21, 2006 from triton.cc.gatech.edu/ubicomp/614. on Retrieved P Eerdmans. Original w Business School Press. from https://www.spider.hpc.navy.mil/index.cfm?RID=TTE_OT_1000036 Review 40 Quarterly, wledge, in addition to broader technolo wledge, training often focuses on this le wn, J.S. and Duguid, P. (2000). P. and Duguid, wn, J.S. ox, R. (2001). Constructivism examined. examined. R. (2001). Constructivism ox, literacy has been a major goal of practioners literacy and researchers. Furthermore, to under- efforts kno of employee learning of develop- the expense at of employee argue Some literacy. ing a broader technological that this approach might limit decision-making human performance Improving and innovation. through the de Conclusions performance requires a focus on and individual training. workforce and the structure of work task performance generally Because work requires the application of specific skills and kno informationof the features critical containing these features each of that By ensuring world. are integrated of a graphical through the means user interface, the effi-EPSS can optimize an or to workers of the supportciency provided a virtual must create learners. EPSS developers major human without omitting of work world As sophisticated 1995). attributes (Dickelman, look, the inte- designed screen may as a cleverly grating a work- of information needed to enable to presenting decision boils down a er to make not just bits of informa-the totality of the task, EPSS must process infor- tion. In essence, the immediate task and the mation based on the demands of the user. Gery, G. (1995) Attributes and behaviors of performance-centered systems. Attributes and behaviors G. (1995) Gery, Ellul, J. (1954/1964). Ellul, J. F Geor Degler, D. and Battle, L. (2001) Around the interface in 80 clicks. and Battle, L. (2001) D. Degler, Norman.A. Things that help us perform. Commentary on Ideas from Donald G. (1995) Dickelman, Refer Bro Cichelli, J (2005) Learning in the thick of it. C. and Moore, J. Darling, M, Parry,
The Journal of Technology Studies 56 Kirby ,J. (2005) Toward ofhighperformance. atheory Wittmann, W.W. andSüß,H(1999)Investigating thepathsbetween working memory, intelligence, Sleight, D. (1992) systems inschools.Retrieved support The potentialofelectronicperformance on Sismondo, S.(2004). RetrievedSiemens, G.(2004).Categories ofeLearning. onFebruary 14,2005from Rentsch, J. and Woehr, D. incognition: Socialrelationsmodeling (2004)Quantifyingcongruence Pearson, G.and T. Young (Eds.)(2002). Maughan, G.R.and Anderson, T. (2005)Linking theories. TQM culturetotraditionallearning forthehigh-performance Maughan, G.R.andK.S.PrinceBall(1999),Synergetic curriculum Maughan, G.R.(2005,July) Lave, J. andE. Wenger. (1993). Hambrick, D.Z., Kane,M.J., andEngle,R.W. (2005) The roleofworking inhigher-level memory W Postman, N. (1993). Maughan, G.R.,(Fall InG.Maughan systemsinfrastructure, 2001)Communicationandinformation Salas, E.andFiore, S.M.(Eds.)(2004) inner New York: CambridgeUnivesity Press. K and complex Symmetry. problem-solving viaBrunswik performances InP.L. P.C.Ackerman, and teammemberschemasimilarity. InSalas,E.andFiore, S.M.(Eds.), Education &Psychology Conference,Durham,England. and technical problem solving (pp. 17-27).SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass. cognition, InR.J. &J.E. Sternberg Pretz(Eds.) Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Under (Ed.) American Psychological Association. Boston: MITPress. September 10,2005fromwww.msu.edu/~sleightd/school.html http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/elearningcategories.htm and performance. a J workplace, Cambridge Uni 2005, 30-39. ournal ofIndustrial Technology, 21 bout tec yllonen, &R.D , L.(1977). Technology leadership: Communicationandinformation systemsinhighereducation standing thefactors thatdriveprocess andperformance hnolo The Technology Teacher,58 g A versity Press. y Technopoly utonomous tec . Rober . An intr Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. W ashington, D Cognitive processes embeddedinself-explanationsoftrouble-shooting oduction toscienceandtec ts (Eds.), Situated learning:Legitimate peripheral participation. . New York: Vantage Books. . Paper presented at the International . Paper presentedattheInternational Association forCognitive nlg:Technics-out-of-control asathemeinpoliticalthought. hnology: .C.: National Learning andindividualdif Team cognition: Understanding thefactors thatdriveprocess Technically speaking: Why all Americans needtoknow more (4), 2-7. (7), 38-41. Academ Cognition andintelligence Harvard BusinessReview hnology studies. y Press. f er (pp. 11-31) ences Blackw (pp. 77-110). Team cognition: (pp. 104-121). Washington, DC: ell Pub , July-August, New York: lishing. The Journal of Technology Studies 57 ell as the ms of the The certification levels ram. ument. g ield-independent), as w er on a more consistent basis. ap in the literature in ter w y. This study compared computer simulat- y. y research areas, the study examined the y research areas, the study examined The primary purpose to of this study was This study used a within-subjects repeated The literature review also indicated that a The literature review Method learning style (field-relationship of cognitive dependant or f Purpose of utilizing a combina- the effectiveness examine to train tion of lecture and computer resources system personnel to assume roles as hydraulic technicians and specialists in the fluid power industr ed laboratory instruction to traditional hands-on laboratory instruction, in terms of effectiveness. measures design to determine the relationship methods of teaching fluid power two between laboratory and student achievement experiences as a written instrument, as well on a cognitive As sec- performance instrument. (psychomotor) ondar sequencing of the laboratory assignments, to the on a performance of student achievement level (psychomotor) instr indication of the lack of emphasis that this sub- indication of the lack received. ject area has historically computerized design selection of fluid power available. is now and simulation software can be used to per- programs software Various form of cir- computer aided design and testing of engineering analysis complex or even cuitry, component selection. dynamic systems and Computerized simulations used for instruction mental can assist the student in developing sys- types of complex different models of many & Sims, 1994; 1989; Mayer tems (Mayer, 1994). & Unger, Perkins 1992; Towne, Munro & There is a g to train application of computerized simulation could which industry, people for the fluid power reduction in the implementation result in a large costs of such a pro Society (FPS) have the Fluid Power by offered brought the industry some much needed indus- It is time for the educational try recognition. courses community to focus on the need to offer in fluid po iculty f ger, 1985). ger, y, there has y, ailable literature ailable v y has had dif -based instruction ws et al., 1996). , 1993), engineering fluid er industr ning style to a student’s w ted that cognitive learning style ted that cognitive e lear v ederick & Chung, 1994; Bur wn repor The small amount of a gniti o Despite demand from industr Despite demand from There is considerable recent research on the There is considerable The fluid po Much of this research has also been tied to Much of this research has also been tied y pilot training (Andre Scott B. Wilson Scott B. Computer Assisted Fluid Power Instruction: Instruction: Power Fluid Assisted Computer and Computer-Simulated Hands-On of A Comparison Laboratory for Post-Secondary Experiences Students. Introduction been a general lack of emphasis placed upon been a general lack post-secondary by power course content in fluid The cost in this country. educational institutions laboratory for the required facil- of development a major obstacle to fluid ities is often cited as content development. power use of computer assisted instruction and com- Some of puter simulation for technical training. the been studied include the areas that have and teaching of subjects such as: Electricity magnetism (Chou, 1998), electrical operational amplifiers (Dobson & Hill, 1995), basic elec- tronics (Moslehpour mechanics (Engel et al., 1996), basic thermody- namics (Buttles, 1992), chemistry (Grosso, (Chien, 1997), mili- 1994), engineering physics tar research to There has also been considerable link co within that choice of a major and achievement et al.,1977a; Witkin 1973; major (Witkin, & Torres 1984; & Guild, 1979; Garger Gregorc, Canno, 1994; Garton et al., 1999). individual differences in cognitive learning in cognitive differences individual of literature, Moldafsky styles. In a 1994 review and K lack of ability person’s for a can be responsible to process information from computers, along comput- with their attitude and anxiety towards Additional studies found that individuals ers. styles could significantly with certain cognitive to recall material out perform asked when others presented using computer (Hsu, F education is a strong pertaining power to fluid in achieving the professionalism and formal in achieving other engi- educational system found in many neering and technical fields.The high cost of contribute to this prob- training equipment may lem (Luzerne Community College, County 1987).
The Journal of Technology Studies 58 Table 1:TheResearch Design t scores between thetreatmenttypes. Additional (high orlow GEFTscores)andperformance examine therelationshipbetween styles learning for eachofthethreerequiredtasksw evaluation,performance withonepointawarded receive ascoreofzeroto threepointsonthe the othertypeoftrainer. The studentcould assignmentsandpriortoswitchinglaboratory to two atthecompletionoffirst instrument tions were given usingacriterion-referenced administered toeachstudent. was instrument individuallyperformance two assignments,the laboratory tion ofthefirst fluid power simulationprogram. Uponcomple- assignmentsusingthecomputerized oratory ers, while two Group lab- A completedthefirst using thetraditionalhands-onfluidpower train- completed thef domly splitintotwo GroupB treatmentgroups. same time,thesubjectsineachcoursewere ran- study. After receiving thesamelectureat inthis with atotalof70subjects,participated ance betw deter ofeachsubject. dependant orfield-independent) thecognitiveto determine styles(field- learning (GEFT) w course, theGroupEmbeddedFigures Test subject indi (psychomotor) testw completion ofbothtreatments,theperformance and thecomputerizedsimulationprogram. Upon students e trainersothatallofthe other typeoflaboratory ance test,eachoftheg limit. completed cor -tests were ifthe conductedtodetermine The performance (psychomotor)evalua-The performance Four sectionsofthesamecollege course, Separate t mine dif Upon completionofthemid-labperform- Groups: Group B Group A xperienced boththehands-ontrainers een thetw as administeredtoallofthestudents viduall ferences inactualstudentperform- rectly withinthe15minutetime -test procedureswere usedto irst two assignments laboratory y. At thecompletionof the o treatments,asw as re-administeredtoeach roups switched tothe 1 Computer-Simulation Labs st Hands-on Trainer Labs Hands-on Trainer & 2 nd T Treatment I: reatment II: Lab Assignments: hich w ell asto ere T r eatments: value toeducatorsareasfollows; Findings treatments. two unitexam scoresandthesequencingof difference betweensignificant thesumof using anothert ment types. The laststatisticalanalysis involved ance testscoresandthesequencingoftreat- cant difference between midandpostperform- conducted todeter (high orlow GEFTscores). t A paired styles scoresandlearning performance final mine iftherewas arelationshipbetween student aswellentiated studentperformance astodeter- sequencing ofthetreatmentsresultedindiffer- 5. The difference between themid-and 4. asfield-independ- The subjectsclassified 3. There was notastatistically significant 2. asfield-independ- The subjectsclassified 1. There was notastatistically significant ofthestudywhich areof The findings statisticall methods oftreatmentsequencingw asaresultofthetwogroup different post- psychomotortestscoreswithineach f testthandidthe chomotor performance cantly higherontheend-of-labpsy- scoredstatisticallyent learners signifi- ment typesbetw a resultofthesequencingtreat ation as evalu-post-lab psychomotorperformance dif dependent learners. perfor cantl scoredstatisticallyent learners signifi- two assignments. laboratory of thefirst afterthecompletion chomotor instrument the two onthepsy- treatmentgroups difference between of theperformance 3 ield-dependent learners. ield-dependent learners. Computer Simulation Labs r ference instudentperfor d Hands-on Trainer Labs Hands-on Trainer & 4 y higheronthemid-labpsychomotor mance testthandidthefield- -test to determine iftherewas-test todetermine a th Treatment II: T y signif reatment I: Lab Assignments: mine iftherewas asignifi- een thetwo groups. icant. mance onthe -test was as not - The Journal of Technology Studies 59 ograms mined that uction, this study parts. ference of the er instr w as given before the treat- as given icant dif y Hansen deter ear counter mation than field dependent y technical pr ilkin et al., 1977). In addition, o-y xam w ners (W ucture infor irst unit e While traditional-hands on training will The lack of difference in performance on The lack of difference Subjects classified as field-independent This study also found that treatment Group A 1995 study b , which completed the hands-on exercises completed the hands-on , which y restr likely still continue to be the preferred method likely of conducting fluid po Applications for two and four year post-secondar has shown that satisfactory results can be has shown using a computerized simulation pro- achieved gram. a be pointed out that unlike It should a simulation design program, computer-aided the student to see the system allows program the end-of-lab psychomotor test of the two the end-of-lab psychomotor in the groups indicates there is no difference and computerized sequencing of the hands-on this stimulation laboratory instruction. However, to 50% split of the a 50% examined study only types of laboratory instruction. two signifi- a statistically (FI) learners did achieve cant higher score on the mid- and post-psy- chomotor test than did the field-dependent (FD) An earlier study found that fieldlearners. inde- to mental- better able pendent (FI) learners were l (FD) lear to recall found to be better able FI learners were material presented using computer based 1985). instruction (Hsu et al., 1994; Burger, for the implications This finding also have may of degree that a technical student is seek- level ing. post-secondarythe learning styles of four-year more field students were technology independ- ent than their tw B a high- before the computer simulation, attained as er mean score on the sum of the unit exams as However, separately. as each unit exam well the f was and the second unit exam ments began finished, the after the treatments were given impact of the signif sequencing of laboratory assignments on the outcome of this study is minimal. weigh several hundred pounds and cost several and hundred pounds several weigh more encourage each), could dollars thousand away be offered courses to power on-site fluid the use of a Through campus. from the main access to the simulation student server to allow a fluid practical to offer be it may program, format. in a distance-leaning course power reater ic field of hich often ield-independent wer by utilizing existing by wer ied as f er trainers (w w er replace traditional hands- inding could include an v y ne mance tests on basic fluid power chomotor performance evaluation using a the instructionwhether is given or a computerized simulation program traditional hands-on trainer to teach circuitry. basic fluid power and hands-on trainers are used for fluid instruction, the sequencing of the power of laboratory types instruction two results in similar student psychomotor performance. Students classif learners perform better on psychomotor perfor circuitry than those classified as field- dependent learners. ference in the sum of the cognitive unit cognitive of the in the sum ference in the the subjects scores between exam treatment groups. different two completed which Group B, Treatment before complet- exercises the hands-on simulation exercises, ing the computer had a higher mean score. Where both computerized simulation The finding that similar results can be The conclusions from this study may be this study may The conclusions from on a psy- 1. Similar results can be achieved 2. 3. 6. There was a statistically significant statistically a was There dif- 6. uction ma computer laboratories. In addition, the g portability compared computers when of lap-top to hands-on fluid po on laboratory similar instruction, it could offer student performance financial results where or the purchase and prevent constraints physical The poten- trainers. use of hands-on fluid power tial impact of this f and universi- increase in the number of colleges and offer to develop to afford are able ties who courses in basic fluid po Discussion obtained on a hands-on psychomotor evaluation using computerized as compared to hands-on laboratory instruction is contrary to convention- al educational practice in the specif fluid power. While computerized laboratory fluid power. instr Conclusions the from which generalized to the population the use This study examined drawn. sample was for teaching basic of computerized simulation its use as a tool and not circuitry, fluid power or pneu- of hydraulic for engineering analysis matic systems. Specific of value conclusions to educators are as follows;
The Journal of Technology Studies 60 Chien, C.C.(1997). Engel, R.S., Chou, C.H.(1998). Buttles, S.(1992,Nov/Dec). &evaluatingA modelforincorporating useofcomputerlaboratory Bur Andrews, D.H., Edwards, B.J., Mattoon,J.S., & R.A.(July-August,Thurman, 1996).Potential Refer Dobson, E.L.,&Hill,M.(1995, Sept.). plished atapproximately 1/3to1/6oftheper power canbeaccom- laboratory instructional $900 perstudent. ment andsoftw paired uponeachcomputerstationtheequip- $1800 perwork station. Iftwo studentsare package yieldsacostofapproximately $1600to average priceof$1000to$1200foracomputer imatel Automation Studiosoftware ispricedatapprox- much lower. A sixcopy packageofthe tion labforfluidpo The costofdeveloping a computerizedsimula- equipment costof$5,000to$7,500perstudent. of thesetrainersatthesametime,producingan a Parker unit. Typically two studentscanuseone $10,000 fora Vickers unittoalmost$15,000for (www.parker.com/training).and Parker-Hannifin Rexroth Hydraulics(www.boschrexroth.com) (https://web.fluidpower.eaton.com),Corporation Association (www.nfpa.com), Eaton-Vickers (www.ifps.org), NationalFluidPower FluidPowerincludes: theInternational Society ing ofsourcesfluidpower trainingmaterials fluid power operationalprinciples. list- A partial al canbeextremely helpfulwhen explaining fluidpoweraddition, supporting trainingmateri- Technologies, (www.automationstudio.com). In Studio software packagefromFAMIC circuit. This studyutilizedthe Automation operate, andthusverify, thecontrollogic ofthe ger, style andacademicachievement. Learning K.(1985).Computerassistedinstruction: T Higher Education, 7 software: A teamapproachtosolve anengineeringeducationproblem. constructivist pedagogy inacollege introductory physics classroom (electricity, magnetism) Unpublished doctoraldissertation, The OhioStateUniversity. student conceptualunderstanding and problem-solving ability related tocircular motion simulation inthenon-majorsbiology course. Journal ofComputerBasedInstruction,12 pilottraining. tospecializedundergraduate modeling andsimulationcontributions electronics teachingusingaCAL package. Unpublished ColumbiaUniversity doctoraldissertation, Teachers College. Basic fluidpower trainerscancostfrom ec y $650percop ences hnology, 36 W einstock, M.A., Campbell,J are costscandropto$800 Thus, de (4), 6-17. The effectiveness ofusingmultimediacomputersimulationscoupledwithsoci w The effectiveness ofinteractive computersimulationsoncollege engineering y, which combinedwithan er instr (2), 65-77. v eloping afluid uction isnor An evaluation ofthestudent response to mall .P., & Sathianathan,D. (1996,Spring).Pipe flow simulation y (1), 21-22. Computers andEducation,25 American Biology Teacher, 54 our students. to offer educationalopportunity thisimportant lo computerized simulationpackagescanprovide a hands-on fluidpower trainersarenotavailable, tions w listedabove.ments ofthecorporations Insitua- cutaways areavailable fromthetrainingdepart- teaching toolaswell. Fluidpower component pumps andmotorsprove tobeanexcellent nents, actualcutaways ofthevarious valves, include detaileddrawings ofhydraulic compo- While the Automation Studiopackagedoes more easily taughtusingasimulationprogram. Complex fluidpower canoftenbe circuitry andtroubleshooting.teach thebasiccircuitry power valuable trainercanbeavery toolto tive. When available, abasichands-onfluid power seemstobethebestalterna- instruction puterized-simulation basedtrainingforfluid applications,ablendtory ofhands-onandcom- skills when computersareusedtoteachlabora- forthelossofhands-on often express aconcern using traditionalhands-onfluidpower trainers. student costofdeveloping asimilarsizedlab University, Warrenburg. Technology atCentral MissouriState in theColle w-cost alter While professionalsinthefluidpower field Dr. ScottB. Wilson isanassociateprofessor here thefundsforafullcomplementof g e of native while still beingable to Applied Sciencesand Journal ofComputing in (l-2), 13-20. (8), 491-494. Educational . . The Journal of Technology Studies 61 , (3), , 9-12. , 9-12. ournal of J (3), 389-401. Journal of Journal . Proceedings (1), 43-64. Curriculum Review Curriculum Pennsylvania State Dept. Pennsylvania lished doctoral (3), 197-211. Educational Leadership 36 Leadership Educational e styles in academic v . Unpub Review of Education Research, Review gniti Journal of Agricultural Education, 40 Education, Agricultural of Journal Development of articulated competency- Development (4), 65-80. atory instruction bor Effects of learner cognitive styles and metacognitive styles and metacognitive learner cognitive of Effects Journal of Educational Psychology, 86 of Educational Psychology, Journal ield-independent co (3), 299-323. Review of Educational Research, 59 of Educational Research, Review Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of New doctoral dissertation, State University Unpublished .K., Goodenough, D.R., Friedman, F., Owen, D.R., & Raskin, E. D.R., Owen, F., Friedman, .K., Goodenough, D.R., aditional la Journal of Educational Psychology, 69 of Educational Psychology, Journal , 22, 1-37. sus tr (4), 61-66. (2), 19-33. vice. ield-dependent and f . (1994). Learning of agriculture. styles of students in a college A comparison of achievement resulting from learning electronics concepts learning electronics from resulting A comparison of achievement The comparison of computer simulation and traditional laboratory exercises exercises laboratory computer simulation and traditional The comparison of wn, I. (1994). Attributes affecting computer-aided decision making--A literature computer-aided Attributes affecting wn, I. (1994). The role of cognitive style in academic performance and in teacher-student and in teacher-student in academic performance style of cognitive The role o esting Ser T aper presented at a GRE Board sponsored symposium, Montreal, Canada. Princeton, NJ: aper presented at a GRE Board sponsored symposium, Montreal, Canada. Princeton, P Towne, D.M. (1992). Productivity tools for simulation centered training development. development. tools for simulation centered training (1992). Productivity D.M. 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The Journal of Technology Studies 62 Angel, S.(2004). Allen, M.T Ber Books BrieflyNoted ner b needed tomeetchallengesthat lieahead. The new rolepeoplewillplay intheevolving world of ideasandplotnewreaders toformulate andpointsoutthe changes directionsfortheirbusiness processes. rate or De identify demandandapply therighttechnological know-how tocreatetangible customerbenefit. reality, they willhave toactaswell asreact.Growth willcometoonly thosecompaniesthatcan past in broader historical terms cansuggestnewpast inbroaderhistoricalterms directionsforscienceandtechnology studies. andhowcan helpsynthesizematerialandculturalmethodsofinquiry reframingtechnology’s Cold War. The essays show how insightintothetechnological aspectsofsuchbroadprocesses oflabor;politicalideologybution andindustrialdevelopment; andpoliticalpracticesduringthe anddistri- ofnationalidentity;changesinthestructure andauthority;theconstruction expertise, standing ofthechangingmeaningsmodernity. They considertherelationshipamongstate, in which amorenuancedinvestigation oftechnology’s canenrichourunder- complex history cal systemsstrengthenorreshapesocial,political,andculturalpower. The authors suggestways authority intechnological systems,andhow themachinesandknowledge thatmake uptechni- and services, andforatotallyand services, new world. Such anenvironment callsforinnovative ideas-fornew ways fornew ofdoingbusiness, products much morestreamlined. global markets areemerging. Businessprocessesarebecomingmoremobile,flexible, and in deeper meaningsofone’s lifepursuits. product de di York to Tokyo. For Angel, theseplacesbecamerealmsofknowledge inhabitedby peoplewith inGermany, fromGroningenintheNetherlandstoMurrhardt Hills, California, andfromNew of thejourney. know asmuchaboutscales –oraboutinvention forthatmatter–as Angel doesatthebeginning o had nomechanicalskillsasheembark by professionandinternationally recognized authorityonhousingpolicy indeveloping countries, detail. theirthoughtsandtorecountexperiences ingreat articulate Angel, anurbanplanner bathroomscale. Itisrarebecauseinventorsfamiliar seldomhave the inclination ortheabilityto account oftheprocessinvention anddesignasitunfolds intheremakingofa rare first-person Press. ISBN:0-19-515868-7,$28.00. and Publicis Corporate Publishing.Publicis ISBN: 3-89578-241-6. Corporate inspiration, andabove all,agoodstory. v usiness alsorecei v v , G.(2004). er thecourseofadecade,fromanamateurtoe velopment, mustarrive attherightstrategies, marketing, andsalesdepartments justascorpo- ent asuperbobjectfordomesticuse, erse y Agatha Chipley Hughes The bookla This collectionexplores how technologies ofpower, becameforms how peopleembedtheir T F The pursuitofthesmallscaletook places–from BangkokAngel tofascinating Rolling “Either thingsgoaccordingtoplan,orthereisastory.” Sobegins The w or anyone who hasever strolleddown theaislesofIKEAanddreamtthatthey toocould o sur g . &Hecht,G.(2001). anization, production,andlogistics managersmustdevise andimplementthebestpossible et complimentar v hole w vi elopment specialists,cor v The taleofthescale: An odyssey ofinvention e, companieswillha Mana ys outsomeremarkab orld iswitnessingradicaleconomicchanges. v es attentionin this bookthatisatonceinfor g ement in20XX: The boomcompaniesofy y outlooksonthein . Cambridge,MA: T echnologies ofpower: Essaysinhonorof Thomas Parke Hughes v e toberesilientandy porate functionaries,andfriendsw A holisticvie le scenariosandambitiousvisions forthefuture.Ithelps ed onhisjourney. This bookrecordshistransformation, The T vention process–engineers, designers,lawyers, ale oftheScale The MITPress.ISBN:0-262-51124-X,$30.00. w of esterda xpert onathinscale,travelxpert scale.Readers et adaptab hat thefuture holds y ha . New York, NY: OxfordUniversity will pro v Traditional markets arestagnating; e disappearedfromthescene. mati le. v e andinspiring. vide advice,humor To theirvisionsinto turn The Tale oftheScale ho philosophizeonthe . Erlangen,Ger , caution, , a man y: The Journal of Technology Studies 63 . Charlottesville, VA: VA: . Charlottesville, The human face of s: ver hie vel Upper Paleolithic technologies, new new technologies, Upper Paleolithic vel The early upper Paleolithic beyond western western beyond upper Paleolithic The early ve Literature at Columbia University, argues that argues University, Literature at Columbia ve Pharmaceutical ac The appearance of no . Philadelphia, PA: Chemical Heritage Press. ISBN: 0-941901-30-0, Chemical . Philadelphia, PA: both enriches our understanding of the Victorian debates over industrial- debates over Victorian both enriches our understanding of the ant to present the human face of scientific research, to point and industrial n humans. utes greatly to the ongoing scholarly exploration of the complex genealogy genealogy of the complex exploration to the ongoing scholarly utes greatly y w A.B. & Sullivan, T. (2003). T. & Sullivan, A.B. , w n concept of culture. Manufacturing culture: Vindications of early Victorian industry Victorian of early Vindications culture: Manufacturing y moder xamination of John Ruskin’s and William Morris’s efforts to counter this sort efforts of rhetori- Morris’s William and xamination of John Ruskin’s . . Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. ISBN: 0-520-23851-6, $75.00. University Angeles, CA: . Los rom Robert Southey to William Morris, in the Romantic tradition social critics British William rom Robert to Southey eachers toda vior Archaeological evidence continues to play a critical role in debates over the origins of a critical role in debates over continues to play evidence Archaeological T in areas working the research of prominent archaeologists brings together This volume By showing that culture could not be opposed to industry in any pure or absolute sense, that culture could not be opposed to industry in any By showing F treatises on factories including and of texts, array of a diverse Through careful readings usive modern humans. usive ficult-to-find readers to reconsider the origins of modern the collection urges sources, human patterns of land use, expanded social networks, and the emergence of complex forms of complex of and the emergence patterns social networks, use, expanded of land ago. around 45,000 years beginning revolution symbolic communication point to a behavioral European archaeo- from western derived for this revolution most of the evidence Until recently, that suggested an abrupt with contexts replacement of Mousterian Middle Paleolithic logical the absence of fossil association, the behavioral adaptations. In Aurignacian Upper Paleolithic populations by replacement of archaic hominid thought to reflect the biological transition was intr to the real people who had the insights and made the major advances that students are asked to that students are asked had the insights and made the major advances to the real people who information and biographical it easy for teach-This collection of photographs makes understand. The format and special binding of the the human side of pharmaceutical research. ers to show media. transparencies and other to overhead for easy conversion book allow anatomicall $30.00. Upper for the origins of the early evidence Europe to present the most recent outside western of primary data a wealth With modern and its relationship to the origin of Paleolithic humans. and discussions of materials from before been published never sites that have from archaeological dif beha pharmaceutical research Europe ization and contrib of our moder Manufacturing Culture consistently stigmatized industry as a threat to aesthetic or humanistic “culture.” Joseph Bizup, Joseph stigmatized industry “culture.” to aesthetic or humanistic as a threat consistently and Comparati Professor of English Associate treating cultured manliness as a figure both impulse they by cal maneuvering for the cooperative value. organizing self-interest as a society’s replace competitive hoped would University of Virginia Press. ISBN: 0-8139-2246-1, $39.50. 0-8139-2246-1, Press. ISBN: Virginia of University by in this opposition inherent of industry the power sought to resist advocates Victorian early manufacture automatic of this He traces the contours culture force or agent. itself as a portraying The contentious reinforcing discourses: mutually as it coalesced in two proindustrial rhetoric new the factory the 1830s and its social consequences that raged throughout system and debate over of the social and commercial benefits discussions 1840s, and the extensive design that of good Exhibition of 1851. culminated in the Great arts, of the decorative classes, theoretical discussions of the working medical studies machinery, of industry that liberal proponents such as Great Exhibition, Bizup shows and lectures on the and Henry Cole aestheticized manufacture Babbage, James Phillips Kay, Ure, Charles Andrew systems be factory interpreting they operatives, by – whether its concrete agents and products crafted “art manufactures” copies, or elaborately mass-produced – as emblems of machinery, portraying industry thus allied They with culture by of a prior conceptual unity or beauty. concludes ideal central to the idea of culture. Bizup industry as one realization of the organic with an e wden, M.E., Cro Brantingham, P.J., Kuhn, S.L. & Kerry, K.W. (2004). K.W. S.L. & Kerry, Kuhn, Brantingham, P.J., Bo Bizup, J. (2003). (2003). J. Bizup,
The Journal of Technology Studies 64 Butz, W.P., Kelly, T.K., Adamson, D.M., Bloom,G.A.,Fossum, D. &Gross,M.E.(2004). Brodhead grammatic mechanismsforinfluencingthatworkforce.grammatic workforce, workforce-shaping activities inthefederalSTEMworkforce, andlegislative andpro- three mainareas:trendsintheUSSTEMworkforce overall thatmightaffect thefederalSTEM authors assestheconditionofthisworkforce, basedonthebestavailable data,while focusingon areas andgrowing intheUnitedStates. numbersofnon-UScitizensobtainingSTEMdegrees The soon f both insideandoutsideofgovernment have voiced fearsthatthisworkforce isagingandmay neering andmathematics(STEM)activities inmany areongoingconcerns policy circles.Experts VA: RANDScienceand Technology. ISBN:0-8330-3529-0,$20.00. of society all w colle tial education,theassessmentofacademicprograms, andthecomplex andcompetinggoalsof university,temporary fromfreespeechanddiversity issuestosexual harassmentpolicy, residen- and challengedthem. Freshman Assembly, andthisbookpresentshisengaging remarksashesimultaneously reassured inthem. participate andtothosewho toinstitutions ofhigherlearning Brodhead addressesissuesofimportance and ChallengesinColle Duke University, Yale University Pressispleasedtopublish The GoodofthisPlace: Values American StudiesandDeanoftheCollege tobegin anew chapterofhislifeaspresident of lives.people tolive fulfilling – andoccupiedauniquepositionfromwhich topondertheways thatcollege canprepareyoung appointments,andstudentlife faculty in every education–curriculum, aspectofundergraduate New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.ISBN:0-300-10600-9,$25.00. of the shift from archaic to modern behavioralof theshiftfromarchaictomodern adaptations. ofshiftingadaptations. like pattern Together theseessays willenliven andenrichthediscussion both by substantialbehavioral continuityover theperiod45,000-25,000years agoandamosaic- as diverse astheLevant, Europe,andcentraleastern eastern-central Asia arecharacterized ological evidence different theMiddle-UpperPaleolithic thattellsavery transitionsinareas story: scientific andtechnology workforcescientific meettherequirement of thefederal government? The size and adequacy of the federal workforce for carrying out scientific, technical,engi- The sizeandadequacy outscientific, of thefederalworkforce forcarrying At oncereflective, witty, andwise,thisbookspeakstostudentseducatorsalike, to One ofDeanBrodhead’s responsibilitiesat Yale was towelcome new studentsattheannual As DeanBrodheadpreparestoleave hispositionat Yale asProfessorofEnglishand Richard H.Brodhead, thepopularDeanof Yale College from1993to2004,was involved The contributors, bothofwhomThe contributors, are Assistant Professorsin Archaeology, presentnew archae- ge admissions. ho hopetobecome–orshapeothersthoughtfulandconstructive members , R.H.(2004). ace adwindlinglaborpool,prob . The g The latersectionsofthebookrangethroughvarious ofthecon- concerns ge Education. This eloquentcollectionofessays andspeechesby Dean ood ofthisplace: Values andchallenges incollege education lem thatcouldbecompoundedby inkey skillshortages Arlington, Will the .
65 The Jour nal of T
Table of Contents echnology Studies Volume XXXI, Number 2, Spring 2005
66 Providing a Virtual 122 The 2004 Paul T. Hiser Award Initiation for Epsilon Pi Tau Craig S. Sanders and Kathryn M. Griffin 123 Guidelines for the Journal of Technology Studies 70 An Exploration of Middle and High School Students’ Perceptions of Deviant Behavior When Using Computers and the Internet Annie J. Daniel 81 A Historical Chronology of the Plight of African Americans Gaining Recognition in Engineering and Technology Keith V. Johnson and Elwood D. Watson 94 Undergraduate Engineering and Psychology Students’ Use of a Course Management System: A Factorial Invariance Study of User Characteristics and Attitudes Stephen A. Sivo and Cheng-Chang “Sam” Pan 104 Books Briefly Noted
Articles Providing a Virtual Initiation for Epsilon Pi Tau 66 Craig S. Sanders and Kathryn M. Griffin
Introduction Internet responded with a real-time, typed and One of the requirements of the Epsilon Pi transmitted text message. Tau (EPT) initiation is the apprentice has to This paper shows the benefits that schools
echnology Studies physically be at the initiation (EPT, 2004). Since the majority of nontraditional students and work- and EPT Chapters can realize using a common ing professionals are physically removed from an and affordable Internet technology application to nal of T initiation site, they have missed the opportunity increase student participation and achievement, to join EPT. and provide EPT membership to deserving indi-
The Jour viduals who are geographically separated from Distance education in technological fields is traditional initiation sites. continuing to grow to meet the needs of students The Value of Streaming Video and working professionals that are unable to attend traditional, on campus classes. Just as Streaming media technology distributes a instructors can reach out to distance education real-time or on-demand combination of audio, students through the use of multimedia technolo- video and multimedia via the Internet. Streaming gy, so must organizations reach out to those media provides a simultaneous transfer of digital same students. A key question, how societies can media so that it is received as a continuous real- reach out and embrace nontraditional students, time stream. Streaming video can deliver live or can be answered through the use of multimedia archived instructional presentations to all types tools. By using the multimedia tools from the of students, regardless of their available band- classroom in the initiation, nontraditional stu- width. It is a series of compressed images that is dents and working professionals are now able to sent in a continuous data stream over the Internet have the opportunity to participate in a live cere- to a user’s computer; the user can then view the mony and experience the common social bond images, or video, with only a short, few-seconds that develops in an interactive environment delay of buffer time. Streaming video replaces the downloaded video file, which can absorb The initiation itself consists of lessons with massive amounts of computer memory and take members of a ceremonial team playing the role a long time to download. Streaming video allows of teachers/advisors. The lessons teach the the user to start watching the video at almost the apprentices about the organization, its funda- exact moment the data arrives on his or her com- mental beginning, basic beliefs and values, and puter (Waggoner, 2000). The great advantage the value and strength of the three precepts of streaming video has over other types of archived EPT: technology, skill, and professional ideals. movies is that it does not leave behind a physical Therefore, it is very appropriate that one multi- file on the viewer’s machine; therefore, the speed media tool, streaming video, which is used in the or bandwidth of the Internet provider is less of a classroom should also be used to teach the les- factor. sons of EPT. Streaming video has other benefits; it can On 8 April, 2005, the Beta Mu Chapter of be retrieved using broadband or dialup, is fairly The International Honor Society for Professions easy to use, and is becoming less expensive each in Technology at East Carolina University (ECU) year (Cofield, 2004). Video streaming in the performed the first virtual initiation for the hon- workplace is quite common now, covering issues orary in technology. Members of the ECU initia- such as diversity, safety, stress and time manage- tion team performed a face-to-face initiation for ment, employee development and training, and eight new apprentices while simultaneously initi- total quality management. More people are real- ating twenty more apprentices through the izing the benefits of streaming video in that it Internet using streaming video and an Internet can bridge the gap between theory and practice. relay chat client (mIRC). When the apprentices Traditional students, online students, and work- were required to respond to questions during the ing professionals can now all have access to ceremony, the face-to-face group did so verbally videos showing real-world problems, laboratory while the students watching and listening on the simulations, and lectures. The Journal of Technology Studies 67 uctions t, social y attend on campus arious issues. ho usuall ebsite. ed the traditional instructions, including v Two emails were sent out to East Carolina sent out emails were Two accepted the nomi- those students who For While Epsilon Pi Tau (EPT) is not necessar- Tau While Epsilon Pi vide a means of emotional suppor ork schedule, and other v the time and location of the initiation. The DE the time and location of the initiation. instructions, which different students received included the time of the initiation, instr concerning up of mIRC, location and the set and access to the streaming video website, instructions to the pledge state- on responding also posted ment. Both sets of instructions were and Computer Technology of on the College Science w Intitiation Methods distance education (DE) and on cam- University pus (OC) students nominated for membership DE students are defined as nontradi- into EPT. attend classes usually tional students who an age have through the Internet, and typically OC students are definedrange of 25 to 65 years. as those students w an age range of 18 to have classes, and typically 24 years. sent with instructions nation, a second email was The OC students concerning the initiation. recei need to belong. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs of hierarchy Maslow’s to belong. need biologi- fundamental of the most that one show and belongingness is that of love cal needs and their relationships with seek (1954). People places in formal, informal, and social groups. in agreement been with studies have Numerous belongingness (Mioduser, idea of Maslow’s & Oren, 2000; Ladyshewsky, Nachmias, Lahav, 2001; Ryan Wilson, & 2004; Nohria, Lawrence, Grace, & Cohen, Thompson, & Deci, 2000; and a group2001). Belonging to set pro- or a social vides people with informationpurpose, and and social identity, them a foundation of gives inten- and behavioral attitudes, including values, Hence, many 2002). tions (Haythornthwaite, are online are turning to virtualwho organiza- tions and/or groupsneed to to satisfy their a The virtual individuals groups give belong. sense of affiliation and social satisfaction & Chudoba, Crowston, (Watson-Manheim, 2004). 2002; Dholakia, Bagozzi, & Pearo, it does virtual as a categorized organization, ily pro support, companionship, and a sense of belong- the organiza- However, ingness to its individuals. distance reach many to tion has not been able education students because of students’ location, w e - v n- an, ew of ew vices, , students who eness abound. F y analyzed as a new y analyzed v Technology that is being Technology ysical interaction, or deper fecti , distance education does ha y et to be full tunatel otential advantages to multimedia are otential advantages Unfor This lack of ph According to one study P While there are currently many obstacles to obstacles currently there are While many ysical interaction. hich may enable visual interaction, but visual interaction, not enable hich may ace interaction and communication (Hag used today in education has decreased face-to- used today f Social Belongingness its disadvantages, one of which is the lack of one of which its disadvantages, face-to-face interaction. Online students social and from campus activities are often cut off form students; the only camaraderie with fellow of interaction is through multimedia de w ph 1999). Online students often find themselves lacking in social presence, those qualities present people are communicating and interacting when (Saenz, 2002). proximity in close physical human nature. sonalization, goes against is the basic needs, one of which Humans have received instruction incorporatingreceived the video-on- dramatic improve- demand application showed Roberto, & Meyer, (Boster, ment in achievement Inge, 2002). lear numerous. Claims ranging from reduced Overcoming Obstacles Overcoming tech- the adoption of video regarding overcome these obsta- around ways there are also nology, amount of data that refers to the cles. Bandwidth the Internet a fixed in over can be transmitted purposes, computing band- time. For amount of per in bits or bytes expressed width is usually second. Internet include dial- connection speeds per second (Kbps), up modems at 56 Kilobits can range from 128 Kbps to 8 DSL, which lines at T-1 per second (Mbps), and Megabits speaking, the broader the 1.544 Mbps. Generally the quality of the stream- bandwidth, the better schools and students Many ing video and audio. sufficient bandwidth to currently do not have video files, downloaded support dependable is coming. though the technology ing time to cost-ef those advantages have been evaluated using for- been evaluated have those advantages the actual spe- just as have mal experimentation, cific tools. One such tool, streaming multimedia video, has y instructional tool for both online and on campus to classes; streaming video has the potential all types of students, between bridge the divide and enhance material retention of said students.
The Journal of Technology Studies 68 Hagan, M.R.(1999). Teams expand intocyberspace. EPT. (2004). Dholakia, U. M.,Bagozzi,R.P., &Pearo, L.K.(2004). A socialinfluence modelofconsumer Cof Boster, F. J., Meyer, G.S.,Roberto, A. J., &Inge,C.(2002). References followed initiationprocedures. thenormal cation ofcompletingthepledge.OCstudents their namesintothemIRCchatroomasverifi- repeat thepledgeinrealtime,andthentype During thepledge,DEstudentsw proper responseduringthepledgestatement. mony chatroometiquetteandthe concerning gave atthebeginning ofthecere- instructions controlled themIRCchatroom. who were inthechatroom. An ECUmoderator kept logs oftheconversation andthestudents mIRC chatroom,which logged intoaspecific Classroom website and, atthesametime,be streaming videobroadcastthroughtheGlobal mIRC chatroom. ments, audioandvisualcomponents,the cians controlledthebroadcast,cameramove- connecting withtheiraudience. Three techni- members were lookingstraightintothecamera, read aloud, itappearedasiftheinitiationteam television sothatwhen thepresentationwas teleprompter. The webcam was placedabove the displayed uponthetelevision, which actedasa remote mouse. The PowerPoint presentationwas ber controlledthespeedofpresentationby a slide PowerPoint presentation;achaptermem- ware. video compression,mIRC,andMicrosoftsoft- software, connection, ahighbandwidthinternet phones, acomputerwithvideocapturecard, remote movement micro- capabilities,five inch screentelevision, aweb camerawith lowing multimediacomponentswere used:a64- ield of Research in Marketing, 21 innetwork- communities. participation virtual andsmall-group-based LLC., &Longwood University. Unitedstreaming Application onEducationalPerformance. Retrieved April 25,2005,fromhttp://www.cfa.montevallo.edu/ca/streamingvideo/dintro.htm. DE studentsw The ritualitselfwas divided intoan84- The initiationwas heldatECU, andthefol- , J . (2004).ChapterI:IntroductiontotheProb The RitualofEpsilonPi Tau ere instr ucted tovie The moderator , 241–263. ere ask w theli ed to , International Office, Bowling Office, GreenStateUniversity,, International OH. v e lem, Quality Progress, 32 Chapter ofEpsilonPi Tau. Greenville. SheisamemberoftheBetaMu Discour candidate in T T East Carolina University, Greenville. Heis in theDepartmentof Technology Systemsat inEPTactivitiesparticipation andmembership. attending aninitiation,increasinginterestand once geographically incapable ofphysically extend membershiptoindividuals who were tance educationtechnology tools,EPTcannow proven thatitisaviable alternative. Usingdis- attempt anonlineinitiationceremony, andhas organizationEPT ispossibly toever thefirst nominees. to reachmoredeserving initiationforadoptionasawayering thevirtual Epsilon Pi Tau, informally but they areconsid- responsefromtheBoardofDirectors formal favorable response. As ofyet therehasbeenno vey ofattendeesandinitiatesshowed avery sidered theinitiationasuccess. sur- An informal intheinitiation,con- attended andparticipated Region 2Director, E. Robert Wenig, who Conclusion au. rustee oftheBetaMuChapterEpsilonPi Kathryn Griffin isalecturerKathryn Griffin andPh.D. Dr. Craig Sanders isan Assistant Professor After anexhaustive search,itappearsthat The BetaMuChaptermembersandthe The Str se atEastCar Cometrika, Inc.,BaselineResearch, A report ontheeffect ofthe eaming Technical andProfessional V , 90–93. International Journal ideo Resear olina Univer c h Site sity, . The Journal of Technology Studies 69 . standing the , 68 – 78. st Enemies: Under or W per and Row: New York. New per and Row: riends, ustralasian Journal of Educational of Educational Journal ustralasian A . Har Journal of Research on Computing in Education, on Computing of Research Journal Best F Driven: How Human Nature Shapes Our Choices Human Nature Driven: How Proceedings of the 35th Annual Hawaii International Annual Hawaii of the 35th Proceedings American Psychologist, 55 American Psychologist, ersonality ork: Ballantine Books. , 1 – 29. Y w Ne .com/interframemedia/interframe_aboutus.htm. .com/interframemedia/interframe_aboutus.htm. en. Motivation and P aggoner , 316 – 336. .benw ence on System Sciences ved May 11, 2005, from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/ May ved vement of postgraduatevement business students. er , 55-76. w, A. H. (1954). A. H. (1954). w, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco: and well-being. social development, Social Lives of Childr http://www a new way to understand virtual work. to understand virtual work. way a new Technology, 20 Technology, Conf etd-05232002-095013/unrestricted/blsETD.pdf. etd-05232002-095013/unrestricted/blsETD.pdf. Current pedagogical and technological state. Current and technological pedagogical 33 Institute and State University. Polytechnic Virginia instructional program. Master’s web-based Retrie distributed learning communities. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved May 11, May Retrieved at Urbana-Champaign. of Illinois distributed learningUniversity communities. http://www.lis.uiuc.edu/~haythorn/hay_bvc.html. 2005, from achie atson-Manheim, M. B., Crowston, K., & Chudoba, K. M. (2002). Discontinuities and continuities: K., Crowston, atson-Manheim, M. B., Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, (2000). Self-determinationRyan, R., & Deci, E. theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, April 25, 2005, from Retrieved technology. (2000). Choosing a streaming video B. Waggoner, W Thompson, M., Grace, C., & Cohen, L. (2001). Thompson, M., Grace, C., & Cohen, L. Mioduser, D., Nachmias, R., Lahav, O. & Oren, A. (2000). Web-based learning environments: learning environments: Web-based A. (2000). & Oren, O. Nachmias, R., Lahav, D., Mioduser, E. (2001). Wilson, & P., Lawrence, Nohria, N., in an asynchronous of social presence and its value L. (2002). Student perceptions Saenz, B. Ladyshewsky R. (2004) E-learning R. in the academic compared with face to face: Differences Ladyshewsky Maslo Haythornthwaite, C. (2002). Building social networks via computer networks: creating and sustaining sustaining creating and networks: via computer networks social Building C. (2002). Haythornthwaite,
Articles An Exploration of Middle and High School Students’ 70 Perceptions of Deviant Behavior When Using Computers and the Internet Annie J. Daniel
Abstract Introduction
echnology Studies If the current trend continues, the use of “Any technology tends to create a new computer technologies and the Internet will human environment.”
nal of T increase for teaching and education. It is urgent -Marshall McLuhan that researchers study computer and Internet deviance. The purpose of this study was to Marshall McLuhan declared this quote over The Jour explore middle and high school students’ per- forty years ago. Indeed, today’s technology has ceptions of deviant behavior when using com- created many new human environments and puters and the Internet. behaviors. Deviant behaviors on the computer and the Internet are rising as technology use The target population for this study was increases (Hollinger, 1996b; Power, 2000; Vatis, middle and high school students. The accessible 2000). This is evident in the enormous number population included all students who attended a of computer viruses that have been released middle or high school in the East Baton Rouge recently causing businesses, educational institu- Parish School, which has computers that are tions and personal computer users to become capable of accessing the Internet (1,150 students skeptical about performing familiar daily tasks - 575 middle school students and 575 high (e.g., opening email messages). school students). For the purpose of this paper, deviant Professor San-Yi Li of Taiwan designed the behavior for technology will include these activ- instrument used in this study. This instrument ities: using computers and the Internet for illegal contained 66 questions and a scantron was used activities that violate local, state, and/or federal to record participants’ responses. From the laws, inappropriate use; such as, a violation of instrument, variables were selected from five the intended use of the Internet or computer, sections - 1) students demographic characteris- and/or its intended purpose and goal, obscene tics 2) computer-related activities 3) students activities; defined as entering a pornography perceptions of deviant behavior when using website or selling pornography goods on the computers and the Internet 4) students percep- Internet; using the Internet or computer to vio- tion of their peers deviant behavior when using late copyrights laws or other contracts such as computers and the Internet 5) students ability to institutional or third party copyright, license use computers and the Internet. agreements and other contracts, intentionally disrupting the Internet traffic by spreading a Results showed that the majority of students computer virus, spreading rumors about another indicated they perceive their behavior as being person on the Internet, intimidating and fright- not deviant when using computers and the ening another person on the Internet. Internet. Contrarily, the students indicated they perceive the behavior of their peers to be more Deviant behaviors are a genuine concern deviant when using computers and the Internet. since our society is rapidly moving from a When the means of the Students Behavior Score typographic culture to a post-typographic cul- and the Peers Behavior Score were compared, ture (Provenzo, Brett & McCloskey, 1999). there was a significant different between the two According to Provenzo, et al., “typographic scores. The Peers Behavior Score for deviance culture is defined as a culture or society based was much higher than the Students Behavior around the technology of printing and post-typo- Score. graphic culture is defined as an electronic non- text-oriented culture.” (p. i) With this movement, our culture and society is being transformed. People are communicating more by electronic mail and computers than by text or letter writ- ing. Culturally, we are becoming more The Journal of Technology Studies 71 ement, porated v versities (distance versities , Marshall uying and selling e” (p. 2). Due to the net). Among these vity including education, ges, uni net are being incor gies alik ith change and impro y acti e processes that reshape people v W er y of the Inter v a The education system has the same y w ement. v ut are acti Voss (2000) referred to the Internet as Voss Any technology tends to create a new tends to create technology Any Script and papyrus human environment. think of we social environment created the of the with the empires in connection The stirrup the wheel and ancient world. of enormous created unique environments are not environments Technology scope. containers of people but are passive merely people and processes that reshapes active In our time, the alike. other technologies mechanical technolo- sudden shift from the gy to the electric circuitry one of represents time. (p. iv) the major shifts of historical Marshall McLuhan predicted in 1962 a com- As our society is being transformed, In Understanding Media In Understanding eb), businesses (e-commerce), homes (home- orld (b usiness. our company is on the cutting edge of technol- is on the cutting edge of our company learning), and it has people that travel in this learning), has people that travel and it w and people, there are those that are deviant pages), schools, colle usually there are advantages and disadvantages there are advantages usually that should be considered. One major disadvan- tage is that computers and the Internet are vul- to attacks and sabotage. nerable our is very much like which “cyberworld,” Wide World (the It has highways world. earthly W into almost e communication, shopping, b is important. corporations Large ogy and small companies are on-line. Being on owned locally of attracting potential way the Internet new is a b in technology having about technology, views willingness for reform or the schools shows impro McLuhan (1964) stated the following: stated (1964) McLuhan This global village is Village.” coming “Global in the form of the Internet. His reality, now environ- so prophetic, “Technology are words containers of peo- passive ments are not merely ple b and other technolo of the Internet this and computers, evolution and Computers reality. very quotation is now “reshaped people and other the Internet have (p. 2). alike” technologies puters and the Inter a web- goods, and business. business, In having that site and electronic address in order to show y - - e v m y complet mation y, 2000; y, en Family ning of all stu earsle The infor e the lear orld. v , 1999; Milk , 1984). Researchers ha le to all (K y gne ell thought-out type of school refor relate with the w For the past ten years, the Internet the past ten years, and com- For For example, students are no longer learn- students example, For are used computer technologies Moreover, riculum (Hunter ent & McNer oundation, 1997; Papert, 1993). The cost of oundation, 1997; Papert, 1993). ind information and rules the journey to keep safe is becoming vital to successfull puters have radically changed the way schools changed the way radically puters have inter Students has become a reality. super highway can use the Internet from home or school to to gather the world, all over vicariously travel As more travel knowledge. information new and increases, maps to on this electronic highway f Brief Overview of Technology Deviance ing the journey. dents; schools are moving rapidly to integrate rapidly dents; schools are moving computers and the Internet into their curriculum 1996). Computers are (Glennan & Melmed, used, effectively considered a tool that when in a will increase efficiency and productivity cur that is used to impro designated the Internet as an equalizer of the same knowl- because it allows knowledge, edge to be accessib K F declined purchasing a computer has drastically is allowing This decline in costs in recent years. the Internet computers to be more accessi- and libraries in public being available to all by ble and schools. In addition, this decrease in the more of the United cost of computers allows States’ personal computers. population to own ing to type with typewriters, but with word with typewriters, ing to type using schools that are Those software. processor into the post- moving are rapidly typewriters are era. Graphing calculators typographical Digital cameras are required in math courses. being used in art art courses. In addition, teach- ers are integrating computers with computer draw- to teach computer software aided drawing ing or graphic design to students. classroom activi- everyday to enhance various playing time by their engage ties. Students may simulations, games, video computer-generated When or tutorials. drills and practice exercises, class presentations, often the pre- students make sentations will be integrated with interactive multimedia technology. Integrating technolo- gy is w dependent on computers and computer-based on computers dependent al.). et (Provenzo, technologies
The Journal of Technology Studies 72 the netw b areprovidedthe globe.Mostofservices free more than50countries,onevery continentof computer network linking millionsofpeoplein fromaroundtheworld.information institutions, andanoverwhelming amountof provides ameansofinstantly accessingpeople, age oftwo (NationalPublic Radio,2000). students have beenusingcomputerssincethe puter ortheInternet. After all,someofthese perceive tobeadeviant actwhen usingacom- young people(middleandhighschoolstudents) (Power, 2000). This researchwillfocusonwhat beginning topursueactively suchcriminals ting theirdeviant acts,althoughauthoritiesare or cybercops tostopthesepeoplefromcommit- andadministratorsofdiscipline patrol officers, in cyberworld, therearenopolice,highway but commit deviant actsonthesuperhighway and emplo es. Ethicalbeha formisuseincreas- theopportunity the Internet; to maintainandmanipulatedatabases. nesses thatusemainframesandmini-computers governments,ties, corporations, andsmallbusi- the rise: of In ProtectionCenter,Infrastructure Federal Bureau Michael A. Vatis (2000) Director, National employees. onCybercrimebyA recentreport question ofethicalbeha (Hollinger, 1996b;Power, 2000),aswell asthe ogy use,cyberattacks are alsoontherise topic ofconcer y or Basically, istheworld’s theInternet largest istheelectronichighwayThe Internet that Due to the easy access of information on Due totheeasyaccessofinformation tion efforts. Inthesecases,theNIPC and fraud computer-facilitated crimessuchasInternet intr These statisticsincludeonl end ofFY99,andtoover 900currently. to 601attheendofFY1998, to834atthe increased from206attheendofFY1997, Similarly, thenumberofpendingcases FY 1999,thatnumberjumpedto1154. w caseload reflectsthisgrowth. InFY1998, crime isalsoincreasinge As Inter v g estig y e opened547computerintr anizations that support hostcomputerson anizations thatsupport ees, andemplo usion cases,anddonotaccount for ork. , childpor ation, indicatedthatcybercrime ison net usecontinuestosoar These typicall n. viors b W ith thefrequenc no y g y students,teachers, ers have becomeamajor raph vior by studentsand y includeuni y, ore-mailextor- xponentiall y computer usion cases;in y oftechnol , cyber- v y ersi- . Our - of the218responded“yes” tothisquestion. (23%) toaccessadultmaterial?);fifty Internet addressed deviant behavior (Doyou usethe line activities. There was only onequestionthat mine how many students engaged inseven on- (1998) sur ties atcolle ducted todeter tocheat,afewInternet studieshave beencon- materials viaemailordiskette (Benning,1998). papers)andstudentssharetestscourse term aid themincheating(on-linepapermillssell Students have accesstodozensofweb sitesthat on c years, theComputer SecurityInstitutestatistics thatforthelastthree (1999) reported Harrison and vulnerab Deviance Cost ofComputerandInternet the respondents haddetectedunauthorized attack, 57%of therespondents. The Inter which was upfrom24%theprevious year. intrusions; 30% oftherespondentsreported breaches by outsidecrackers orhackers, and 521 securitymanagersinthe study reported than $100millionayear. InHarrison’s report, sion thatgoesbacktobrok almost doctoral-qualitybody;andthenaconclu- English; thenitwillhave thisflawlessly written, ous. the cheater, because“It’s usually deadly obvi- Marchant says shehasnoproblem identifying plagiarism inhercomputerethicscourse. every semesterandthisincludesstudentsusing science andcatchesatleastonesuchstudent work astheirown.” (p.1).Sheteachescomputer have inthe thenturn foundontheInternet, together passagesfromvarious they articles She says, “Thestudentswho copy andpaste types ofcheatersas“patchwork plagiarists.” referstothese Marchant (acollege instructor) done by usingcomputersandtheInternet. Anne University instructor, cheatingismoreeasily (Benning, 1998). According toaGeorge Mason an increaseinstudentscheatingby computer yberattacks sho In additiontousingcomputersandthe The business industry ismoresusceptible industry The business Secondary andcollege have faculty Secondary reported (p. 12) responsible forthesecategories ofcrime. tance totraditionalinvestigative programs NIPCI squadsoftenprovide technicalassis- The introductionwillbewritteninbrok net connectionhadthehighest pointof veyed 509college students todeter- ges. P le toattacks(P mine thetypesofon-lineacti er r w y , Wilkinson, andPerry ed af en English. inancial lossofmore ower, 2000). While 20%of ” (p.1) vi en - The Journal of Technology Studies 73 - - 2000 $66,708,000 $55,996,000 $29,171,700 $27,984,740 $27,148,000 $22,554,500 $10,404,300 $8,247,500 $7,104,000 $5,000,000 $4,028,000 $991,200 N/A $265,586,240 net at schools or hose children have access to hose children have 1999 $42,496,000 $39,706,000 $5,274,000 $7,576,000 $4,421,000 $3,567,000 $13,038,000 $3,255,000 $2,885,000 $20,000 $773,000 $765,000 N/A $123,779,000 ate institutions. v erall, 23 percent of all children surveyed enty-eight percent of the children sur g onto the Inter le to log onto the Internet. le to log w Ov According to a survey by the National by According to a survey T 1998 veyed by the National School Board Foundation by veyed (2001) reported access the Internet that they sur- parents were when from home. However, 69 percent of the parents reported their veyed, access to computers at home and children have are ab are accessing the Internet from school. Fifty-six percent of parents w the Internet reported at home that their children also lo preschools. (p. 1) States. Researchers in the studies are from pub States. Researchers in the studies are from Students Use the Internet Where school (2000), “both School Boards Foundation and home are important points of Internet are the time they access for children” and “by are three out of four children teenagers, nearly (p. 1) online.” lic and pri $17,256,000 $562,000 N/A $136,822,000 $11,239,000 $7,874,000 $3,720,000 $2,142,000 $50,565,000 $5,250,000 $2,787,000 $1,637,000 $245,000 $33,545,000 red 1997 as tele- y” to e v $22,660,300 $1,181,000 $512,000 $100,119,555 $24,892,000 $12,498,150 $1,006,750 $4,285,850 $3,991,605 $6,132,200 N/A $2,911,700 N/A $20,048,000 est w w ve conducted a conducted ve ebsites in the past inancial loss incur Grand Total of Losses Reported (1997-2000):Total Grand $626,306,795 ersities across the United States. v esdropping ($991,200). Computer Security Institute - 2000; 643 Respondents for 2000 Computer Security Institute - 2000; 643 v or the past five the FBI and the years, ted attacks from the inside had increased This review on related research was com- on related research was This review The table shows the types of computer shows The table F ce: inancial fraud Total Annual Annual Losses: Total Telecom eavesdropping Telecom Spoofing Active wiretapping Active fraud Telecom Denial of service outsider System penetration by Sabotage of data or networks access Unauthorized insider Laptop theft Virus Insider abuse of Net access Theft of proprietary information F Types of Computer Crime Types ear from outsiders, 55% of the respondents A Review of Related Research on A Review of Related Research Students’ Computer Usage piled from research of students in the United com ea access or misuse of their w the administering study of computer crime by “Computer Crime and Security Sur crime and amount of f Computer Security Institute ha y repor (Harrison, year 10% from the previous by 1999). information professionals at corpora- security tions, financial agen- institutions, government cies, and uni types of computer by a period of four years over of the crimes, the financial several crimes. For of the the years increased over losses have The highest loss occurred in the 2000 sur- study. proprietary theft of infor- 1) by Table (see vey mation ($66,708,000) and the lo Table 1: Computer Crimes and Financial Loss Loss Financial and Crimes 1: Computer Table Sour
The Journal of Technology Studies 74 activities notconnectedtoschool. once aweek forschoolwork andgenerallearning repor the mainreasonsforusage. This studyalso cited educationandschoolwork (32percent)as National SchoolBoardFoundation (2001)study, to theInter computersandconnect buy main reasonfamilies Educational Statistics(2000)re Reasons StudentsUseComputersandtheInternet eighth andele tostudentsinthefourth, pertaining information Inter thefrequency ofcomputerand (1997) reported F 1997) etc.). (NationalCenterforEducation Statistics, ing games, listening toandrecordingmusic, activities andpleasure(chatrooms, emails,play- home andatschoolusing themforlear over the years. Studentsareusingcomputersat 11thgrade-73.9%). grade-72.4%, a w less thanonceaw using acomputer reported students inallgrades 55.0%). However, by 1994, themajorityof 11thgrade- 8thgrade-66.7%, (4th grade-61.2%, responded thatthey hadnever usedacomputer levelthe majorityofstudentsineachgrade 2 or3timesaweek andevery day. w to 1994). r ere never, lessthanonceaweek, onceaweek, equency ofComputersandtheInternetUse eek, ore Additionally, studentages13to17,inthe (17 percent)(p.1). accessaswell,Internet followed by email parents who anticipateobtaininghome quently citedmotivation (39percent)for percent). Educationisthesinglemostfre- fromhomeistheireducation(45 Internet tion parentscitefortheirchildtousethe cent). Likewise, themostcommonmotiva- use(27per- tion (36percent)andbusiness homecomputersischildren’sbuying educa- The mostcommonreasonsparentscitefor households surveyed have ahomecomputer. About two thirds(64percent)offamily Researchers attheNationalCenterfor The NationalCenterforEducationStatistics Computer useb Results ofthisstudysho net useb ts thatstudentsusetheInter The categories forfrequency ofuse net isforeducationalpurposes. v ery day 8th ery (4thgrade-83.5%, y students. v enth g eek, onceaw y studentshasincreased rades for five yearsrades forfive (1984 This repor w ed thatin1984 vealed thatthe eek, 2or3times net atleast t disclosed ning ment andgames. moreforentertain- usingtheInternet reported schoolwork andchatroomsthanboys. Boys Girls arealsomorelikely for tousetheInternet Inter petent asboys. Girlsaremorelikely tousethe When itcomestocompetenc (National SchoolBoardsFoundation, 2000). Inter Computer Usage by Gender National Center forEducationStatistics,1999). (National School BoardsF percent w atschool. Internet This iscomparedtoonly 16 lies withchildrenage9to17-years-old use the for EducationStatistics,1998). Education Statistics,1999&NationalCenter low-income (NationalCenterfor families useforchildrenthatarefrom source ofInternet the Inter use percent ofchildreninmiddleclassfamilies percent ofchildrenwealthy and54 families 17-y income of$40,000orless,76percent9-to 2000, p.7) ents. pared to23percentof African-American par- com- thattheirchildrenusetheInternet, report $40,000. Fifty-seven percentofwhite parents percent ofparentswithincomeslessthan their childrenusetheInter thatoneormoreof of $70,000ormorereported Foundation, 2000p.7)“Parents withanincome access.”with Internet (NationalSchoolBoards row thegap between thehaves andhave-nots Computer andInternetUseb ” (NationalSchoolBoardsF Boards Foundation, 2000,p.6) to 70percentofboys. (NationalSchool compared percent ofgirlsusetheInternet, In the13-toa17-year-old agebracket, 73 comparedto46percentofboys.Internet, percent of9-to12-year-old girlsusethe 50 astheirmalecounterparts; Internet older girlsseemjustaslikely tousethe and girlsareonline.Bothyounger and while 71percentof13-to17-year-old boys 9- to12-year-old boys andgirlsareonline, According totheirparents,48percentof In general,girlsusecomputersandthe Eighty percentof African-American fami- Among studentswithparentswho have an “Schools have tohelpnar- theopportunity ears-old usetheInter net toe-mailfriendsandfamily thanboys. net asmuchboys, indifferent but ways net atschool.Schoolsarethemain ho reported they logho reported onfromhome net atschool;while 68 net, comparedto35 oundation, 2000 & y RaceandIncome y, girlsareascom- oundation, The Journal of Technology Studies 75 - here . -related wing selected wing selected vior Score on select- The primary variables ” “Is there a working Beha perception of their peers’ ile. Academic Achievement Achievement Academic as raphic characteristics and per eers’ g ere used for this study graphic Gender, characteristics: a) een the Students’ Score Behavior orking computer in the home w Age, c) Ethnicity, d) Grade in School, d) Age, c) Ethnicity, Type of School (middle or high of School Type The selected variables were systemati- were The selected variables . ere selected as variables to be used in ere selected as variables students on the follo students on demo b) e) school), f) the Students, g) Religious by Perceived Affiliation, h) Students’ Interaction with i) Students’Teachers, with Interaction Other Students Students’ Score. Behavior Students’ Peers’ Score. Behavior of middle and high school students on characteristics selected demographic and perceptions of computer-related activities. and the Peers’ Score. Behavior betw and the P ed demo ceptions of computer-related activities. ceptions of computer-related net, 4) students’ 1. Describe the middle and high school middle the 1. Describe and high school 2. Describe the middle and high school 3. Describe the middle 4. Compare the Students’ Score Behavior 5. Compare the Students’ Score Behavior 6. Determine if a relationship exists Instrumentation and Procedure for Data ument for this study) and revised by the by ument for this study) and revised y copied into a f raphic characteristics, 2) computer our race or ethnicity?, guide the researcher: guide Collection-The instrument for this study was Taiwan Li in San-Yi Professor by developed the researcher permission to use his gave (who instr questions demographic key Several researcher. “What is were: which added to the survey, were y “If live?,” you computer in the home where there is a w and is it connected to the Internet?,” live, you The original attend?” “What type of school do you the After the revisions, had 62 questions. survey number of questions increased to 66. Not all of the questions w of the Questions that addressed the objectives study w the study as: 1) students’ categorized studied were demo- g 3) students’activities, perceptions of deviant and the using computers when behavior Inter computers and the using when behavior deviant Internet,students’ and 5) to use ability call - ould net ere noti net will y 1,150 students mine the types of hich teachers w wer the research prob- wer ho attended a middle or ximatel gies and the Inter med to deter vior students use on the Inter net. In order to ans Purpose and Objectives of the Study-The Purpose and Objectives Population and Sample - The target popula- The target and Sample - Population If the current the use of trend continues, viant behavior when using computers and the using computers when viant behavior viant beha fied to identify teachers of the study and asked The with Internet in their classrooms. access school principals decided w determined which the participate study, in the students to survey. primary purpose to explore of this study was middle and high school students’ perceptions of de Inter used to were six objectives lem, the following Methodology definedtion for this study was as middle and population The accessible high school students. included all students w high school in the East Baton Rouge Parish School System (EBRPSS) with computers that A conven- of accessing the Internet.are capable ience sample of appro middle and 575 high school (575 surveyed was students). Principals at these schools w computer technolo The Study de increase for teaching and education. It is urgent increase for teaching and education. It that researchers study computer and Internet occur in the educational envi- that may deviance Although a limited amount of research ronment. has been perfor This reportThis findings with is consistent from a Radio (2000). Public the National by study divide” a “digital this study revealed Results of and less edu- incomes those with lower between are less incomes with lower cation. “Americans incomes as those with higher likely than half as Internet an 1). at home” (p. connection to have Furthermore, of 11 percentage “there is a gap using comput- and whites blacks points between but (46% vs. 57%); there is a larger, ers at work who and whites blacks between 22 point gap home (51% vs. 73%). a computer at have between exists of 8 points gap a Similarly, using the Internet and whites at work blacks 19 point with a larger (21% vs. 29%) compared in access to the Internetgap or e-mail at home is a 17 percentage point There (38% vs. 57%). low- between in home-computer ownership gap (p. 5). whites” and low-income income blacks and on computers, the opportunity to perform acts increases with the integration of deviant in education. technology
The Journal of Technology Studies 76 ber ofrespondents. Studentsinthestudyw havingthe 11thor12thgraders thelargest num- the studentsrangedfrom7th to 12thg of respondentsbeing as African American, withthenext largest group theirethnicity the studentsrespondingreported to 17years old. As forethnicity, themajorityof agesrangedfrom 13 level).grade Participants’ tained todemographics, (e.g.,age,ethnicity, the sur dents and575highschoolstudentsrespondedto Five hundredseventy middleschoolstu- five time was allowed forthosestudentsneedingit. 45 minutestocompletethesur tions torespondto.Studentswere allowed about and anadditionalsheetwithopen-endedques- pencil andscantronsheettorecordresponses sisting of66questions.Studentsw ect requiredthemtocompleteasurvey thatcon- the research,they were thatthisproj- informed the datawas asfollows: semester of2000. The procedureforcollecting computers andtheInternet. pants w Summary ofFindings Once the subjects agreed to participate in toparticipate Once thesubjectsagreed 4. Those teachersandstudentsselected 3. Principalsoftheschoolsidentified 2. The parishDirectorof Technology (was 1. The EBRPSSDirectorof Academic Data were collectedduringthespring For the first objectiveFor ofthestudy, thefirst partici- vey. ere ask study voluntarily. Students were inthe asked toparticipate b of thegeneralobjecti by theschoolprincipalswere informed usageexperience. Internet to survey studentswithcomputerand and telephonearequestwas made were thencontactedby faxed letter Internet. computers thathadaccesstothe middle andseven highschoolswith theseven list ofschools)identified person by theresearchertoobtain contacted by telephoneandvisitedin system. in themiddleandhighschools approval toconductaresearchsurvey Accountability was contactedtoobtain y theprincipalandresearcher ed se v eral questionsthatper White. levelThe grade of v es oftheresearch v e y , b ere gi ut additional rade, with v en a . - ere repor 27.9% ofthemalesand12.6% ofthefemales than females. The overall resultsshowed that using the Internet and computers. using theInternet deviancemales asfemalesthatreported when de It appearsthatmalesaremorelikely todisplay tionship between genderandperceived deviance. rela- Results indicatedastatistically significant females whenandcomputers. usingtheInternet males indicateddisplaying moredeviance than ing f Behavior Score,thefollow- paring theStudents’ ifarelationshipexisted. determine When com- acti teristics andperceptionsofcomputer-related Behavior Scoreonselecteddemographic charac- doing, ratherthanw feel morecomfor disclosing thisinfor students may beengaging aswell, arenot but in thistypeofbehavior thanalarger number of belie andcomputers. the Internet The researcher deviant behavior oftenwhen oftenorvery using dents perceived theirclassmates tobedisplaying cated thatthemajority(1,016,81.5%)ofstu- puter orInternet. The resultsofthisscoreindi- displa often astudentpercei Behavior Score,which indicateshow Peers’ deviance. This datawas collectedby usingthe level of were asked todescribetheirpeers’ deviance. a smallpercentageofstudentsindicated deviant behavior Only while usingtheInternet. ed thatthey displayed nodeviance orsome 869 (79.6%),oftherespondingstudentsindicat- Deviant Behavior Score,themajority, Students’ using thecomputerorInternet. According tothe ceives he/sheisusingdeviant behavior when Score, which indicateshow oftenastudentper- Deviant Behavior and highschoolStudents’ their classmatesandteacherregularly. ofthestudentsinteractedwith a large portion with astrongreligiousaffiliation. Additionally, them ratedtheiracademicachievement asgood either inmiddleorhighschool,andmostof viance w vities, b Objective fourcompared theStudents’ nadto otesuet’score,students In additiontothestudents’ Objective two was todescribethemiddle v indings w ted de ying de es thatifthestudents’ hen using the Internet andcomputers hen usingtheInternet viance. y usingaChi-squareprocedureto viant beha ere disco tab There w mation. hat they aredoing. le disclosingw v es his/herclassmatetobe v vior w ered aboutgender: ere twiceasman Apparentl peers areeng hen usingthecom hat othersare y, students aging y - The Journal of Technology Studies 77 - y verall per- verall y how many y how icall ery and much” (22.2%) ted no interaction with class tion of the students indicated ted spending less time online, ed specif viance -“v vity when using computers and the using computers vity when hen ask y spend “much” time online and displa net. net, w With regard to students’ regard With with interaction with other stu- The students that interacted A high propor spent on the As related to hours per day els of interaction that gets lower as the level as the els of interaction that gets lower viant acti v ery little deviance when using the Internet when and ery little deviance mates had the highest overall percentage of mates had the highest overall This is compared to the other (35.2%). deviance le teachers, most of the students indicated that they that indicated of the students most teachers, Interacting with with their teachers. interacted a significant not have teachers did relationship there Although Score. Behavior with the Student of level significant not a was between difference Students’ with teachers and interaction Behavior reportedScore, students that with no interaction This is at 26.3%. teachers reported deviance reported who they compared to the students teachers “some” (15.9%), interacted with their “very“often” (20.1%) and often” (22.5). dents reporteddeviance the least amount of The using computers and the Internet. when indicated that they majority of the students interacted with their classmates. Furthermore, a significant the there was relationship between interac- of Score and the level Student Behavior with their classmates. tion students have Students that repor of reported [“some” interaction get larger (21.8%), “often” (18%) and “very often” students that alienate (17.4)]. Consequently, in more from others are engaging themselves de Inter that the Inter v interesting was This analysis computers. that they because some of the students indicated displayed time online, but they do not spend any (time spent online online when behavior deviant 28.6% of the students indicated “none,” misunder- online). Students evidently deviance stood the question. Students’ time spent online a significanthave relationship with Students’ Score. Students that reported spending Behavior more time online has the highest o This is compared to the other “much” (21.2%). students that repor “little” (15.5%). spent on the Internet, they stu- hours per day dents could relate to this question and respond- Hours spent online are high- ed more accurately. Score. Students related to Student Behavior ly centage of de air fili- air” ement, the iliation did ted “f v f After all, the ted their academic y strong religious af er net. Religious af eloping ethics. v es these students are either just ement, 38.1% indicated ting academic achie v v vement had 25.7% to indicate deviance vement vior Score. Students indicating poor or f vior Score. Students indicating poor or Additionally, the ethnic group indicating Additionally, When repor religious affiliation, those students that For When considering deviance and age, two and age, deviance considering When viance, and the students that repor majority of students repor and most of the stu- as being good, achievement no as displaying themselves dents perceived This online. when or some deviance deviance test resulted in a significant relationship and Student academic achievement between Beha percentage of students ation also had the largest using com- when deviance that did not display puters and the Inter significantnot result in a statistically relation- When com- Score. ship with Student Behavior paring the no religious affiliation with strong religious affiliation (the group that is closest in The numbers), there is no significant difference. researcher belie honest because of their religious affiliation, or religious affiliation for some is not as effective as for others in de students with no religious affiliations able were are doing online. they to admit what the largest percentage of deviance when using when percentage of deviance the largest the the Internet and computers were The second largest Spanish/Hispanic students. indicating some deviance percentage of students to a This is comparable Asian students. was students. (1996b) of college Hollinger study by computer as it correlates by He researches crime and unauthorized account piracy with software students. He reportedaccess of college that the high- Asian and Hispanic students indicated of piracy. est levels indicated a strong or v age groups showed the lowest percentage of percentage lowest the age groups showed and the using computers while deviance Students ages olds. Internet, the 13 and 17 year of percentage 16 had the largest 14, 15 and reported. Furthermore,deviance of the age in all groups students indicated the majority of the deviance. any did not display that they compared to those students that indicated (17.4) achievement. “good” (17%) or “excellent” academic achievement reported the highest per- academic achievement report- Of the students that centage of deviance. ed “poor” achie achie de
The Journal of Technology Studies 78 iors arede ize ornothave behav- beentaughtthatcertain withcomputers. Studentsmayfamiliar notreal- w puter sincehewas ajuvenile. Studentswitha he hadbeenengaging indeviant actswithcom- computer hackers) didnotown acomputer, but computers andtheInternet. er inthehometoengage indeviant actson could meanthatstudentsdonotneedacomput ing acomputerinthehome. This relationship deviance were higherforthosestudentsnothav- the StudentBehavior Score. The percentagesfor home was shown relatedto tobesignificantly puter inthehome. A working computerinthe students indicatedthatthey didnothave acom- er inthehome.However, asmallernumberof dents indicatedthatthey hadaworking comput- computer inthehome,majorityofstu- will monitororcontroltheironlineactivity. andcoupledwithaprogram that is supervised timeonline highly recommendedthatstudents’ is It 37.2%; 7-8hours,44.7%;946.7%). time isspentonline(3-4hours,19.1%;5-6 the percentageofdeviance increasesasmore the otheramountsoftimespentonline,inwhich deviance (2hours,15.3%). This iscomparedto thelowestonline reported percentageof spendingtheleastamountoftime that reported Ha introducedtothestudent. computers arefirst duced atalllevels when ofeducationstarting earlier age,technology ethicsneedstobeintro- atan introduced tocomputersandtheInternet ple-based disciplines(nocomputers). quences ofcomputercrimethanthosefrompeo- ments) arelessable topredictthesocialconse- machine-based disciplines(computerenviron- Coldwell (1996)concludedthatstudentsfrom verses thosewithoutacomputer inthehome. the homeview what isactually deviant behavior cance ma repor home. become anecessityathomeand away from ing. that astudentmay notrealizewhat ishappen- chances ofdeviance tooccur, despitethefact orking computerinthehomema ving acomputerinthehomeallo Therefore, super Kevin Mitnick(oneofthemostfamous When asked whether therewas aworking Due to the fact thatstudentsarebeing Due tothefact ting theirbeha y behow studentswith computersin viant, thereforethe viors accuratel vision andethicsteaching y ma y notbe y y bemore . ws more The signifi- - computers andtheInter deviance isperceived. Spendingmoretimeon students spendonlineislikely toinfluencehow best predictorforbothscores. The moretime scores; hoursspentonthecomputerisnext dictor forhow studentsmay perceive deviance ting de deviant, especially ifthestudents arecommit- to perceive thattheirdeviant behaviors arenot behavior isnotdeviant. behavior. Consequently, studentsfeelthe online may students’ be noonetosupervise Internet. Internet. behavior when usingthecomputer andthe when examining how studentsperceive their nicity andaworking computer inthehome eth- online, accesstoacomputerwithInternet, ships exist between gender;hoursperday spent Inter de Inter ethnicityandtheabilitytouse Internet, the computer, accessto acomputerwith call analyses indicatethatrelationshipsarestatisti- teristics andcomputer-related activities. This on selecteddemographic andperceptualcharac- Behavior Score Behavior ScoreandthePeers’ not arelationshipexisted between theStudent the amountofactualde Therefore, thetwo scores canbeusedtogauge open when discussingsomeoneelse’s behavior. displaying deviance, itiseasiertobemore but ers aredoing.Studentsmay notwant toadmit may disclosingwhat feelmorecomfortable oth- Students isnotdisclosingthisinformation. but a larger numberofstudents is engaging aswell, peers areengaging inthistypeofbehavior, then deviant” behavior. are notengaging in“deviance” or“some However,Internet. studentsperceive thatthey often”oncomputersandthe “often” and“very ceive theirpeersaredisplaying deviant behavior different.their classmatesarevery Studentsper- perceptionsofthemselves and Score, students’ Behavior Behavior ScoreandtheStudents’ From thecomparisonofmeansPeers’ Behavior Score. Behavior ScoreandthePeers’ viant beha y signif In bothanal The f The researcherbelieves thatifthestudents’ Objective comparedtheStudent five net. Likewise, resultsindicatethatrelation- net forho viance andnothingishappening. inal objecti icant betw vior w w students’ yses, genderw hen usingthecomputerand v een gender e viance beingdispla net ma xamined w perceive theirpeers’ y leadstudents as thebestpre , hoursspenton hether or There y ed. - The Journal of Technology Studies 79 essor of of w Orleans, , Ne sity net should include viance is to be avoided or viance is to be avoided d Univer . are or hardware that will help to are or hardware . If de . Daniel is an assistant pr use. Decrease the size of computer classes to the size of computer Decrease manage teacher can better 18-22. One this number are doing they what students to talk about the Internet.on the computer and messaging, as well rooms and via instant are visiting. they as the types of websites of periods for lengthy should not be alone When supervision is not possible, time. use softw limit online activity. access to the Inter information on appropriate computer and and ethics in their cur- Internet behavior is the first step to Awareness riculum. and reducing the potential of prevention ab Annie J To conclude, the researcher recommends the researcher conclude, To • encourage and parents should Teachers • to in chat- are talking they out whom •Find Students Supervise• their online activity. computer classes and Schools that offer • integration the of computers and the With viance. education at Dillar Tau. of Epsilon Pi LA. She is a Member-at-large decreased, all participants responsibil- must take decreased, includes users and the suppliers. which ity, in their Educators and parents must be vigilant to discourage computer and Interneteffort de the following to avoid or decrease the chances or decrease to avoid the following and the using computers when of deviance Internet at school and home: Internet into the curriculum, also be there must responsibility - n ile is ways to harm ways wing prof wledge concer e is not al le characteristics of a v , this study will add to the y mation, the follo The moti wing body of kno ro ounger computer abusers find it to ebsites without permission and per- ut g s w The primary purpose to was this study of Additionall When analyzing the above profile, in the above keep When analyzing Male, possibly Asian, Hispanic Male, possibly or Other; ages 14-16; to fair achievement; academic Poor No religious affiliation; No interaction with classmates or teachers; spent on 5 to 9 hours a day From the Internet computer; and/or a computer not have or may May at home. rom this infor ained an image of how students use the ained an image of how Conclusion Conclusion and high school students middle what explore using the when behavior as deviant perceive and the Internet.computer Based on the find- students do not be concluded that ings, it can on the Internet their behaviors most of perceive the More specifically, and computers as deviant. Peers’ Score mean is higher than the Behavior Students’ students Therefore, Score. Behavior as being as their behaviors do not perceive can be cor- This attitude as their peers. deviant as the third person related to a theory known and 1989). Cohen, Mutz, Price, (Perloff, effect (1988) definedGunther, effect the third person in relation people represent themselves as how The students’to others. is themselves image of more ethical than the students’ image of their ones friends. Hence, their classmates are the other access websites, that visit the pornography people’ form other deviant acts when using the Internet acts when form other deviant and computers. small, b mind what Bologna (1981) perceived. He indi- (1981) perceived. Bologna mind what cated that y ing students’ when perceptions of deviance have We using the Internet and computers. g students spend Internet and computers; how much time some of their time online and how using computers and the Internet. spend they F generated of the possib in computer or Internet engage student that may deviance: be challenging to beat the system, establishment or institution. others or for financial gain.
The Journal of Technology Studies 80 Voss, N. Jones (2000).Crimeon theinternet. Telecommunications and Multimedia Encyclopedia. Vatis, M.(2000)Director, ProtectionCenterFederal NationalInfrastructure BureauofInvestigation Hollinger, R.(1996).Hackers: Computerheroesorelectronichighwaymen? InR.C.Hollinger(Ed.), Cohen, J References Power, R.(2000,Spring).2000CSI/FBIcomputercrimeandsecuritysurvey. Milken Family Foundation. (1997). McLuhan, M.(1964). McLuhan, M.(1962). Kent, T. &McNergney, R.(1999). Kearsley, G.(2000). Hunter, B. (1984). Glennan, T., &Melmed, A. (1996). attitudestowards computercrime: A Researchnote. Coldwell, R.(1996).University students’ Pro P P National Public Radio.(1999).Survey shows widespreadenthusiasm forhightechnology. erlof aper v http://www.digitalcentury.com/encyclo/update/crime.html http://www Committee,CrimeSubcommittee Subcommittee andHouseJudiciary Washington, D.C. Committee,CriminalJusticeOversight on Cybercrime,BeforetheSenateJudiciary Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. CA: Rand. on third-personef Communication Resear exchange oneducationtechnology Library. of TorontoPress. CA: CorwinPress,Inc. Crime, Deviance andtheComputer England: Dartmouth. In R.C.Hollinger(Ed.), Issues and The Free Press. NPR Online.http://www.nsbf.org/programs/specials/poll/technology/index.html. enzo, E,Brett, t, S.(1993). f, R.(1989).Ego-in ., Mutz,D., Price, V., &Gunther, A. (1988).Perceived impactofdefamation: An experiment T .fbi.gov/pressrm/congress/congress00/vatis022900.htm r ends, 6 The c My studentsusecomputers A., &McClosk Online education:Learningandteaching incyberspace fects. Understanding media: The extensionsofman.New York The Gutenberg galaxy: The makingoftypographic man hildr (1), 1-15. volvement andthethirdpersoneffect oftelevised news coverage. c Pub en’ h, 16 Crime, Deviance andtheComputer s mac lic OpinionQuarterly, 52 (4), 236-262. Will technology really change education? e Fostering theuseofeducationaltechnology Preparing ouryoungpeoplefor achanging world: A Milken y hine: Rethinkingsc , G.(1999). . SantaMonica,CA: Author. (pp. 45-56). Aldershot, England:Dartmouth. . Reston, VA: RestonPublishing Company. Computer hool intheage ofthecomputer. (2), 161-173. s, curriculum,andcultur (pp. 413-416). Aldershot, . Belmont,CA: Wadsworth. Thousand Oaks, Computer Security . Toronto:University : New American . SantaMonica, al c hang Ne w e Y . ork: The Journal of Technology Studies 81 - s y gi y to ention v y of the nation’ ic and technolo ation and in v olved. Thus, olved. some v , reflecting the interests The efforts to provide instruc- to provide The efforts gical inno irst half centur ention or contribution techno- to roups in v vent Blacks from entering science Blacks vent y history. This paper attempts to y history. gacy of intelligence, and it serves to gacy erse g ucture of science. All three have ucture of science. v Americans to scientif ealth ed to pre This article focuses on the contributions of During the f The shortageranks of of Blacks among the eal a le v ell documented. ork inspire future African Americans to keep the Americans to keep African inspire future torch of technolo African or not to disprove written It was cal innovations. full given were discredit nonminorities who credit for an in the contribu- society but to recognize logical Americans who African Africans and tions of significantly helped mold and direct the evolu- This article is also intended tion of technology. as a education teachers to use for technology to American youth African tool to encourage a very brilliant heritage have realize that they and w re aflame. England and the mid-Atlantic in New history, spirit, growing revolutionary states specifically, abolitionist sentiment, and Christian missionar The the education of Blacks. fervor favored religious groups, most notably of various work for Blacks is schools to establish the Quakers, w or from having their scientificor from having contributions and rewarded. acknowledged scientists, engineers, and mathematicians is not scientists, engineers, misdirected social pol- the result of some recent it is one dimension of the larger Rather, icy. American society and needs story of Blacks in past ideologies, reviewing to be understood by Whites of practices, policies, and expectations and Blacks (Bechtel, 1989). It is necessar the sociohistorical links among atti- examine and the tudes about race, educational policies, social str w generally tion to Blacks during this period were local and unconnected of the di large numbers of the young Black men and numbers of the young large could be scientists turn away. who women does it happen? Why Where does this happen? 1989). can be done about it? (Bechtel, And what ho , , y As y , like er v life. And ic raduates w g And at e American American science , in the 21st centur Whites (Bechtel, 1989). w ms, the source of the y a statistical rarity. In 1984 y a statistical rarity. w Black under en no Americans did not receive rentl African y simple ter uctures, beliefs, and attitudes. , 1991) Ev er grams because there are few Blacks grams are few because there y and cur gical, behavioral, and social—in which we and social—in which gical, behavioral, Science is a pervasive and dominating force and Science is a pervasive In v Africans and African Americans have con- Americans have African Africans and usmer Whites, Keith V. Johnson and Elwood D. Watson Johnson and Keith V. A Historical Chronology of the Plight of African Plight the of Chronology A Historical in Engineering Recognition Gaining Americans and Technology alues of American society at large in its own American society at large alues of a major institutional component of our society a major institutional component of our reflects the the scientific community inevitably v social str American society in general, reflects the dominance of an America is historically The Black scientist in anomal 2.3%, or 90,500, of Blacks accounted for only scientists and engineers the 3,995,000 employed (K live; directly or indirectly, it shapes the boundaries or indirectly, directly live; and directions of all phases of proper credit. Therefore, it is virtually impossi- Therefore, it is virtually proper credit. all of the significant to show ble contributions Americans in our society. African of It is a primary source of American society. in the understanding of the worlds—physical, biolo 11.3% of the labor force, but only Blacks were 4.2% of natural scientists, 7.6% of math and computer scientists, and 4.6% of engineers. point along the pipeline to a scientific career, tributed significantly to the evolution of many tributed significantly to the evolution can that we of the engineering technologies in areas such as manufactur- identify with today ing, construction, graphics, electronics, design many transportation. Due to past history, Americans’African been have inventions the Further, eye. obscured from the public auto- America in African slaves of inventions It wasn’t to their owners. belonged matically Americans were African that until after slavery were they when for their inventions credit given sold some patents were when patented. But even to problem is obvious: There are few Black scien- There are few is obvious: problem Blacks in graduate tists because there are few Blacks in grad- there are few science programs; uate pro who are encouraged to take the undergraduate are encouraged to take who sources required for successful scientif careers; there are fe their high schools or grade are prepared by schools to choose such courses.
The Journal of Technology Studies 82 the Civil Rights Act of1866gave Blacks F Passage ofthe Fourteenth,Thirteenth, and g lo Funk anyinstruct slave orfreeBlack(Franklin, 1973; throughout theSouthmakingitillegal to frightened theplantersthatlaws were passed actions by Blackswho hadbeeneducatedso (1822), andthe Turner rebellion(1831). These abor quicklyspread support vanished withthe Any possibilityofthesepracticesgaining wide- bound toteachtheirsla some progressive plantationowners feltmorally provide freeBlackswithaneducation,and support. There were afew isolatedefforts to e was low. Whites who wanted schoolingwere Blacks. Interestinpublic educationingeneral sla W societies asearly asthe1780s(Funke, 1920; Philadelphia Blacksbegan toorganize literary lished by Blacks,andinsuchlarge citiesas also played arole. A few schoolswere estab- were provided andcontrolledby Whites, Blacks Pifer tion well beforetheCivil War (Franklin, 1973; Oberlin andotherinstitutionsofhighereduca- college in America. Blackswere attending from Blacktograduate from Bowdoin -thefirst while JohnRusswurmwas gettinghisdegree 1826 Edward from Jonesgraduated Amherst also began tomove intohighereducation.In 32,629 Blackswere inschool1860.Blacks asawhole, and inthestatesterritories Boston in1850,almost1,500were inschool; ties togetaneducation.Ofthe2,000Blacksin sive asfreeBlackstookadvantage ofopportuni- Frazier, 1949; Woodson, 1915). to attendpublic schools(Franklin, 1973; to adoptpoliciesthatwould allow moreBlacks promptedsomecommunities oftheNorth parts growing intensityofantislavery sentimentsin tion while othershadseparatefacilities. The communities provided public integrated instruc- xpected torely forfinancial ontheirfamilies ains intheirsocialandpolitical conditions. ifteenth wing theCivil War, Blacksmadetemporary inston, 1971). v er ti During the decade of Reconstruction fol- During thedecadeofReconstruction The socialclimateintheSouthduring Although mostoftheseeducationalef The resultsofthismovement were impres- , 1973). e, 1920;Lo v y eraef e re Amendments to theConstitutionand v olts b fecti w &Cliff, 1981). y Prosser(1800)and Vesey v el y precludededucating v es toreadandwrite. for ts w South. Blacksrespondedeagerly, andthousands Freedmen’s Bureau,established schoolsinthe Association andthegovernment-sponsored tions, suchasthe American Missionary Immediately afterthewar, religiousorganiza- Blacks freedby theadvancing Uniontroops. to establish educationalprograms forthose began tomake theirway states intotheSouthern (Woodson,services 1969). aiding thefreedmenwere quicktooffer their many individuals andorganizations interestedin education was importance. ofprimary And tage oftheirnew statusandfeltthatgettingan emancipated slaves were eagertotake advan- icant changecameintheareaofeducation. The 1934; Brawley, 1970).Probably themostsignif- lish antebellumsocialrelationships(Bond, restrictive legislation thatattemptedtoreestab- freedom andrightsofcitizenshiphindered educational oppor educating themwas viewed asabsurd.Providing were consideredinnately inferior—theideaof efforts toprovide educationforBlacks,who pared forsucharadicalchangeandopposed 1969;Funke, 1920). 1934; Cruden, have a significant impact on important issuesof impactonimportant have asignificant phy. The way thisproblem was addressed would beyond simplequestionsofeducationalphiloso- aseriousdilemmathat went faced Southerners horse” (W “ignorant Blackrabble was amenacing Trojan thepresenceofthislargeobservers, numberof America w Civil War, 95%oftheBlackpopulationin vide fortheirown basicneeds. At theendof have tobeeducatedsimply tosurvive andpro- anobviousgrasped fact: The Freedmen would of massive socialdislocation(Bechtel,1989). traditional antebellumsocialorderintheface dictable oftheirattempttomaintainthe part by toBlackeducationwas Southerners apre- mine theirpoliticalpower. The hostilereaction Republican under- idealsofequalityandfurther wouldschools taughtby Northerners instill Conser higher thanthatofmostfor it w been restrictedtotheupperclassesinSouth; meant extending aprivilege thathadhistorically ere attendingschoolsb ould ele Even beforethewar ended, missionaries White Southerners, however,White Southerners, were unpre- Nevertheless, someSouthern Whites vative fearedthatthe Southerners inston, 1971,p.681). as illiterate. v ate the former slaveate theformer toastatus tunities toBlacksw To mostenlightened y thelate1860s(Bond mer sla White v e o ould ha wners. v e , The Journal of Technology Studies 83 - - y fer y ain onl gional dif as spending ennessee T inds that spend er over the 60-year er over v y 3% of this mone , 10 Southern spent states ear hatsoe ealed the degree of inferiority ell. For example, during the example, ell. For v y Black schools. In 1915 the North Data (Bond, 1934) for the state of Alabama the state of 1934) for Data (Bond, Although the figuresAlabama show from Harlan (1968) noted that the re Statistics re eal no change w v re indicate the changes that took place over the 55- place over changes that took indicate the the 1875 to 1930. During period from year Alabama spent an aver- 1875-1876 school term, White teachers’ for age of $1.30 per pupil pupil for Black teachers’ salaries and $1.46 per of Black teach- in favor This difference salaries. of the Reconstructioners reflects the impact Alabama was 1885, however, administration. By paid to was teachers 85% of what Black paying 25 And $1.28). versus White teachers ($1.09 Alabama teachers still Black later, years their $1.10 per pupil whereas only received White counterparts as much six times got nearly ($6.42). time in expenditures the dramatic decline over to Black teachers, the data from 1870s to 1930 clearly reveals the massive dis- the massive reveals clearly to 1930 1870s and Whites of the education between parities the South. Blacks in Tennessee period from 1870 to 1930. In 1870 White teachers $11.83 per pupil com- paid its of the pared to $7.48 for Black teachers—63% was White teachers’Tennessee By 1931 salary. $27.55 per pupil com- White teachers its paying pared to $17.25 for Black teachers—ag per of $28.00 Central states spent an average White child for education compared to only child in South Carolina. But White $14.00 per at the same time, South Carolina w a total of $20 million on transporting rural school children. But, onl 63% of the White teachers’63% of the 1934). salary (Bond, White schools paled when ences in funding for suf- compared to the economic disadvantages fered b $1.13 per Black child for education. only of funding of Black education compared to that DC, Washington, South. Using Whites in the of as a point of comparison, one f the six Southern states on school expens- ing by and teacher salaries falls far es, school property, called that could be remotely short of anything The breadth of the discrimi- “equal” education. in education is revealed Black nation against other areas as w 1933-1934 school y constituted spent on Black children who was - - e v After the ould ha vient place hich the most xamination of , subser uction w An e uction Black educational y equal basis. ould have been sent to ould have uction, the quality of edu airl enty-five the education- years v . With the goal decided upon, the two With . e as the funnel through w ifty or se v White schools were improved at the improved White schools were During Reconstr Ballard makes clear that it was unthinkable clear that it was Ballard makes From an egalitarian perspective, education perspective, an egalitarian From fund- be federally to have there would First, village. ed elementary schools in every funded group of highly a federally Second, trained teachers w would those villages. Centers of literacy for adult education. to be established have This first carried thrust through could have the by for five to be followed to ten years, high schools with of regional establishment curricula and academic both vocational to ser gone on to have would Black youth able a period Over subsidized colleges. federally of f risen to have Africans would of the al level Americans. (p. 11) White that of Whites during Reconstr , w xpense of Black schools. the data on school expenditures from the mid the data on school expenditures tion. in the South had been generally cation provided Whites, but it was poor for both Blacks and administered on a f end of Reconstruction of and the reemergence the in political power, Southern conservatives policies of Black social and political disenfran- to Black education as well. chisement extended discrimination, and Through deception, blatant la e philosophy emerged: a system of separate and emerged: philosophy unequal schools for Blacks and industrial educa allowed anything of the sort. If Blacks had to be anything allowed White Southerners felt that the educa- educated, tion should be suited to their inferior mental capacities and to their proper in society pillars of post-Reconstr that is a means of raising those less fortunateis a means of raising up to a If such a on par with the rest of society. level at the end of the Civil goal had been paramount sort could educational program what of War, Ballard (1973) described been developed? have scenario. a possible political and economic relationships because relationships and economic political had Blacks, they educate chose to Whites once should be pro- type of education what to decide depended And that decision ultimately vided. for Blacks in the saw Whites that upon the role social order. American
The Journal of Technology Studies 84 position (Litw improvement inone’s politicalandeconomic sion (suchaschurchesandnewspapers) and there were forself-expres- moreopportunities W andborderstates,including for the18Southern year, forexample, theaverage lengthoftheterm the Blackschools.In1929-1930school ing was for thepracticeofhaving terms shorter teacher ina White school.Possibly mostdamag- have twiceasmany studentsasthetypical teacher inaBlackschoolwould, ontheaverage, of Blackteacherswas alsosmall,thetypical wasportation provided. Butbecausethenumber schools were oftendistantandsolittletrans- dance remainedrelatively low becauseBlack to acquireanadequateeducation.Blackatten- theabilityofBlacks alsoundermined finances student (Frazier, 1949). dent, only $0.19was invested foreachBlack invested foreach inschoolproperty White stu- which datawere available, forevery $1.00 value, statesfor total property in10Southern rate schoolswere of one-roomschools.Interms schoolsinthe18stateswithsepa- elementary 1936 over half(55%)ofthe24,405Blackpublic 34% ofthetotalschoolpopulation.In1935- se the restrictionsontheiractivities were less They were notsubjecttothewhims ofamaster, schools w that fewcombined withthefact secondary be approximately fouryears behind. This policy, White student—inotherwords, heorshewould been inclass472da Black studentinSouthCarolinaw 1931). After eightyears ofschool,thetypical compared toonly 114days forBlacks(Work, average was schoolterm 173days for Whites days forBlacks.However, inSouthCarolinathe Blacks w South. Lifewas thereforedifferent forthose arouse thefearandapprehensionfoundin number intheNor 18th and19thcenturies,Blackswere few in wereBlacks intheNorth any better. Duringthe not concludethattheeducationalexperiences of states.Onemust has focusedontheSouthern tion (Rice,1971). educa- period attainedmorethanasixth-grade to w v ashington, w ere, the ard e Factors otherthandirectdiscriminationin Much ofthisdiscussionBlackeducation xplaining why few Blacksduringthis ho li ere estab y couldprotestag v ack, 1961;Quarles, 1969). as 164days for Whites and144 ed inthev th and West anddidnot lished forBlacks,goesfar ys lessthanthetypical arious Northern states. arious Northern ainst injustices,and ould ha ve ment bothsociall their color, they were restricted intheirmove- Blacks suffered additionalproblems: Becauseof (Beale,1975;Bond,school buildings 1934). driving away of ofteachers,andthedestruction forcible closingofschools,theintimidationand educating Blacksthatfounde ofresentmenttowardthere was anundercurrent not passlaws prohibiting theteachingofBlacks, into theirstates. laws offreeBlacks forbiddingthemigration Ohio,Illinois,andOregon had Southerners. seemed nomorefondofBlacksthan communities seekingeducation.Northerners more ofthemwould move intotheirstatesor spend money onschoolsforBlacks,fearingthat statesweretion. Many unwillingto Northern strong oppositiontotheirreceiving aneduca- Blacksfoundthattherewasdom intheNorth, (Litwack, 1961). race suitedonly forthemostmenialofpositions same everywhere: Blacksconstitutedaninferior forsuchpracticeswas the And thejustification andSouth. of lifeforBlacksinboththeNorth Discrimination andracialsegregation were facts shared by most White Americans. country, andthebeliefinBlackinferioritywas were region ofthe notrestrictedtoaparticular the margin. Both groups werethe margin. Both groups vulnerable American society, whereas Blacks remainedon wereforeign immigrants ableof tobecomepart (1973) notedthatwithvarying ofspeed, degrees inferior cities andtheirchildrenhadtoattendold, been forcedtolive inthepoorestsectionsof centers. Blacks had As withtheimmigrants, whoof immigrants settledinthemajorurban were by similartothosefaced thelarge number f 1961). (Litwack, andinferior curricula quate facilities, in theSouth,withsubstandardteachers,inade- separate schoolswere oftenasunequalthose limited intellectualcapabilityofBlacks,these schools. Reflectingthepre required themtoattendseparateall-Black had e states the early 1800s.By1830mostNorthern mostly during admitted Blacks,thisoccurred acing Blacksinthepub While some Despite having comparatively free- greater Popular beliefsandattitudesaboutBlacks Frazier (1949) remarked that theproblems xcluded Blacksfrom , ando vercrowded schools.Nevertheless, Although Nor White schoolsintheNor y andeconomicall lic schoolsoftheNor vailing beliefinthe White schoolsand xpression inthe ther n statesdid y . Greer th th The Journal of Technology Studies 85 - - as - entors, especial v riers to intellec , 1974). le bar , the United States w ar This did not preclude the W vernment refused to grant midab vil wners. ue that Black in wn freedom and to interest others xamined (Rossiter The federal go The few Blacks who managed to overcome Blacks who The few work the It is appropriate to describe briefly Before the Ci It is also tr y of the same kinds of reasons, the presence ain their o mounted the for xception to this rule. For most slaves and free most slaves xception to this rule. For outright theft of inventions by the slave owners, the slave by outright theft of inventions educational obstacles and enter careers in sci- educational obstacles still faced bigotryence and technology in other This discrimination aspects of their lives. of recognition to the lack of public extended of Black scientists, names and accomplishments recent- Only and inventors. medical researchers, of out evidence to search scholars begun have ly these Blacks’ that, contributions and discover although Blacks are rare in the history of no means miss- are by American science, they noting that, for It is worth ing or negligible. man long in science were of women and activities have recently historians and only by overlooked been ree American scientists and of some of these Black they in which the ways and to examine inventors sur tracts. them to transfer patent them patents or to allow rights to their o menial labor, and domestic service—activities and domestic labor, menial work- skilled White to be a threat not that would place in their proper Blacks keep ers and would and economic structurein the social (Spivey, the originator Armstrong was while 1978). But Black man to education, it took a of vocational of a prominent feature industrial training make Black education. for its scientificnot known accomplishments. It Blacks to be the sense to expect make not would e and keeping gaining Blacks, the main issue was Blacks with exceptional their freedom. Many ways abilities directed their talents to devising to g histori- by unrecognized in the South, were ly to mechanical devices invented who ans. Slaves burden of labor could not the physical relieve (Baker, protect their rights to the inventions as citi- not recognized were They 1913/1969). zens and therefore could not enter into con tual achievement. preachers in supporting Inevitably, efforts. such among the and orators outnumbered inventors Black community during the antebellum period 1913/1969). (Baker, A ey, v e way of e way v ginia. ir V fecti y instilling “habits as an ef orking classes” and mstrong, a Freedmen’s Ar ears enter Hampton” (Spi m the w raphy and mathematics, history, the history, and mathematics, raphy vilize” the Black b g White goals for Blacks in the social vide a check on what he believed was believed he vide a check on what ould for y er in the innate inferiority of Blacks, . Industrial training w v , to “ci Despite widespread animosity toward Despite widespread The content of Black schooling adequately Industrial education had its beginnings at Industrial education had its beginnings ho w Blacks, they did receive more education in the did receive Blacks, they North,education although the quality of that (1949) reported figures Frazier inferior. for was the proportion of Blacks with 1940 that show only of high school in the South was four years in the North it ranged 25% of the total, whereas how- The reality, the total. from 50% to 75% of America North is that Blacks in or South, ever, an inadequate and inferior education received for more available compared to that when Whites. reflected order Bureau administrator in Hampton, rebellion. of Blacks toward the natural tendency intended to affect education was of His program char- flawed innately a change in the freedman’s acter because of their low social status, but it was the but status, social it was low of their because conse- the suffered immigrant who individual for whereas economic change, quences of Thus, affected. entire groupBlacks the was race added a significantcaste through dimen- Black in the class life of the lower sion to the urban North. Armstrong thought that the best training for instill self-control one that would Blacks was and pro ensuring that Blacks could not rise beyond what ensuring that Blacks could not rise beyond and seen as their natural sphere as laborers was servants. Hampton Institute under the direction of General Samuel belie Thus, education at Hampton under 1978, p. 26). designed to maintain the Armstrong was be Southernquo. Black students would status trained in the principles of agriculture, unskilled of living and labor” (Spivey, 1978, p. 19). and labor” (Spivey, of living ultimately that Blacks were Armstrong believed destined to “for remain at the bottom of the economic hierarchy no faith in Blacks’ 1978). Having (Spivey, intel- a Armstrong thought it was lectual capacity, them academic training, of time to give waste “reading and elo- stating that courses involving cution, geo a curriculum I think, make sciences . . . would, of . . . those the best powers exhaust that would w
The Journal of Technology Studies 86 schools inNe both freedomandwealth. HeattendedCatholic tion, theyoung Rillieuxhadtheadvantages of Constance Vivant. Becauseofhisfather’s posi- a wealthy plantationowner, andhisslave 1806, Rillieuxwas thesonof Vincent Rillieux, inNewRillieux. Born OrleansonMarch17, ture. The samecouldbesaidofNorbert deriving living acomfortable fromitsmanufac- a patentforhisinvention forhandlingsailsor ingetting Black Philadelphian,hadnodifficulty For example, JamesForten (1766-1842),afree patents toslaves didnotapply tofreeBlacks. cess oftheirdevices (Baker, 1913/1969). wouldinformation impairthecommercialsuc- to have theirracekept secretforfearthatsuch 1970). Among freeBlacks,inventors preferred inventions were originatedby slaves (Haber, situation, itcannever beknown how many who would claimthemastheirown. Given this the plansfor new nationalcapital. Although team chosenb notable cameasasurveyor contribution withthe Hismost eclipses, andmedicinalformulas. years hepublished analmanac of tables, the solareclipseof1789.During thene his mathematicalabilityenabled himto predict over 20years. Hisknowledge ofastronomy and accuratel awoodenhim toconstruct strikingclockso Ploski & worldwide (Baker, 1913/1969;Haber, 1970; and revolutionized theproductionofsugar was inLouisiana aboontothesugar industry g sug theprocessofrefining um panthattransformed in 1846when heinvented andpatentedavacu- (Klein, 1971).Hismajoraccomplishmentcame on steamtechnology toengineeringjournals L youngest inappliedmechanicsat instructor in France. At theageof24,hebecame 1761, hiscuriosityaboutmechanicalde equi publicgrated schoolwhere heobtainedthe grandmother, Banneker alsoattendedaninte- 1731. Taught toreadandwriteathomeby his was inBaltimoreCounty, born Maryland, in mother andaslave shehadpurchased, Banneker Benjamin Banneker. The sonofafreeBlack tomentiontheaccomplishments of not fail ’Ecole CentraleinP ranulated sug ar valent education.In ofaneighthgrade Government of restrictionsonthegranting A discussionofearly Blackinventors can- . The device yieldedasuperiorproduct— y madethatitk W illiams, 1983; Toppin, 1971). w Orleansandstudiedengineering y George Washington todevelop ar—at alo aris and contributed papers aris andcontributed ept perfecttimefor w price. The in xt 10 vices led vention and f the manuf invent adevice thatsolved acriticalproblem in ing thelocomotive enginesinspiredhimto Railroad where hisexperiences withmaintain- ontheMichigan Central took ajobasfireman employment asanengineer.find Heeventually because ofhisraceitw to returning America, McCoy foundthat apprentice asamechanicalengineer. Upon schools inMichig to runaway slaves. Heattendedgrammar 1982; Ploski& Williams, 1983). in to 50pairsse duce 150to700pairsofshoesaday, compared machine, itwas topro- possible foronefactory together. After Matzeligerdeveloped hislasting and bottomhalves shoes ofmanufactured ble—invent amachinethatwould sew thetop process. Hespentlonghoursatg time-consuming bottleneckintheproduction the two hadtobeputtogether parts by hand—a shoes were by beingmanufactured machines, He realizedthatwhile thetopsandbottomsof age of10andwent towork inashoefactory. toPhiladelphiaatthe in 1852.Heimmigrated McCoy, Matzeliger. andJanEarnst were Lewis Latimer, Granville T. Woods, Elijah advance of American industry. Mostnoteworthy of considerableinthemechanical importance a numberofBlackinventors produceddevices 1971). (Haber, 1970;Ploski& Williams, 1983; Toppin, Washington, DC,was namedinhishonor although in1970,Banneker Circlein recognition intheUnitedStates— official accomplishments,hereceived little his scientific publicly recognized inFrance andEnglandfor continuous and automaticlubricationofmoving invented the“lubricatingcup,” which provided time-consuming andcostly procedure. McCoy bymachines andlubricatetheparts hand, a centur from fusing together.metal parts Inthelate19th constantly neededlubrication toprevent the lions ofdollarsthate the ageof37andne grew dramatically. Matzeligerdiedin1889at went down, andthe American shoeindustry vention (Haber, 1970;Logan & Winston, Elijah McCoy was inCanada1844 born Jan Matzeligerwas inDutchGuiana born During thesecondhalfof19thcentury, inancial costtodotheseemingl y , f actor acturing industr wn b y w an andw orkers hadtostopthe y hand. v v er realizedan entuall as impossib y. Heavy machinery The costofshoes ent toScotland y deri reat ph v y ofthemil- le forhimto ed fromhis y impossi ysical - The Journal of Technology Studies 87 y the tation as 3.22 erage w v On Measuring rammar, geometry, rammar, y unheard of b . He graduated first in y unknown to the y unknown y ersity for a disser v tuall rade-point a . Bouchet was the first. Bouchet was Black ale Uni Y e a doctorate from an American univer- e a doctorate from an v Edward Bouchet was born in 1852 to free Bouchet was Edward in the fall University Yale Bouchet entered Most of the Black scientists and inventors Most of the Black scientists ysics from orld of science and literall to recei sity and only the sixth person in the United sity and only Yet, a PhD in physics. States to be awarded historyother than an occasional footnote in the of Black education, Bouchet and his accom- plishments remain vir w Refracting Indices Refracting happened to Bouchet What general. in world facing the adversity a glimpse into provides America. War educated Blacks in post-Civil he Connecticut, where Haven, parents in New most of Like “colored school.” attended a public small, it was the schools for Blacks in the city, In 1868, one teacher. and had only ungraded, the firstBouchet was Black to be accepted into Hopkins Grammar School, a preparatory school for the classical and scientific departments at at Hopkins, years his two During College. Yale he studied Latin and Greek g algebra, and Greek histor chosen valedictorian his class in 1870 and was (Bechtel, 1989). When he gradu- of 1870 and continued to excel. ated in 1874, his g on a 4.0-point scale, the sixth highest in a class to Yale of 124. In 1875, Bouchet returned to During his two in physics. pursue graduate work in the graduateyears school, he paid special ing Edison’s incandescent lamps. He supervised lamps. incandescent ing Edison’s York, New lights in of electric the installation In 1884, Montreal, and London. Philadelphia, he where the Edison Company, Latimer joined patents instrumental Edison’s in defending was 1982; Winston, & 1970; Logan in court (Haber, 1983). Williams, Ploski & self-taught very gifted, of the 19th century were academic or professional lacked who individuals This should not sciences. training in the physical apply be surprising since the description would scientists and inven- American White to equally in only In fact,tors at the same time. it was 1861 that the first granted a in was doctorate Probably University. Yale science—physics—at accomplishment in the his- the most noteworthy tory of Blacks in science occurred 15 years just Bouchet, a 24- Alexander In 1876, Edward later. a PhD in awarded was Black man year-old ph in geometrical optics entitled - - - ven the ven y being gi gan & Winston, & gan wings and descrip estinghouse, and Bell ilaments that were longer ilaments that were , 1970; Lo W velopment of the Synchronous velopment entions bore his name, including v as named chief draftsman. Needing a , Patent Solicitors. Demonstrating his , Patent erhead conduction system for electric rail y w v Lewis Howard Latimer was born in Latimer was Howard Lewis In the area of electrical engineering, In the area of electrical wn for his de elephone (Haber ways and the “third rail” used in most subway ways he held as the “Black Edison,” systems. Known assigned to were of which 60 patents, many over General Electric, 1971). Toppin, 1983; Williams, 1982; Ploski & At the age of 10, Massachusetts in 1848. forced to quit school and help sup- Latimer was After serving in the United port his family. he War, Service during the Civil States Naval & with Crosby as an office boy employed was Gould superior skill after reluctantl chance to try hand at drafting, Latimer ulti- his matel skilled draftsman to help prepare his patent Graham Bell asked Alexander application, Latimer to prepare the dra tions for the telephone patent issued in 1876. on his own to work began Latimer eventually a method in 1881, he developed and inventions, of making carbon f filaments,lasting than previous improv- greatly Granville T. Woods and Lewis Latimer deserve and Lewis Woods T. Granville Born 1856, in Ohio in special recognition. attended school until the age Woods T. Granville in a machine shop, he employed of 10. First his mechanical aptitude continued to develop on the railroad and reading books on working took electricity in his spare time. He reportedly a course in electrical and mechanical engineer T parts. His inventions were significant were in perfect- parts. His inventions system eventually lubrication overall ing the heavy plants with industrial large used in all McCoy of 40 years, a period Over machinery. for his lubrica- than 50 patents acquired more his race made as he died poor, yet tion devices, it difficult profit to realize any for him the from that made millions for others. inventions it is often claimed Although not documented, is the real McCoy” “It’s that the expression Ploski 1970; (Haber, devices associated with his 1983). & Williams, the o ing but was essentially self-taught. He invented essentially ing but was a telephone transmitter in 1884 but is best kno This system Telegraph. Railway Multiplex stations and between communication enabled railway improved trains and greatly moving period from 1879 to 1899, In the 20-year safety. 23 separate in
The Journal of Technology Studies 88 ral sciencesmade himincreasingly unattractive academic education andhistraininginthenatu- lar, tolimitBouchet’s served His opportunities. Hampton-Tuskegee modelforBlacksinparticu- By theendofcentur tur during thelatterhalfof19thcen- instruction career. The ascendance ofvocational-industrial other thanracehadanimpactonBouchet’ Butbarriers with hissuperiorqualifications. him seriously even forapositiononitsfaculty (Bechtel, 1989;Perkins, 1978). favorableinstructors toindustrialeducation including Bouchet,andreplacedthemwith alltheteachers, managers proceededtofire industrial trainingatHamptonand Tuskegee, the efforts toredirecttheICYalonglineof Washington’s educationalphilosophy. Intheir demic educationandreceptive toBooker T. had becomeopenly hostiletoclassicalandaca- stating thatthecoursesw tute’ their behalf.In1894,astudymadeoftheinsti- Blacks torespondtheefforts beingmadeon nity asthe becoming disillusionedwiththeBlackcommu- mid-1890s, many PhiladelphiaQuakers were Bouchet’s fortheworse. lifetookaturn Bythe during thelasttwo decades ofthe19thcentury, years. However, aswithall American Blacks of 1876andtaughtattheICYforne (Perkins, 1978). invite Bouchettoheadthe new scienceprogram FundthatledCopeto ment oftheScientific ciples ofappliedscience.Itwas theestablish- intheprin- Fundtopromotelearning Scientific the school’s offerings, Copeestablished a geometry, andchemistry. Inaneffort toexpand geography, GreekandLatinclassics,algebra, thatincludedancienthistory,ICY acurriculum Blacks, Copeandtheothermanagersoffered at eral educationandtheunlimitedcapabilitiesof Youth (ICY).Firmbelievers inthevalue oflib- Blacks inPhiladelphia,theInstituteforColored the boardofmanagersaFriends schoolfor by aged andfinanced Alfred Cope,amemberof tion (Bechtel,1989). Wright, hesuccessfully completedhisdisserta- mental physics. Underthedirectionof Arthur attention tochemistry, mineralogy, andexperi- y , andtheo s cur No White college would have considered Bouchet ar Bouchet’s educationwas graduate encour- riculum suggestedthatitbesimplif y no v w questionedtheabilityof ri erw v ed inPhiladelphiathefall helming acceptanceofthe y, thenew managers ere “pitchedtoohigh. xt 26 s ied, ” and craftsmenoutofb wouldlarge corporations putmany tradesmen White workers. toseethattheriseof Itfailed Blacks inthetrades,arousinghostilityof on itsown itmisjudgedthedemandfor terms, kept Blacksineconomically inferiorjobs.Even types aboutBlackintellectualinferiority, andit stereo- for professionalcareers,itperpetuated The movement stoppedstudentsfromstriving of studentshemighthave trainedinscience. only alsoforthefuturegenerations forhimbut movement createdforBouchetwere tragicnot (p. 65). giance tooneschoolofthoughtortheother” . Menwere by labeledandearmarked thealle- a Negro’s attitudetoward industrialeducation.. Employment andpromotiondependedoftenon social pressure,toangerandeven toblows. . disputants cametorival organizations, tosevere and industrialeducationwas abitterone.“The by DuBois(1973),thedebatebetween academic ed theindustrial-educationphilosophy. As noted as acandidateatBlackcolleges thathadadopt- scholarly Hisideason cell-membrane journals. published two booksandover 60papers in University ofChicago.Duringhiscareer, he 1916, hereceived hisPhDinbiology fromthe Laboratories at mer researchattheMarineBiological University andbegan a20-year periodofsum- from Dar anddevelopment.structure After graduating developed aninterestinbiology, especially cell Incollege he with honorsfromDartmouth. Justreceived1883, Ernest hisbachelor’s degree Julian, andCharlesDrew (Bechtel,1989). to biology andmedicine:E.Just,Percy contributions three Blackswho madescientific ence andengineering.Consider, forexample, and women began tomoveofsci- intothefields asasmallnumberofmen of the20thcentury atthebeginning changeoccurred An important lum inthedirectionof Black colle industrial education,w ted. W. E.B. DuBoisledthismovement against schools, itisnoteworthy thatsomeBlacksresis- implement itthroughcontrib industrial trainingforBlacksandhelpedto Franklin, 1973). The difficulties thattheindustrial-education The difficulties Born inCharleston,SouthCarolina, Born Although Whites enthusiastically endorsed tmouth, hetaughtbiolo ges refusedtochangetheircur W oods Hole,Massachusetts.In usiness (DuBois,1973; hile leadersatsome Tuskegee andHampton. utions toBlack gy atHoward ricu - The Journal of Technology Studies 89 ere y aining y w gel vard irst Black to tant, the e been lar v en more impres- v as the f , or Percy Julian, or , or Percy y learn the names raduate of Har America ha A g Wright w m of research grants, prestigious wis Latimer White . Students rarel et their names and deeds remain obscure. oods, Le To this discussion of unrecognized scien- unrecognized of this discussion To There is little doubt that White scientists of There is little doubt that The achievements of Black intellectuals and The achievements umental in the transformation of American umental in the transformation of e, y W orld in the for v . tists must be added several others. One is others. several be added tists must his doctorate received who Turner, Charles H. He of Chicago in 1907. from the University of animal papers in the area many published of insect activity and the phenomenon behavior, for circling” is named referred“Turner’s to as authority on an A. Hinton was William him. for developing disease and responsible venereal detecting syphilis. In 1949, for Test the Hinton he became the first of medicine Black professor chemist and chief A. Hall was Lloyd at Harvard. for Griffithdirector of research Laboratories in Chicago. He transformed the meatpacking of curing salts industry with his development for processing and preserving Louis meats. and a leading surgeon was Wright Tompkins in for his work medical researcher best known the intradermal method of smallpox developing He also pioneered in drug therapy vaccination. the firstfor cancer and was to use chlortetracy- cline on humans. Medical School, American in the be elected to a fellowship & 1970; Logan (Haber, of Surgeons College 1983). Williams, 1982; Ploski & Winston, from the scientific recognition this caliber won w positions, and prizes. More impor to continue their research and their teach- urged ing of future scientists. In light of the racism faced, and discrimination these Black scientists their accomplishments are e si learn the importanceStudents quickly of such Whitney, Eli men as Benjamin Franklin, Graham Bell, and Alexander Thomas Edison, are held up as These individuals Jonas Salk. was work whose greatand inventors scientists instr society Norbert Rillieux, Granville Benjamin Banneker, T scientists in their equally important contributions their equally to the American science and transformation of industry. obscured, ignored, or diminished in importance. ignored, obscured, the pri- of science and research was The world White males. Society provided domain of vate Blacks with more appropriate arenas for g - irst lems of irst to syn s research ving many y and the f America’ ger as also the f lood, and his research lood, ere unable to afford the to afford ere unable ho w w, medical doctor and medical w, ning point in the struggle of Black ain access to as a tur Born in Alabama in 1899, Percy Julian in 1899, Percy Alabama Born in Charles Dre lood plasma is credited with sa Black to be appointed an examiner by the by Black to be appointed an examiner 1970; American Board of Surgery (Haber, 1971). Toppin, 1983; Williams, Ploski & attended DePauw University, where he was where University, attended DePauw Beta Kappa. He taught at and Phi valedictorian State College Virginia West and Howard, Fisk, of and the University before attending Harvard and synthetic A specialist in derivative Vienna. cortisone, a cheap and drugs, Julian discovered from arthritis treatment for derived effective the first was oil. In 1935, Julian to syn- soybean important in the treat- thesize physostigmine, ment of glaucoma. He w activity completely changed the scientific changed completely activity opin- demonstrated as he successfully his time ion of that the cells’ are and ectoplasm cytoplasm As important in heredity. as the nucleus equally of the period, of the Black scientists with most in the proper recognition received Just never respected and although he was United States, honored in the scientific of Europe capitals Ploski & 1970; Manning, 1983; (Haber, 1971). Toppin, 1983; Williams, thesize hormones, reducing the cost of greatly to thou- these drugs and making them available sands of people w the post offered natural drugs. He was expensive for the of chief chemist and director of research in Chicago, the firstGlidden Company Black scientist to obtain such a prestigious position. This w scientists to g Williams, 1970; Ploski & facilities (Haber, 1971). 1983; Toppin, in College Amherst at educated was researcher, Massachusetts and took his medical degree from in his in Canada. Early McGill University he became interested in the problems career, associated with the transfusion and storage of He took a teaching position at Howard blood. on his doctor of working and while University science degree at Columbia wrote a dissertation an expert He soon became on blood. on banked separating and storing b on b 1941, he was II. In War World during lives called to England to help with the prob storage and set up the firstblood bank in blood one of the first was England. Drew Blacks to become a diplomat in sur
The Journal of Technology Studies 90 Segregation produced isolation:BlackPhDsin insurmountable obstacletotheBlackscientist. tional discriminationthatcreated analmost toward individuals ofinstitu- arethepatterns 1982; Manning,1983). help hisrace(Haber, 1970;Logan & Winston, Whites toteachatBlackuni research centeroruniversity andwas urged by of despite hisscientif several Just, actsofracialviolence.Ernest andbombedin house inOakbrookwas setafire overnight. DuringhistenureatGlidden, statute prohibitingBlacksfromstaying Wisconsin, forajobinterview becauseofacity Black, andhewould not goto Appleton, DePauw’s becausehewas department chemistry Julian was deniedappointmentasheadof (Bechtel,1989).Percycame aroundacorner White la munity Bouchet w College inLawrenceville, Virginia, Edward tion aswell. withthespecterofracismanddiscrimina- but discovery,the challengeandelationofscientific notonlyearly with Blackscientistswere filled fered discriminationandviolence). were notacknowledged), ordestroyed (they suf- stealing theirideasfrom Whites), hidden(they called freaks),minimized(the individuals hadtobeexplained away (they were inferiority (Winston, 1971). Therefore, such White beliefinBlackintellectualandsocial exist foundationofthe challengedthevery not supposedtoexist, thatthey andthefact did Blacks presentedagrave problem. They were ofthecentury,the turn educatedandintellectual present inBlacks. creativity—characteristics notthoughttobe ple innateabilities;thelatterintelligenceand or create. activitiesThe former requireonly sim- notinvent, produce,orentertain, form, design, According tothestereotype,Blackswere toper- than thatofscholarorscientist(Lewis, 1972). seen by asmoreappropriate thedominantgroup ditional amongpowerless peopleandareoften roles ofgladiatorandjesterhave longbeentra- their placeinthe American socialorder. The success andnotoriety, for arenasmorefitting fered anappointmentatamajor More impor During hisbrieftenureatSt.Paul’s From theperspective of White America at . Ne wyer heaccidently intoasthey bumped as respectedandadmiredinthecom v er theless, hew tant thantheseactsofracism ic discoveries, was never as assaultedby a v ersities inorderto y w ere accusedof American The li ves of - ic community inthe from fullparticipation American scientif- (Julian, 1969).Excludedbecauseoftheirrace fearful environment, was the PhDdegree afarce science ingeneral.Inthistypeofrestrictedand y lence reinforcedby numerouslynchings every actions ofBlacks,theconstantthreatvio- designed torestrictthesocialandpolitical societies (Julian,1969; Winston, 1971). and were fromlocalchaptersoflearned barred lic librariesand White university laboratories located, Blackscholarswere denieduseofpub- the South,where mostBlackcolleges were available equipmentorlibraries.In forscientific their mentors.Blackcolleges hadlittlemoney tist’s pleasureoftrainingstudentstosurpass English. These teachersseldomhadthescien- lacked advanced traininginmathematicsand areas,whodents fromtheinnercityorrural colleges (like JustorJulian)oftentaughtstu- positionsinBlack were enoughtofind fortunate resources andpoorly equippedlabs. Those who of theircareersinhighschoolswithlimited Edward BouchetandCharles Turner spentmost thetic totheneedsofaresearchscientist. and highschools,which were oftenunsympa- science were forcedtoteachinBlackcolleges la ofmedicine,teaching,and ments. Inthefields accomplish- andscientific their qualifications denied thereco America’s mostprestigiousuniversities were the highestle T any Blackwho knew aboutJust,Julian,or rather thanbiology, physics, orchemistry. For dents intocareersineducation,medicine,orlaw talentedstu- continues todirectscientifically to provide marketable skills,apointofview that ofthecentury,Blacks attheturn educationhad they (Manning,1983; faced Winston, 1971).For out ofhisown bitterrecognition ofthereality students frompursuingcareersinsciencegrew ence. Er w obscurity the pragmaticBlack decideditw roles Blackswere to play in American society, made byUnder therules the Whites concerning while aBlack clientele. restrictedtoserving ear urner, thelesson was clear:Even thosewith w onder thatsofe , onecouldf , andtheexclusion from thecommunityof To thiscanbeaddedJimCrow laws Under suchhistoricalconditions,itisno nest Just’s motive indiscouraginghis . v , thesescientistslanguishedin el of education and degrees from el ofeducationanddegrees gnition andrespectbef ind jobsandprosper w Blackschosetostudysci as bettertobe , albeit itting - The Journal of Technology Studies 91 - x . as making xpecta m of track- riculum motivation xpress a desire wn cur and . The evidence is just The evidence . mation that w ocational education . Given the historical con- . Given fect, in the for m, and teacher e interest orld into a more comple atered-do lem, as in the past, remains at hile American industry was hile payoff opportunity or ears ago, v The prob ming the w riculum refor reward Eighty y of the past, parents, edu- break the hold To Yet, below the surface a different image can the surface a different below Yet, e courses in the sciences or e ved to perpetuateved Black social and economic ser locking a generation of Blacks into inferiority, Black chil- Today, jobs. low-status low-paying, schools in an dren are bused to excellent attempt to equalize educational opportunity. are the bus and in the school, they once off Yet from away or intimidated counseled, tracked, academic courses into less rigorous curricula. the typical student at At the turn century, of the learned simple trades and Tuskegee Hampton or domestic skills w going through a transfor and scientifically sophisticated arena (Bechtel, 1989). forward need to move cators, and policymakers tions. the typical Black Today, such skills obsolete. student studies a w math and science courses of higher level devoid age that is in a computer are living we while transfor Historical evidence shows that Blacks in that Blacks shows evidence Historical in and motivation a strong interest America had desire continues This an education. for getting educa- Blacks seek higher numbers of as large is tion. Second for no payoff there was ditions, for most Blacks the picture appears Today, getting an education. found in all profes- as Blacks are more positive (Betchtel, of achievement sions and at all levels 1989). be seen. Less than 2% of all doctoral scientists Black students America are Black, and few in tak complete those who to pursue such careers. For graduate school, the door to a science career is opened. of basic educational opportunity and the level White its desegregated America has experience. as schools and has renounced its past practices and mean-spirited. But those counterproductive practices remain, in ef ing, cur as clear that Blacks were denied the opportunity Blacks were as clear that and extralegal legal by for a quality education advantage to take are able Blacks Today, means. of the bar- of educational opportunities as many third, And been removed. riers of the past have is the identified. are First - ly - as y edu ed v xamine utions of those White society has often le castes within an ostensib The rare Black scientist w gnize the contrib rent educational policies directed t of the policies that depri y. And while a few (such as a few while And y. ere of superior quality and impor y is more than description and expla- wn because for Separate, unequal, and discriminator Specific supports this argument. evidence The Black scientist is both rare and rela- Histor ard to cur g ere withheld. refused to reco the obstacles placed before to overcome able them. In part, the Black this failure to recognize inferi- scientist stems from beliefs about Black would these individuals acknowledge To ority. of those beliefs be to demonstrate the fallacy and the ef Blacks of equal and quality education. Edwards (1959), in a survey of 300 Black pro- of 300 Black in a survey (1959), Edwards the respondents found that half of fessionals, other consideration to careers serious had given expressed had. Many presently than the one they a primary archi- interest in becoming engineers, buttects, or research scientists felt that Blacks occupa- in these could not earn a decent living a physicist respondents, tions. One of Edwards’s to enter had wanted as a teacher, working now the field changed his mind of engineering. He it became clear that despite his ranking when who White classmates near the top of the class, jobs as student him could get far below were laboratory he could not. technicians while rare because of an educational unknown: tively that produced laborers not scholars, philosophy and unkno an employed teacher or lawyer than an under- than an lawyer teacher or an employed scientist. employed cational policies served to keep a generation of cational policies served to keep and politically, Blacks at the bottom socially, economicall to break able Bouchet, Just, and Julian) were through and acquire a quality education, being Black meant that in most instances the rewards w faced with a lack of research facilities, funds, any that by for achievements and recognition standard w the historical conditions, one can tance. Given treated in Black scientists were understand why But to understand is not to justi- such a manner. Educational policies served to suppress and fy. America, demoralize generations of Blacks in creating discredib open society. has the past taught with What the present. re nation; one can often use the past to e toward Blacks? Several major themes can be major Blacks? Several toward
The Journal of Technology Studies 92 Tennessee StateUniversity, Johnson City. professor intheDepartmentofHistoryatEast Chapter ofEpsilonPi Tau. Johnson City. HeisamemberofGammaZeta Geomatics atEast Tennessee StateUniversity, and ChairoftheDepartment Technology and students in America. careersofBlack continue toderailthescientific that and addresstheeducationaldeficiencies Kusmer, K.(1991). Bond, H.M.(1934). Ballard Haber, L.(1970). Greer, andthepublic Negroes, schools.InM.B. C.(1973).Immigrants, Katz(Ed.), F Employment andEarnings R.(1969). Cruden, Bra Beale, H.K.(1975). Baker, H.E.(1969). References Klein, Julian, P. InS.L. L.(1969).Onbeingscientist,humanist,andNegro. Wormley &L.H.Fenderson Harlan, L.R.(1968). Funke, L.(1920). ineducation. The Negro Franklin, J. H., A. A. Moss,Jr. (2000). Edwards, F. G.(1959). DuBois, W. E.B. (1973). Bechtel, H.K.(1989). razier wle Elwood D. Watson, Ph.D. isanassociate Dr. Keith V. 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Articles Undergraduate Engineering and Psychology Students’ 94 Use of a Course Management System: A Factorial Invariance Study of User Characteristics and Attitudes Stephen A. Sivo and Cheng-Chang “Sam” Pan
Implementing information systems (IS) is plemental course tool/solution. In the present
echnology Studies expensive and sometimes unsuccessful due to study, WebCT is conceptualized as an informa- low levels of system user acceptance (Legris, tion system project and it is also considered a Ingham, & Collerette, 2003). For this reason, IS course management system. nal of T research has focused, in part, on variables con- tributing to system user acceptance of technolo- Understanding student attitudes towards
The Jour gy. As a part of this effort, Davis (1989) theo- course management systems is important to rized and tested the technology acceptance study as student acceptance of this technology model (TAM) to describe how system user char- may conceivably have an impact on student use acteristics influence patterns in technology use. of the system in the completion of course Since then, the TAM has survived empirical requirements and therefore student grades. scrutiny in varied contexts (e.g., Davis, 1993; Indeed, research focused on how well psycholo- Lee, 2002; Legris et al., 2003; Pan, 2003; Pan, gy students respond to the use of WebCT in a Gunter, Sivo, & Cornell, in press; Pan, Sivo, & Web-enhanced classroom has suggested that stu- Brophy, 2003; Venkatech, 2000; Wiedenbeck & dent grades are affected to some extent by stu- Davis, 1997). The viability of the TAM has dent attitudes towards WebCT (Pan et al., 2003; encouraged a continued investigation of its Sivo, Pan, & Brophy, 2004). However, evidence applicability as well as revisions and extensions. of whether the relationships among factors Many modifications considered have in com- involved in psychology student attitudes towards mon a focus on client side variables exogenous a course management system generalize to stu- to the original model (e.g., Anandarajan, dents of other majors has yet to be demonstrated. Igbaria, & Anakwe, 2000; Legris et al., 2003; The assumption that student attitudes and related Venkatech, 2000; Wiedenbeck & Davis, 1997; constructs are similar regardless of program Wolski & Jackson, 1999). major needs to be empirically evaluated because students in different majors arguably vary with With respect to IS implementation in insti- respect to technological familiarity and expertise. tutions of higher education, colleges and univer- The Essential TAM sities in the state of Florida and elsewhere are increasingly relying on the use of course man- The TAM was designed to be a useful agement systems such as WebCT for the pur- explanation of why people vary with respect to pose of delivery of online courses. As a vendor’s their success in using technology (Davis, 1989). commercial product, WebCT is a Web-based According to Davis (1989), client side elements course management system developed by the of this model include perceptions of a technolo- University of British Columbia (Goldberg, gy’s usefulness, perceptions of a technology’s 1997). WebCT, a sophisticated learning manage- ease of use, and attitudes toward the use of tech- ment system, itself provides several features and nology. The essential TAM proposes that these functions that afford learning and teaching in a three variables work together to impact the actu- system-based environment by serving as a sup- al use of technology in a given setting.
Figure 1. Original technology acceptance model The Journal of Technology Studies 95 AM T , within the el courses are v y-le o entr ut to also contrast the es es es es 2 No No Y Ye s Y Ye s Ye s Y Ye s Ye s Y o large-sized, Web-enhanced, o large-sized, owerPoint files) owerPoint xpanding the original TAM by adding by TAM xpanding the original gy course, b Yes (instructor) Yes es (501 postings) Y Engineering Class es (P Y xt of postsecondary students are, education, Pan et al. (2003) successfully replicated the et al. (2003) successfully Pan ell, shaped by their instructors. Indeed, the their instructors. Indeed, by ell, shaped velopmentally, typical undergraduate students velopmentally, ebCT) in tw in the U.S. ages 18 to 22 are very susceptible to 22 are very ages 18 to susceptible U.S. in the and (Erikson, 1968) peer influence De model results with results obtained from students model results with results obtained from stu- affecting in an engineering course. Factors (i.e., dent use of a course management system W investigated. undergraduate courses was hybrid (i.e., Other than the fundamental difference course content), the tw 1. Table compared and contrasted in subjective norms to computer self- in addition subjective conducted using were These studies efficacy. One of the students in a course on psychology. primary purposes to not two of this study was in another replicate this study with students only psycholo TAM by identifying a causal relationship exist- identifying a causal by TAM ing among students’ ease of use of perceived their WebCT, usefulness of perceived WebCT, and their actual use of WebCT, attitude toward suc- also They system. the course management ceeded in e conte as w norms as a psy- subjective of perceived inclusion to the essential factorexogenous chological continues to be a germane feature worthy TAM et al., 2000; Anandarajan of consideration (e.g., 2000). & Davis, Venkatech et al., 2003; Pan es es es es 2 No Ye s Ye s Ye s Ye s Y Y Y Ye s Ye s Y Yes (TAs) Yes es (discussion) es (185 postings) Y Psychology Class Psychology get Population by Characteristics Y ar gical aspects of the xpectations are a prominent us ebCT WWW search W mative influences (i.e., social pressure) influences mative gy acceptance is assessed. s actual use (see Figure 1; Davis, 1993). 1993). 1; Davis, (see Figure s actual use ically, a technology’s perceived usefulness perceived a technology’s ically, ebCT syllab ebCT calendar This transition in focus from system design Previous structural modeling equation Previous Required eCommunity use Notes in Discussion forum Content modules Online chatroom Online grade Online quizzes W W WebCT mail WebCT xtbook use e wards the technology, which, in turn, affects a in turn, which, affects technology, the wards hich also focus on psycholo enkatech, 2000; Wiedenbeck & Davis, 1997; & Davis, Wiedenbeck enkatech, 2000; WebCT tool uses: WebCT Teaching assistants used Teaching Extra credit offered T Office hours (primary) Characteristics able 1: Comparison of T aculty and peer e at work particularly given the context in which the context given particularly at work technolo variables to psychological variables is consistent variables to psychological variables the model, in with the nature of other variables w and Jackson Wolski example, For system user. (1999) found that within educational institutions, f combined force in determining technology surprisingacceptance. It is not altogether to find such nor Wolski & Jackson, 1999). Wolski and ease of use jointly influence one’s attitude one’s influence jointly of use and ease to system’ supporting furnishedresearch has the evidence parsimonious rep- is a TAM conclusion that the and attitudes perceptions resentation of how use (Bajaj & Nidumolu, actual system affect 1999; Tam, Yan Sheng, & 1998; Hu, Chau, Liu 1997; & Cavaye, Igbaria, Zinatelli, Cragg, 1994). However, Mathieson, 1991; Subramanian, entertained increasingly researchers have several with system design features that exchange TAMs (Anandarajan et al., system user characteristics et al., 2003; 2000; Legris et al., 2003; Pan V Specif T
The Journal of Technology Studies 96 1 to ha Figur uated. Itispossib in engineeringandpsychology needstobeeval- isthesameforstudents tionships amongfactors The assumptionthattheconf psychology studentsastoengineeringstudents. whetherdetermine thismodelisasapplicable to dent willregard thetechnology asuseful. gy tobeeasyuse,themorestrongly thatstu- the morestrongly astudentperceives atechnolo- the usefulnessoftechnology. Inotherwords, toaffect perceptionsregarding use isspecified user perceptionofhow easy atechnology isto def areconsistent with theoriginal TAMfications to jointly affect studentattitudes,asthesespeci- tions ofusefulnessandeaseusearespecif tude. Inadditiontosubjective percep- norms, sors w oretically socialpressurefrompeersandprofes- tem use(i.e.,theoftechnology) becausethe- subjecti exogenous psychological variable, inthiscase ic students attheendofsemester study by providing they assignedto thegrades whothe engineering courseinstructors supported ofthepsychologyed withthepermission and end ofthecoursegrade. This studywas conduct- asastudent’s operationallyformance, defined the impactofstudentattitudesonacademicper- attitudes towards systemuseand, secondarily, cholo with technology. Though somestudentsofpsy- more homogenous withrespect totheircomfort technolo theapplication of which heart hasatitsvery Initiall T ined by Davis (1985).For thesamereason, AM f v The secondpur This modelallows adirect pathfromthe The outcomeofinterestinthiscasewas e anequal numberofthe par gy arelik e 2.Theacademictechnologyacceptancemodel ould ha y , 237studentsof theengineeringclassfull v gy, draws are studentswho, asagroup, e nor itted tothedataisspecif v ms, tostudentattitude el e adirectef y tobecomfor le thatthef pose ofthisstudyw fect onstudentatti ield ofengineering, iguration ofrela ticipants inbothclasses, 230w table withtech- ied inF . The academ- . The w as to ards sys- igure 2. ied - - y par ticipated inthestudy technolo items assessingsystemuserattitudestoward WebCT formy coursework.” five Furthermore, included was used. A samplequestion intheinstrument scale that Wolski andJackson (1999)developed Measur ( both psychology ( Participants Method online questionnaireattw enhanced course.Eachstudentcompletedan in co question answered inthisstudywas: Isthe acrossthetwostructure groups. The research ofcomparingthecovariancedata forthepurpose toengineeringandpsychology student was fitted their peersinengineering. The academic TAM respect totechnological levels comfort relative to students inthismajoraremorevariable with nology, itisnotunreasonable tosupposethat university’s InstitutionalReview Board. professors teachingthecoursesevaluated andthe w this studyattheUniversity ofCentralFlorida spring semesterof2003.P engineering studentdata? reliable (see Table 2). adapted scalesw was than.6,whichfactor greater suggestedthat testing indicatedthatthealpha v all morepositive attitude.Results ofreliability scores ontheattitudinalscale suggestedanover- course w “All thingsconsidered, my using WebCT inmy 1993). was,A samplequestionintheinstrument n as provided by theengineeringandpsychology v variance oftheacademic structure TAM = 230)classesusing WebCT fora Web- ariant (thesame)acrossthepsycholo To measuresubjective afour-item norms, This studyincluded460studentsin ere randoml es , “Theinstr gy w ork is:ne ere obtainedfromDa . Inorder y selected. ere deemed n g ati uctor thinksthatIshoulduse = 230)andengineering v e orpositi o occasionsinthe er mission toconduct alue foreach ve?” Higher vis (1989, gy and 1 The Journal of Technology Studies 97 ere housed in a . er v ere given a week to finish a week each ere given αα .93 .60 .91 .94 ord-protected ser w ticipants w pass questionnaire on a voluntary basis. Data sets from both time occasions w each administration, a friendly reminder (pre- each administration, a friendly sure intend- sent via e-mail to make notice) was informeded participants of the incoming were also feature was Tip WebCT’s questionnaire. Additionally, used for announcement making. teaching assistants of the course made an time announcement in front of the class every being administrated. Student was the survey par ert scale) . t scale) er ebCT for my course work. ebCT for my 4 6 6 5 W ere created ould be clear # of items eeks before (on a 7-point bipolar semantics scale) (on a 7-point bipolar (on a 7-point Lik (on a 7-point Likert scale) o w w (on a 7-point Lik ebCT w T o time occasions: at W Favorable. WebCT would be easy for me. would WebCT ebCT easy to use. Positive. ↔ Beneficial. W as used. ould do what my peers think I should. my ould do what Wise. ↔ ↔ ind Good. ↔ ebCT would make it easier to do my course work. it easier to do my make ebCT would W ↔ ning to use erall, I w ould find WebCT to be flexible to interact with. to be flexible ould findWebCT ould f ward WebCT ward All things considered, my using WebCT in my course work is: work course in my WebCT using my All things considered, o online questionnaires w e Norms Instrument 5. It would be easy for me to become skillful at using WebCT. be easy for me to become skillful at using 5. It would 6. I w 4. I w 2. I would find it easy to get WebCT to do what I want it to do. I want to do what findWebCT 2. I would it easy to get 3. My interaction with 6. I would find WebCT useful in my course work. useful in my findWebCT 6. I would 3. Generally speaking, I would do what my instructor thinks I should do. my do what speaking, I would 3. Generally 4. Ov me to accomplish tasks more quickly. enable class would in my WebCT 1. Using job performance. my improve would WebCT 2. Using productivity. my increase class would in my WebCT 3. Using course work. in my effectiveness enhance my would WebCT 4. Using 5. Using 1. Lear 1. The instructor thinks that I should use WebCT for my course work. for my WebCT The instructor thinks that I should use 1. 2. My peers think that I should use 2. Foolish 2. Foolish 4. Harmful 5. Negative 5. Negative 1. Bad 3. Unfavorable 3. Unfavorable med consent w Using Dreamweaver 4, Coldfusion, and MS Using Dreamweaver These results, while favorable, must be favorable, These results, while erceived Ease of Use Instrument erceived erceived usefulness erceived P Perceived Ease of Use Instrument Perceived Subjectiv Attitude Toward WebCT Instrument WebCT Attitude Toward Question: P ease of use Perceived Attitude to norms Subjective Scale and administered across tw Access, tw Student and end of the semester. the beginning infor Data Collection and Analysis Procedures Data Collection and treated with some degree of caution given that treated with some degree of caution given be the errors items may associated with linked the reliabili- correlated overestimate and thereby 2002). For ty estimates (Gessaroli & Folske, 3. Table more details, see Table 3: Instruments Table Table 2: Reliability Testing of the Scales of the Testing 2: Reliability Table
The Journal of Technology Studies 98 toward technology; SN=subjective norms. Note: Table 4:CovariancesandMeansofthePsychologyStudents incremental fit indicesthat indicatehow much incremental fit SEM research. The CFIandNNFIareboth is astand-aloneinde chosen becauseoftheirrelati residual estimate(SRMR). (NNFI), andthestandardizedrootmeansquare index fit index (CFI),non-normed parative fit e be withinproperbounds. should collinearities, and(c)thestandarderrors the maximumlik this inmind, threecriteriawere investigated: (a) oftheirpropriety,terms andparsimony. fit, With analysis.further The resultswere evaluated in copy ofdatawas toLISRELfor imported final Then, the forfiltering. Notepad asatext file dents understudy. The datawere to imported assignedtothestu- coursegrades to usthefinal and psychology professorsaccordingly provided inMS secured server Access. The engineering used thecomputerformorethanfouryears. were novice WebCT users.Morethan70%had ticipants and68.44%were freshman;68.44% students accountedfor55.44%ofthestudypar- analysis.considered forfurther Overall, female the questionnaireatbothoccasionswere not Responses ofstudentswho tocomplete failed classes were 51.7%and30.4%,respectively. occasions) forbothpsychology andengineering inite, withnone mated covariance matrixshouldbepositive def- models,(b)theesti- verge forproperly fitting xamined: thegoodnessoff Means SN Grades AT PEU PU Specifically, indiceswere thefollowing fit We downloaded thedatasetsfromhigh- The overall responserates(acrossthetwo PU =perceived usefulness;PEU=perceived easeofuse; AT =attitude 32.47 10.08 18.47 34.40 53.11 g 0.11 elihood estimatorshouldcon PU ative eigenvalues andno x that has a long history in x thathasalonghistory These indicesw it inde 35.11 10.11 10.54 54.26 -0.09 v PEU e merits. x (GFI),com The GFI 30.00 23.88 4.39 0.45 A ere T - - than .05. SRMR was expected toattainvalues nohigher well.model was tobedeemedasfitting The and NNFIwere allexpected toexceed .95ifthe The GFI,CFI, Monte Carlosimulationfindings. were theresultofHuandBentler’s (1999) off thecutoff criteria.Inpart, criteriachosen equation modelingisnotwithoutstandardcut- tions (Hu&Bentler, 1999). latent-latent variable relationshipmisspecifica- Bentler, 1999). The SRMRismoresensitive to (Hu& ables relationshipmisspecifications between latentandmanifestvari- specification model. These indicesaremoresensitive tomis- ofamodelimprovesthe fit uponnestednull is very good. is very assumingtheseconstraints mines whether thefit ters ofbothco analysis usingLISRELconstrainstheparame- was conductedusingLISREL. The multisample neering studentdata? T Results andDiscussion study arepresentedin g the model. to precludeacomparab ferences w this anal ties arerecognizable aswell. of The purpose appear tobesomewhat dissimilar, similari- but Gr -0.03 AM thesameacrosspsychology andengi- ross inspection,theco 4.78 0.33 ades An assessment of adequate fit instructural An assessmentofadequatefit The co Is thecovariance oftheacademic structure ysis w ere of a sufficiently largeere ofasufficiently magnitude v ariances andmeansanal 22.06 13.64 variances tobeequalanddeter- as todeter SN A multisampleanal T le fit withrespectto le fit v ab ariances andmeans mine whether thedif- les 4and5.Upon yzed inthis ysis The Journal of Technology Studies 99 gy AM, perhaps T le, though perceptions as statistically as statistically roup, though small ere viab rades w SN hether students are in psycholo 16.32 20.39 ied w .04%). This result suggests that .04%). < 2 r icant for either g Both figures represent the configuration of ardless of w g 0.44 0.14 4.78 fect student grades may not be needed. With not be needed. fect student grades may Grades re WebCT or engineering, their attitudes towards a minor role in their final only plays grade. Although this result is not reassuring for this that institu- aspect of the model, it does imply student attitudes may tional concernsabout how af respect to utility of the academic other than course grades outcome(s) variables relationships estimated for each group. A review relationships estimated for each group. of the parameters suggested that most of the paths specif is to use had a negligible WebCT easy of how for WebCT on attitudes toward direct effect students; either groups for psychology (-.08 -.04, for engineering students). Furthermore, on WebCT of student attitudes towards the effect student course g signif (.02 < = 0.58) 6 p AT 1.01 0.99 1.00 0.74 0.021 Value y 36.03 11.96 27.23 y paths er 4.75 ( as v 0.67 PEU 54.54 15.61 14.88 34.06 ) gy students w df x (GFI) eights) suggests man PU 0.67 roups. 18.60 29.02 57.93 29.66 30.52 it inde Fit Index ression w g PU = perceived usefulness; PEU = perceived ease of use; AT = attitude AT of use; ease PEU = perceived usefulness; PU = perceived The maximum likelihood procedure con- The maximum likelihood The GFI, CFI, and NNFI all exceeded .95, The GFI, CFI, and NNFI all exceeded of the standardized path coeffi- A review le for both g Means Grades SN AT PU PEU Standardized RMR (SRMR) Comparative fitComparative (CFI) index Non-normed fit (NNFI) index Minimum fit function chi-square Goodness of f Degrees ( of freedom ere exceeded, suggesting a magnificent fit.ere exceeded, verged to a proper solution in five to a proper solution in iterations. verged in the The results suggest that the covariance responses of psycholo notable however, indeed similar in value; were (see could be observed as well differences 3 and 4). Figures much like the covariance in the responses of the in the covariance much like All of the fitengineering students. indices con- sulted suggested both models fit and equiv- well 6). Table (see alently All fit less than .05. criteria and the SRMR was w These results suggest that the same model is viab cients (re Table 5: Covariances and Means of the Engineering Students Engineering of the Means and 5: Covariances Table Table 6: Results for the Goodness of Fit Indices Table Note: norms. SN = subjective technology; toward
The Journal of Technology Studies 100 Figure 4.Engineering student data Figur ef than forpsychology students.For instance,the nor sure andprofessorialexpectations (subjective v path modelsarejuxtaposedin acrossthetwo coefficients paths, corresponding a exploitation ofthetechnological resourcesmade attitudesaffect their Just how muchdostudents’ nology useorthedurationoftechnology use. should beconsideredsuchasfrequenc psycholo forengineeringstudents(_=.50)than greater of how easy WebCT istousewas notably the psychology professortoexert hisinfluence fore having relatively than more opportunities hoursprimarily byhis office himselfandthere- due totheengineeringprofessor tendingtohold werecoefficients smaller. These resultsmay be cholo tudes to tive influenced engineeringstudentatti- norms psychology students(_=.16).Similarly, subjec- a coursemanagementsystem(_=.45)thanfor dents onperceptionsofhow useful WebCT isas also hadastrongerimpactforengineeringstu- vailable tothemandatwhat price? ariab fect ofsubjecti ms) were strongerforengineeringstudents To comparisonofthese afurther facilitate A comparisonofthedif gy studentattitudes(_=.07), although the e 3.Psychologystudentdata les revealed thattheinfluence ofpeerpres- w gy students(_=.37).Subjecti ards WebCT (_=.15)morethanpsy- v e norms onstudentperceptions e norms ferential ef T ab le 7. y oftech v fects of e nor ms - this studyma class was of notnoticeably high,thesignificance Though theresponserateof engineering of suchtechnolo disciplines, which may mediatetheacceptance about thesystememployed fromtwo different perception lar settingswithinsightsinto users’ of Uni ofbettersuitingthewidevariety for thepurpose tional paradigmtotailorcustomizedinstr alternative educational mediumandanontradi- the University ofCentralFloridainoffering an effects. exist inthestrengthofcertain groups psychology students,differences inthetwo same pathmodelisviable forengineeringand Overall, theseresultssuggest thatalthoughthe to theircoursework (and thenfavored WebCT). easy tousebeforethe tem, w more lik instructor, thepsychology studentsbehaved limited socialinfluence(orpressure)by the .30). .58) thanengineeringstudentperceptions(_= on theirperceptionsofho how easy WebCT istousehadastrongereffect Conversely, psychology studentperceptionsof dent attitudetoward the technology use. in studentperceptionofthe The ultimategoalofthisstudywas toassist These resultsma v here they believed that WebCT hadtobe ersity ofCentralFloridastudents. e re gular endusersofatechnology sys- y pro gy. vide administratorsfromsimi y star y beduebecauseofthe w useful WebCT is(_= ted tofeelitisuseful W ebCT useandstu uction - - The Journal of Technology Studies 101 .18 .45 .50 .15 .30 .60 -.04 Engineering Dr. Cheng-Chang “Sam” Pan is an Pan “Sam” Cheng-Chang Dr. Dr. Stephen A. Sivo is an associate A. Sivo is an Stephen Dr. essor/educational psychologist in essor/educational psychologist of dized Paths (_s) dized Paths assistant professor in the Educational in assistant professor Curriculum and Instruction Technology, at Texas of Department at the University Brownsville. the Department of Educational Research, at the University and Leadership Technology Florida, Orlando. of Central pr - - Standar .55 .16 .16 .37 .07 .58 -.08 Psychology WebCT This research → rades. Perceived Attitudes Attitudes → → Perceived Perceived Perceived Perceived → Attitudes le to engineering students as → → → ards technology is not the ards technology ond course g w y ys be a elop our understanding of some of the v ards WebCT use ards WebCT action, then these results suggest that inter These results suggest that the academic w wards WebCT use WebCT wards erceived ease of use erceived towards WebCT use WebCT towards ease of use usefulness Attitudes towards WebCT use WebCT Attitudes towards Course grades Perceived usefulness Perceived P Perceived ease of use Perceived Subjective norms Subjective norms Subjective Subjective norms Subjective to to usefulness rammatic strategies might be considered are not rammatic strategies AM is as applicab it is to psychology students with respect to students with respect it is to psychology as a course management system, WebCT profes- although perceptions of peer pressure and role for a more prominent play sor expectations engineering students and perceptions of ease of use has a greater impact on psychology to buildstudents. If it is the goal of an institution student acceptance of a course management sys tem, if for no other reason than to secure student satisf the course sequence stu- by should vary ventions Programmatically, dents are designated to take. strength of this is useful because the relative in determining stu- relationships at play variable dent attitudes to same. Specific pro- recommendations of what g at this point, though this study does fur- possible ther de dynamics. It is important to note that interven- tions designed to increase student attitudes a should consider how technology towards benefitchange in attitude would students in aca- demic w only technology suggests that attitudes towards final a minor role in affecting play grades. T Table 6: Academic TAM Path Values for Psychology Psychology for Values Path TAM 6: Academic Table Students Engineering and
The Journal of Technology Studies 102 Davis, F. D. technology: (1993).Useracceptanceofinformation Systemcharacteristics, user Davis, F. D. (1985). Anandarajan, M.,Igbaria,& References Pan, C.,Gunter, G.,Sivo, management R.(inpress).End-useracceptanceofalearning S.,&Cornell, Mathieson, K.(1991).Predictinguserintentions:Comparingthetechnology acceptancemodel Lee, C.(2002). Hu, L.,&Bentler Goldberg, M. W. (1997).Usinga Web-based course-authoringtooltodevelop sophisticated Gessaroli, M.E.,&Folske, J. C.(2002).Generalizingthereliabilityoftestscomprisedtestlets. Davis, F. D. (1989).Perceived usefulness,perceived easeofuse,anduseracceptanceinformation Bajaj, A., &Nidumolu,S.R.(1998). systemexchange. A feedbackmodeltounderstandinformation Venkatech, V. ofperceived (2000).Determinants control,intrinsic motivation, easeofuse:Integrating Subramanian, G.H.(1994). A replicationofperceived usefulnessandperceived easeofuse Sivo, S. A., Pan, C.,&Brophy, J. (2004). Temporal cross-laggedeffects between subjective norms Pan, C.,Sivo, S. attitudeina A., &Brophy,Web-enhanced hybrid J. course: (2003).Students’ P Le Igbaria, M.,Zinatelli,P Hu, P Erikson, E.H.(1968). an, C.(2003). gris, P.,gris, Ingham,J., &Collerette,P. (2003). Why technology? dopeopleuseinformation A critical perceptions, andbehavioral impacts. A perspecti 41 system intw per ofplannedbehavior.with thetheory W acceptance modelusingph Cliffs, NJ:Educational Technology Publications. Web-based courses.InB. H.Khan(Ed.), International Journal of Testing, 2 technology. Technology, Cambridge. Information andManagement, 33 298-312. 342-365. and emotionintothetechnology acceptancemodel. measurement. Libr and systemuserattitudesregarding theuseoftechnology. A str T review ofthetechnology acceptancemodel. in smallf Management Information Systems,16 Conventional criteriaversus new alternatives. systems: Theory andresults . J ec eb-based cour (2), 181-194. ., Chau,P spective hnolo ary Sciences,42 uctural equationmodelinginquiry. gy Systems. gy ir ms: . ve fromalessdeveloped country. System useof The impact of self-efficacy andtaskvalueonsatisfactionperformanceThe impactofself-efficacy ina MIS Quarterly, 13, . Unpub o hybrid courses. undergraduate large-sized introductory , P Y. K.,LiuSheng,O. R.,& Yan Tam, K.(1999).Examiningthetechnology Decision Sciences,25 A str . M.(1999).Cutcriteriaforf A technology acceptancemodelfor empirically testingnew end-userinformation se . Unpub Identity: Youth andcrisis ., Cragg,P lished doctoraldisser uctural equationmodel. (1), 63-73. WebCT inthelightoftechnology acceptancemodel: A student lished doctoraldisser ysician acceptanceoftelemedicinetechnolo . UnpublishedMassachusettsInstituteof doctoraldissertation, Anakwe, U. (2000). Technology acceptanceinthebankingindustry: ., &Ca 319-340. , 213-224. , 277-296. v (5/6), 863-874. Information SystemsResearch, 2 International Journal ofMan-Machine Studies,38 a (2), 91-112. ye, A. (1997).Personal computingacceptancefactors J tation, University ofCentral Florida,Orlando. ournal ofEducationalMediaandLibrary Sciences, Web-based instruction . New York: Norton. Information &Management, 40 MIS Quarter it inde Inf Structural EquationModeling, 6 tation, Uni ormation Technology andPeople, 13 x Information SystemsResearch, 11 es inco l v y Journal ofEducationalMediaand , 3 ersity ofCentralFlorida,Orlanda. variance analysis: structure , 279-302. (pp. 307-312).Englewood (3), 173-191. J ournal ofEducational gy . J ournal of , 191-204. (1), 1-55. (4), (4), , 475-487. The Journal of Technology Studies 103 , (2), 186-204. Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 46 Human-Computer of Journal aper presented at the 10th conference of the Society aper presented at the . P Technological diffusion within educational institutions: within educational institutions: diffusion Technological Management Science, 46 Science, Management ying the technology acceptance model ying the technology perceptions of software packages. International packages. of software perceptions 563-588. Appl Texas. Antonio, San Education, Teacher & Technology for Information Four longitudinal fieldlongitudinal Four studies. iedenbeck, S., & Davis, S. (1997). The influence of interaction style and experience on user style and experience of interaction The influence S. (1997). S., & Davis, iedenbeck, W February). & Jackson, S. (1999, S., Wolski, Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. (2000). A theoretical extension of the technology acceptance model: model: acceptance technology of the extension A theoretical (2000). D. F. & Davis, V., Venkatesh,
The Journal of Technology Studies 104 Davis, L.J. (2003). E.(2004). Cornish, B.Cathcart, (2004). Books BrieflyNoted better decisions,de stunning successes andforgotten failures. Among them areBenjaminFranklin, whose kitefirst narrative, science writer L.J.In thisentertaining Davis introduces ustothemenbehind boththe in simplif explains how thesenew methodsarebeingusedandhow you toocanusemany ofthesemethods so thatleadersingovernment andrisks ahead.Cornish canprepareforopportunities andbusiness think-tank scholarsnow have agrowing numberofways aboutthefuture tothinkscientifically clear, readable style, essenceoftheuniverse: gentlemenscientiststothevery ofmatter.that ledthelasttrue theheart Brian Cathcart’s lucid, learned, high-voltage narrative isinspiredby thedreamsandendeavor tion, acastofNobelprize-winners,few silly experiments and somerevolutionary physics, experiment ofitstime.Involving competi- – themostcelebratedscientific intenseinternational ph plasticine, they changedeverything. guidance. And, withpaper-and-pencil calculations,hand-madeapparatusandtheoddlumpof basementroomattheCavendishgrubby inCambridge,cameunderRutherford’s Laboratory Then, justatthepointofdespair, JohnCockcroftandErnest Walton, two young researchersina tamed experimentally andnoexperiment seemedfeasible sinceitguardeditssecretssofiercely. dissect itandilluminateitsmystery. glimpse. Incapable ofstoppingthere,heachedtoknow more–tocatchthefly, examine it, its existence was LordRutherford’s achievement even but scientific hecaughtonly greatest a no biggerthanafly. is hollow, massconcentratedinatiny itstrue corewhich, iftheatomwere acathedral,itwould be (Not available inUS). the race tosplittheatom century andcontinues tothisday,century changedourworld forever. New York, NY: Arcade Publishing. ISBN:1-55970-655-4,$27.95. the future.Readerswilllear progress inthe20thcentury, andrecentdevelopments inthinkingcreatively andpractically about including thedevelopment oftheideaprogress inthe17thcentury, thedisillusionmentwith powerful toolforachieving abetterfuture. of the World FutureSocietyandeditorof ISBN: 0-930242-57-2,$29.95(Hardcover). to seizeemer a bettertomor of thetechniquesusedb tool foran ysicists, Futuring Futuring Recreating thefr For atimeallefforts tocrackitopenwere was stalled.Notheory possible untilitcouldbe agonoonecoulddescribetheatomicnucleus.Discovering ofacentury Three quarters The bookinyour handismostly emptyspace.Eachofthebillionsatomsthatmake itup The electricrevolution, which eclipsed theIndustrialRevolution by theendofnineteenth This comprehensive guide tothestudyoffuture,writtenby Edward president Cornish, Cor nish describesspecif ied but useful forms. useful forms. ied but y The Fl one interestedinthefuture. ging opportunities andavoidging opportunities problems. unnecessary also e is anauthoritati row. Fleet fire: Thomas Edisonandthepioneers oftheelectronic revolution Futuring: The exploration ofthefuture The fly inthecathedral: How asmallgroup ofCambridge scientistswon y intheCathedr v xplains ho elop worthwhile goals, and find themeanstoachieveelop worthwhile them. goals,andfind Futuring srtos xieet n besoso 92 h mrceya’ofBritish ustrations, excitements and obsessionsof1932,the‘miracleyear’ y futurists,andtherolethatforward-looking peoplecanplay increating . London,UK: Viking Press.ISBN:0-670-88321-2,CAN$34.00 n ho ic methodsforanticipatingfutureevents sothatreaderscanprepare v w seriousthinkingaboutthefuturehaschangedthrough y explains what we know aboutthefutureandwhat we can’t, some e introductiontoscientif w f al ar re -sighted b v eals theastonishingstor The Futurist usiness trendw . Bethesda,MD: World FutureSociety. magazine, isanessentialandindispensable ic thinkingaboutthefuture. Fleet Fire atchers, militar y behindthesplittingofatom Futuring tells ushow itallbegan. can helpreadersmak y planners,and Futuring Written ina . is a ears, e The Journal of Technology Studies 105 . w branch . ebsite ying w e study of 48 ne v ersity Press and Kalamazoo, v xtensi shines a bright new light on shines a bright new The accompan actories in adopting high performance : Oxford Uni Fleet Fire t-up f Start-up factories: High-performance Start-up factories: High-performance . NY ears. Based on an e Technology, food safety and the environment safety food Technology, xperience of star gional advantage e hat computers can do? ts the e e medicines-but this contradiction does not seem to bother them. v , and r answers six key questions related to high performance questions related management six key answers char nati Bountiful harvest: The Cato Institute. ISBN: 1-930865-31-7, $12.95. The Cato Institute. ISBN: 1-930865-31-7, ying computational ideas more concrete. ying computational ideas more concrete. American workplace and provides criteria for evaluating certain strategies: criteria for evaluating and provides American workplace actories Talking with computers: Explorations in the Science and Technology of computing Technology in the Science and Explorations with computers: Talking w can a computer learn to recognize junk email? w can a computer learn to recognize Are there limits on w vity and job quality in the coming y ement, job quality mative years of the electric revolution, capturing one of the most creative periods of one of the most creative capturing revolution, of the electric years mative • Ho a link in a browser? click on you What happens when • things at once? a robot to do two program can you • How • g Millions of lives have been saved from malaria and typhus - two of the world's greatest the world's of from malaria and typhus - two been saved have Millions of lives has supported beings and that technology technological humans are inherently that Arguing Start-Up Factories Start-Up F Thoroughly researched and engagingly written, written, and engagingly researched Thoroughly In this lively series of essays, Tom Dean, Professor of Computer Sciences at Brown Dean, Professor Tom series of essays, In this lively language and machine touch on a wide range of topics, from digital logic The essays languages. with short readers to experiment written in several programs The author invites ields of computer science are connected. Along the way, he conveys his fascination with he conveys Along the way, ields of computer science are connected. es the underl inding and installing software, links to online resources, exercises, and sample lectures. online resources, exercises, links to inding and installing software, anic foods and alter ashington, DC: gori, T.R. (2002). gori, T.R. g killers - by DDT, a chemical that anti-technology groups in the United States managed to get a chemical that anti-technology DDT, killers - by example, toxicity-for these same groups of products with proven oppose regulation Yet banned. or about the dangers of technology. Bountiful Harvest debunks these myths is a professor of who author DeGregori, the past century, over immense human progress a resounding critique of the modern Greens, of Houston, provides economics at the University modified and critics of genetically and natural food advocates, foods. organic vegetarians, W Research. ISBN: 0-19-514747-2, $24.50. Institute for Employment Upjohn W.E. MI: labor manufacturing can improve U.S. insights into how management practices and provides producti practices in the mana 1978 operating between and Japanese parent companies – that began plants – with both U.S. best practice manufacturing companies are raising productivity how and 1990, this book explains high performance management practices. introducing innovative unit costs by and lowering experimentation and discovery, an inventive epoch unmatched in history. epoch unmatched an inventive and discovery, experimentation the for code fragments from the book, tips easy access to provides www.cs.brown.edu/~tld/talk on f ignited the spark of curiosity; Alessandro Volta, who invented the storage battery; the storage Henry, Joseph invented who Volta, Alessandro of curiosity; the spark ignited elec- the Samuel Morse, motor; the electric Davenport, Thomas electromagnet; us the gave who and phonograph Edison, the Thomas transatlantic cable; the telegraph;tromagnetic Cyrus Field, each other against raced frantically who Guglielmo Marconi, and Tesla and Nikola electric light; the revolutionized they seem simple, may retrospect these devices Though in radio. to create the redefining by concept of time our the world view we more important, the way and, work we way and space. NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0-521-54204-9, $30.00. Cambridge University NY: in computer science interesting fundamental topics AAAI, explores of and a Fellow University the various and how work programs computers and computer how with the aim of showing subf in a fieldcomputers and enthusiasm for working aspect of our has changed almost every that lives. daily considering such questions as: Web, Wide to artificialWorld and searching the intelligence Through these interactions he grounds metaphors of computer science and the models and mak Doeringer, P., Evans-Klock, C. & Terkla, D.G. (2002). D.G. Terkla, C. & Evans-Klock, P., Doeringer, Dean, T. (2004). Dean, T. DeGre
The Journal of Technology Studies 106 Gordin, M.D Fuhrman, S.H.&Elmore,R.F.Fuhrman, (2004). of Sciencessent himintoatailspinthatsa system totheRussianempire. ButhisdramaticrejectionatthehandsofRussian Academy frame scientif reputation heestablished in hisyouth, legend, while toreinvent trying himself asascientific a an advisortothe similarly brave, outtobelessinspired. that chemicalprophecy but turned noteworthy inRussia.Hisattemptstodistillapure“ether”fromthe earth’s atmospherewere When heventured intothesky asthenovice pilotofahot-airballoon,itmademeteorology the skeptical foilintheséanceshe attended, newspapers acrossSt.Petersburg paidattention. change andsensationalism. When hebattledtheemergence ofSpiritualisminRussia,playing his chemistr New York, NY: BasicBooks.ISBN:0-465-02775-x, $30.00. and pub resource forpolicymakers, educators,andanyone interestedinthepressingissueofaccountability knowledge toprovide offered andlessons learned by aninvaluable leadingscholarsinthefield design andimplementationofnew accountabilityapproaches. This bookgathers theemerging NY: Teachers College Press.ISBN:0-8077-4425-5,$45.00, ductivity gains withworkers. neously provide higherratesofgrowth productivity inbusiness sharingofthesepro- andagreater ers thatthereisasetofprinciplesabouthow managementsystemsinways torebuild thatsimulta- That thePeriodic Table predictedtheexistence ofthreeunknown elementsandbecame the Mendelee When ay examine contributors andoffer issues suchas: Expert recommendationsoncrucial Now morethanever, andtechnicalquestionsinthe policymakers anumberofdifficult face This bookdemonstratestoeconomists,laborandmanagementprofessionals,policymak- w • • • The useofmultiplemeasuresstudentachievement. • How toavoid penalizingschoolsforsocioeconomicproblems outof andotherfactors • The choiceofaccountabilitymeasuresandthelevels ofprogress toexpect. • • • The effect ofaccountabilitypoliciesontheabilityschoolstoimprove over time. • • workplaceAre thereuniqueregional characteristicsthatreinforcehighperformance tojobsofhighquality? managementpractices contribute • Dohighperformance management beingused • Is thereasingle“bestpractice”modelofhighperformance • Are therecomplementaritiesamongthesepractices? • To what extent dothenewest andtechnologically mostadvanced plants manufacturing ork formoder ic empireinhishomeofRussia,withaplaceforhimself thelimelight. lic schools. . (2004). The validity ofassessmentmeasures,includingtheusescoresforhigh-stakes decisions The signif instruction. provided capacitytouseinformation by assessmentstoimprove Building teachers’ systems. Inclusion ofstudentswithdisabilitiesandlimitedEnglishprof their control. about studentsandschools. different states. performance managementstrategies generatealargeperformance competitive advantage? How technologies thatcombinestate-of-the-art withcomprehensive canfactories high standards? by plants? top-performing managementpractices? adopt highperformance y studentsatSt.P oung DmitriiMendeleev draftedthePeriodic Table ofElementsasaguidefor v’s relationshipwiththeRussianestablishment was equally Hewas turbulent. Tsar A w icant v ell-or n chemistr , vitriolicproponentofprotectionism, andhelaterintroducedthemetric ariation inthedesignandef dered thing:DmitriiMendeleev andtheshadow oftheperiodictable etersburg University, aunified healreadyhaddreamsofbuilding y helpedMendelee Redesigning accountability systemsfor education w himspendhis latery v’ s cause;itgave for social himaplatform fect ofaccountabilitysystemsin ears cla icienc wing toholdonto the y inaccountability . . The Journal of Technology Studies 107 - i f med method . y-infor A Well-Ordered A Well-Ordered , the award-winning gicall , historian and Princeton assistant , historian fersonian ideal of small, self-suf w anthropolo . Charlottesville, VA: University University VA: . Charlottesville, . New York, NY: Routledge. NY: York, . New vocative and pioneering analysis of and pioneering analysis vocative ve. David Hakken – a leading anthropologist Hakken David ve. fers a ne gued work, Hakken outlines a fresh way of outlines a fresh way Hakken gued work, is a pro y ar A Well-Ordered Thing A Well-Ordered gy and of erfull w mation technology. riculture has outmoded the Jef The Changing Scale of American Agriculture American The Changing Scale of uses of infor gy from a humanistic perspecti People of the bomb: Portraits of America’s nuclear complex nuclear America’s of of the bomb: Portraits People y documented and po The knowledge landscapes of cyberspace The knowledge , shows how the military-industrial has built for its programs consent complex how , shows The changing scale of American agriculture scale of The changing wledge Landscapes of Cyberspace wledge entieth century, when small family farms were still viable, to the present, when a to the present, when still viable, farms small family were when entieth century, y chains in order to thrive, and these complex new organizations of large-scale produc- of large-scale organizations new and these complex y chains in order to thrive, y – so profoundly as to justify terms like “Knowledge Society”? How are knowledge Society”? How as to justify terms “Knowledge like y – so profoundly y uses and ab is a fascinating journey into the world of Imperial Russia – and into the life of one of Imperial Russia is a fascinating journey into the world wledge in cyberspace, and responds to the many aesthetic, ethical and political questions and responds to the many wledge in cyberspace, mation technolo Hart modern contends that farms orchestrated family need to become integrated into tightly This book is essential reading for anyone seeking to understand the human implications This book is essential reading for anyone dramatically much about contemporary farming, has evolved know Americans which Few The increased scale of ag The Kno In this richl This book tells the story of how – like it or not, know it or not – we have become “the people become “the have it or not – we it or not, know – like storyThis book tells the of how And yet, Mendeleev may be the most important scientist about whom we have almost have we important be the most about whom scientist may Mendeleev And yet, vitable, but it is beneficial, because it produces the food American consumers want to buy but it is beneficial,American consumers want vitable, because it produces the food m must sell at least $250,000 of farm products each year to provide an acceptable standard an acceptable m must sell at least $250,000 of farm to provide products each year ar at prices they can afford. at prices they tion require managerial skills of the highest order. According to Hart, this trend is not only tion require managerial skills of the highest order. ine cient farms. In the past farmers kept a variety of livestock and grew several crops, but modern several and grew cient farms. of livestock In the past farmers a variety kept or or one specialized in producing a single type of livestock become highly farmsfamily have their number has declined. and more specialized, become larger As farms have crops. two food-suppl of the so-called computer revolution. of the so-called computer revolution. Press. ISBN: 0-8139-2229-1, $37.50. Virginia of decades. In the past few over of studying cyberspace from a cultural perspective. He also investigates the political economy the political economy He also investigates from a cultural perspective. of studying cyberspace of kno posed b Hart landscape historian John Fraser describes the transformation and geographer of farming from mid-tw f for a family. of living thinking about the dynamics of technolo technologies tied to various agendas and forms agendas and of power? tied to various technologies professor Michael Gordin changes that, drawing a portrait three full dimensions. of the man in that, drawing Michael Gordin changes professor been lost to history, portrait and detailed had nearly a man who of A clever Thing $19.95. of Minnesota Press. ISBN: 0-8166-3860-8, Minneapolis, MN: University Integrating fifteenof field years across the United laboratories research at weapons of the bomb.” and the liter- of war, speeches, media coverage political of popular movies, States with discussion and science of anthropology Hugh Gusterson, associate professor ature of defense intellectuals. studies at MIT nuclear age. entered the since we personal psychology and transformed culture and our public ISBN: 0-415-94509-7, $24.95. infor at the State Center Director of the Policy and Anthropology of computer culture and Professor of some fundamental at Utica/Rome – examines Technology Institute of York of New University changed Is the character or social function of knowledge about the cultural impact of cyberspace: profoundl of its most notorious minds. of its most notorious nothing in English – until now, that is. In English – until now, nothing in Siberian Isaac Newton. Mendeleev was a loyal subject of the Tsar, but he was also a maverick also a buthe was Tsar, of the subject a loyal was Mendeleev Newton. Isaac Siberian Russia to remake a modern perfect could an outsider He wanted Russia. that only thought who significant. failures his successes – and and – were had remade chemistry, just as he Hart, J.F. (2003). Hart, J.F. Gusterson, H. (2004). Gusterson, H. (2004). (2003). D. Hakken,
The Journal of Technology Studies 108 Hocker, F.M. & Ward, C.A.(2004). Heilbrun, M.(2000). Heilbrun, Hood, Clifton(2004). T of Navigation, perceived thephysical world. plazas, fountains,andsculptures. the ill-f overthat erupted and theuse offemalenudesonthereliefEssex CountyCourthouse; Capitol, madetoresemble theByzantinetombsofGallaPlacidiainRavenna; thecontroversy thecolorschemeofmainentrance the MinnesotaState details aboutthebuildings: volume considersthefullbreadthofGilbert’s career. The bookalsodocumentsfascinating throughout hiscareer of thetwentieth andepitomizetheBeaux century “CityBeautiful”aestheticheembraced Arts decades national geniusandunrestraint”–profoundly influencedarchitectsduringthefirst plan forNew Haven, Connecticut,CassGilbert’s pioneeringskyscrapers –“symbolsofour the MinnesotaStateCapitol,St.Louis Museum,andlarge-scale projectslikeArt thecity NY: ColumbiaUniversity Press.ISBN:0-231-11873-2,$20.00. havescale farmers beencriticizedunfairly and with theentrepreneurswho arechanging believes large- Hart thatmodern American agriculture. on theEastand West Coasts. The invaluable casestudiesbringthereaderintopersonalcontact turkey, andspecialtycropproducers andhog oftheheartland; producersaroundtheperiphery beef,dairy, intheMidwest heartland; farming agricultural tocash-grain chicken, egg,farming thosewho havefocuses oninterviews withfarmers: shiftedfrommixed crop-and-livestock $18.95. centennial edition contained inEgyptianpap the archaeolo patter texture ofstainsinhalf-rottenbitswood,” Hocker writes.“Thosetoolmarksandstains,grain ness ofaplank,thenumbersandsizesnails,directionanadzestroke, thecolorand fromnauticalarchaeologymethodologies, information excavations. andfurnish studyancientboatmodels,presentthelatestresearch periods ofhistory. inthefield Experts tell ho based onacombinationoftheiro 1585443131, $75.00. to thestudyofw the resultofdecadesresearch,ishisattempttotelltheirsidestory. centuries. A final chapterexaminescenturies. theevolution ofLakeA final Champlain’s sailingmerchantfleet. the thirdmillenniumB.C., the Tantura andsixteenth wrecks,andIberianshipsfromthe fifteenth B.C.skippers ofthemid-thirdcentury A widerangeofshipsisexamined, includingthosefrom Europe,andNile innorthwestern bottom-basedshipbuilding discuss Nordicclinker construction, usedinancientnavaland principlesmethodsofconstruction chapters architecture.Further Wooden Ships e xas y b Edited b Designed by thearchitectofBroadway ChambersBuilding,theUSCustomHouse, providesAlthough Hart thestatisticsandclearanalysis suchastudyrequires,hisbook The 22miles,from CityHallto145thStreet andLeno essays explore shipsofancientEgyptandtheevidence theearliestplank-built The first “The studyofshipremainsbegins withtherecordingofseemingly trivial details:thethick- hasever vesselsNo boatorshipbuilder fromscratch.Skilledcraftsmenconstruct started ns andbotchedrepairs,arethevoices ofthepeoplewho owned, and sailedthevessels built, uilt theirboatsandshipsthew A&M University, w peopleofthepast,fromancientEgypt’ ated plansfortheGeorge Washington Bridge asaBeaux monumentwithelaborate Arts gists e y Frederick M.Hocker andCheryl A. Ward, who bothreceived theirPhDsfrom explores theconceptsunderlying during various basicshipdesignandconstruction xcavate andshipspecialistsstudy. Their voices cantelluswho they were andwhy ooden ships Inventing theskyline: The architecture ofCassGilbert 722 miles: The building ofthesubways andhow they transformed New York . Baltimore,MD:JohnsHopkins Uni . Containingessays by scholars,thislavishly majorGilbert illustrated The Philosoph yri, themor . Colle The philosophy ofshipbuilding: Conceptualapproaches wn skillsandthoseoftheirpredecessors,thesetechniques ge Station, ay they did.” tise-and-tenon joinedhullsoftheancientMediter y ofShipb TX: The ChangingScaleof American Agriculture s F uilding: Conceptual irst DynastytoNor T e xas v ersity Press.ISBN0-8018-8054-8, A&M University Press. ISBN: x A v enue, was once considereda Approaches totheStudyof th . New York, America’ s Golden ranean, Age , The Journal of Technology Studies 109 y - eal v , re American amut from acting the best: . Bloomington: Attr . er w ho ran the g . Arlington, VA: RAND . Arlington, VA: ers w as a similar reminder verything from the natural is a concise intellectual ld aldo Emerson was celebrating aldo Emerson was or W W y think is a necessary original guide that and aced – something capable aced – something capable y b ge to alter e Human-Built gy is Janus-f Human-Built World And just as Ralph Human-Built World as framed historicall er-increasing complexity and sophistication of objects; it has complexity er-increasing v y various thinkers. Technology, as he shows here, has not been as he shows Technology, thinkers. y various gy as it w e, and the Mephistophelean ur ell as a test of the limits of human morality and po ell as a test of the limits of human morality y remind us that technolo epticism – b Heaven’s fractal net: Retrieving lost visions in the humanities net: Retrieving fractal Heaven’s wn sak American automobile industry, social critics were warning of the increasing warning social critics were American automobile industry, ersity Press. ISBN: 0-253-21620-6, $29.95. ts the multiple ways that technology has been viewed – sometimes with elation, has been viewed that technology ts the multiple ways inalist for the Pulitzer Prize, wrote v le good as w hich traces inherent order in chaotic shapes and processes. Using lines so intricate the hich traces inherent order in chaotic shapes and processes. Using lines so intricate , a f ress, and the g w and steady march to the e ress for its o “Fractal” is a term coined by mathematician Benoit B. Mandelbrot to denote geometry of mathematician Benoit B. is a term“Fractal” coined by National Defense Research Institute. ISBN: 0-8330-3550-9, $27.50. Institute. ISBN: 0-8330-3550-9, National Defense Research workers, (IT) demand for information technology private-sector During the 1990s, the How the military competes for information technology personnel technology information the military competes for How Exploring such competing perspectives, Thomas P. Hughes, the eminent historian of technology and acclaimed author of and acclaimed Hughes, the eminent historian of technology Thomas P. .R., Mattock, M.G., Fair, C.F., Kavanagh, J., Sharp, J., Totten, M. (2004). Totten, Sharp, J., J., Kavanagh, C.F., Fair, .R., Mattock, M.G., g nature, w recreates technology as the philosophical, moral, and social dilemma it rightfully is. as the philosophical, moral, and social dilemma it rightfully recreates technology Indiana Uni escalating private-sector pay in IT, growing military dependence on IT, and faltering military military on IT, growing dependence in IT, pay escalating private-sector recruiting to a shortfall led to a concern vulnerable that the military in IT person- capability was This report literature description, field use of a addresses that concern by nel. data interviews, implications for military some policy offer together, model that, taken and a dynamic analysis, to recruit and retain qualifiedplanners in terms of how IT personnel. of Chicago Press. ISBN: 0-226-35933-6, $22.50. The University and wireless internet digital cable surrounds Millions of homes have us: Technology Genesis the centuries created over body of work on a vast Drawing of the tools of technology. biography designers, politicians and engineers, philosophers and architects, social theorists and web by Hughes char is Hughes writes here, “technology of millions. “In its variety,” activities landscape to the daily occasional benign deeds, and rich with by saved full of contradictions, laden with human folly, Hughes’unintended consequences.” these contradictions mission here is to restore to technology and unintended consequences, and his sometimes with sk a slo danger of been the subject of debate for centuries about the human will to create, the inherent pro ing the concept of technolo of the the ultimate creativity and its ability to express of technology power the transformative the nineteenth- to ravage beginning production were human race, the steam engine and coal century landscape. horrified to euphoric. For just as Henry Ford’s factories were revolutionizing the productive revolutionizing factories were horrified just as Henry Ford’s to euphoric. For capacity of the “dehumanization” of machine-age culture. gical pro Jackson, W. J. (2004). J. W. Jackson, Hughes, T. P. (2004). Human-built world: How to think about technology and culture. Chicago, IL: and culture. to think about technology How (2004). Human-built world: P. T. Hughes, and personal organizers; connections; telephones can also serve as cameras, music players, This, of course, year. more sophisticated every to computers grow from stereos and everything gadgets embrace. But lurking behind these and even that most of us encounter is the technology chemical questions. Cosmetic surgery, raises troubling topic of technology the is an arena in which of the uneasy results of our techno- and cloning are just some of the more recent examples weapons, lo of immeasurab Hosek, J remarkable engineering feat. By the 1940s, the New York City subway system grew to 722 miles, to system grew subway City York New the By the 1940s, feat. engineering remarkable York. system transformed New the subway process, In the line. Subway the Independent including City York fascinating and storyHood traces the complex Clifton the New of In this definitive history, cen- the subway’s For century. marvels the urban engineering system, one of of the twentieth subway more can see “we after a century, now, that explaining foreword author supplies a new tennial the greatest achievements.” century’s the twentieth transit system is among that this rapid ever than clearly
The Journal of Technology Studies 110 Launius, R.D. &Daly Bednarek,J.R. (2003). Kent, P. (2004). Karoly, L.A.&Panis, C.W.A. (2004). Krebs, R.E.(2004). in scientific history.in scientific advances aboutsignificant and college students,teachers,andgeneralreadersseeking information advancements duringtheMiddle scientific Ages andtheRenaissancewillbeusefultohighschool nature ofwork andworkplace andworker agreements; compensation. tw The University CarolinaPress. ISBN: 0-8078-5488-3,$19.95. ofNorth e Marco Polo, andGalileoareincluded, alongwithentriesonreconstructive surgery, Stonehenge, entists, ph describes morethan75e knowledge,Greek andEastern whichoffreshideas. ledtoaneruption This referencework tions, andtechnologies. Between explorers 500 and1600A.D., rediscovered scientific ancient development andarenewedScientific interestinclassicalscienceledtonew discoveries, inven- Ages andtheRenaissance. future w the readerexpectations about thekey forcesintheeconomy today andtheirimplicationsforthe economy andthoseofothercountries.Overall, theauthorsprovide for fortheUnitedStates’ fares nolo ing educationofemployees willbeparamountasnew technologies, suchasbio-andnanotech- the workforce willcontinue togrow –however, atamarkedly decliningpace–andthattheongo- of technological change,andthepathofeconomicglobalization. They forexample, observe, that work inthenear-to-medium term. The authorsanalyzed thepace shiftingdemographic patterns, sound polic employers, educators,andpolicymakers decisions. –make informed With itseye onforming – andwithwhat consequences? Answering suchquestionscanhelpstakeholders –workers, wide, willmoreindividuals work outsourcetheirnoncorefunctions athome,willmorebusinesses 10 to15years? With suchinevitabilities astheproliferationandaccelerationoftechnology world- 0-8330-3492-8, $30.00. and workplace intheUnitedStates 0-7645-6758-6, $24.99. and where toregister, andmore. about pa not onl directories, searchsystems–it’s enoughtomake you searchforantacids! Well, relax–thisbook and history whileand history enhancingourunderstandingofthenatureconsciousness. ofhumanbehavior, ofouremerging andcandescribepatterns vocabulary cepts arepart culture arepervasive. Fractaldescriptions ofthenatureconsciousness,fractal-like configurations con- andinpoetic andabundance, ofreligiousliterature depictinginfinity America, intheimagery inEuropeand ofreligiousmusic,intemplearchitecture inIndia,cathedralstructures patterns new canarticulate ways geometry fractal ofconsidering anddescribingnature.Intherecursive soroughtheyare morethanone-dimensionalandsurfaces aremorethantwo-dimensional, y e elv glasses, themicroscope,anddisco gies, comeontothesceneanddevelop. They alsolookatthetrendofglobalizationandhow it Part ofaunique seriesthatrangesfromancienttimestothe20thcentury,Part thisexploration of On December 17, 1903, Orville and On December 17, 1903,Orville Wilbur duringa Wright soaredintohistory The Middle awakening. andliterary Ages andtheRenaissancewere aperiodofscientific What aretheforcesthatwillcontinuetoshapeUSworkforce andworkplace over thenext F e-second flight onasecludedNor ind outho y tellsyou which iswhich, itgives you theinsidetrackonwhich onestoimpress.Find out orkforce andw y-per ysicians, andscholarsresponsib y, tolookatthefutureof ofLaborasked theRANDCorporation theUSDepartment Search engineoptimizationfor dummies -click searchengineadv Gr w tomak oundbreaking experiments,inventions scientific &discoveries oftheMiddle orkplace, includingthesize,composition,andskillsofw xperiments, inventions, anddiscoveries oftheperiod, aswell asthesci- e y Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.ISBN:0-313-32433-6,$65.00. our sitepoptothetopw The 21stcenturyatwork: Forces shapingthefuture workforce . Arlington, VA: RANDLaborandPopulation. ISBN: ertising, whatertising, your siteneedstoluresearchengines,how th Carolinabeach. Commemoratingthe100th anni v Reconsidering acenturyofflight le forthem.Individuals suchasLeonardoda Vinci, ery ofsmallpox.ery . NY: Wiley Publishing, Inc.ISBN: hen thesearchison.Searchengines, . ChapelHill,NC: orkforce; the versary The Journal of Technology Studies 111 - - vious e com v . NY: Rowman Rowman . NY: fers the pre , the Michelin men he of Tauris. ISBN: Tauris. y . e : I.B y needed to expand into the inter- y needed to expand ork, NY s most successful and secreti Y w ving his critics wrong, Lottman orld’ . Ne e The free guides grew in popularity and the Paris The free guides grew ying to rescue their family’s family rubber family plant in ying to rescue their family’s helin Men: Driving an Empir ut as competitors entered the fra At the same time Andre, defending the company in his Andre, defending the company At the same time yside. The Mic m plan. In the end pro o brothers tr w book, wever, the company faced another hurdle when Francois Michelin took Francois faced hurdle when another the company wever, ere tw helin men: Driving an empir xplore the countr y in 1959. He stressed that the compan w from its success, b volutionized the way people travel today. people travel the way volutionized re In his ne y g y. Clone being: Exploring the psychological and social dimensions the psychological Clone being: Exploring The Mic vinced of his long-ter gies of the twentieth century, fundamentally reshaping our world. reshaping our fundamentally century, gies of the twentieth eekl W s y promotional articles, prepared a free travel guide touting Michelin tires, which would guide touting Michelin tires, which y promotional articles, prepared a free travel y at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, does this through models of situa- School of Medicine, of Pennsylvania y at the University Andre and Edouard w The compan Herbert Lottman is an American writer based in Paris and is the European correspondentAmerican writer based in Paris for Herbert Lottman is an The contributors, relating to the four broad themes historians, consider all leading aerospace Marshalling psychological and sociological theory and research, and drawing upon extensive theory and research, and drawing and sociological Marshalling psychological lisher ucial roles of intimacy, sex and sexuality for society. The clinical and scientifically grounded for society. and sexuality sex ucial roles of intimacy, eekl y untold account of the Michelin dynasty – one of the w y untold account of the Michelin dynasty l tires, as their panies – and the inside story restaurant guides, as well of the Michelin hotel and both products that re Edouard became determined to After repairing a faultytire as a favor, France. Clermont-Ferrand, a began based in Paris, was Andre, who the business,design a superior one. Deciding to pursue the that riding on a cushion of air was the public to convince Trying relations campaign. public the he came up with the phrase that the Michelin tire “swallows to travel, more comfortable way recogniza- to Bibendum, the endearing and immediately name give would That slogan obstacle.” the kept style and focus on innovation management Edouard’s tire man. Back in the factory, ble Michelin brand ahead of the competitors. w encourage motorists to e to become a business of its own. free route plans, began office, offered which travel Pub 1-86064-896-7, $27.95. were all staff or a guide inspector, Whether a factory protecting their empire. worker began far some peo- Lottman tells just how secrets – with good reason, company required not to reveal The Michelins three star designation for their restaurant. go to get the world-renowned ple would the tire industry latter for the revolutionize also protecting plans for a radial tire that would were plans secret from the Germans their managed to keep even They century. half of the twentieth during the Occupation. Ho the helm of the compan development of flight technology: innovation and the technology of flight, civil aeronautics and aeronautics civil of flight, technology and the innovation technology: of flight development Through their atten- imagination. American the in aviation and aerial warfare, policy, government that and cultural history authors establish of flight, the military, political, economic, tion to the Wrights’the of the most signifi- one in both air and space – was followed – and all that invention cant technolo of the first flight, these essays chart the central role that aviation played in twentieth-century firstof the played chart that aviation central role the essays these flight, the history that has characterized adventure and of history of innovation the spirit and capture flight. insights of this book should help inform judgments and attitudes about the the reader's ethical cloning of human beings. reproductive tions that are relevant by analogy to various aspects of cloning. Psychotherapy case material of cloning. Psychotherapy aspects to various analogy by tions that are relevant aspects of his and illustrates each model, and the reader is helped to identify "clone-like" enlivens around them. the clone-like of evidence and mental life, and also to see experience or her own to importantThrough this process, the book comes about human nature, including the conclusions cr & Littlefield $28.95. Inc. ISBN: 0-7425-2990-8, Publishers, dimensions the various explores and psychotherapist, Levick as a psychiatrist clinical experience his consequences of cloning for a clone, attempts to anticipate the possible This book of cloning. of psy- is also a clinical assistant professor who Levick, and society. family, or her "parents" and chiatr he Through intense criticism and economic ups and downs, to remain viable. national marketplace remained con companies. made Michelin one of the most successful worldwide Francois describes how Levick, S.E. (2004). S.E. (2004). Levick, Lottman, H. (2004).
The Journal of Technology Studies 112 May, W.F.(2001). Misa, Li vingstone, D.N. (2003). from which itemerged. Intheprocess,ageography ofscienceisborn. back fromtheloftyrealmofabstractandsituatesitsolidly inthehistoricalcircumstances through f time asoperasandpolitics,technolo nineteenth-centur tion. The advent ofphotography, theinvention ofthemetricsystem, even therelative wealth of not restricthimselfsolel latter fully intodiscussionwithsocialandpoliticalhistory. Li thequestionsthatscientistshavetheir markindetermining beenable toaskandanswer. living anddeadbodies,insterilelaboratories. All oftheseplaces–andmorehave made only alsoinasylums,royal onboatsbut gardensasthehomeofexotic thatserved animals,on atQueen’stual history University pointsout,landmarkdiscoveries inBelfast, have beenmadenot ence hasbeenaf Baltimore, MD: The JohnsHopkinsUniversity Press.ISBN:0-8018-7809-8, $19.95. thing deepinthe Methodist University William May opensuptheways inwhich each professionanswers to some- of American culture emerges fromitspages,associalcriticandProfessorofEthics atSouthern means toalivelihood andasa“commoncallinginthespiritofpublic service.” An interpretation good. withtheirdoubleThis bookexplores identity–asa eightprofessionsastheirstruggle ed, oftenundersiege. Thus they tendtoobscureforthemselves theirobligations tothecommon it ma ly apart.” spaces. Tocific claimotherwiseistodisplacesciencefromtheculture ofwhich itissoprofound- covery knowledge”, andinvention. Livingstone “Scientific writes,“isalways theproductofspe- Science inItsPlace industries, andhow Michelinrevolutionized themboth. to promotetheirtires.Intheprocess,hegives oftheautomobileandtravel readersahistory their family’s company, industry, createdaninternational andinvented theworld’s bestguidebooks W always discoveries. affects hasasetting,andthissettinginturn theshapesofscientific the recent“MasterandCommander”movie fromauniversal demonstrated.Science,far pursuit, we forget thatthe workas fictional, ofthemenherepresentsisconditionedby timeandplaceas public.imens, andbringinghisresearcheshometoafascinated Butwhile we recognize Maturin scientist, encounteringnew oftheseafaring species,collectingspec- based onthehistoricalfigure laborsanddiscoveriesand scientific duringthecourseofseries. The characterofMaturinis Stephen Maturinknows, oftheappealbooksisvivid part descriptionsofMaturin’s botanic IL: percei worker’s andsmall. treatment,and thedurabilityofinstitutionsgreat fair Yet professionalsdonot patient’ T estminster JohnKno vingstone’s theways narrative charts thatplaceandspacehave organized science,bringingthe .J The University ofChicagoPress.ISBN:0-226-48722-9,$27.50. . (2004). Livingstone, afellow oftheBritish Academy andmemberoftheRoyal Irish Academy, does Putting ScienceinItsPlace With Lottman’s Herbert skillfulnarration, Professionals toda David N. Livingstone’s As any ofPatrick fan O’Brian’s seriesdevoted tothevoyages ofCaptainJack Aubrey and y mak v e themselv s plight,theclient’ ascinating examples. This clear, thought-provoking endeavor bookbringsthescientific e claimstouni Leonar Beleaguered rulers: The public obligation oftheprofessional fected by itssetting. As Livingstone, who isprofessorofgeography andintellec- American spirit. y “gentleman scientists” are all connected to the scientific enterprise. enterprise. y “gentlemanscientists”areallconnectedtothescientific es aspo f do totheinternet: ills outthisnecessar Putting scienceinitsplace:Geo y wieldanenor x Press.ISBN:0-664-22671-X,$19.95. y toplace.Measurement,fore s f w v ersality, Livingstone shows, scienceisasmuchaproductofplaceand er wielders. Putting ScienceinItsPlace ate, thestudent’s future,thecity’s scape,theearth’s sustainability, the is a fascinating view andlocal. is afascinating of howWhile scienceisspecific gy andtravel. Heremindsusinaccessible languageand mous public power. Collectively, theirdecisionsaffect the T They feelbeleaguered, marginal, appreciat- insufficiently ec y conte hnolo The Michelin Men gy &culturegy from theRenaissancetopresent. xt forunderstandingthehistor graphies knowledge. ofscientific xample, hasahistor is anelegant,ofhow concisestory sci- tells how two brotherssaved . Louisville,KY: y , asdoesrepresenta y ofhumandis- Putting Chicago, - The Journal of Technology Studies 113 , ered w Baltimore, asoline-po The Electric Vehicle The Electric e are routinely tempted, in the tempted, e are routinely hen w Technical University of Eindhoven, of Eindhoven, University Technical y as old as that of the g New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN: 0-415-96905-0, NY: York, New gy at the encourages students and general readers alike to alike encourages students and general readers un on both gasoline and batteries has made the electric un on both gasoline , historian and associate professor of history and associate professor , historian at the Illinois is the first important collection to address the increasingly y of technolo ersity Press. ISBN: 0-8018-7138-7, $54.95. Data made flesh. y and automotive historiography have left the impression that it was have historiography y and automotive v e to the internal combustion engine and all of its attendant environmen- ybrid cars that r v nati Leonardo to the Internet Leonardo mation and embodiment, at a moment w mation and embodiment, at a moment Data Made Flesh Leonardo to the Internet to the Leonardo ho teaches the histor The electric vehicle: Technology and expectations in the automobile Age. expectations in the automobile and Technology The electric vehicle: e wish for the future. volution of the late twentieth century, Misa uses carefully chosen and engagingly told chosen and engagingly uses carefully Misa century, of the late twentieth volution een infor ention nor a historical curiosity – has a stor v en so, popular memor The Johns Hopkins Uni Recent attention to h In an age of cloning, cyborgs, and biotechnology, the line between bodies and bytes seems to seems bodies and bytes the line between and biotechnology, In an age of cloning, cyborgs, Ev The image of the lone inventor transforming on the a strong hold has the outside society from lone inventor of the The image Over eight thematic chapters, Misa provides detailed portraits of the inventors and users of portraits detailed inventors of the Misa provides eight thematic chapters, Over influenced each other have and culture technology in which of the ways A masterful analysis ” whether in the rush Genome Project or in the race to clone a human ” whether to complete the Human y laying out the technological choices we face today and considering their impact on the type face today choices we out the technological y laying vy trucks, and private cars. vy trucks, and private ords of Donna Haraway, “to be raptured out of the bodies that matter in the lust for informa- “to be raptured out of the bodies that matter ords of Donna Haraway, challenges this view, arguing that at the beginning of the automobile age neither the internal that at the beginning arguing challenges this view, tal costs and geopolitical implications. Yet few people realize that the electric car – neither a people realize that the electric car – neither few Yet tal costs and geopolitical implications. recent in w tion, inter- collection is essential reading for anyone cybernetics to genomics, this timely being. From ested in the fate of technology. of the body at the cutting edge MD: car an apparent alter Gjis Mom, w $24.60. be disappearing. links betw battery-pow- in the nascent automobile industry believed at one time many automobile. Indeed, II, in both Europe and War World Before become the dominant technology. ered engines would America, electric cars and trucks succeeded in meeting the needs of a wide range of consumers. American roads; as 30,000 electric cars and more than 10,000 electric trucks then plied As many propelled fire buses, busy with electrically vans, European cities were engines, taxis, delivery hea in place. In has remained stubbornly and that view an inferior technology, think both more widely and more deeply about the invention, development, transfer, and adapta- transfer, development, about the invention, and more deeply think both more widely civilization. Western within tion of technologies public’s imagination. In reality, though, technologies are products of ongoing social and cultural and ongoing social of are products technologies though, In reality, imagination. public’s In processes. Institute of Technology Thomas J. Misa provides a sweeping comparative history of the interrela- comparative a sweeping Misa provides Thomas J. Technology Institute of inno- technological how revealing since the Renaissance, and society technology tionship between in have, such technologies arose and how they in which the cultures been shaped by have vations contributions the careers and turn, court of the Renaissance From these cultures. shaped inventors in industrial London to the telecommu- brewing to beer Vinci da and Leonardo Johann Gutenberg nication re thesis. his case studies to develop of the “modern” intersec- the era, Misa surveys at the dawn narrative his Beginning technologies. Europe; the Western court politics, and culture in the Renaissance system of tions of technology, “paths” to and through the diverse commercial expansion; Holland’s in role of technology imperialism, and trade in the nine- the links among technology, industrial revolution; Britain’s teenth century; to industry of scientific in chemistry and the application and physics discoveries the Misa then examines century. at the turn and the United States in Germany twentieth of the life and modernist sen- goods and their impact on daily introduction of mass-produced consumer inno- II, the technological War World sibilities, the rise of the military-industrial during complex of and the emergence War, economics of the Cold the command-and-control generated by vations concludes with a provocative The work the 1970s. global culture since a technology-oriented essa of society w five centuries, over Mom, G. (2004). Mitchell, R. & Thurtle, P. (2004). Thurtle, P. Mitchell, R. &
The Journal of Technology Studies 114 Nichols, F J.P.Murmann, (2003). e Jefferson’s many ofhis notes,letters,andsketches, presentaclearanddetailedinterpretation landscape architecture.F natural ingenuityinlandscapedesigncombinedtomak University of Virginia Press.ISBN:0-8139-0899-X,$13.96. Thomas J in thethreecountries. among thedye firms technolo istr leadership intheindustr differences in educationalinstitutionsandpatentlawsidentifies asthekey reasonsforGerman incontrast,played only development. aminorroleinthisimportant American firms, Murmann fordecades; cametodominatetheindustry firms eightyears, German but forthefirst industry fortheagentsinvolved.surprises ledthe After thediscovery ofsynthetic dyes, Britishfirms through thelensofe development inGreatBritain,Germany, ofthesynthetic dye industry andtheUnitedStates Organizations attheKellogg University, SchoolofManagementatNorthwestern comparesthe toda totheexecutivesindustries isthusofvitalimportance policy andmanagers shapingbusiness hold. Historicalscholarshipthatseekstouncover systematically thecausalprocessestransforming episodes inindustrialdevelopment decisionsabout what canshapeinformed thefuturewill inherently Sincetheonly uncertain. rationalguide forthefutureispast,analysis ofprevious and nationalinstitutions of streettransportation. engine. combustion internal As anew generation ofelectricvehicles becomesareality, problemsinfrastructural ofchanginglarge numbersofbatteries) – ultimately gave anedgetothe w al (under-powered andlessrugged, electriccarsseems“feminine”atatimewhen most carbuyers reliability andcontrollessnoisepollution.Healsoargues thatanexus –cultur- offactors America. Hemakes comparisonsamongEuropeancountriesandbetween abundant vehicles. Europeand vehicle design,withseparatechaptersonprivately owned passengercarsandcommercial technology andmarketing/consumer-feedback relationshipover four“generations”ofelectric- enginenorthebattery-poweredcombustion vehicle enjoyed aclearadvantage. Heexplores the species oftreesthatJefferson usedforhisdesigns,generously illustratetheengaging narrative in scape. Eighteenth-andnineteenth-centur acter oftheDistrictColumbia arejustafe land,relating thehousetosurrounding andhisprofoundinfluencesonthe architecturalchar- foreignelements intodomesticdesigns,hisrevolutionary approachto approach toincorporating mented by hisextensive reading andtravels, clearly influencedhisarchitecturalwork. Hisfresh Jeffersonian legacy inarchitecture.Jefferson’s personality, friendships,andconvictions, comple- high-tech industries,thesyntheticdy the f economic,andtechnologicalin business, becausesyntheticdyes, history invented in1856,were Electric Vehicle xtraordinar ere men), structural (the shortcomings of battery technology ofbattery atthetime),andsystemic(the (theshortcomings ere men),structural y knowledge. demonstrates,acomplex coevolutionaryAs Murmann processlinkingfirms, y. With thisinmind, JohnPeter who Murmann, isan Assistant ProfessorofManagementand Collaboration withtheg Entrepreneurs, managers,andpolic Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect thattheelectricvehicle offered manyProfessor Momfinds advantages, amongthem greater irst scientific discovery toquicklyirst scientific give risetoanew industry. Justaswithcontemporary .D . &Griswold, R.E.(1978). gy, different andnationalinstitutionsresultedinvery ofindustrialsuccess degrees ef f er y accomplishmentsinthef son, Landscape Architect offers along-overdue reassessmentoftheplacethistechnology inthehistory Knowledge andcompetitiveadvantage: technology,The coevolution offirms, v olutionar y . NY: CambridgeUniversity Press.ISBN:0-521-81329-8,$60.00. rederick D . Successfulf reatest botanistsofhistime,aninstinctive humanitarianism,anda y theor Thomas J . NicholsandRalphE.Gris e b y ir . . ield. y makers mustmake decisionsaboutafuturethatis usiness f The riseofthisindustr ms developed strongties tothecentersoforganic chem- y maps,plans,anddra investigates themany influenceson--andof--the ef w ofJefferson’s tothe contributions American land- ferson, Landscapearchitect aced considerab e Thomas Jefferson apioneerin American y constitutesanimpor wold, inthisclosestudyof wings, aswell aspicturesofthe le uncertainty thatledtomanyle uncertainty . Charlottesville, tant chapter The V A: The Journal of Technology Studies 115 . The viduals. In The Male Pill: A Pill: The Male is ultimately a story as much is ultimately . Aspatore Books. ISBN: . . Durham, NC: Duke Duke NC: . Durham, eements line by line: A detailed eements line by line: gr verlooked, unnoticed and even hidden unnoticed and even verlooked, e a The Male Pill ar Softw y Line highlights the often o fective technologies. technologies. fective b by Line serves to bridge this gap. Taking a standard “vendor oriented” a standard “vendor Taking Line serves this gap. to bridge by reements offers great advantages for any company making investments company for any great advantages reements offers yvas, Esq., James R. (2004). yvas, are ag Manufacturing revolution: The intellectual origins of early American industry The intellectual origins of early Manufacturing revolution: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN: 0-8018-7324-x, $49.95. Press. ISBN: 0-8018-7324-x, The Johns Hopkins University ves by coordinating an unprecedented, worldwide research network. worldwide an unprecedented, coordinating by ves y of masculinity in the last decades of the twentieth century as it is about the the twentieth y of masculinity in the last decades of reement and breaking it down clause by clause, explaining the nuances of the lan- the nuances clause, explaining clause by reement and breaking it down y softw s business climate demands the ability to leverage essential technologies, as well as a as well essential technologies, s business the ability to leverage climate demands The male pill: A biography of a technology in the making of a technology biography A pill: The male provides a detailed examination of the cultural, policy, and scientific the around work of the cultural, policy, a detailed examination provides y’ y, forty years after the introduction of the contraceptive pill for women, is there still no women, pill for contraceptive introduction of the forty after the years y, e Agreements e Agreements Line oda ar are ag “While much has been written about the industrial revolution”, writes Lawrence A. Peskin, writes Lawrence “While much has been written about the industrial revolution”, T Wh a great for men depends to Oudshoorn of contraceptives emphasizes that the introduction the search for a male pill required significantOudshoorn of chronicles how reorganization Oudshoorn, who is a Professor of Gender and Technology at Twente University and an author and University Twente at Technology of Gender and is a Professor Oudshoorn, who -friendl elopment of safe and ef graphy of a Technology in the Making. Making. in the Technology of a graphy v , Esq., M., & Kal y in, and developing strategies around, software. This book will provide any reader the tools to any provide This book will software. around, strategies in, and developing consumer. all, an empowered and above thinker, a more strategic become an informed user, look at software agreements & how to change them to fit to change your needs & how agreements look at software The ability to understand and develop aspects of procuring and implementing business systems. user Baltimore, MD: This absence, he illustrates, reflects the preoccu- read about industrial revolutionaries.” rarely “we than indi pation of both classical and Marxist economics with impersonal forces rather Softw heightened understanding of how the Software Agreement underlying such essential technologies Agreement underlying the Software heightened understanding of how the interests of the There has long been a disconnect between business. your affect adversely may such agreements. drafting, and executing in developing, of the vendor end user and the objectives Michael Overly lawyers guage, and the business implications inherent therein, leading technology firm & Lardner spe- Angeles law are partners Foley and James Kalvyas, both of whom in the Los The authors Agreement. present a penetrating insight into the Software cializing in technology, practical solu- to modify them, and offer such agreements should be modified, how detail why A business. in your implement critical technologies ability to successfully tions to promote your technical agreements, of these highly glimpse into the often daunting world before offered never Male Pill about the histor de 1-58762-369-2, $49.95. Agreements Line Software softw equivalent for men? Nelly Oudshoorn seeks an answer in her new book in her new Oudshoornan answer seeks for men? Nelly equivalent University Press. ISBN: 0-8223-3195-0, $21.95. 0-8223-3195-0, ISBN: Press. University Bio interest in the male pill, she Initial responsibility. reproductive on changing ideas about extent the scientific came from outside of China and India, shows, community: from the governments the respon- wanted feminists, who Western control, and from interested in population were which the sexes. between contraception shared more equally sibilities and health risks associated with took the lead in investigating Health Organization World in the 1970s, the She documents how male contracepti drug-testing infrastructure standards and protocols and of the family-planning – including found- new clinics, enrolling spaces for men within existing ing special clinics for men, creating separate professionals, and defining of patients. categories new male pill from the 1960s through the 1990s. male pill from the 1960s of several books on gender and reproduction, explains why it is that, although the technical feasi- it is that, although why explains gender and reproduction, books on of several is, to date, no as the late 1970s, there as early demonstrated was bility of male contraceptives Oudshoorn introduced, for men was of hormonal since the idea male pill. Ever contraceptives questioned feminists, journalistsstresses, scientists, and pharmaceutical entrepreneurs have available. if one were male contraceptive a new accept even would men and women whether erl Peskin, L.A. (2003). Peskin, Ov Oudshoorn, N. Oudshoorn, N.
The Journal of Technology Studies 116 Porter, T. M.(2004). Riggs, K.E.(2004). Rabinovitz, L.&Geil, A. (2004). an unprecedented numberofolderw Routledge. ISBN:0-415-96583-7, $19.75. students oftechnology, andindustry. business book willbeofinteresttohistorianstheearly republic andeconomichistoriansaswell asto research inbothmanuscriptandprintedsourcesfromtheperiodbetween 1760and1830,this pendence andguidingthene launched adiscoursethatcontinuedfordecades,linkingindustrializationtothecauseofinde- factory.before theBoston Peskin theirfirst Associates built shows how theseeconomicpioneers tions, they fervently discussedtheneedforlarge-scale ahalf-century American manufacturing industrialization, andwho, onthelocallevel, strove foreconomicindependence. individual Americans who madethingsintheirown shops,whotopromote metinsmallgroups University, deviates frombothdominantparadigmsby closely examining thewords anddeedsof ence andmedicine,politicsw dif them. and ideologies, ratherthanasreflectingorincorporating NC: Duk with renunciationandpositi individuality. Even ashelongedtoexperience naturedirectly andintimately, science heidentified with enthusiasmandtoachieve complex theimpersonalperspective ofsciencewithoutsacrificing ual tensionstometaph intellectual adventure and shedsnew lightontheinnerlifeofscience. new basisforrelationsbetween menandwomen. This biography recountsPearson’s extraordinary a science grew outofadeeply moralquest,reflectedalsoinhissocialismandefforts tofind ies ofphilosoph University Press.ISBN:0-691-11445-5,$35.00. Manufacturing Revolution ent, ofelectricityfromtheEnlightenment tothepres- 1930s and1940s,orcallingfor acriticalhistory the experiences ofwatching QuickTime movies to JosephCornell’s “boxed relic”sculpturesofthe versies over comparing statusofdigitaltechnologies theintellectualproperty suchasMP3files, Whether describinghow theculturalandlegal conflictsover contro- player pianorollsprefigured ied mediaanderas, nature ofmediachange. presentanumberofdifferentimaging, thecontributors perspectives from which toreflectonthe nologies, includingphotography, printanddigitalmedia,heatengines, stereographs, andmedical – in historicalandphilosophicalcontext. Lookingatabroadrangeoftech- ethical ramifications such ahistoricism,arguing fortheneedtounderstanddigitalculture–anditssocial,political, ofsocial,political,andintellectualmovements.placing itinarichtapestry scienceinvestigateshistorian ofmodern theinteriorexperience ofoneman’s lifewhile scientific moral educationalbasisforaref in his pointinPearson’sa turning career, where hishumanisticinterestsgave way tohisstatisticalones, ferent momentsintime. Memory Bytes The advancing ageofbaby boomers,who areliving longerand retiring later, hasgenerated In speeches,petitions,books,newspaper clubmeetings,andcoffeehouse articles, conversa- These essays fromscholarsinthesocial sciencesandhumanitiescover topicsrelatedtosci- Digital cultureisoftencharacterizedasradically breakingwithpasttechnologies, practices, Theodore Porter’s intensely ofPearson personalportrait extends fromreligiouscrisisandsex- by wayKarl Pearson, statistics,cametothisfield founderofmodern ofpassionateearly stud- Gr ammar ofScience e Uni v ersity Press.ISBN:0-8223-3241-8,$22.95. Granny @work: Aging andnew technology onthejobin America y and cultural history aswelly andculturalhistory asetherphysics geometry. andgraphical in Hisfaith Karl Pearson: life inastatisticalageThe scientific is alively, enlighteningexamination oftheinterplay oftechnology andculture. Memory Bytes ysical andeven mathematical anxieties.Pearson soughttoreconcilereason While foregrounding thechallengesofdrawingWhile foregrounding comparisonsacrossvar- Peskin, whoatMorgan isanassistantprofessorofhistory State (1892), inw vistic detachment.P w nationalongthepathofeconomicambition.Baseduponextensive Memory bytes:History, technology, anddigitalculture ashioned culture.Inthisoriginalandeng ar e , masscommunication,philosoph xplores ho ork hich he attempted to establish scientific methodasthe hich heattemptedtoestablish scientific ers in America. w technologies have intosocietyat beenintegrated or ter , w ho isProfessorofHistor The Bureauof LaborStatisticspredicts Memory Bytes . Princeton,NJ:Princeton y , f ilm, photo aging book,aleading seeks tocounter y atUCLA,f . New York: graphy, and art. . Durham, inds The Journal of Technology Studies 117 y : . NY . Amherst, NY: . Amherst, NY: ou develop a keen ou develop ver the phone or by mail. the phone or by ver ou already make security ou already make Y , science, sports, movies, and the , science, sports, movies, y y matters. hat reall to specialty websites and magazines aimed at and magazines to specialty websites een the quality and the price of education is onl een the quality and the price of education hy expensive gadgets and technological cure-alls often and technological gadgets expensive hy ariety of “Radical Recommendations” to steer under- ariety of “Radical Recommendations” ype from w prising insights in this book, will help y fers a v Space Cowboys one can use. aculties, whose “publish or perish” culture has eclipsed any real or perish” culture has eclipsed any “publish aculties, whose y explains basic rules of thought and action that anyone can understand basic rulesexplains of thought and action that anyone s f . He of and y y’ , Karen Riggs- a renowned expert on aging and Associate Professor of Associate expert and on aging a renowned , Karen Riggs- is an impassioned comment on aging, work, and technology in American in and technology on aging, work, is an impassioned comment porate life are actually looking out for the interests of a graying workforce. looking out for the interests of a graying porate life are actually s most talked-about security measures can and cannot do. s most talked-about verything you know about higher learning in America. about higher learning in know verything you yond fear: Thinking sensibly about security in an uncertain world about Thinking sensibly yond fear: Cocoon y’ s degree from an American university really worth the ever-rising cost of obtain- the ever-rising worth really American university s degree from an tant of all, an Be The great rip-off in American education: Undergrads underserved American education: Undergrads in rip-off The great Beyond Fear Beyond hile the resources of larger “research” universities have shifted dramatically to feed the shifted dramatically have “research” universities hile the resources of larger hat toda le appetite of toda Granny @ Work @ Granny nicus Books. ISBN: 0-387-02620-7, $25.00. What is hard is separating the h The benefits of Schneier’s non-alarmist, common-sense approach to analyzing security will non-alarmist, common-sense approach to analyzing The benefits of Schneier’s Security is not mysterious, Bruce Schneier tells us, and contrary it is not Security is not mysterious, to popular belief, Searching kids and grandmas actually improves airport security, but arming us makes pilots airport security, improves Searching kids and grandmas actually Schneier, a security expert for policy makers and business leaders, invites us all to move and business leaders, invites makers a security expert for policy Schneier, Granny @ Work @ Granny Is a bachelor’ In , B. (2003). , B. , most impor raduate education in a direction that will inspire and invigorate the learning Be pre- experience. inspire and invigorate raduate education in a direction that will and sense of w hard. all less secure; shopping with a credit card is just as secure as using it o Coper These, and the dozens of other sur car under a park your you on to whether walk side of the street you from what day, choices every step, through the process of making step by This book guides you, do it naturally. You streetlight. security choices just as natural. all your security is much more He tells us why about security. fear and to start thinking sensibly beyond than cameras, guards, and photo Ids, and w obscure the real security issues. Using anecdotes from histor older workers. $22.00. Prometheus Books. ISBN: 1-59102-031-x, news, evening ing one? According to former university president Dr. Mel Scarlett, who is currently president who Mel Scarlett, president Dr. According to former university ing one? American major changes are made to the unless State University, Tennessee emeritus of Middle betw system of higher education, the disparity that the population of workers 55 and over will practically double from 18 million in 2000 to in 2000 18 million from double will practically over 55 and of workers population that the 2025. by than 33 million more Communication and Director of the School of Telecommunications at Ohio University – examines – at Ohio University Telecommunications of the School of and Director Communication introduced to the changes being radical technological is coping with this older workforce how light what she brings to interviews, on extensive Drawing e-mail to automation. – from workplace the scenes be thinking behind seem to makers policy and public engineers, software employers, on those the future – and asks whether of in the workplace adults might play about the roles older the front lines of cor assumptions with surprisingAs Riggs challenges popular people research – for example, culture. other age group of 60 sped more time on the Internet the age – and than people of any over entrenched ageism in today’s deeply she also forces us to confront the trenchant cultural critique, workplace. technology-driven Riggs also challenges dominant beliefs about aging and technology as they are disseminated in as they dominant beliefs about aging and technology Riggs also challenges of a wide range of material from films analysis on older focused incisive popular culture, offering characters such as The undergrad- minds to think independently. teaching and sparking young concern for innovative of an uninspiring lecture format,uate student is left in the cold: huge classes, and perhaps worst spares no suspect. Scarlett English is often highly teaching assistants whose all, inexperienced post-secondary educa- improve to efforts identifying the obstacles that prevent when sacred cows tion throughout the countr going to get worse. The rise in tuition has substantially outpaced inflation over the last few outpaced inflation over rise in tuition has substantially The going to get worse. decades, w insatiab g pared to question e Scarlett, M. (2004). Schneier
The Journal of Technology Studies 118 Spitz, P.H. (2003). Silberglitt, R.,Howell, D.R. &Sherry, L.(2003). Shagena, J Smith, J.E. (2004). e plex industry. and fascinating Concentratingonbasicand specialtychemicals,chapter authors on thee challenged? In attheMillennium,PeterThe Chemical Industry Spitz,who isarenowned expert ward inthelatenineties;by exceeded exports. 2001 chemicalimports l 1990s was inmorerapid- notenoughtokeep USchemical companiesfromseekingopportunities tootherareasoftheeconomyturned forbetterreturns. A 4percentgrowth ratethroughoutthe has notrecently impressedinvestors, andincreasingly bothindividuals andmoney managershave globalization of biotechnology andtheethicalsafetyquestionsraised. tohumansociety.benefits emphasisisgiven Inthisedition,greater tothepublic perception aspects ofbiotechnology arecovered andapositive thepotential stanceistaken concerning biotechnologytechniques andapplicationsofmodern forstudentsandthegeneralreader. All biotechnolo Microbiology attheUniversity ofStrathclyde inGlasgow, JohnSmithonceagain demystifies development andagriculture. tionized acti engineering, genomics,proteomics,andthecreationoftransgeniccropsanimalshasrevolu- of humankind, andtraditionalindustries. andspansamultitudeofmodern The riseofgenetic cer ISBN: 0-521-54077-1,$26.99. and otherDOE/ITpro anal ofEnergy (DOE)Industrial Department Technologies (IT)program. The RANDCorporation statements andotherdocumentsrelevant totheIndustriesofFutureinitiative oftheUS 0-8330-3490-1, $20.00. Program: LinkingindustrialR&Dneeds. how theFultonmyth evolved. amorecredible candidateforthetitleofitsinventor.development, andidentifies Healsoshows thenatureofinvention, examinesclarifies various individuals who tothesteamboat’s contributed and toplaceFulton’s inperspective. contribution JackL.Shagena,aretiredprofessionalengineer, did notinvent work thesteamboat. ofthesteamboat tochronicletheentirestory This isthefirst Humanity Books(Prometheus).ISBN1-59102-206-1,$35. this bookwillchangetheway you thinkabout security fortherestofyour life. debatesaboutsecurityinourcommunitiesandthenationatlarge, inthecurrent and confidently andontheroad,enhance securityathome,theoffice, moreknowledgeably ortoparticipate insights intosecuritydecisionsthatotherscanmake onyour behalf. Whether your goal isto be immediate. You’ll aboutthesecuritydecisionsyou have make, andnew moreconfidence achievement ofresearch goals. y g xamine man ns thepracticalapplicationofbiolo ro yzed this information toidentifylinksbetween Industriesprogramyzed thisinformation theDOE/ITSupporting Why thatprovides hasanindustry somany lifebeensoseverely oftheessentials ofmodern The global chemistry industry is big business andgrowing isbig business every industry year.The globalchemistry Butimpressive growth In thise Biotechnology willundoubtedly century. bethemajortechnology ofthetwenty-first Itcon- summarizestheresultsofanindependentanalysis ofthevision This documentedbriefing Fultonhimself,he toaccountsfoundinschooltextbooks, andtheclaimsofRobert Contrary wing re . L.(2004). volution oftheglobalchemicalindustry, lookatthiscom- experts andateamofindustry gy vities asv xpanded fourth editionofhispopulartextbook, EmeritusProfessorof xpanded fourth Applied . Philadelphia,PA: ChemicalHeritagePress.ISBN:0-941901-34-3,$45.00. y ofthetrends andmark gions withlo , andespeciall The chemical industryatthemillennium:Maturity, restructuring, and Biotechnology: Fourth edition Who r g aried asbre rams, w eally invented thesteamboat?Fulton’s Clermontcoup. w-cost feedstock,andtheUS tradebalanceinchemicalstur y geneticmanipulation,clearl hich could potentially form the basis for alliances to facilitate the hich couldpotentially thebasisforalliancestofacilitate form wing beerandthetreatmentofse et f gical organisms ortheirvarious componentstothebenefit actors thathave affected inthe thechemicalindustry Arlington, VA: RANDScienceand Technology. ISBN: Research prioritiesoftheSupportingIndustries . Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversity Press. y andaccessib w age andw l y explaining thehistory, aste Amherst, NY w ater ned do , todrug : wn - The Journal of Technology Studies 119 e . Communities of the . Durham, NC: Duke . Durham, NC: Duke . Durham, NC: Duk , and Nihilism y g hnolo , tec . e, the importance of morality in his thought v ger society xtensi : Christianity y English-language scholarship. Considered to be the y English-language scholarship. Considered : Radio century, radio culture radio : Radio century, tes is e ers as Nietzsche, Heidegger, Hans Blumenberg, and Karl Hans Blumenberg, ers as Nietzsche, Heidegger, xamination of contemporary debates about secularization, al thinker y on Descar , who is an associate professor of philosophy at Bucknell University, at Bucknell of philosophy is an associate professor , who w Descartes’ faith and rea- about the relation between ambivalence own ed in contemporar ve the human will. In this important the human ve reassessment of the great French ” raphy, and radio as an entry point into a history of sound in its own right. and radio as an entry point into a history of sound in its own raphy, nity in such think g ws ho erlook v gy: how it was modeled on the telephone, early conflicts between for-profit conflicts between and the telephone, early modeled on it was gy: how y Steiner Communities of the air Communities of the n age. Descartes as a mor ut o The audible past: Cultural origins of sound reproduction past: Cultural The audible , phono , Gar y mation of communities within the lar A pioneering analysis of radio as both a cultural and material production, of radio as both a cultural and material A pioneering analysis Although commentar Jonathan Sterne, full of artificial who sounds, for granted our noisy world, today. take We Drawing on the perspectives on literary studies and feminist the- and cultural studies, science on the perspectives Drawing Steiner provides a close analysis of all of Descartes’ analysis a close Steiner provides and correspondence texts bearing on explores radio’s powerful role in shaping Anglo-American culture and society since the early Anglo-American culture role in shaping powerful radio’s explores versity of Pittsburgh and writes about media, technology and the politics of culture, takes us and the politics of culture, takes and writes about media, technology of Pittsburgh versity s influence on radio) through examinations of Queen Elizabeth’s broadcasts, Gracie Allen’s broadcasts, Gracie of Queen Elizabeth’s s influence on radio) through examinations with. Steiner sho , G. (2004). , S.M. (2003). ave birth to the sound recording and transmission devices so ubiquitous in modern life. With an With so ubiquitous in modern birth life. sound recording and transmission devices to the ave y of the moder back to the cultural origins of sounds reproduction. He describes a distinctive sound culture that back to the cultural origins of sounds reproduction. He describes a distinctive g and cultural precursors scholar and musician Sterne uses the technological ear for the unexpected, of telephon University Press. ISBN: 0-8223-3095-4, $21.95 (Paperback). Press. ISBN: 0-8223-3095-4, University Humanity Books. ISBN: 1-59102-212-6, $59.00 Amherst, NY: (Paperback). Press. ISBN: 0-8223-3013-x, $22.95 University teaches in the Department for Cultural Studies at the of Communication and the Program Uni Air radio ways critics look at the many and radio writers, producers, and Scholars century. twentieth to resistant, canoni- dominant elite to popular, the air – from over generates multiple communities cal to transgressive. of field the development consider and the new studies, these essays of radio radio history, ory, radio as technolo radio. Some and low-power amateur radio (HAMS), local programming, uses of radio, and public groups, cultural on the BBC and poetry focusing to different voice radio gives pieces discuss how radio since the 1970s, and radio, the history Indies, black of alternative West in the programming influence on gender (and gen- science and contemporary arts Others look at radio’s programming. der’ the contributors demonstrate how Together women. geared toward and programming comedy, and the dynamic emergence radio is used and understood reveals of ways attention to the variety transfor recent past. The book offers an insider’s view of the restructuring and crazes reengineering and view an insider’s book offers The past. recent Internet. and the informationfac- Other technology by offered and roadblocks the improvements and the and globalization regulations of environmental include the impact into play tors that came The Chemical Industry at the for greater demand shareholder value. financial community’s changes interested in the else industry is a must read for Millennium and anyone professionals facingand challenges a great essential industry. and has been all b influence of Christian thought on the moral foundations of Descartes’ the shows philosophy. Steiner demonstrates Descartes’ context, in historical By placing his work morality. indebtedness conception of autonomous human reason, but his to Galileo and Bacon in developing not only Aquinas in conceptualizing the human condition and the role of belief in and Augustine also to of German, and English scholarship on Descartes, a detailed survey French, God. Providing Steiner concludes with an in-depth e nihilism, and moder Lo calls “the legitima- Blumenberg what regarding son can shed light on contemporary controversies c philosopher first acknowl- who Descartes secular thinker is often interpreted modern philosopher, as a wholly edged no authority abo Squier Steiner (2003). Sterne, J.
The Journal of Technology Studies 120 Sturk Van Dulken, S.(2004). Stoltzenberg, D. (2004). Germany intheearly twentieth century. is amustreadforhistoriansandscientists,asw detailed andf W studyinGermany, forscientific op industrialandpoliticalsupport hisdirectorshipoftheKaiser explores Haber’s personallife,includingthebreakdown ofhistwo hisefforts todevel- marriages, bers ofHaber’s own family. of technology. tobetter understandhowInternet, ourvisions andimaginationhave shapedthe meaninganduse examine innovations andtheportabletelevision pastandpresent, fromthetelegraph tothe nation, aswell asthemetaphorsthat have shapedpublic debatesabouttechnology, theauthors Focusing onissuessuchasthenatureofprediction,community, citizenship,consumption,andthe $26.95. that ha Barlow,Spigel, JohnPerry Langdon Winner, David Nye, andLord Asa Briggs,discussthevisions poses, shape,andpotentialfortheiruse. $23.95. his institutearound1920,w the follo hopes ofpa attempttoextract hisfailed goldfromseawater,lines inFlanders.Hisnationalismalsospurred in fromthefront history gas attackinmilitary true than othertypesofwarfare, hedirectedthefirst –andfortheexplosivessynthetic fertilizer Germany needed in World War I. andwonthermodynamics theNobelPrizeforhissynthesisofammonia, aprocessessentialfor century. English, illuminatesthelifeofonemostgiftedy Chemical HeritagePress.ISBN:0-941901-24-6,$40.00. oftechnology,history culturalstudies,communication,andmusic. centuries. With thoseinterestedinthe approach, thebookwillfascinate itstruly interdisciplinary and thatwhat we hearandhow we hearithasitsculturaloriginsinthenineteenthand twentieth middle class. technology,shifts ofindustrialcapitalism,colonialism,urbanization,modern andtheriseofanew fromdevelopmentsfeatures ofmodernity: inmedicine,physics, andphilosophy to the tumultuous singers. patients, deafchildrenandtheirteachers,professionalshobbyists, folkloristsandtribal ists andinventors, musiciansandphilosophers, embalmersandgrave robbers,doctorsand soundtechnologiesern backthroughahistorical labyrinth. Along theway, heencounters capital- useful patents that shapenew technologies en, M., ilhelm (no With thehelpofpreviously unpublished documentsandsources,DietrichStoltzenberg F Yet Haber, aJew by was birth, exiled fromhishomelandin1933by theNaziparty. Hedied An ardentpatriot,Haberalsode Haber, and outpioneeringresearch inelectrochemistry abrilliantphysical chemist,carried The long-awaited biography ofFritz Haber, now abridgedby theauthorandtranslatedinto A pro ofcommunication technology,Blending culturalstudiesandthehistory follows Sterne mod- or aslongpeopleha v e shaped“ne wing year, never knowing thefulldireeffects ofhiswork, asZyklonB, agas studiedin The Audible PastThe Audible Thomas, D. &Ball-Rokeach, S.J. (2004). vocative ofsound, history ying of w MaxPlanck)Institute,hisethicalstr ascinating portrait ofabrilliantscientistwhoascinating portrait isbothrevered andreviled, thisbook . W ashington Square,NY f Ger American inventions: A historyofcurious,extraordinary, &justplain Fritz Haber: Chemist,NobelLaureate, German,Jew w” technolo man tracks theconnectionsbetween ofsoundandthedefining thehistory as usedtomurderprisonersinconcentrationcamps,includingmem y’ . Philadelphia,PA: Temple University Press.ISBN:1-59213-226-X, ve developed new technologies, therehasbeenadebateover thepur- s hugew gies andtheculturalimplicationsoftechnolo The veloped chemicalweapons. Believing themtobenoworse ar reparations. : Ne Audible Past A rangeofcontrib w York University Press.ISBN: 0-8147-8813-0, ell as those with an interest in the history of ell asthosewithaninterestinthehistory T uggles intimesofw ec hnological visions:thehopesandfears asser et controversialofthetwentieth figures ts thatsoundisnotanaturalcategory utors, includingSher ar, andmuchmore. A . Philadelphia,PA: gical adaptation. ry Turkle,ry Lynn - The Journal of Technology Studies 121 - tcom . tain to create hy we all have a have all we hy is cer mer Hunsaker actor ws readers w , Vicente definesVicente his theory of mecha- , The Human F eloped without human nature in mind. Our eloped without human nature in mind. v accident, among others, Professor Vicente demon- Vicente accident, among others, Professor ard winning author and for w A The Human Factor is a captivating catalog of the famous and not-so-famous con- catalog is a captivating Challenger , McLean ender Stratocaster electric guitar to the “human-tech” shor hen designs are de shows how trends in the history in States are reflected of the United how shows taining as it is provocative, taining as it is provocative, actor ” the author seeks to reconcile two heretofore incompatible elements and incompatible heretofore ” the author seeks to reconcile two y arise w ush and the F le and enter The human factor: Revolutionizing the way people live with technology the way Revolutionizing The human factor: American Inventions gy. gy. lic debate. The Human F it from making consumer goods easier to use. He sho it from making consumer goods easier e in reforming the aviation industry, the health industry, and the way we live day-to-day live we and the way the health industry, industry, e in reforming the aviation , in gy, our full capacities won’t be realized. This incessantly readable and ultimately and ultimately readable This incessantly be realized. our full capacities won’t gy, gy, perpetuating a vicious cycle as we struggle up. perpetuating to keep as we a vicious cycle gy, American Inventions American w ith “human-tech, As accessib Human beings are capable of many remarkable things, but if we become alienated from things, but if we remarkable of many Human beings are capable W Technological innovation is progressing at such a rapid pace that we have fallen behind in have at such a rapid pace that we is progressing innovation Technological No – the relation- made invisible ignored – and virtually of thinking have Our traditional ways An American, Thomas Alva Edison, invented the light bulb, but who invented the pregnancy invented bulb, the light but who Edison, invented Alva Thomas American, An mil- 1 million to 6 US patents rose from registered the number of 1911 and 1999, Between versity student recalled throwing around the lids from the pie cans of the nearby Frisbie the lids from the pie cans of the nearby around student recalled throwing versity w York, NY: Routledge. ISBN: 0-415-97064-4, $27.95. NY: York, w ves. But the negative impact of technology on contemporary society goes well beyond the beyond on contemporary goes well society impact of technology the negative But ves. ould benef hopeful, groundbreaking work offers solutions that have enormous for human implications solutions that have offers hopeful, groundbreaking work life. strates how this lack of “human-tech” thinking helped lead to these most likely preventable helped lead to these most likely this lack of “human-tech” thinking strates how calamities. technolo provide examples and suggestions of how ever-advancing technology can better serve, rather than technology ever-advancing and suggestions of how examples provide the “human-tech” successes of such items as from discusses everything Vicente rule, mankind. the Reach toothbr nistic versus humanistic schools of thought and how these two disparate ideologies – essentially disparate ideologies these two how humanistic schools of thought and nistic versus be best mode of thinking – would human/emotional the purely tunnel vision versus technological as he defines or, it, more “human-tech.” more complimentary, were served if they such as the disaster at industries. Citing historical events ings of the medical and nuclear power the Space Shuttle and Chernobyl vigorous pub Baking Company, but it was not until 1948 that Fred Morrison and Warren Francioni capitalized Francioni MorrisonWarren 1948 that Fred not until and but it was Baking Company, Americans’on for a patent on a flying applying saucers by fascination with flying new-found the home, the patents of the workplace, and inventions the surveys Dulken Van plastic disk. to find and the compelling stories to name a few, and the beauty parlor, kitchen, the open road, the to the jukebox pins to in-line skates, from bobby From American history. eureka moments in fax machine, with technolo the patent records. For example, the invention of the Frisbee dates back to 1920 when a Yale a when dates back to 1920 of the Frisbee the invention example, the patent records. For Uni of life. way American the shaped traptions that have Ne VCRs to is filled from human error, our ability to manage it. Our world that invite with objects sto areas as significant items, often affecting as hospital these everyday frustrations caused by cata- – some potentially plants. Problems administration, airplane cockpits, and nuclear power strophic- continuousl confusing more sophisticated and ultimately reaction to this dilemma has been to create technolo makes Vicente Astronautics at MIT Kim Aeronautics and Professor of Visiting Distinguished beings and technology. human between can bridge the widening gap people clear how vividly coordina- from simple matters such as hand-eye – of human activity level every He investigates businesses regulatory agencies, and why human system such as government tion to complex w vital stak In people and technology. ship between test? Or the air bag? Who patented the firstWho patented an expert bag? Or the air test? in curator Dulken, van Stephen computer? and patents inventions the way examines Informationthe Patents Services of the British Library, Dream. American create the helped to have such as these Trademark and from the US Patent patent drawing dozens of those original lion. Showcasing Office, Vicente, K. (2004). Vicente,
The Journal of Technology Studies 122 Criteria Directors rendersfinalapprovaloftheprocessandaward. A the boardfortheirevaluationagainstcriteria. those reviewedduringtheyear Each memberoftheEditorialBoardrecommendsmanuscriptthatheorsheconsidersbest Selection Process in thisjournal. name. Itisgiventotheauthororauthorsofarticlesjudgedbebestthosepublishedeachyear service totheprofessionandhonoraryasa Trustee andDirector, theawardbearsDr. Hiser’s The BoardofDirectorsestablishedthisawardfordeservingscholars.Inrecognitionhisexemplary announce therecipientsofPaul T. HiserExemplaryPublication Award forVolume XXX,2004. The BoardofEditors The Journalof Technology StudiesandtheBoardofDirectorsarepleasedto at anannualprofessionalassociationconference. fortheyearandispresentedduringanEpsilonPi Taurecipient(s) program the recognizes award $300 A 2. in technology. 1. majority voteoftheeditorsisrequiredforawardtobemade. The honorsociety’s Boardof The articleshouldbeexemplaryinoneormoreofthefollowingways: The subjectmatterofthemanuscriptmustbeclearlyindomainoneormoreprofessions • Uniqueyetprobablesolutionstocurrentorfutureproblems. • Trends orissuesthatcurrentlyinfluencethefieldarelikelytoaffect it. • Innovativeresearchmethodologyanddesign. • Historicalconsequenceinthatitcontainssignificantlessonsforthepresentandfuture. • Ground-breakingphilosophicalthought. “Leadership KnowledgeandSkill: An EnablerforSuccess Exemplary PublicationAwardExemplary as a Technology Education Teacher–Leader” . The 2004PaulT. Hiser The editorforwardscopiesofnominatedmanuscriptstothemembers Robert E.WenigRobert Recipients The Journal of Technology Studies 123 - round on wledge of m readers. vey design, 4) vey en fieldof gy, its applica- gy, v or 7) conclu / d ed method approaches w vistas on the topic, 2) ysis, an y ne view of the journal. Articles of the journal. view ticular technolo ut not in-depth kno e, or mix v y to interest and infor el elopments within a gi v arding a par y assume some technical backg g e, quantitati v t of the reader b implementation, and/or education, development, industrial research and in shaping the future. role gy’s icient sample size, 3) improper sur issues of the journal are only of potential interest issues of the journal are only y: 1) open up entirel f • technolo- and technologies and emerging new • its of technology, immense diversity this Within ns or modifies sub- prior conceptions, or 3) engage ecution, analysis, and conclusions. Surveys, for and conclusions. Surveys, ecution, analysis, x if the significant informationprovide or data that over- new tur articles published in one or more previously stantially a debate that is lik of as are metanalyses are welcome technology research re tions, or the process of technical education and /or skill acquisition. Research studies should employ procedures appropriate to the problem methodological design, suitable being addressed and must evince e administration, 5) high mortality, inappropriate survey 6) inadequate statistical anal Syntheses of de char- or all of the following any that exhibit example, acteristics are of no interest to the journal: 1) insuffi- 2) of prior research on this topic, cient awareness insuf either the data or the research sions not supported by The journal to is neutral in regards design employed. qualitati to research but insists on research quality. applications and import, authors must communicate semi-techni- and only informatively, concisely, clearly, set of backgrounds. to readers from a diverse cally Authors ma the par that is the focus of the arti-the particular technology field technical articles on any cle. Highly of technolo- gy are not within the pur in explored been extensively subject focus has whose prior - gy or its y considera GUIDELINES FOR GUIDELINES , gy (JOTS) is the flagship, peer-reviewed journal of Epsilon Pi Tau, Tau, journal of Epsilon Pi is the flagship, peer-reviewed (JOTS) manuscripts from ained b gy. Authors are strong- Authors gy. ields of technolo original gy of technolo .catdir/cpso/lcco/lcco_t.pdf>. This v ve honor society among technology society among technology honor ve y, philosophy, sociology, economics, sociology, philosophy, y, y manifestations, industrial technology, and y manifestations, industrial technology, .loc.go ogy that highlight the difference these individu- that highlight the difference ogy als made in distinct f wider appreciation within society, environment from formal to the work education or vice versa, histor and anthropolo to other disciplines, national levels, ication scheme of the Library of Congress, USA eb The JOTS welcomes welcomes The JOTS A general guide to the breadth of topics of poten- A general guide to the breadth of topics portraitsbrief biographical • of leaders in technol- practice, • thoughtful reflections about technology insights about personal transitions in technology • • within society and its relationship technology • at local, national, and inter- policy technology • development, studies of technology comparative • ell as the broader public. Authors need not be mem- Authors need ell as the broader public. A publication of refereed honor society for professions in technology. the international The Studies Journal Technology of SUBJECT FOCUS SUBJECT FOCUS tion of the 17 subclasses within “Technology” of the tion of the 17 subclasses within “Technology” classif The Journal of Technology Studies 124 conform to conform APA andstyle. form g to conform American usage.Figures, tables, photo- English languagewillbeacceptedandthe tion offontand12point.Onl Bo Epsilon Pi Tau, Technology Building Editor should bemailedto: Cheek, [email protected] submissions shouldbesenttotheeditor, Dr. Dennis arealsopermissible.E-mail containing thearticle submission ofthreeprintedcopiesandadiskette Microsoft Word areencouraged, formats although or tronic submissionsineitherrich-text format else under considerationelsewhere, andnotbepublished nal, representwork ofthenamedauthors,notbe edition ofthePub GUIDELINES FORSUBMISSION not meritreview by theeditorialboardareinformed eration by Authors whothatdoes submitanarticle REVIEW PROCESS should be double spaced, includingreferences. Typescript Bowling Green,Ohio43403-0305 Psycholo The Journal ofTechnology Journal Studies The raphs, andar wling GreenStateUni where inEnglishorany otherlanguage.Elec- Articles must conform to the most current tothemostcurrent mustconform Articles Articles deemedworthyArticles by theeditorforconsid- Manuscripts shouldbenomorethat25pages, , Jour gical Times New Roman nal of tw Association. ork mustbeofgoodqualityand lication Manualofthe Technology Studies v ersity All articles mustbeorigi- All articles y manuscriptsinthe or acloseapproxima- aper submissions GUIDELINES FOR American y should (Continued) undergoing tenurereview. thathasnotyetarticle appearedinprintforfaculty when aboutanaccepted requested information along withEpsilonPi Tau. 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