29). Our Friends the Pollinators. a Handbook of Pollinator

Home , Agaonidae, Basiothia

Our Friends thePollinators A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa Dino J Martins “This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribu- tion 4.0 International license. To view a copy of the license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/” Our Friends thePollinators A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa Dino J Martins Published in 2014 by Nature Kenya, the East Africa Natural History Society National Museums of Kenya, Museum Hill P. O. Box 44486, GPO, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya

Tel: (+254) (0) 20 3537568 or (0) 771 343138 [email protected] naturekenya.org

Produced with support from the Whitley Fund for Nature and the GEF- UNEP-FAO Global Pollination Project.

All copyright for material appearing in this publication belongs to Nature Kenya, and the author. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form, or by any means– photographic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping–without the prior written consent of the publisher.

ISBN-9966-761-22-5

Editorial assistance by Catherine G. Ngarachu

Design: Job Ballard, Aksent Ltd

Cover illustration: Plants and their pollinators are one of the most important components of biodiversity on our planet. All illustrations by the author.

Back cover: Illustrations of East African plants by the author.

How to cite: Martins, DJ (2014). Our Friends the Pollinators: A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa. Nature Kenya - The East Africa Natural History Society, Nairobi, Kenya 102 pp.

very day people are connected to nature by those activities of pollinators that contribute to producing food. The goal of this book, Our Friends the Pollinators, is to inspire excitement about Epollinators, and make the link with food, and people’s livelihoods. This book also aims to create awareness, provide practical information on the diversity of pollinators in East Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Burundi), and introduce you to a few of them.

The relationships between insects and flowers are ancient, intricate, and fragile. Working with pollinators helps us to glimpse, and understand some of the most wonderfully beautiful, and complex interactions on the planet.

We expect that the learning shared in this book will help to shape a strong grassroots movement that works for the protection of habitats, better farming practices, and the restoring of pollination services.

We hope that our sense of wonder at pollinators, and their interaction with flowers, will pass to future generations through this book.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa v Introduction v Acknowledgements viii Foreword 1 Why We Need Pollinators 2 Pollinator Diversity 4

Wild Bees, also called Native Bees 4

Honey Bees 8

Stingless Bees 10

Carpenter Bees 12

Leafcutter Bees 14

Halictid Bees 16

Butterflies and Moths 18

Sunbirds 24

Bats and Bushbabies 28

Wasps and Figwasps 30

Flies 34

Beetles 38

Ants 40 Crop Pollination 42

Legume Crops: Runner Beans, Cowpeas and Pigeon Peas 44

Passionfruit 46

Eggplant 48

vi Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa Contents

Mango 50

Coffee 52

Watermelon, Squashes and Cucumber 54

Papaya 56

Spices and seeds 58

Traditional Vegetables 60

Forage and Fodder Plants 62

Plants for pollinators 64 Creating Natural habitat 80 Summary of Threats 84 Bee Hotels 90 Pollinators and Pesticides 92 Crops dependent on pollinators grown in East Africa 96 Connecting nature and people 100 We need your help–what can you do? 100 About the author 102

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa vii Acknowledgements

irst and foremost I would like to thank the many farmers and communities I have been privileged to work with, and who participated in our pollinator projects across East Africa. Though Ffar too many to mention individually, they hold the future of pollinators in their hands. Only with their help can we develop more sustainable agriculture, and ensure that pollinators persist as part of our heritage contributing to our lives and livelihoods.

This publication is the result of collaboration and support from many different institutions over the years including Nature Kenya, the National Museums of Kenya, the Turkana Basin Institute-Stony Brook University, the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, the Kenyan Horticultural Society, the Mpala Research Centre, the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, the Pest Control Products Board, the Suyian Trust and the National Geographic Society. The Global Pollination Project of the Global Environment Facility – United Nations Environment Program – Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations has directly supported this work in Kenya, as has the Whitley Fund for Nature.

In Kenya, the work of the GEF-UNEP-FAO Kenya Pollination Project being implemented through the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) has been a key part of this work. I would like to thank W. Kinuthia, C. Odhiambo, L. Njoroge (NMK), M. Kasina (KARI) and all the members of the National Steering Committee and Technical Advisory Committee as well as staff and scientists of the National Museums of Kenya.

Information, insights, support, and collaboration in many different forms have been provided by the following people: A. Powys, G. Powys, L. Coverdale, D. Roberts, N. Pierce, W. Tong, J. Kingdon, L. Snook, D. Estes, E. O. Wilson, K. Horton, R. Leakey, M. Leakey, L. Martin, A. DeRosalia, G. Domberger, D. Wallis, E. Whitley, A. Whitley, I. Angelei, P. Kahumbu, S. Kahumbu, H. Herren, S. Miller, T. Kuklenski-Miller, S. Kocher, M. Kinnaird, J. Mamlin, S. E. Mamlin, N. Croze, E. Krystall, M. N. Mutiso, V. Otieno, P. Matiku, D. Kathurima, F. Ng’weno, M. Gikungu, L. Njoroge, T. Griswold, L. Packer, B. Danforth, C. Eardley, M. Kulhmann, J. Ascher, N. Azzu, P. Lomosingo, B. Obanda, W. Okeka, W. Tiren, J. Margaret, C. Zook, J. Sandhu, Q. Luke, H. Beentje, A. D. Q. Agnew, P. D. Paterson, and many others.

I very much appreciate the many years of guidance, information, and support provided to me by Barbara Gemmill-Herren.

I am grateful too to Catherine Ngarachu for her energy and assistance, and to Job Ballard for his outstanding design.

viii Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa FOREWORD

e live in one of the most diverse and beautiful regions on the planet. WIn a part of the world where most people make their living from farming, and are directly connected to nature in their daily lives. This book is therefore an excellent effort to engage the general public on the diversity and importance of wild pollinators for agriculture and livelihoods.

We depend, in East Africa, on many different ecosystem services that come from nature for free. These include water resources, fertility of soil, energy from biomass, control of soil erosion, and pollination. To ensure we continue to have these vital services we need public awareness and education—two of the most important tools available for conservation and sustainable development.

Global awareness about the crisis surrounding the conservation of biodiversity and environment has grown significantly. However, it is important to connect this global movement to local action, and the information presented in this book will enable farmers, teachers, and schoolchildren across East Africa to better understand, celebrate, and conserve pollinators in their farms and gardens.

The Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources–custodian of biodiversity in the country, salutes the supporting partners. With this publication the National Museums of Kenya, the GEF-UNEP-FAO Kenya Pollination Project, the Whitley Fund for Nature, and Nature Kenya are helping to raise awareness about better conserving pollinators. This beautifully designed guidebook, reminds us of how much we have to celebrate in pollinators and biodiversity as part of our national heritage.

H.E. Professor Judi Wakhungu The Cabinet Secretary

Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources P. O. Box 30026-00100 Nairobi

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 1 Longhorn bee approaches an Orthosiphon sp. Why We Need flower: pollinators are essential for the reproduction of Pollinators flowering plants. hen a flower is pollinated resources like water, food, fodder, it can produce seeds, and and fuel. Through natural processes Wfruits. Pollination is the in the environment, ecosystem transfer of pollen from the anthers services also serve us with: to the stigma of a flower. Plants rely on wind, water, or animals called • Habitats for people, plants, and pollinators to move pollen between animals different flowers. In this way • Water storing, and cleaning flowers can produce more seeds, • Soils that can support plant and and fruits. animal life • Interactions like pollination Pollination, is an often overlooked ‘ecosystem service’. An ecosystem Pollinators provide a vital link with service is a benefit that is provided nature supporting human life, and free by healthy environments that is subsistence. In Africa pollinators essential to the wellbeing of people. are primarily insects that travel People find in the environment between farms and natural habitats,

2 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa and are extremely vulnerable to without sacrificing nature, and “One in habitat loss, and destruction. ecological processes. three Small species-rich habitats, such as The threats to pollinators however, bites of forest patches, hedgerows, strips of don’t just come from habitat wildflowers and grasses, and fallow destruction. The growing misuse of food land need to be conserved to save pesticides, for example, is a very real is thanks pollinators. threat. In this case, there is hope that we can actually get it right here to a The future of so many of these in Africa. We can prevent misuse pollinator” habitats relies upon rural farmers by disseminating information about who need to be engaged as partners how chemicals affect wild insects, in conservation. The beauty of and what can be done to limit pollination is that it draws a strong exposure. By carefully managing and clear link between livelihoods, the use of pesticides we protect not sustainability, and the protection of just pollinators, but soils, streams, the environment. Working with and human communities too. farmers to foster an understanding of pollinators, and habitats, directly In many parts of Kenya you can contributes to improving food easily find over 100 bee species security, and alleviating poverty in a given landscape. Bees, and through increased yields. other pollinators are beautiful and fascinating—worth studying in Once we recognize that something their own right, offering us much as fundamental as food production pleasure. is tied to biodiversity, we can begin to tap into the great potential there Spend time outdoors watching bees, is to do this in ways that directly and other pollinators. Indeed, the improve human health, and main goal of this book is to inspire nutrition. The recent global die- people across East Africa to get offs of honeybees for example, have more engaged–watching, studying, Many of the crops we shown the dangers of relying on appreciating, and conserving grow are dependent just one species given the staggering pollinators–on farms, gardens, on wild insects diversity of just bees. villages, and protected areas. pollinators.

The decline of biodiversity is accelerating at a grim pace, just as we are beginning to learn about the intricate connections between nature, human life, and livelihoods. We stand to lose the very species, and interactions that underpin our subsistence, and the life support systems of our planet.

Blessed with some of the most diverse habitats on the planet, conservation in East Africa is up against the huge challenge of producing food for a growing population. We need to do this

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 3 Bees

ees are insects. Together Most wild bees are solitary, Bwith ants and wasps they though some like honeybees and belong in the insect group stingless bees are social. Wild Hymenoptera. You may be bees mostly collect pollen and surprised that there are over nectar from flowers but there are 20,000 known species of bees in those that also collect oils, and the world. Bees in East Africa other substances from flowers. include carpenter bees, Amegilla bees, stingless bees, longhorn Other bee families commonly bees, and honeybees. found in East Africa are the leafcutter bees, which use leaves These bees vary from each other to line their nests, and the physically—being of different halictid bees, which is a large, sizes and shapes, and in their diverse family of bees. behaviour. Some wild bees nest in tree hollows, others build Wild bees pollinate about two- their nests underground; some thirds of the vegetables and will visit a variety of flowers to fruits grown in East Africa, and feed, others specialise, and feed are one of the most important from only one, or two families groups of pollinators for all of flowers; many of these bees flowering plants in the world. are active most of the day, while others may only be active in the early morning, or evening.

4 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Long-faced bee (Thrincostoma sp.) resting on a leaf at the edge of Kakamega Forest. Most wild bees are solitary and females forage and provision nests on their own.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 5 Bees are the most diverse group of insect pollinators. Top, left to right An Amegilla bee approaches some Cleome flowers, small carpenter bee (Ceratina sp.) on legume. bottom Amegilla on Leucas sp.

6 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Top, and bottom right Amegilla spp. on Leucas.

BOTTOM LEFT Halictid bee on cultivated basil.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 7 Honeybees Honeybees have here are thousands of known date to thousands of years ago. developed an Tspecies of bees in the world. Indeed, Honeybees originate in exceptional method But when most people think of East Africa, and like humans of communication a bee, they think of a honeybee. migrated out of Africa to the rest through movement. Honeybees, Apis mellifera, are of the world. When a honeybee just one kind of bee. They are returns to the in the family Apidae. They live There are more wild varieties hive, and wants to socially in large colonies, and of honeybees in Africa than inform her fellow are commonly kept in domestic anywhere else in the world. In bees of how to find beehives, or are found in the Kenya, there are two different a particular area wild inside hollow trunks. kinds of honeybees: with flowers, she performs a special Honeybees visit flowers to feed Common Honeybee dance called a on nectar and pollen, and collect This more familiar orange-and- ‘waggle’ dance. This these foods to take back to the black coloured bee is typically dance conveys three hive. Honeybees make use of seen in grassland, bush, coastal, different things nectar to produce honey. It takes and forest areas. about a patch of four worker honeybees their wildflowers to entire lives to produce just one Mountain Honeybee the other worker teaspoonful of honey. From This is a dark, chocolate- honeybees: the honeybees come other useful coloured honeybee that is direction (relative products including beeswax, adapted to the high altitude areas to the sun and propolis, royal jelly, and bee of Mount Kenya, the Aberdare hive), the distance venom. range, and Mount Elgon where it (from the hive to the can be found. wildflowers), and the There is a long history between quality of the food honeybees and humans. Honeybees pollinate many crops, (nectar and pollen). African rock art depicting herbs, wildflowers, and trees. people harvesting wild honey Common honeybee pollinating coffee flowers.

8 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Honeybees on different flowers. top, left to right Common honeybees (Apis mellifera scutellata) on Aloe sp., and Argemone mexicana.

middle, left to right Mountain honeybee on Leucas sp., common honeybee on Bauhinia sp.

Bottom, left to right Common honeybees on Euphorbia sp., a member of the daisy family–Compositae sp., and cultivated basil (image cutout).

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 9 Stingless Bees

Many people ike the honeybee, stingless stingless bees but the knowledge simply harvest Lbees are social, and live in is not widespread. Many people colonies, each having a queen simply harvest stingless bee nests stingless and workers. They are also called by breaking open the nest, which bee nests ‘Sweat Bees’ as they are attracted results in the entire colony being to the salt in human sweat, and killed. This is very destructive, by breaking hover around the ears and eyes and has led to the disappearance open the nest, of people in hot areas. of stingless bees from some which results areas. Stingless bees are smaller than in the entire honeybees, and live in hollow Stingless bees are very colony being trees, rocks, and even termite important pollinators as they killed. mounds. They often make rely entirely on flowers for vertical tubes from resin at the nectar and pollen to feed their entrances to their nests. Inside larvae. They pollinate many their nests, they have special pots forest and dryland plants, and in which they store honey, and are also valued pollinators separate areas for storing pollen, of strawberries, mango, and Large stingless and housing the larvae. avocado. bee (Meliponula bocandei) gathers pollen from the There are places in East Africa, anthers of a lily. with a tradition of keeping

10 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Stingless bees. top, left to right Stingless bee, Meliponula bocandei, robbing nectar from a rainforest Barleria flower, stingless bee hives for honey production at Kakamega Forest, and stingless bee drinking moisture from leaf.

Middle, left to right Close-up views inside the nest of the stingless bee Meliponula ferruginea.

Bottom, left to right Small stingless bee (Hypotrigona sp.), and large stingless bees–at their nest entrances.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 11 Carpenter Bees

arpenter bees are familiar dusk visiting flowers that would Cto farmers and gardeners as typically not be available to bees. the bees that fly noisily around Large carpenter bees visit a wide wooden buildings, and on farms range of flowers, where they in the mornings. They include serve as important pollinators of the widespread and abundant legumes that require ‘tripping’ genus Xylocopa, the large of the flowers, and of plants that carpenter bees, and Ceratina require buzz-pollination—such and Allodapula bees, which are as Solanum spp. They also known as small carpenter bees. serve as pollinators of orchids, milkweeds (Calotropis), and Carpenter bees include the cultivated passionfruit. largest bee in East Africa: Xylocopa nigrita, which has Most large carpenter bee nests spectacular large females marked are excavated in wood—hence in black-and-white, and bright their name. They burrow all-golden males. tunnels, and construct cells they Carpenter bee fill with pollen from plants. (Xylocopa Large carpenter bees are active Small carpenter bee nests are inconstans), earlier and later than most other excavated in pithy dry stems approaches the flowers ofCleome bees as their larger size enables of plants, including the old parvipetala in them to warm up and forage on flowering spikes of aloes. Tarangire, Tanzania. cool mornings. They often fly at

12 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Carpenter bees. Top, left to right Carpenter bee, Xylocopa flavorufa, approaches a floweringMaerua, carpenter bees on a coastal Sterculiaceae sp.

MIDDLE, left to right Carpenter bee on the flowering Sterculiaceae–note the large amounts of pollen on the bee’s body, Blue-eyed carpenter bee on Crotolaria sp.

BOTTOM, left Carpenter bee approaching wild basil (Ocimum sp.).

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 13 Leafcutter Bees

eafcutter bees are named visited for pollen and nectar, Lfor their habit of cutting out and leafcutter bees are especially circular pieces of leaves from efficient at ‘tripping’ the flowers cultivated plants. Leafcutters are of Crotolaria, Indigofera, stocky, robust bees with large Tephrosia, and other legume eyes. They range in colour from species. grey to brown, and can be boldly marked with orange, white, Nests of leafcutter bees are red, or yellow. It is with the distinctive and unique, underside of their abdomen that constructed from overlapping they transport pollen. When circles of cut pieces of leaf this is fully packed it is a bright taken from a variety of plants. patch of colour on their bellies— Generally those having fairly flat, readily visible as they forage smooth leaves are chosen, and from flowers. are glued together with resin and waxy secretions. Nests can often Mass-flowering trees such as be found on furniture, walls of Close-up of a freshly acacias are among the wide buildings and other man-made emerged leafcutter range of plants visited by structures. bee. leafcutter bees. Wildflowers are

14 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Various species of leafcutter bees in action. top, left to right Megachile sp. on Crotolaria, Gronocera hovering near pigeonpea.

MIDDLE, left TO RIGHT Leafcutter bee gripping flower with its mandibles, leafcutter bee on Crotolaria.

lower middle, left to right Leafcutter bee cutting leaf-circles from a capsicum, large leafcutter bee approaches Crotolaria brevidens–note the large patch of pollen carried on the bee’s underside.

bottom, left to right Leafcutter bee carrying leaf to nest.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 15 Halictid Bees his is a very large and Eusocial bees are those like Tdiverse family of bees. They honeybees, with sterile workers are small to medium-sized bees, who have given up reproducing, and are often the most common and instead support larvae from bees encountered visiting eggs laid by a fertile queen. This flowers. About one-third of bees means that they are divided into in East Africa are halictids. a series of specialised castes.

Halictid bees nest in cavities, Common genera of halictid primarily in the ground as bees in East Africa include well as in wood. Halictids also Lipotriches, Nomia, Pseudapis, have a wide range of social Lasioglossum Patellapis, behaviour. While the vast Seladonia, Thrincostoma, majority are solitary, a few Nomioides, Cellariella, and halictid bees have variable levels Ceylalictus. The biology, of social organisation including behaviour and diversity of most Halictid bee, communal nesting, sharing halictid bees in East Africa Seladonia sp., on nests, semi-social, and even remains poorly studied. flowers ofBidens sp. those almost fully eusocial.

16 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Halictid bee diversity. top, left to right Lasioglossum sp. on Justicia, Nomia sp. approaching Solanum sp.

MIDDLE, LEFT TO RIGHT Seladonia sp. visiting Bidens sp., Tiny Nomioides in a flower ofTribulus terrestris.

BOTTOM, LEFT TO RIGHT Systropha sp. at an Ipomoea flower, long-faced bee Thrincostoma sp. on a member of the hibiscus family, unidentified halictid gathering pollen on a wild daisy (image cutout).

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 17 Fulvous hawkmoth, Coelonia fulvinotata, approaching flowers of the orchid Aerangis brachycarpa. The long-tongue of the moth and long spur Butterflies of the orchid flower are one of the most famous examples of and Moths coevolution.

utterflies are well known evening, or at night to feed. Binsects that are active by day. Hawkmoths are very large moths They land on flowers to feed, so that are active at flowers at dusk. they prefer large, or flat flowers With powerful wing beats they where this is possible. Butterflies hover before a flower, and use pollinate many red flowers with their extra long tongues to access short tubes. nectar in these flowers.

Flowers that are pollinated by About 4 % of all the plants moths, are often white or pale, in Kenya, including Papaya and have a strong fragrance. The (pawpaw) fruit, and many fragrance is often only released different African orchids, are at night to attract nocturnal pollinated by hawkmoths. moths that come out in the

18 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Top, LEFT TO RIGHT Acraea butterflies on Bidens and Sphaeranthus flowers.

Middle One-pip policeman skipper butterfly onAcacia brevispica.

Bottom Comma hawkmoth (Nephele sp.) probes the flowers of aGrewia .

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 19 top, LEFT TO RIGHT Colotis sp. on Kalanchoe flowers, Green-patch swallowtail sipping salts from mud.

MIDDLE Netted Sylph skipper butterfly on flowers of Orthosiphon sp.

BOTTOM Brown- veined white, Belenois aurota, on a Sphaeranthus flower.

An Acraea sips nectar from a wild daisy.

20 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Top, left to right Colotis sp. on fireball lily, Playboy butterfly sipping nectar.

Middle, left to right Painted lady on Pentanisia, Green- patch Swallowtail on Kleinia, and an Acraea on Bidens sp. (image cutout).

Bottom, left TO RIGHT Common Scarlet butterfly, Axiocerses sp. sips nectar, Hairstreak butterfly onJusticia sp.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 21 Hawkmoths. Top Small verdant hawkmoth Basiothia medea, visits a flowering Carissa.

Middle, left TO RIGHT Unidentified hawkmoth on a forest Vernonia, Fulvous hawkmoth at Combretum flowers.

Bottom Skipper butterfly onImpatiens sp. in forest.

22 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Top, left TO RIGHT Fulvous hawkmoth approaching Aerangis orchid, Convolvulus hawkmoth visiting flowers ofTurraea sp.

Middle Verdant hawkmoth and White-lined Sphinx at Pergularia flowers.

Bottom, LEFT TO RIGHT Skipper butterflies atBidens sp. and at a member of the hibiscus family.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 23 © P. U sher

Eastern violet- backed sunbird on acacia flowers. Sunbirds unbirds are colourful hot Poker Trees. Spollinators of many plants. They are generally small in size, Many of the plants pollinated and have long curved beaks. by sunbirds have adapted to particular sunbirds, having Flowers pollinated by sunbirds a tubular shape, and size to are often red or orange, have correspond to the sunbird’s long tubular flowers, with lots beak. Other organisms cannot of sugary nectar. Giant lobelias pollinate these flowers. Sunbirds that grow on the high mountains also feed on insects that visit of East Africa are pollinated by flowers. sunbirds, as are Aloes and Red-

24 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY © P. U sher © P.

Collared sunbird on flowering poinsettia.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 25 © C. E ardley

Top Beautiful sunbird (illustration), and Scarlet-chested sunbird on aloe flower.

Bottom Marico sunbird on flowering aloe.

Many of the plants pollinated by sunbirds have adapted to particular sunbirds

26 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Top Scarlet- tufted Malachite sunbird–a high- altitude specialised pollinator of giant lobelias and other plants.

Bottom Shining sunbird female at nest–note the pollen coating her throat indicating she has been visiting flowering aloes.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 27 Bats and Bushbabies

oths are not the only In forest, over savannah, near Mpollinators active in the farms or settlements, bats can dark—bats and bushbabies travel great distances over a are mammals that feed during single night, and as they feed the night. Flowers that are they may convey pollen from pollinated by bats open in the flower to flower pollinating evening, or during the night, many different trees along the contain nectar, and have a fruity way. Bats also pollinate sausage scent. trees, mangoes, and bananas.

The white flowers of baobab Bushbabies have very large eyes trees are a good example. Baobab as they hunt at night, and feed trees are pollinated by fruit bats, on insects, acacia gum, seeds, and occasionally by bushbabies. bird eggs, fruit and flowers. Lesser galago Bats feed not only on the nectar, When they feed on baobab (bushbaby) resting in but also on flower parts, and any flowers they eat parts of the an acacia. insects in the flower. flower, and while doing so take pollen from flower to flower. © P. U sher

28 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Top Fruit bats resting inside a cave.

Bottom, left to RIGHT Fruit bat, Yellow-winged bat at rest–this species mainly hawks insects at flowers. © P. U sher © P. U sher © P.

Fruit bat and baobab flower illustrated. Baobab is a species pollinated by bats.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 29 Wasps and Figwasps

Fig wasps any people think wasps are figwasp is adapted to be able to (Agaonidae) a nuisance, or are afraid burrow its way through a tiny are specialised M pollinators that have of wasps because they sting. opening into the fruit to bred, co-evolved with figs, But wasps are also beneficial. and pollinate the flowers. Ficus spp. As they are predatory, and capture insects they provide vital There are many species of fig ecological pest control services. trees in East Africa, and each Wasps also require pollen and can be pollinated only by a nectar, and are common visitors particular species of figwasp. to flowers. They carry pollen as The tree cannot survive without they move around flowers, and the figwasp, and the wasp cannot serve as pollinators. survive without the tree. They are wedded together forever. It is Figwasps are the tiny pollinators female figwasps who pollinate, of mighty fig trees, with being able to fly between trees. whom they have a very special Males never leave the fig they are relationship. Figs trees have their born in. flowers inside the fruit. The

30 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Life-cycle of fig wasp and pollination of fig. top, left TO RIGHT Green figs (are actually enclosed flowers, called a synconium), detail of a synconium in cross-section with an approaching wasp to scale.

Bottom Female fig wasp ovipositing in short-styled female flower next to fertile long-styled female flower that she pollinates with pollen from the pockets on her side.

These eggs develop and flightless male fig wasps hatch out (as in bottom left) and mate with females. Then mature females hatch out, gather pollen and depart the fig to repeat the whole cycle.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 31 Wasps. Top, left TO RIGHT Mud dauber wasp visiting flowers in garden, Spechid wasp on euphorbia flowers.

Bottom Mammoth wasp on wild daisy flowers.

32 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Top, left TO RIGHT Spider-hunting wasp on euphorbia, parasitic wasp on acacia flowers.

Middle Spechid wasp on euphorbia flowers.

Bottom Male velvet ant (Mutillidae) on euphorbia.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 33 Flies rue flies are grouped The most important fly Ttogether in the insect group pollinators include hoverflies in Diptera, which means ‘two the family Syrphidae. They have wings’. There are over 150,000 stripes on their abdomen that known species of flies in the mimic honeybees, and are often world. They can be found in mistaken for bees. Hoverflies are most habitats, and are numerous important pollinators of carrots, in number. avocado, and a number of other crops. Many different kinds of flies visit flowers for nectar, pollen, Chocolate is made from the to lay eggs in the flower, or to seeds of cacao trees, whose feed on other smaller insects flowers can only be pollinated by that may be on the plant. They specialised midges (part of the are important pollinators of Order Diptera–the ‘True Flies’). many plants, and even common Without these tiny flies that houseflies, and bluebottles that are normally found in tropical we find annoying are important rainforest, there would be no Blue-bottle fly on pollinators of crops like mango, chocolate available for us to eat! euphorbia flowers. and avocado.

34 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Top, left TO RIGHT Black scavenger fly (Sepsidae) on Rhus flowers, Tachinid fly onRhus , Blue- bottles and Tiny Gem butterfly on euphorbia.

Bottom Hoverfly (Syrphidae) on Euphorbia magnicapsula.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 35 Top, left TO RIGHT Hoverfly Syrphidae( spp.) on euphorbia, unidentified fly on euphorbia.

Bottom Hoverfly on Harungana madagascariensis.

36 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

top, left TO RIGHT Tabanid fly on Orthosiphon sp., root maggot fly on onion flowers.

MIDDLE, LEFT TO RIGHT Hoverfly (Syrphidae) on Impatiens sp., pollen-feeding fly on Maerua sp.

BELOW Philoliche, a long-tongued Tabanid fly.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 37 Beetles Flowers that here are more different kinds specialised beetles. Tof beetles on the planet than are pollinated any other group of creatures. In East Africa one ancient by beetles Beetles have been around for group of plants, the cycads, are tend to be a very long time, hundreds of pollinated by beetles, including millions of years in fact. Some weevils, that complete their life- larger and beetles developed relationships cycle within the reproductive produce a with plants as specialised cones produced by the plants. musty or pollinators even before bees had As there are separate male and appeared on the scene! Beetles female cycads, the pollinators are fruity scent are important pollinators in essential for the survival of some to attract the some habitats where bees are of these magnificent, rare plants scarce, including some very arid in the wild. beetles. areas. Beetles of many different kinds Flowers that are pollinated by including chafers, longhorns beetles tend to be larger and and leaf beetles, do visit flowers produce a musty or fruity scent in large numbers. However, Net-winged to attract the beetles. A number they mostly feed on the flowers beetle (Lycidae) on of palm tree species, including causing some damage and don’t euphorbia. the Oil Palm, are pollinated by serve as efficient pollinators.

38 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

TOP, left TO RIGHT Groove-winged flower beetle (Melyridae) on euphorbia, Net-winged beetle on euphorbia.

CENTRE Small longhorn beetle (Cerambycidae) on wild daisy.

BOTTOM, LEFT TO RIGHT Rose chafer (Pachnoda sp.) on Euphorbia magnicapsula, leaf beetle on acacia flower.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 39 Ants hile ants are among the at carrying pollen over long Wmost abundant, diverse distances. and ecologically important groups of insects in the Secondly, ants are obsessed with ecosystem, they are on whole keeping clean, and by constantly not good pollinators. A few grooming and producing succulents and other plants glandular secretions, they often (including some Euphorbias) remove grains of pollen. These are pollinated by ants. Plants in chemical secretions produced by harsh, arid drylands are the ones the ants are for killing germs, but that seem to rely on ants as there have an impact on pollen too. might be few other pollinators available. Ant-pollinated Ants will often visit flowers succulent plants also tend to be for nectar, and occasionally low-growing close to the ground to hunt other insects. Many where ants can more easily plants encourage ants to visit access the flowers. by secreting nectar from special glands that are located outside Why don’t ants make good the flowers (hence called extra- pollinators? Well, firstly the floral nectaries). These glands worker ants that visit flowers encourage ants, and they end up lack wings and typically forage patrolling the plant providing Camponotus short distances between their some protection from greedy ants foraging on nests and the plants. This herbivorous insects who might euphorbia flowers. means that they are not efficient want to feed on the plant.

40 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa POLLINATOR DIVERSITY

Top Camponotus braunsi ants on Euphorbia heterspina ssp. baringoensis.

Middle Camponotus ants foraging on ornamental euphorbia.

Bottom, left TO RIGHT Camponotus ants foraging on euphorbias, Polyrachis ants attending hemipteran bugs on a flowering parasitic plant.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 41 Crop Pollination ollination takes place and over 80% of all flowering when pollen is transferred plant species are dependent from the male part of a on pollinators, primarily wild Pflower (the anthers) where pollen insects. Crops like passionfruit, is produced, to the female part cocoa, strawberries, eggplant, (the stigma) of another flower watermelon, cucumber, and of the same species, where the pumpkin are wholly dependent pollen germinates. Pollinators on pollinators. For other crops, (like bees, wasps, moths, bats) like coffee, avocado, mango transport pollen between and runner beans, pollinators flowers, ensuring that flowers contribute to increased yields produce seeds and fruits. Many and quality. crops cultivated in East Africa require pollination. For trees, and plants in natural habitats, the contribution of Common crops that benefit pollination to ensuring habitats from pollination include regenerate with healthy seeds avocado, coffee, cowpeas, and fruits is yet to be measured eggplant, mangoes, pigeon peas, or fully understood. pumpkins, okra, and tomatoes. Studies have estimated that Sunflower field at Indeed, studies have shown pollination services provided Kaptagat, Kenya. that 75% of all crop species, by wild insects globally are

42 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa worth over €150 billion (or over US $200 billion). In the Baringo region of Kenya alone, watermelons worth KES 900 million (US $9 million) are produced. All of these watermelons are the result of pollination by wild insects, primarily bees.

The following section describes pollination systems, and pollinators of some of the most common pollinator-dependent crops in our region.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 43 Legume Crops: Runner Beans, Cowpeas and Pigeon Peas

unner beans exports are one Rof Kenya’s most important horticultural earners. When pollinators visit runner bean flowers, and pollinate them, the Leafcutter bee resulting pods are larger, better ‘tripping’ flower of shaped, and more nutritious. pigeonpea to expose anthers. Cowpeas and pigeon peas are widely grown by small-scale farmers in East Africa, and are especially important in rural areas for domestic consumption. Runner beans, cowpeas, and pigeon peas are almost entirely dependent on pollinators.

Legume crops have a specialised pollination system involving wild bees, allowing pollination to take place only when the flower is ‘tripped’ by the bee. The flowers are bilaterally symmetrical, and when the bee lands on the flower, it has to use its weight, or legs to ‘trip’ the flower. Tripping the flower involves spreading a part of the flower called the keel. This leads to the anthers being exposed, and the visiting bee being brushed with pollen. Wild bee species are the main pollinators of these crops.

44 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa CROP POLLINATION

top Carpenter bee (Xylocopa sp.) pollinating pigeonpea.

MIDDLE Small carpener bee (Ceratina sp.).

LEFT Pigeonpea farmer in Mwanza, Tanzania.

BOTTOM LEFT Carpenter bee (X. hottentota).

Carpenter bee (Xylocopa inconstans).

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 45 Passionfruit

assionfruit is nutritious, do this are large carpenter bees Pand delicious. It grows as (mainly Xylocopa spp.). a creeper, and spreads by way of numerous strong tendrils. To set fruit passionfruits are Demand for passionfruit has 100% dependent on pollinators largely been driven by the fruit like carpenter bees, and without juice market, with increasing them there would be no numbers of farmers growing passionfruits for us to eat, or to passionfruit in Kenya. make juice. It is unfortunate that farmers often mistake the large Passionfruit flowers are unique, carpenter bees for beetles, or and incredibly beautiful. They pests, and kill them. are also complex with anthers arranged above a ‘ring’, and Carpenter bees like to nest nectaries having lids on them. in wood, and are attracted to It takes a hefty pollinator to lift hedgerows with a variety of the lid to the nectary, and the wildflowers. most efficient pollinators able to

46 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa CROP POLLINATION

Top Passionfruit flower.

Bottom, LEFT TO right Passionfruit from the hard work of bees, honeybees visiting passionfruit flower.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 47 Eggplant (also known as Aubergines or Brinjals)

ocal demand for eggplants vibrate, by using the motion Lhas increased significantly from its wing muscles to transfer in East Africa. Eggplants are the vibration energy into the a high nutritious vegetable, flower. Only when this is done and can grow in hot, dry areas at the correct frequency is where vegetables are harder to pollen forcibly released from the grow. Eggplants belong to the anthers. nightshade family (Solanaceae), which include tomatoes and Eggplants are 100% dependent potatoes. on pollinators to produce fruit, with solitary (non-social) species Flowers of plants in this family of wild bees, being the exclusive have a specialised pollination pollinators of eggplant flowers. system called ‘buzz pollination’ Maintain natural habitat patches Nomia bee involving wild bees. Buzz around fields of eggplant to approaching eggplant flower with pollination involves the bee support solitary wild bee stingless bee on it. holding the flower with its pollinators. mouthparts, and causing it

48 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa CROP POLLINATION

Top, left TO RIGHT Freshly harvested eggplants thanks to hard-working bees, eggplant farmer admires part of her harvest in Turkana.

Bottom Meliturgula sp. and stingless bee on an eggplant flower.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 49 Mango ometimes called the ‘king same time. Mango trees are Sof fruits’, the area under dependent on optimal weather, mango cultivation has grown and sufficient numbers of considerably in East Africa. It pollinators to set fruit with is eaten as fresh, or dried fruit, success. and used to make juice, jam, and chutney. Mango tree flowers are simple, open, and small in size. They Kenya’s average mango yield per are visited, and pollinated by hectare is about 16 tons of fruit. different kinds of wasps, and A single large healthy mango even ants, but flies, and stingless tree can annually produce over bees are thought to be the main one thousand fruits for sale. The pollinators of mangoes. As farmer may be able to sell each mangoes flower only seasonally, mango for up to KES 50, giving a grower of mangoes will need Pollen-feeding fly on him an annual income of KES to maintain patches of natural a mango flower. 50,000 (around US $600) from habitat, and wildflowers, for each tree! wild insect pollinators to visit when the mango trees are not in Mango trees flower in synchrony flower. bearing many flowers at the

50 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa CROP POLLINATION

TOP, left TO RIGHT Fly pollinating mango flower, mango farmer with fruit in the Kerio Valley.

MIDDLE Eucharitid wasp.

LEFT Camponotus ants.

BOTTOM LEFT Bluebottle fly.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 51 Coffee enya’s arabica coffee is bees. Honeybee hives can be Kwell know, and sought placed amongst coffee bushes after around the world. Coffee to improve coffee yields. Other sales are a major contributor to pollinators of coffee are many the country’s Gross Domestic different kinds of wasps, large Product, and the industry flies, butterflies, moths, and even employs millions of Kenyans. sunbirds.

Coffee bushes flower To support wild bee pollinators synchronously at different of coffee it is important to times of the year, usually at the provide other sources of nectar. beginning of the rains. Coffee These can include areas of varieties can be self-pollinated, wildflowers, or indigenous shade but the presence of pollinators trees along the edges of coffee improves the quality, and size of plantations. the coffee beans. Some varieties of coffee in East Africa, such Protecting pollinators of coffee as robusta coffee, appear to from pesticides is important, and be completely dependent on should be managed carefully. pollinators. Spraying when coffee is in flower could negatively impact the The main pollinators of coffee pollinators, and therefore coffee flowers are different kinds of yields.

52 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa CROP POLLINATION

top Bee-hives near coffee–can improve yields of high quality coffee through the efforts of pollinators.

LEFT Ripening coffee berries.

BELOW Honeybee pollinating coffee flower.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 53 Watermelon, Squashes and Cucumber

atermelon, and other fruit. Large amounts of pollen Wmelons flourish in produce the best fruits. Wild the dryland areas of Kenya. solitary bees, stingless bees, and Watermelon is an important hoverflies have been recorded source of nutrition for many as good pollen transporters, people, and a high value crop. and pollinators of watermelon flowers. Watermelons grow as creepers, have separate male and female Watermelons, sweet melons, flowers on the same plant, butternut squashes, and and are pollinated by many pumpkins are all in the same different kinds of bees and family, Cucurbitaceae. All of flies. It takes many thousands these crops are highly dependent of pollen grains transferred on pollinators. Leave some onto the stigma of a receptive areas of natural habitat to watermelon flower to produce encourage pollinators, and manage pesticides carefully Macrogalea bee a large, tasty fruit. The amount crawling out of a of pollen deposited correlates during flowering. watermelon flower. to the quality, and flavour of the

54 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa CROP POLLINATION

Stingless bee on cucumber.

Amegilla bee on cucumber.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 55 Papaya

apaya, also known as pollination, and fruit set. Ppawpaw, is an important fruit crop for many smallholder The pollinators of papaya in East farmers in East Africa, who are Africa are primarily hawkmoths, fully dependent on pollinators to and a few skipper butterflies. pollinate their papaya. Hawkmoths are efficient pollinators as they can move Papaya has separate male and rapidly between different papaya female plants. Male flowers plants on a farm. are produced in large numbers on male plants, while female Hawkmoths, and skipper flowers are produced is smaller butterflies need other plants for numbers at the base of the leaves nectar. They also require wild on female papaya plants. Papaya plant species, called host-plants, Hawkmoths are the pollinators have to visit male to provide a place to lay their main pollinators of flowers, collect pollen, then eggs, and from where caterpillars papaya. visit female flowers to ensure can feed, and grow.

56 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa CROP POLLINATION

TOP Papaya trees in fruit thriving in this natural habitat.

LEFT Papaya farmer in the Kerio Valley.

BELOW Close-up of young fruit and male flowers of papaya.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 57 Ceratina bee on coriander flowers.

Spices and Seeds

pices are tasty, high that are pollinated by insects value, and often health in East Africa include chillies supporting components of (pollinated by bees), bell peppers Sour diet. Pollinators contribute (pollinated by bees), cardamom by pollinating the flowers that (pollinated by bees), and develop into the seeds and coriander—also called cilantro fruits that we harvest, and use (pollinated by bees, wasps, as spices. Examples of spices flies).

58 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa CROP POLLINATION

Top, left tO right Wasp visiting coriander flowers, almonds–a crop that depends on pollinators.

Bottom Lycaenid butterfly and cuckoo wasp on coriander flowers.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 59 Traditional Vegetables

ifferent kinds of indigenous traditional vegetables. For Dvegetables are grown as example, in western Kenya, traditional food plants across ‘ M i t o o’, Crotolaria brevidens, is a East Africa, and contribute to legume, which has a specialised food, and nutritional security pollination system that involves in rural areas. Each region often leafcutter bees, and carpenter has special plants that make the bees serving as its pollinators. cuisine, and diet of that area ‘Mchicha’, Gynandropsis distinctive. Common traditional gynandra, is another popular vegetables in the region include plant whose long brush-like the blackbean (njahe), wild flowers are pollinated by both Convolvulus spinach (terere), leafy amaranth hawkmoths, and bees. hawkmoth (Agrius varieties, and a number of convolvuli) visiting flowers of ‘Mchicha’ legumes. Pollination systems of most of Gynandropsis our traditional vegetables have gynandra. Bees, and other insects pollinate not been studied.

60 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa CROP POLLINATION

Top, left TO RIGHT Young pods of blackbeans or ‘Njahe’, carpenter bee (Xylocopa flavorufa) pollinating flowering blackbean.

Bottom White-lined Sphinx (Hippotion celerio) visiting flowers of ‘Mchicha’ Gynandropsis gynandra.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 61 Forage and Fodder Plants

orage, and fodder plants are are so valuable for supporting Fcrops that comprise livestock livestock that Acacia tortilis trees feed. Different animals will feed are carefully guarded, and passed on different kinds of plants, as an inheritance from parents depending the region, and to children in parts of northern habitat. Kenya. Acacia pods are the result of pollination by a wide range of Important forage crops for cattle insects, primarily wild bees. in East Africa are legumes like lucerne (also known as alfalfa), Indigofera are small sturdy which help increase meat, and shrubs that grow in the desert, milk production. Wild bees are and are an important forage the main pollinators of Lucerne. plant for camels. In many parts Other legume species used of the Horn of Africa, free- by livestock include: acacias, ranging camels browse on the Indigofera, and Crotolaria. leaves, and pods of Indigofera. All of these are dependent on Without them camels would not pollinators. be able to survive in these areas. Indigofera is dependent on wild The highly nutritious pods of the bee species for pollination. Umbrella Thorn Acacia, Acacia tortilis, are widely consumed by These examples show how Camels are one of livestock in arid and semi-arid pollinators are connected to us, the livestock species whose diet is highly regions. Without these pods, it not just through cultivated crops, dependent on would be harder for livestock to but through our livestock too. pollinators. survive in arid areas. The pods

62 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa CROP POLLINATION

top Leafcutter bee pollinating Indigofera spinosa.

LEFT Grass jewel butterfly onI. spinosa flower.

RIGHT Pseudapis sp. also at Indigofera flower, goat grazing on Indigofera plants.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 63 Plants for Pollinators

Canola growing at Timau, in north central Kenya.

64 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa PLANTS FOR POLLINATORS

Trees and shrubs for bees and other pollinators: TREES NOTES

Acacias: All indigenous acacias are key resources for pollinators. Acacia xanthophloea Acacia kirkii An abundance and diversity of insects can be found swarming around Acacia senegal flowering acacias. Acacia tortilis, and Acacia senegal are just two of Acacia tortilis many important dryland species.

Albizia spp. These trees flower synchronously, and are an important resource for bees, butterflies, and sunbirds.

Combretum spp. Important in the drylands and savannah, these species are visited by both bees, and flies.

Cordia africana An important tree in highland forest areas for bees, including honeybees, and carpenter bees.

Croton spp. As these trees often flower synchronously they are of considerable significance seasonally. Croton megalocarpus can grow in many different zones—from forest to river-banks, and bush; it is visited by bees, butterflies, and flies.

Dombeya spp. Used by honeybees, and carpenter bees. In the drylands this tree species is often found on hilltops where it visited by a wide range of insects.

Eucalyptus spp. While these trees can be invasive and use a lot of water, in highlands where they are planted for timber, they support large numbers of honeybees. Eucalyptus ficifolia is one species that is especially attractive to honeybees.

Maerua spp. These are important nectar sources for hawkmoths, and carpenter bees. Honeybees, and solitary bees also visit them for pollen.

Mangroves Most mangroves have open generalised flowers visited by large numbers of bees. Mangroves species important for honeybees include: Avicennia, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Heritiera, and Rhizophora.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 65 Markhamia lutea One of Kenya’s loveliest flowering trees, its yellow flowers are visited, and pollinated by a wide range of bees including carpenter bees, and larger leafcutter bees.

Melia spp. Very attractive to bees, and butterflies, especially in the drylands.

Milletia dura This species produces large bunches of flowers that can be swarming with bees, including carpenter bees, and leafcutter bees in large numbers.

Moringa oleifera This useful multi-purpose tree is also great for bees, flies, and other pollinators.

Ochna spp. Used by bees primarily, including carpenter bees, and honeybees.

Senna spp. Important for a wide range of bees, and flies. Some specialised bees visit these flowers.

Syzygium spp. Crucial to honeybees especially in the highlands. Also supports carpenter bees, and sunbirds.

Terminalia spp. Supports bees, flies, and other insects in the drylands.

Trees for bats: both Nandi Flame (illustrated below), and Baobab trees are important resources for bats and other creatures.

66 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa PLANTS FOR POLLINATORS

TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT Erythrina lysistemon, and E. abyssinica (illustrated) are important for sunbirds, Melia attracts bees.

Middle Acacias (branch illustrated)– are essential for bees, Maesopsis–large forest trees like this also support a lot of insects.

Bottom Fig trees–need fig wasps, and also support other species.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 67 SHRUBS & NOTES CREEPERS

Acacia brevispica Acacia mellifera is one of the most important nectar species for Acacia mellifera honeybees, and produces a light and creamy, delicious honey. All Acacia drepanolobium shrubby acacias support large numbers of bees, butterflies, wasps, and flies. Their open flowers make it easy for insects to access nectar and pollen.

Abutilon spp. These are important plants whose flowers open and close depending on the light, and warmth. Amegilla bees, and longhorn bees (Tetraloniella and Tetralonia spp.) visit these plants.

Aloe spp. Aloes are important for sunbirds, butterflies, moths, and bees. Most aloe species have evolved to be pollinated by sunbirds, and butterflies. Many different bees collect pollen from aloes, and several species nest in the pithy old flowering stems.

Aspilia spp. A good source of pollen for many bees, this species is attractive to both bees and butterflies.

Caesalpinia decapetala Flowering at the edges of forest, woodland and rivers, this species is favoured by carpenter bees, and other large-bodied bees.

Calotropis spp. Very important for a number of different bees, wasps, and butterflies, in dryland and arid areas. The pollen is formed into pollinia that attach to the legs of visiting bees, and wasps, and virtually impossible to remove once they are in place!

Dichrostachys cinerea A shrub that is often found in overgrazed areas, it supports a wide range of solitary bees, and wasps.

Dodonaea angustifolia This is a species that flowers seasonally, and is visited by flies, and large numbers of honeybees.

Dovyalis spp. Commonly known as kei-apple, and used as a hedgerow species, the flowers are very attractive to both bees, and flies.

Euphorbia spp. The succulent euphorbias are sometimes the only plant that might be flowering in arid locations, or at periods of drought. Important to a wide range of insects, a single flowering euphorbia could easily have over one hundred different insects swarming about it.

68 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa PLANTS FOR POLLINATORS

Shrubs for pollinators. TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT Dry wood, is essential as a nesting site, Acokanthera (illustrated) is useful for bees and hawkmoths.

MIDDLE, LEFT TO RIGHT Clerodendrum myricoides and acacia pod illustrated. Clerodendrum myricoides attracts large bees and butterflies.

Acacias and euphorbias are important in drylands for large animals as well as for insect pollinators.

Thriving area of natural habitat in Laikipia, Kenya.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 69 Grewia spp. One of the most important bee plants. It is visited by carpenter bees, and a large number of other solitary bee species.

Hibiscus spp. Visited by a wide range of bees, especially in dryland and arid areas.

Ipomoea spp. These mass-flowering creepers can paint the entire landscape in colour. Many different bees visit the flowers including some like Systropha spp. that are specialised on collecting Ipomoea pollen almost exclusively.

Lantana spp. While Lantana camara is a serious invasive that should not be planted, indigenous Lantana trifolia is especially attractive to butterflies, and bees.

Rhus spp. Shrubs that are visited by bees, and flies.

Rubus spp. Visited and pollinated by honeybees, hoverflies, and some solitary bees.

Scutia myrtina When in flower they are very attractive to a number of bees, and large numbers of wasps, and flies.

Sesbania spp. These legumes are attractive to carpenter bees, and other solitary bees. They can be cultivated at farm edges to encourage pollinators to visit.

Ziziphus spp. Seasonally flowering, they are visited by large numbers of flies, and a few bees.

Desert rose growing in Morogoro, Tanzania.

70 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa PLANTS FOR POLLINATORS

Shrubs and creepers. top, left to right Acacia brevispica, Mucuna sp., Ipomoea sp.

MIDDLE, LEFT TO RIGHT Acanthus sp. and Calotropis procera a milkweed that attracts bees and butterflies.

BOTTOM, LEFT TO RIGHT Wild hibiscus sp., Triumfetta sp. (image cutout). Wildflowers for bees and other pollinators:

WILDFLOWERS NOTES

Clematis spp. Found in woodland, and highland forest edges. Clematis are important for bees, including honeybees.

Cleome spp. Seasonally important for many different kinds of bees, butterflies, and hawkmoths.

Gynandropsis gynandra An important resource in grassland, bush, and savannah for honeybees, solitary bees, hawkmoths, and butterflies.

Kalanchoe spp. One of the most attractive and important nectar sources for butterflies and moths.

Kleinia spp. An important resource for butterflies in the drylands, grasslands, and savannah.

Cyathula spp. Important for bees, butterflies, and flies seasonally.

Tribulus spp. Even though the spiky seeds of this weed can annoyingly get stuck in boots and tyres, it is an important resource for many different kinds of bees in arid areas.

Impatiens spp. Plant species important for bees, butterflies (especially skipper butterflies), and hawkmoths.

Commicarpus spp. Weedy herbs that attract a lot of different bees.

Mormodica spp. An important genus of plants for some beautiful and rare and specialised bees (Ctenoplectra spp.) that collect oils from the flowers.

Tephrosia spp. A legume that attracts many different kinds of bees including Pseudapis spp., and leafcutter bees.

Indigofera spp. Perhaps one of the most crucial plants for bees in the arid and seasonal habitats of eastern Africa. Many different kinds of bees visit Indigofera spp. for both nectar and pollen.

72 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa PLANTS FOR POLLINATORS

Wildflowers. TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT Leucas sp., wild daisy family sp.

MIDDLE, LEFT TO RIGHT Delphinium sp., Commelina sp.

BOTTOM, LEFT TO RIGHT Gloriosa superba–a good plant for butterflies, Justicia sp. one of the most useful plants for bees.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 73 Vigna spp. As with most of the legumes, this group of plants are pollinated by bees, and are especially attractive to large carpenter bees, and leafcutter bees.

Other important legumes: Dolichos spp., Lablab purpurea, Eriosema spp., Lupinus spp. in the highlands, and Trifolium.

Crotolaria spp. This genus is primarily pollinated by bees, and is essential for them. As with all legumes, the flowers need to be ‘tripped’, and many different kinds of bees have learned to do this.

Cyphostemma & Cissus Both of these plants are creepers that are visited by bees, flies, wasps, and butterflies. The related Rhoicissus tridentata is also popular with insect pollinators.

Gomphocarpus spp. Bees, wasps, and butterflies visit these milkweed species. They are important food-plants for butterflies especially the lovely African Monarchs (Danaus spp.).

Pentas & Pentanisia Vital for butterflies and hawkmoths. It appears that it is mostly these insects that pollinate them.

Vernonia spp. One of the most significant wildflowers for pollinators in general. Many different bees, butterflies, and other insects visit the open accessible flowers of Vernonia.

Some related species: Gutenbergia, Anisopappus, Sphaeranthus, Helichrysum, Conyza, Emilia, and Senecio.

Bidens spp. These common weedy plants are important for solitary bees (especially halictid bees) that can almost always be found visiting the flowers.

Heliotropium spp. These lovely flowers are visited by large numbers of insects including bees, wasps, flies, and butterflies for both nectar and pollen.

Solanum spp. These plants are often considered weedy, but are visited by many bees that are able to ‘buzz’ the flowers so as to release pollen. This is a specialised pollination system, and the bees that visit wild Solanum species also pollinate eggplants, tomato (which are related), passionfruit, and legume crops.

74 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa PLANTS FOR POLLINATORS

Wildflowers. TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT Cleome parvipetala, attracts bees, hawkmoths and butterflies, Solanum sp. are great for bees.

MIDDLE, LEFT TO RIGHT Ocimum and Bidens, are two of the most useful ‘bee- plants’.

BOTTOM, LEFT TO RIGHT Crotolaria sp. are visited by large bees, and aloes by sunbirds, bees and butterflies.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 75 Thunbergia spp. Visited by bees, including Macrogalea bees that are important pollinators of crops.

Blepharis spp. Important for many different kinds of solitary bees especially in arid and dryland areas.

Barleria spp. This is an important group of wildflowers for both bees and butterflies. They tend to flower sparsely for longer periods, and are thereby a chief resource when other plants may not be flowering.

Justicia spp. An exceptional wildflower resource for bees found at forest edges, grassland, savannah, and in agricultural areas. Planting Justicia in wildflower strips will draw in bees, and support honeybees for honey production.

Related species visited by bees include Hypoestes and Leucas.

Ocimum spp. These herbs are one of the most important ‘bee plants’, supporting and attracting all kinds of bees and other insects. Ocimum can be readily established from seed, and will naturally re-seed areas once in place. It is a good plant for honeybees, and the resulting honey has a distinctive herbal flavour.

Plectranthus spp. These wildflowers are really important for all kinds of bees. They are free flowering once established, and can be grown from cuttings. The related Orthosiphon spp. is also an important floral resource.

Commelina spp. Carpenter bees, honeybees, and other bees visit these attractive flowers. These wildflowers are a complex creation that both attract bees for pollen, and fools them with false pollen lures. Related plant species: Aneilema, Cyanotis, and Murdannia.

Bulbine spp. and Visited by bees, and flies, these plants often appear early at the start of Chlorophytum spp. the rains, and are an important resource at that time.

76 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa PLANTS FOR POLLINATORS

Wildflowers. TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT Tiny lily growing in grassland, Justicia sp.

MIDDLE, LEFT TO RIGHT Plectranthus sp., Gutenbergia sp.

BOTTOM, LEFT TO RIGHT Leonotis sp., and Justicia flava–an important plant for bees and butterflies.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 77 Grasses & Sedges

A number of bees (especially Lipotriches spp.), and a few flies, collect pollen from grasses and sedges. These plants are wind pollinated so they don’t need pollinators. However, the pollen from grass and sedge is an important resource for bees. Honeybees will often take pollen from grasses (including Cynodon and Cenchrus), as well as from cultivated maize and sorghum.

Grasses are important pollen sources for bees, but they do not depend on pollinators.

Below Grasslands in forest provide open habitats that are magnets for pollinators, especially bees and butterflies.

78 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa PLANTS FOR POLLINATORS

Grasses and grasslands. TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT Lipotriches bee gathering pollen from Buffel grass, grassland in Turkana–areas like this provide nesting habitat for bees.

Middle Star grass loaded with pollen– this is what bees are after from grasses.

Below Open grasslands like the northern Serengeti are seasonally filled with bees and other insects.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 79 Help pollinators by conserving and creating natural habitat

Diverse landscapes he Flora of Tropical East Farmers, and gardeners can provide adequate Africa provides descriptions encourage wild insects, and resources for T pollinators. of over 12,000 wild plant species. other pollinators by maintaining, Two-thirds of the flowering and creating spaces of natural plants are dependent on wild habitat. Natural habitat can pollinators, and many of these include: plants have co-evolved, over • a forest edge area rich with millions of years, with the wild wildflowers pollinators that pollinate them. • roadside verges, which are not consistently shorn Most pollinators are wild insects. • a hedgerow composed of For plants and wild insects to different flowering plants thrive, natural habitat areas are • wildflowers conserved, or critical, and perhaps the single planted within a field. most important prerequisite. It is insects of five different Natural habitat areas near Orders that provide us with or within farms provide two pollination services for our essential things to support crops: the Hymenoptera (Ants, pollinators: sources of food Bees and Wasps), Diptera (True (nectar, pollen, and host plants) Flies), Lepidoptera (Butterflies for pollinators and their larvae, and Moths), Coleoptera and equally important, secure (Beetles), and Thysanoptera nesting sites. (Thrips). A few bats, and birds

80 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa THREATS AND RESOURCES

Natural habitats. Top Clearing natural vegetation on steep slopes for farming, as is happening here in Tanzania’s Uluguru Mountains, destroys vital wild plants and nesting sites for pollinators as well as causing soil erosion.

MIDDLE, LEFT TO RIGHT Agapanthus around a tea plantation in the Nandi Hills, Western Kenya–flowers on the verges of crop fields can help support pollinators, and a verge of natural grasses and flowers by a maize field in Tabora, Central Tanzania.

Bottom Wildflowers and patches of natural habitat along fences are essential habitats for pollinators, as demonstrated here on a passionfruit farm in the Kerio Valley, Kenya. Bees visit the crop when in flower, but also depend on the surrounding wildflowers for survival.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 81 Above Honeybee also provide pollination services seasons, the better the conditions approaches a for a smaller number of plants. for bees. The type of plants in an sunflower. Pollen is an essential resource Bees, both solitary and social area will depend on the habitat. for bees to feed their species, pollinate the majority In seasonal areas (which is most larvae and produce of our crop and fodder, being of Kenya) both annual, and new generations of entirely dependent on pollen perennial plants are important. pollinators. and nectar from flowers for their Wildflowers that grow at the Below Ocimum, survival. edges of forests or woodland also known as ‘bee- areas tend to flower for longer balm’ is one of East Some bees, like honeybees and periods of time. Africa’s most useful plants as it is very stingless bees convert nectar attractive to bees. into stores of honey. Most bees, Ocimum, Justicia, Leucas, especially the solitary bees, Bidens, Indigofera, Crotolaria, collect pollen, and store this as Cleome, Commicarpus, Barleria, food for their larvae. Many bees Aspilia, Crassocephalum, Emilia, only forage a short distance from Gutenbergia, and Vernonia are where they build their nests, so some of the wildflowers that are endeavour to have a diversity of particularly attractive to bees. wildflowers close to their nesting sites. The following section outlines some of the threats to The more diversity of plants that pollinators, and what can be are present and flowering across done to reduce them.

82 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa top Verges of wildflowers support pollinators. They also provide other ecosystem services such as fodder for grazing, aesthetic spaces, erosion control, and enhanced soil fertility.

These are useful even in areas where crops don’t require pollinators, as is the case here on a tobacco farm in Tanzania.

Left and below Mud, grass, and wooden structures on farms can serve as important nesting sites for cavity- nesting bees.

Here is a farm storage building with a special grass hut constructed beside it to draw away ‘spirits’ from the harvest in Tabora, Tanzania. These traditional buildings are great nesting sites for bees and wasps.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 83 A summary of threats and resource needs of wild pollinators

Ants They also require to be near water, and to be protected from pesticide exposure.

Thrips

Resource Needs Across Africa many will be familiar with ant-hills—they are one type of ant nest. Ants require areas of ground, Resource Needs decaying wood, and the canopy Thrips require alternative host- of trees for nesting. plants to survive when crops are not in cultivation. To successfully establish an ant colony, they will also need an They also need to be protected adequate prey food base. from pesticide exposure.

Flies Butterflies

Habitat destruction due Resource Needs to activities like charcoal Flies will breed in a variety of production presents the greatest places—in manure, rotting food, threat to butterflies. Loss of in rubbish for example. host-plants, and larval host- plants prevent butterflies from

84 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa THREATS AND RESOURCES

Charcoal pit in an area of Acacia tortilis in Turkana, northern Kenya.

Charcoal production is a serious threat to pollinators as removing large trees, like these acacia, destroys the nectar and pollen resources, and nesting sites for thousands of individual pollinating insects.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 85 finding sufficient food, and Bats places to reproduce. Bats are adversely affected by Pesticide exposure also harms habitat destruction around them, butterflies. loss of habitat along migratory routes, and when their roost sites Resource Needs are deliberately destroyed. In Butterflies need access to wild some parts of the world bats are nectar resources, and protection hunted for food. from pesticides. Resource Needs Bats require: adequate food Wasps resources year-round, protection of communal roost sites, protection from hunting, available habitat for dispersal, and migration.

Birds

Resource Needs Fig wasps can only breed in figs. To sustain fig wasps wild Ficus populations need to be conserved.

Wasps will prey on mosquitos, caterpillars, spiders, flies, or even beetle larvae, so a healthy There are numerous activities environment is needed to have that threaten birds, including sufficient food for wasps. human disturbance of nesting, and roosting sites, exposure to pesticides and other toxins, Beetles habitat changes and degration, hunting, and loss of stopover sites needed on migration.

Resource Needs Birds require healthy habitats to survive. Their nesting and breeding sites should not Resource Needs be disturbed, and they need Generally beetles need habitats protection from the misuse of with adequate host plants to pesticides, and unsustainable thrive. hunting practices.

86 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa THREATS AND RESOURCES

above Severe soil erosion, in the Kerio Valley, Kenya.

left Overgrazing by livestock, Turkana, northern Kenya.

Soil erosion and overgrazing affects pollinators by reducing the availability of safe long-term nesting sites. Removing wildflowers and the herbaceous ground- cover drastically reduces the number and diversity of bees, butterflies and other insects that can survive in an area.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 87 Honeybees Stingless Carpenter Leafcutter Solitary bees bees bees halictid bees Current Threats

Habitat destruction

Loss of wildflowers

Destructive harvesting of wild colonies

Diseases and parasites

Loss of sites for nesting, and foraging (due to activities like charcoal production)

Exposure to pesticides

Killing of bees mistaken as pests

Wild bees • Protection from destructive harvesting practices • Migratory corridors of plants and flowers for species and varieties that migrate seasonally.

Carpenter bees also require tree branches, or old wood to use as nesting sites.

Current Threats Listed in the Leafcutter bees also require table above: (boxes are ticked leaves from the right kinds of indicating a particular threat to a plants, which they will use in wild bee group) their burrows for nesting.

Resource Needs Halictid bees requirements for All wild bees species will require: nectar and pollen peak when nesting as they provide each • Plants and flowers throughout larva all of its food at one time. the year for nectar and pollen

88 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa THREATS AND RESOURCES

Small patches of habitat help pollinators.

Even a few wildflowers growing along a fence line can provide resources for many different kinds of pollinators, and ultimately support better yields in crops.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 89 Bee Hotels

‘bee hotel’ may sound like Packed earth will draw a wide Aa strange idea, but it is range of ground nesting bees. simply a nest for bees of different species. It offers a practical way Set your bee hotel at the edge of attracting pollinators to your of the farm, within strips of farm, or garden. The bee hotel wildflowers, or even in erosion could consist of just a tube filled control areas where you have with hollow reeds, or be more cultivated. Beans, cowpeas, complex. pigeon peas, traditional vegetables, passionfruit, Hollow reeds are very appealing coffee, aubergines, tomatoes, to leafcutter bees, and other watermelons, and pumpkins— solitary bees. Larger hollow are some of the crops that will reeds, and dry wood will attract benefit from the construction of carpenter bees that are likely to your bee hotel. use the nest from year to year. © C. N JOK I

90 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa THREATS AND RESOURCES

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 91 Pollinators and Pesticides

Pesticides kill esticides present us with Does my crop or plants require pollinators. It a challenge. Most wild pollinators? is important to P use agricultural pollinators are insects, and chemicals safely pesticides are substances If the answer is yes, then there and wisely so as not designed to kill or control are steps that farmers and to affect the health insects. Pest control is important gardeners can take to minimize of both people and in small-scale, and commercial exposure of pollinators to pollinators. farming systems, yet insects are pesticides: critical pollinators of our crops. • It is essential to read the The application of pesticides label and follow instructions must take into account potential carefully. negative effects on biodiversity, • Find out what is the pesticide and especially avoid contact toxicity is to bees. between pesticides, and insect • Use the product in accordance pollinators. with the label instructions— overuse, misuse, and poor This first question to ask is: disposal of pesticides pose

92 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa Disposal of threats to bees, and to human wild insect pollinators. pesticides/ health. • Take into consideration chemicals. • Identify the pollinators that potential exposure of BELOW LEFT visit your crops! pollinators through pesticide Poor disposal of • DO NOT spray when the crop residues on foliage, and in the pesticides and other chemicals can is in flower! soil. contaminate soils • DO NOT spray when insects and affect ground are visiting the flowers! Consider reducing your reliance nesting bees. • Avoid spraying crop field on pesticides, and incorporate BELOW RIGHT verges, compacted earth sites, other pollinator-friendly Even proper sheltered banks! methods—often referred to as disposal methods • Know the location of colonies, Integrated Pest Management as employed here and aggregated pollinator (IPM). at a French bean farm in Kenya, may nest sites, and have a plan for still lead to soil protecting them! In IPM you use knowledge about contamination. • Carefully study pollinator the pest habits and activities, activity throughout the day, and an understanding of your There is need for more research and from dawn to dusk, to help farm or garden environment, to support for farmers develop spraying regimes that enable biological pest control. for proper disposal avoid main foraging periods of of containers and unused chemicals. © M. N . M U T IS O © M. N . M U T IS O

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 93 94 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa Monocultures produce a lot of food, but also use a lot of pesticides. It is important to manage these carefully to reduce drift into surrounding areas where they can affect pollinators.

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 95 A carpenter bee (Xylocopa inconstans) on the flowers of pigeonpea in southern Tanzania.

Many crops depend on wild insect pollinators.

96 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa Crops dependent on pollinators grown in East Africa

his is a general list of crops grown watermelon, and passionfruit. In other Tin the region that are dependent on cases as with coffee, and runner beans, pollinators. For most of these crops, we have pollinators contribute to the volume and not had the benefit of extensive studies, improved quality of yields. and much remains to be learnt about their interactions with pollinators. For many crops where we consume the vegetative leaves or roots (such as kales, Some crops are 100% dependent on terere, carrots), we still require pollinators pollinators, without whose pollination for the production of seed. services there are simply no yields, as with

Common name Latin name Pollinator Alfalfa Medicago sativa Leafcutter bees, halictid bees, honeybees Apple Malus domestica Honeybees, solitary bees, hover flies Avocado Persea americana Honeybees, stingless bees, solitary bees, flies, wasps Beet Beta vulgaris Honeybees, hover flies, solitary bees Blackbean (Njahe) Lablab niger Carpenter bees, leafcutter bees Broad bean Vicia faba Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees Broccoli Brassica oleracea Honeybees, solitary bees Brussels sprouts Brassica oleracea Honeybees, solitary bees Cabbage Brassica oleracea Honeybees, solitary bees Prickly pear Opuntia spp. Carpenter bees, solitary bees, honeybees Cantaloupe (Melon) Cucumis melo Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees Caraway Carum carvi Honeybees, solitary bees, flies Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum Honeybees, solitary bees Carrot Daucus carota Flies, solitary bees, honeybees Cashew Anacardium occidentale Honeybees, stingless bees, carpenter bees, solitary bees Cauliflower Brassica oleracea Honeybees, solitary bees Celery Apium graveolens Honeybees, solitary bees, flies Chilli pepper, Green Capsicum annuum, Honeybees, stingless bees, carpenter bees, pepper Capsicum frutescens leafcutter bees, hover flies

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 97 Chinese cabbage Brassica rapa Honeybees, solitary bees Clover Trifolium spp. Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees Cocoa Theobroma cacao Midges Coconut Cocos nucifera Honeybees, stingless bees Coffee Coffea spp. Honeybees, stingless bees, solitary bees Coriander Coriandrum sativum Honeybees, solitary bees Cotton Gossypium spp. Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees Cowpea (Black-eyed Vigna unguiculata Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees pea) Cucumber Cucumis sativus Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees Eggplant Solanum melongena Carpenter bees, solitary bees – especially halictid bees Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Honeybees, solitary bees, flies Fig Ficus spp. Fig wasps Guava Psidium guajava Honeybees, stingless bees, carpenter bees, solitary bees Lemon, Lime Citrus sp. Honeybees Kidney bean, Green Phaseolus spp. Honeybees, solitary bees bean Loquat Eriobotrya japonica Honeybees, carpenter bees Lupine Lupinus angustifolius Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees Lychee Litchi chinensis Honeybees, flies Macadamia Macadamia ternifolia Honeybees, stingless bees, solitary bees, wasps, butterflies Mango Mangifera indica Honeybees, stingless bees, flies, ants, wasps Mitoo (Crotolaria) Crotolaria brevidens Leafcutter bees, carpenter bees Mustard Brassica alba, Brassica Honeybees, solitary bees hirta, Brassica nigra Oil palm Elaeis guineensis Weevils, thrips Okra Abelmoschus esculentus Honeybees, solitary bees Onion Allium cepa Honeybees, solitary bees Papaya Carica papaya Large hawkmoths, butterflies Passionfruit Passiflora edulis Carpenter bees, solitary bees, honeybees Peach Prunus persica Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees, flies

98 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa Pear Pyrus communis Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees, hover flies Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan Honeybees, solitary bees, leafcutter bees, carpenter bees Plum Prunus domestica, Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees, flies Prunus spinosa Pomegranate Punica granatum Honeybees, solitary bees, beetles Rapeseed Brassica napus Honeybees, solitary bees Raspberry Rubus idaeus Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees, hover flies Runner bean Phaseolus coccineus Carpenter bees, honeybees, solitary bees, thrips Sesame Sesamum indicum Honeybees, solitary bees, wasps, flies Spiderplant (Mchicha) Gynandropsis gynandra Honeybees, amegilla bees, hawkmoths Squash, Pumpkin, Cucurbita spp. Honeybees, squash bees, carpenter bees, Gourd, Marrow, solitary bees Zucchini Strawberry Fragaria spp. Honeybees, stingless bees, carpenter bees, solitary bees, hover flies Sunflower Helianthus annuus Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees Tamarind Tamarindus indica Honeybees Tangerine Citrus tangerina Honeybees, carpenter bees Tomato Solanum lycopersicum Carpenter bees, solitary bees Turnip (Canola) Brassica rapa Honeybees, solitary bees, flies Vanilla Vanilla planifolia Solitary bees, stingless bees Vetch Vicia spp. Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees Watermelon Citrullus lanatus Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 99 These children at S Nalare in Samburu are blessed to have over thirty different © A. POWY bee species visiting the flowering acacia tree where they have lunch. There are hundreds of different bees present at this one site alone.

Education of young people is key for protecting pollinators and biodiversity.

100 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa ‘Connecting nature and people’ About the East Africa Natural • Produce leaflets, booklets, and Some of History Society, popularly known make accessible to farmers as ‘Nature Kenya’ and schools, information on the work of insects and their importance. the Society The East Africa Natural History • Undertake research on the Society is a national organization impact of different farming is carried that in 2009 celebrated it’s 100 practices on biodiversity. out by its anniversary. The Society has • Document the benefits committees had exceptional achievements of pollinators to rural in the study of natural history, subsistence farmers. and projects, and nature conservation. It • Show the links between the including is supported by volunteers, productivity of farms, and the Insect naturalists, scientists, and wild pollinator species. grassroot community members. • Improve food security, and Committee, reduce rural poverty through which was The Insect Committee works to better management of shared formed in promote the conservation and natural resources, such as understanding of insects. Its pollinators. 2001. pollination projects aim to: • Work with schools immediately adjacent to the • Study, document, and describe most biodiversity-rich areas in bees and other pollinators the region. from across East Africa. • Run education activities like • Raise public awareness about insect walks, with follow-up insects and pollination. activities for students to try. • Plant and promote pollinator • Have students and teachers gardens at community and plant pollinator gardens in public sites. their schools.

We need your help –what can you do?

here are many different Visit our blogs: dududiaries. or write to us at: Tways you can help save wildlifedirect.org/ and bit. wild pollinators. From making ly/1bX3kAe Insect Committee of a donation, and joining Nature Nature Kenya Kenya, to participating in activities Visit our websites: The East Africa like monitoring surveys. discoverpollinators.org and Natural History Society naturekenya.org P. O. Box 44486 GPO For more information contact us 00100 Nairobi by email: Kenya [email protected] or [email protected]

Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 101 About the author © C. L E W IS and is a Research Associate of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, the National Museums of Kenya, and the Smithsonian Institution.

Dino’s research has been in East Africa where he has studied bee evolution and ecology, hawkmoth and butterfly pollination, co-evolution, the biology of vectors, and the links between biodiversity and landscape-level processes.

He is currently looking at what drives cooperation between flowers and their pollinators, as well as between ants and plants. He works with farmers to improve awareness and conservation of bees, and other pollinators, and tries to help mitigate the threat of pesticides.

Dino’s work has been recognised with many awards including r. Dino J. Martins studies the Whitley Award for Dants, bees, and other Conservation (2009). More insects, and their interactions recently he was selected as with plants. He holds a research one of National Geographic’s fellowship with the Turkana ‘Emerging Explorers’ (2011), Basin Institute-Stony Brook elected a Fellow of the Linnean University (USA), and lives and Society (2013), and an teaches in his home country, Honorary Member of the Kenya Kenya. Dino is a scientist, Horticultural Society (2014). naturalist, artist, prolific writer, and shares his love for insects on Dino earned his PhD in his blogs, in numerous articles, Organismic and Evolutionary and in the talks he gives, and Biology at Harvard University in dudu* walks he leads. 2011.

He currently teaches for the *dudu is the word for insect in Turkana Basin Field School, Kiswahili

102 Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa Our Friends the Pollinators – A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa 103 Our Friends thePollinators A Handbook of Pollinator Diversity and Conservation in East Africa Dino J Martins