The Linguistic Function of Cantonese Discourse Particles in the English Medium Online Chat of Cantonese Speakers

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The linguistic function of Cantonese discourse particles in the English medium online chat of Cantonese speakers

Yin-Ting (Stephanie) Wong University of Wollongong

Wong, Yin-Ting (Stephanie), The linguistic function of Cantonese discourse particles in the English medium online chat of Cantonese speakers, MA-Res thesis, School of English Literatures, Philosophy and Languages, University of Wollongong, 2009. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/812

This paper is posted at Research Online. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/812

The linguistic function of Cantonese discourse particles in the English medium online chat of Cantonese speakers

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree

Masters of Arts - Research

From

University of Wollongong

Yin-Ting (Stephanie), Wong

Faculty of Arts, school of School of English Literatures, Philosophy and Languages 2009 CERTIFICATION

I, Yin-Ting (Stephanie), Wong declare that this thesis, submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Master of Arts (by research), in the school of English

Literatures, Philosophy and Languages of the Faculty of Arts, University of

Wollongong, is my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualification at any other academic institution.

Yin-Ting (Stephanie), Wong

24 April 2009

ABSTRACT

Recent technological developments have given rise to a form of communication via the

Internet known as online chat. This medium of communication has resulted in a language revolution, at least in Hong Kong where people communicating via the internet have adopted a new variety of language. This new variety is based in English but includes a number of Cantonese and Chinese sentence final particles as well as aspects of the grammar of these languages.

It is believed that the use of this hybridised English and especially the Cantonese sentence final particles has a specific function within the context of computer mediated communication especially in online chat such as MSN and ICQ. Most previous research on the use of Cantonese sentence final particles has focussed on their meanings in spoken language (Kwok, 1984; Matthews & Yip, 1994; Luke, 1990; Li 2006; Law,

1990). However, even within this context, the function of these particles has not been subjected to a rigorous systemic functional interpretation and systemization.

This paper reports on a study which seeks to provide a systemic functional description and systematization of Cantonese final particles as used in English computer mediated communication (CMC), by definition a written medium. Since the Cantonese final particles have tended to be a feature of spoken rather than written language, this study illustrates an example of the evolution of language and of linguistic change in progress.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis would not have been completed without the help of numerous people. I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Carmel Cloran, for being supportive, patient and tolerent in guiding my course study. I am very fortunate to have worked under her supervision. Without her guidence, this thesis would never exist.

I am grateful to my co-supervisor, Dr. Elizabeth Thomson. Her comments and advice have been invaluable to me. I would also like to thank all the staff members of the department for their administrative advice and technical assistance.

I would like to express my acknowledgement to all the data providers and the people who assisted me in completing the thesis. Special thanks go to Carrie Cheung, Sadie

Chan, Yunggi Yeung, Michael Lam, Lawrence Choi, Angela Choi, Jiezhi Guo and Yuko

Naito.

I am also thankful to my family for being so encouraging and supportive, both emotionally and financially, throughout my study. Without their support, I would never have had a chance to study overseas.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION ……………………………………………………………….. i ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ………………………………………………………... iii TABLES OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………….. iv LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………...... viii LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………... ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ……………………………………………………. x

Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 1 1.1 What is computer-mediated communication (CMC)? ...... 2 1.1.1 What is ICQ and MSN? …………………………………………….. 3 1.2 A new variety of language ………………………………………………….. 6 1.3 Cantonese particles …………………………………………………………. 6 1.4 Significance ………………………………………………………………… 10 1.5 Research questions ………………………………………………………….. 11 1.6 Limitations ………………………………………………………………….. 11 1.7 Thesis organization …………………………………………………………. 12

Chapter 2 Hong Kong E-discourse 14 2.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 14 2.1 Characteristics of E-discourse in Hong Kong ……………………………… 14 2.1.1 Smileys and emoticons ……………………………………………... 16 2.1.2 Emphasis of personal feelings via punctuation marks ……………… 18 2.1.3 Vocalization ………………………………………………………… 20 2.1.4 Direct translations …………………………………………………... 22 2.1.4.1 Grammar translations ……………………………………... 22 2.1.4.2 Cantonese expressions ……………………………………. 25 2.1.5 Subject omission ……………………………………………………. 26 2.1.6 Shortenings …………………………………………………………. 27 2.1.7 Romanization ………………………………………………………. 31 2.1.7.1 Romanised Cantonese expressions ……………………….. 32 2.1.7.2 Cantonese final particles ………………………………….. 36 2.2 Is the e-discourse a spoken or written language? …………………………... 39 2.3 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….. 42

Chapter 3 Literature Review 44 3.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 44 3.1 Previous studies of Cantonese final particles ………………………………. 45 3.1.1 [laa] 啦 …………………………………………………………….. 45 3.1.1.1 [laa1] 啦 …………………………………………………. 45 3.1.1.2 [laa3] 喇 …………………………………………………. 50 iv

3.1.2 [me1] 咩 …………………………………………………………… 52 3.1.3 [gaa3] …………………………………………………………... 52 3.1.3.1 [gaa3] 咖 ………………………………………………… 53 3.1.3.2 [gaa4] 嘎 ………………………………………………… 53 3.1.4 [ge2] 嘅 ……………………………………………………………. 54 3.1.5 [gwaa3] 啩 ………………………………………………………… 56 3.1.6 [maa3] 嘛 / [aa1 maa3] 吖嘛 …………………………………….. 56 3.1.7 [zaa3] 咋 …………………………………………………………... 57 3.1.8 [ne1] 呢 ……………………………………………………………. 58 3.1.9 [aa3] 啊 ……………………………………………………………. 60 3.1.9.1 [aa1] 吖 ………………………………………………….. 60 3.1.9.2 [aa4] 呀 ………………………………………………….. 61 3.1.9.3 [aa3] 啊 ………………………………………………….. 62 3.1.10 [wo3] 喎 …………………………………………………………. 63 3.1.11 [lo1] 囉 …………………………………………………………... 64 3.2 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….. 66

Chapter 4 The Theoretical Prospective 69 4.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….69 4.1 The systemic functional model of language ………………………………... 70 4.1.1 Context of situation …………………………………………………. 70 4.1.2 Stratification of language …………………………………………… 72 4.1.3 Three bundles of meaning ………………………………………….. 74 4.1.3.1 Ideational metafunction …………………………………... 75 4.1.3.2 Interpersonal metafunction ……………………………….. 77 4.1.3.3 Textual metafunction ……………………………………... 79 4.2 System networks ……………………………………………………………. 80 4.3 Semantic network of progressive messages ………………………………... 84 4.3.1 Semantic network of questions ……………………………………... 87 4.4 Semantic network of punctuation messages ………………………………... 89 4.5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….. 91

Chapter 5 Data and Methodology 92 5.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….92 5.1 The subjects ………………………………………………………………… 92 5.2 Data collection ……………………………………………………………… 93 5.3 Description of the data ……………………………………………………… 94 5.4 Preparation of the data analysis …………………………………………….. 98 5.5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….. 101

Chapter 6 Findings of the research 102 6.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 102 6.1 Ideational function of particles ……………………………………………... 103 6.2 Interpersonal function of particles ………………………………………….. 106 6.2.1 The use of particles in the exchange of information ………………... 109 6.2.1.1 The use of particles in giving information ………………... 110 6.2.1.2 Demanding confirmation …………………………………. 112 6.2.1.3 Demanding specific information …………………………. 117 6.3 The use of particles to express attitude ……………………………………... 121 6.3.1 The constraint of speaker-oriented attitude [wonder] and [puzzlement] in speech function ……………………………………. 124 6.3.2 The constraint of hearer-oriented attitude [consultative] and [persuasive] in speech function …………………………………….. 134 6.3.3 The constraint of the speaker oriented attitude [reservation], [conjecture] and [reluctance] in speech function …………………… 137 6.4 Textual function of particles ………………………………………………... 146 6.5 The complete semantic network of the Cantonese final particles ………….. 149 6.6 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….. 152

Chapter 7 Conclusion 153 7.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 153 7.1 Research outcomes …………………………………………………………. 153 7.1.1 The features of the Hong Kong e-discourse ………………………... 153 7.1.2 The meanings that Cantonese sentence final particles express in CMC …………………………………………………….. 155 7.1.3 The most frequently occurring particles in CMC ………………….. 161 7.1.4 The description of the Cantonese sentence final particle in terms of SF theory ……………………………………………… 162 7.1.5 The significance of using the Cantonese final particles in CMC in English ………………………………………………….. 165 7.2 New research directions …………………………………………………….. 166

References ………………………………………………………………………. 170

Appendix A: The data 177 Conversation – TD ………………………………………………………………… 177 Conversation – CS …………………………………………………………………. 180 Conversation – YV ………………………………………………………………… 184 Conversation – VY ………………………………………………………………… 188 Conversation – PS …………………………………………………………………. 194 Conversation – PL …………………………………………………………………. 196 Conversation – PPL ………………………………………………………………... 197 Conversation – HF …………………………………………………………………. 200 Conversation – PC …………………………………………………………………. 202 Conversation – PJ ………………………………………………………………….. 205 vi

Conversation – SE …………………………………………………………………. 207 Conversation – BS …………………………………………………………………. 211 Conversation – RL …………………………………………………………………. 214 Conversation – MC ………………………………………………………………… 217 Conversation – MM ………………………………………………………………... 221 Conversation – RP …………………………………………………………………. 223 Conversation – FM ………………………………………………………………… 225

Appendix B: The semnatic network of the Cantonese final Particles………………………………………………………… 231

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 An MSN messenger contact list ……………………………………. 4 Figure 1.2 An ICQ contact list …………………………………………………. 4 Figure 1.3 MSN messenger dialogue box ……………………………………… 5 Figure 1.4 ICQ dialogue box …………………………………………………………. 5 Figure 4.1 Parameters of context of situation ………………………………….. 71 Figure 4.2 Stratification ………………………………………………………... 72 Figure 4.3 Relationship between each stratum ………………………………… 73 Figure 4.4 Central and peripheral elements in the experiential structure of the clause ………………………………………………. 76 Figure 4.5 Realization of the major and minor clause …………………………. 82 Figure 4.6 The system network of Mood in English …………………………… 82 Figure 4.7 Two possible entry condition ……………………………………….. 83 Figure 4.8 Strata, units and classes of linguistic analysis ……………………… 85 Figure 4.9 Primary systems in a context open semantic network ……………… 86 Figure 4.10 Primary system in the system of ROLE ALLOCATION …………... 86 Figure 4.11 Options in expressing questions – a simplified fragment …………... 87 Figure 4.12 Network of semantic options for punctuative messages in English …………………………………………………………… 90 Figure 6.1 A primary system of punctuative messages realized by particles ….. 103 Figure 6.2 Primary options in the Ideational system …………………………… 104 Figure 6.3 Primary options in the [Interpersonal] system ……………………… 107 Figure 6.4 The system [exchange info] versus [exchange good & services] …... 107 Figure 6.5 The system [query] versus [state] …………………………………... 109 Figure 6.6 Options in the system of [query] …………………………………… 112 Figure 6.7 Options in the system of [apprize] ………………………………….. 117 Figure 6.8 The system of [marked] attitude ……………………………………. 121 Figure 6.9 The system of [wonder] versus [puzzlement] ………………………. 125 Figure 6.10 The options o [tentativeness], [noteworthiness], [reason] and [only] ………………………………………………….. 127 Figure 6.11 The system of [consultative] versus [persuasive] …………………... 134 Figure 6.12 The options [reservation], [conjecture] and [reluctance] …………… 137 Figure 6.13 The [Textual] system ……………………………………………….. 146 Figure 6.14 The semantic system of the Cantonese final particles ……………… 150

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 The 9 tones in Cantonese …………………………………………… 7 Table 2.1 Examples of the emoticons …………………………………………. 16 Table 2.2 Cantonese exclamations …………………………………………….. 21 Table 3.1 Summary table of the Cantonese final particle functions …………... 66 Table 4.1 Relation of the text to the context of situation ……………………… 75 Table 4.2 Giving or demanding, good-&-services or information ……………. 78 Table 4.3 Examples of the modal meanings and forms of expression ………... 78 Table 4.4 Examples of the Comment Adjuncts ……………………………….. 79 Table 5.1 Background information of the data ………………………………... 95 Table 5.2 The representations of the Cantonese final particles in CMC ……… 97 Table 5.3 The representations of the Chinese final particles in CMC ………… 98 Table 6.1 The most frequently occurring particles in the CMC data …………. 102 Table 6.2 Selection expressions of [laa3] ……………………………………... 106 Table 6.3 The selection expressions of the particle [gaa4], [aa4], [aa3] and [me1] ……………………………………………………... 117 Table 6.4 The selections expressions of the particle [gaa4] and [aa3] ………... 124 Table 6.5 The selection expressions of the particle [ne1] and [ge2] ………….. 126 Table 6.6 The selection expressions of the particle [laa1], [wo3], [maa3] and [zaa3] …………………………………………………... 133 Table 6.7 The selection expressions of the particle [laa1] and [aa1] …………. 136 Table 6.8 The selection expressions of the particle [ge2], [gwaa3] and [lo1] ……………………………………………………...... 145 Table 6.9 The selection expressions of the particle [aa3], [laa1], [laa3] and [lo1] ……………………………………………………... 149 Table 6.10 The summary table of the selection expressions of the Cantonese final particles ……………………………………………………….. 150 Table 7.1 The functions of the Cantonese particles in spoken Cantonese and in CMC ……………………………………………... 157 Table 7.2 The metafunction location of the Cantonese punctuative messges realized by particles ………………………………………………… 163 Table 7.3 Cantonese final particles in terms of SF theory …………………….. 163 Table 7.4 The proportion of the particles used between different genders ……. 167 Table 7.5 The functions of the Cantonese final particles in CMC according to metafunction ………………………………………….. 168

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CMC Computer-mediated-communication ICQ I Seek You MSN MSN messenger BBS bulletin board systems IRC Internet Relay Chat SFL Systemic Functional Linguistics E-discourse Electronic discourse SE selection expression

Chapter1 Introduction

1.0 Introduction

With the rapid development of computer technology in the last decade, the Internet has become an essential part of everyday life. According to a Hong Kong government study in 2006, 67.1% of Hong Kong households have a computer that is connected to the

Internet (The Census and Statistics Department (Hong Kong), 2006). The prevalence of

Internet connectivity has not only brought convenience to everyday life but has also led to the popularization of computer-mediated communication (CMC).

Instant messaging tools such as MSN messenger and ICQ (I seek you) are two of the most popular computer-mediated communication tools in Hong Kong. A Hong Kong survey reveals that young people are considered to be the majority users of the instant messaging tools (Minpo, 2004). Hong Kong youths regard instant messaging as an important channel for communicating with friends (Breakthrough, 2000) since instant messaging tools enable them to contact more than one friend simultaneously and to express themselves unrestrainedly in comparison to other communication mediums

(Bodomo, 2004: 15).

The popularization of the Internet communication tools among youths has had an important effect on the language used in computer-mediated communication (CMC).

Among CMC users in Hong Kong, there is a tendency to code-mix Chinese and English in CMC and has given rise to what might be considered a new variety of language. One

1 of the features of this new variety of language by Hong Kong CMC users is the use of

Cantonese final particles. This thesis seeks to provide a description of the Cantonese sentence final particles in computer-mediated communication in terms of systemic functional linguistic theory.

This chapter introduces the background concepts of the research. Section 1.1 defines computer-mediated communication and section 1.2 describes the language used in this type of communication and briefly introduces Cantonese sentence final particles. In

Section 1.3 the significance of this study is foregrounded while section 1.4 outlines the research aims. Section 1.5 shows the limitation of the research and the organization of this study is provided in section 1.6.

1.1 What is computer-mediated communication?

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) refers to the communication systems that use “computers and telecommunications networks to compose, store, deliver and process communication” (Reid, 1991: 4). Surratt (1998: ix) provides a more comprehensive description of CMC as follows:

Computer-mediated communication is “the communication that is mediated through technology, which constitutes so-called real interaction (real interaction is defined as meaningful to the participants as face to face interaction but this interaction only occurs through the computer Matrix1) and the establishment of real community is possible solely through electronic technology.

There are different types of CMCs, which can be divided into 2 categories: asynchronous (postponed time) and synchronous (real time) (Crystal, 2001: 15). “The

1 John S. Quarterman’s (1994) term for the Internet (Surratt,1998: xii) 2 interactions in the asynchronous CMC are stored in some format, and made available to users upon demand, so that they can catch up with the discussion, or add to it, at any time” (Crystal, 2001: 11). Electronic mail (e-mail), electronic bulletin board systems

(BBS), mailing lists and newsgroups are typical examples of asynchronous CMC (Lee,

2002: 1). On the other hand, “synchronous CMC allows users to join an ongoing conversation in real time, sending named contributions which are inserted into a permanently scrolling screen along with the contributions from other participants”

(Crystal, 2001: 11). Cherny (1999) subdivides synchronous CMCs into two categories: one-way transmission and two-way transmission. In one-way transmission, both

‘speakers’ have to log on simultaneously and the old messages are replaced by the new messages as the computer screen scrolls up. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is one example of the one-way transmission CMC (Herring, 2001: 3). Two-way transmission CMC, by contrast, enables both speakers to see the message when it is produced. Instant messaging tools like ICQ (I seek you) and MSN messenger are examples of two-way transmission CMC (Herring, 2001: 3).

1.1.1 What is MSN and ICQ?

MSN (MSN messenger) and ICQ (I Seek You) are the most popular instant messaging tools among Hong Kong netizens. MSN and ICQ provide a platform for users to transfer files and to communicate in word, in video or even in voice. Unlike other instant messaging systems such as chatrooms, MSN and ICQ are private chat softwares which require registration of users before using the programmes (Lee, 2002: 4). After registration, the users are allocated an email address (MSN) or an account number (ICQ) which are needed in connecting to the programmes. Furthermore, authorizations have to be given by the targeted chat partners. Different from those open chat systems where 3 participants can join and leave the chatroom without restriction, the MSN and ICQ users have to be authorised by the targeted chat partners before the chat starts. Figures 1.1 and

1.2 show the layout of MSN and ICQ contact list.

Figure 1.2 An ICQ contact list (ICQ.com)

Figure 1.1 An MSN messenger contact list

Both MSN messenger and ICQ carry characteristics of both synchronous and asynchronous CMC. The users are able to transmit messages with or without the presence of the chat partners since the messages will be sent to the account of the chat partners automatically and they will receive the messages as soon as they sign in to the account. Furthermore, both participants in MSN messenger and ICQ are able to see the messages at the same time. A dialogue box which separates into two parts pops up when conversation starts. Users type their messages at the bottom of the dialogue box while

4 the messages that the participants contributed are shown in the upper part of the dialogue box (Figure 1.3 & 1.4). As a result, all participants are able to see the messages simultaneously.

Figure 1.3 MSN messenger dialogue box

Figure 1.4 ICQ dialogue box (ICQ.com)

MSN messenger and ICQ enable users to save all conversations. A database called

‘History’ in ICQ and MSN messenger stores all incoming and outgoing activities automatically. This enables users to trace back in the conversations verbatim (Cheng,

2002: 4). However, as with many other synchronous CMC tools, word limit is applied

5 in MSN messenger and ICQ. The word limit in ICQ is 450 words while it is 400 words in MSN messenger.

1.2 A new variety of language

Due to the popularization of ICQ and MSN, a new variety of language has been created by Hong Kong CMC users. According to James (2001), there is a prevalent use of a certain variety of language in cyberspace and the occurrence of this language is due to the frequent use of the Internet, e-mails and computer-based chats among university students. This is a hybridised type of language that is based in English and includes a number of Cantonese and Chinese particles as well as grammatical aspects of these languages. For example, Cantonese final particles like ‘la’, ‘lor’, ‘meh’, ‘wor’, ‘ma’ etc are used at the end of individual messages and, according to James (2001), serve an emphatic or assertive function. The following examples show how the Cantonese final particles are attached to messages:

(1) not 30 meh? (= Isn’t it 30?),

(2) it’s peak time to leave ma (= it’s peak time to leave).

Furthermore, Chinese grammar is often used in computer-mediated communication

(CMC), for example ‘u like’ is used instead of ‘up to you’. James (2001: 11) describes the structure of this type of hybrid English as the minglement of English vocabulary, syntax and Cantonese modal and aspectual particles. This new variety of language will be further described in Chapter 2.

1.3 Cantonese Particles

Cantonese (Yue dialect) is one of the major dialects in Chinese and it is used in southern parts of China (i.e. Guandong, Guangxi, Hong Kong and Macau) (Matthews & 6

Yip, 1994: 2). Cantonese is a dialect that contains not only consonants and vowels but also tones. Cantonese is known as a tone language as tones or pitches have significant lexical functions in Cantonese (Lo et. al., 1998: 102). Cantonese contains 9 tones in total, including 6 distinctive tones and 3 entering tones. Some Chinese characters may share the same tone but carry different meanings while some characters have totally different tones. Thus, a change in tone may lead to a change in lexical meaning (Kwok,

1984: 22). Table 1.1 illustrates the tone system in Cantonese. The name of each tone is shown in the first row while the English descriptions and examples are provided in the second and the third rows. The pinyin2 tone number, tone contours and the Yale romanization3 are stated below the examples.

Table 1.1: The 9 tones in Cantonese (Kwok, 1984:20; Bauer & Benedict, 1997 with modifications)

Apart from the Cantonese tone system, the richness of the sentence particles or utterance particles (Luke, 1990) is another important feature of Cantonese. A sentence particle is a “linguistic form which does not occur as an independent unit” (Kwok, 1984:

5). In other words, these particles are bound to the sentences. They do not have any

2 romanization 3 The Yale Romanization system is developed by Parker Huang and Gerald Kok, which provides the romainzation of Chinese characters. The tone of each character are shown by rising and falling accents (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 7) 7 independent grammatical status so they have to be appended to a free form (a sentence or utterance) (Kwok, 1984: 6). Furthermore, Kwok (1984) and Luke (1990) suggest that sentence particles are in the category of ‘xūzì’ (empty word). In Chinese, all the words fall into one of two different categories; ‘shízì’ (full word) 4 and ‘xūzì’ (empty word).

According to Wang (1955), full words represent concepts while empty words do not represent concepts but only function in the organization of language. Sentence particles fall into the category of empty words since they express only certain grammatical functions such as changing a declarative clause into an interrogative clause.

According to Luke (1997), there are 3 types of sentence particles in Cantonese and they occur in initial, medial and the final position of the sentences. The following examples show how the sentence particles are attached differently.

Examples are extracted from Luke (1997: 3)

阿明識唔識去文化中心呢?

The occurrence of sentence particles in different positions carries different meanings.

For example, the initial particle from example 1.1 functions as an interjection in the

4 This term is directly translated from Chinese

8 clause while the medial particle functions as a pause in the utterance (Luke, 1990: 3-4).

Despite the fact that there are various positions of particles in sentences in Cantonese, this paper focuses only on the sentence final particles since only this group of particles carry discourse pragmatic functions (Wee, 2004: 118).

“Sentence final particles are sometimes referred as ‘pragmatic particles’” (Gupta, 1992:

31-31). There are 30 basic forms of sentence particles in Cantonese while there are only

7 in Mandarin (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 338). Although both Mandarin and Cantonese contain sentence final particles, only the Cantonese final particles are able to combine 2 or more particles to form particles clusters (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 342).

As suggested by the name, sentence final particles occur at the end of an utterance and they have an important function of indicating the mood of an utterance. In traditional

Chinese grammar, sentence final particles are called ‘yŭqìcí’ (mood words). This term simply means that the final particles are related to emotional attitude and mood.

Matthews and Yip (1994: 338) suggest that

the sentence-final particles serve various communicative (pragmatic) functions and textual functions such as: i.) indicating speech-act types such as questions, assertations and requests, ii.) evidentiality (indicating the source of knowledge), iii.) affective and emotional colouring.

It is clear, then, that Cantonese final particles do have important functions in Cantonese speech.

1.4 Significance

Although the functions of the Cantonese final particles have been discussed in many other studies (Chao, 1968; Gibbons, 1980; Kwok, 1984; Luke, 1990, 1997, 2002; Law

1991; Gupta, 1992; Matthews & Yip, 1994; Bruche-Schulz, 1998; Fung, 2000; Lee &

Law, 2001; Law, A ,2002; Li, 2006; Wee, 2004), most of the studies focus only on the colloquial meanings of the particles and none of the research pays attention to the systemization of the Cantonese particles. However, the heavy use of Cantonese final particles (or discourse particles) in CMC may have a specific function within this context of their use. Therefore, Cantonese final particles were chosen as the object of study in this research.

This paper proposes a study of the linguistic functions of Cantonese particles in English computer-mediated communication (CMC). This study not only describes the meanings of the particles that have been observed but also some previously unobserved functions of the Cantonese particles in the CMC, using Systemic Functional (SF) theory.

This study is significant in the sense that it will provide a rigorous study of the

Cantonese particles in terms of the systemic functional theory of language. The

Cantonese particles as used in English computer-mediated communication have not previously been described systemically, i.e. the functions of these particles in discourse have not been subjected to a rigorous systemic functional interpretation and systemization. Furthermore, Cantonese final particles have tended to be a feature of spoken rather than written language. Their use in CMCs (by definition a written medium) is a product of development in communication technology and an example of linguistic change in progress. 10

Traditional descriptions of Cantonese final particles have not attempted in any disciplined way to provide the systematization of the particles. This systematization is significant in the sense that it captures the meaning potential of the particles. In other words, the meaning of particles in specific environments is represented as a set of choices or options in the network, so that the meaning of the particles in different environments can be revealed by following the choice path. It is impossible to capture the meaning potential of the particles without the network. As a result, this study addresses this problem by revealing the meaning potential of particles via the systematization.

1.5 Research questions

This research is aimed at investigating the linguistic functions of the Cantonese sentence final particles in computer-mediated communication (CMC). In order to do so, the following questions will be addressed:

i.) Which Cantonese particles are the most frequently used by CMC chatters? ii.) What functions do the Cantonese final particles play from a systemic functional

linguistic perspective? iii.) What is the significance of using Cantonese sentence final particles in

computer-mediated communication in English?

1.6 Limitations

It is believed that Cantonese final particles occur more frequently in synchronous CMC

(i.e. instant messaging). Therefore, this paper is concerned only with the synchronous

CMC such as instant messaging while other CMC such as email, electronic bulletin board systems (BBS) and newsgroups will be excluded in this study.

In addition, the number of particles included in the description is limited since only those Cantonese final particles that are used frequently in CMC will be included.

Therefore, the description of the particles will not be a complete one. Moreover, due to the fact that this study mainly focuses on the functions of particles in CMC, this might also constrain the development of the semantic network where only those particles that occur in CMC will be included.

Furthermore, the data on which the study is based is limited due to the fact that only 17 conversations totalling 1080 messages are used in the study. These conversations may be insufficient to capture all the functions and meanings of the particles but it will be enough to find out the most significant features of the particles.

1.7 Thesis organization

This thesis is separated into 7 chapters. The background concepts, aims and significance of this research have been introduced in this chapter. Chapter 2 describes the characteristics of Hong Kong e-discourse. The medium of the e-discourse will also be discussed in this Chapter 2. Chapter 3 provides a review of previous studies on the functions and meanings of the Cantonese final particles in spoken Cantonese. Chapter 4 outlines the theoretical approach (Systemic functional theory) that is adopted in this research. The data and the methods used in data collection and analysis will be described in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 provides the findings of the research, which includes the systemic functional description of the Cantonese final particles used in CMC as well 12 as their systemization in a semantic network. Chapter 7 summarizes the finding of the research and some ideas for further research will also be provided in this chapter.

Chapter2 Hong Kong e-discourse

2.0 Introduction

Interesting new linguistic features have arisen due to the prevalent use of CMC, resulting in a new type of language that is between spoken and written language. Crystal

(2001) identifies this type of new language as ‘Netspeak’. The term ‘Netspeak’ is also called ‘netlish’, ‘weblish, ‘Internet language’, ‘cyberspeak’, ‘electronic discourse’(e-discourse), ‘computer-mediated communication (CMC) and many other descriptions (Crystal, 2001: 18). According to Crystal (2001:18-19), e-discourse or netspeak is a type of language that is unique to the Internet and “the influence of netspeak is mainly on vocabulary, with graphology affected in some written varieties”.

For instance, new suffixes like ‘.com’, ‘.gov’ and ‘.net’ have been created. Because the internet is, essentially, a global phenomenon, this new variety of language occurs not only in the English-speaking world but globally.

In this chapter the features of this ‘electronic discourse’ (e-discourse) as it is used specifically in Hong Kong will be reviewed in section 2.1. Section 2.2 addresses the medium of CMC: is it a spoken medium or a written medium? Section 2.3 provides a summary of the chapter.

2.1 Characteristics of e-discourse in Hong Kong

According to Bolton (2003: 218), there is a variety of language which is adopted by

Hong Kong ‘netizens’ in Internet peer messaging tools such as MSN and ICQ 14

(I-Seek-You). This kind of language is linguistically hybrid. It is a mixture of English and Chinese vocabularies, syntaxes, modal and aspectual particles (James, 2001: 11).

As James (2001: 9) comments:

users ‘pollute’ their English by substituting Cantonese words haphazardly for English ones, or by applying Cantonese structures to their English writing, students tend to incorporate certain kinds of Cantonese words systematically into their texts for specific identifiable purposes.

Bolton (2003) agrees that a new language has been created due to the popularity of the

Internet communication and this language is based in English but includes Chinese and

Cantonese grammatical features. Bolton (2003) refers to this language as a hybrid variety of English. Example 2.1 shows a fragment of this variety of English.

Example 2.1: (extract from Bolton, 2003: 218-220)

In order to understand more about this newly created variety of language, its characteristics will be described under seven headings, ‘smileys and emoticons’,

‘emphasis of personal feeling’, ‘vocalization’, ‘direct translations’, ‘subject omission’,

‘shortenings’ and ‘romanization’.

2.1.1 Smileys and emoticons

According to James (2001), smileys and emoticons play an important role in CMC.

Unlike face to face communication where emotions and attitudes of the speakers can be expressed through facial expressions, gestures, intonation or other body movements,

CMC employs smileys and emoticons to express these interpersonal features (Crystal,

2001: 36). Example 2.1(a) shows the use of a smiley in CMC.

Example 2.1(a): smiley Mess. no. Name Message English gloss yes la, we should drink togetther next Yes [laa1], we should drink together next FM76 Florence time! time FM77 Maggie of course of course FM78 Maggie but when i dont have to drink,hehe but when I don't have to drive dont want to get fine for drink driving I don't want to get fine for drink driving FM79 Maggie ar [aa3] Maggie :( (*smiley) FM80 Florence hahaha, yes wor, u are driver,hahaha (*laugh), oh yes [wo3], you are driver

“Smileys are the combinations of keyboard characters designed to show an emotional facial expression” (Crystal, 2001: 36), and can be interpreted vertically or horizontally.

For instance, both :-) and ^v^ represent happy while :-( and v_v indicate unhappy

(Netlingo, 2008). Some examples and their meanings are shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: examples of the emoticons (Crystal, 2001: 37; Cheng, 2002: 85; Lee, 2002: 60; Netlingo, 2008 with modifications) smiley meaning smiley meaning

Lee (2002) argues that some smileys are culture specific. For example, instead of using punctuation marks and letters in forming smileys, some of the smileys used by the Hong

Kong netizens are formed by Chinese characters (Lee, 2002: 61). :米 (meaning the user is dead) is the example that given by Lee (2002: 61), which is formed by a colon and the

Chinese character for ‘rice’ (米).

Since there is no standard interpretation of smileys (>_< can be interpreted as angry, unhappy, disappointed, embarrassed or excited), some smileys might be misinterpreted by some users. This misunderstanding or misinterpretation led to the popularization of the use of cartoon icons known as emoticons. Emoticons carry the same functions as smileys but appear as cartoon icons instead of the combinations of the keyboard characters. Example 2.1(b) shows the use of an emoticon in CMC.

Example 2.1(b): emoticon Mess.no. Name Message English gloss RP9 Rita how's your new job too? how is your new job? RP10 Rita ok ma? is it ok [ma]? also, why you do not install msn on by the way, why don't you install MSN on RP11 Rita your office computer? your office computer? RP12 Rita i know you are using web messenger I know you are using web messenger Rita (*icon) RP13 Perry my new job is ok ar.… my new job is ok [aa3] RP14 Perry actually not very hard lor.. actually it's not that hard [lo1] RP15 Perry yes ar, yes [aa3], I am using web messenger I couldn't install anything in my because I can’t install anything on the RP16 Perry computer la... computer [laa1] The use of cartoon icons increases the accuracy of the interpretation of speakers’ attitudes and emotions.

In order to increase the efficiency of CMC, some web-based email systems and instant messaging like ICQ and MSN provide inbuilt emoticons (Lee, 2002: 59), so that the users can insert the emoticons they want immediately.

2.1.2 Emphasis of personal feelings via punctuation marks

As mentioned previously, CMC is limited in expressing chatters’ emotions and personal feelings. However, this limitation can be overcome not only by the use of emoticons, but also by punctuation marks and exclamations.

The punctuation marks that occur in e-discourse are heavily reduplicated (Lee, 2002:

66; Fung & Carter, 2008: 359). Unlike a written language, CMC allows for repetition of punctuation marks. Examples 2.2(a) and 2.2(b) show the use of reduplicated exclamations and punctuation marks in CMC.

Example 2.2(a) Mess.no. Name Message English gloss FM1 Florence what are u doing ar? what are you doing now [aa3]? FM2 Florence studying? are you studying? FM3 Maggie i was playing on my wii ar I was playing Wii just now [aa3] FM4 Maggie wii tennis I was playing wii tennis FM5 Florence what!!!!!!!! are you serious? FM6 Maggie i was studying before I was studying before FM7 Florence gum good!!!!!!! that's so good

Example 2.2(b) Mess.no. Name Message English gloss TD5 Tracy where did u color ur scary red hair Where did you get your scary red hair b4 ga? done [gaa3]? TD6 Daniel i did it by myself ga I did it by myself [gaa3] TD7 Tracy u bleach it yourself? Did you bleach it by yourself? TD8 Daniel yes, yes 18

TD9 Daniel i bleached twice I bleached it twice TD10 Daniel and dyed and dyed Tracy =* (*smiley) TD11 Tracy bleach twice??????? you've bleached twice? TD12 Tracy wah wow TD13 Tracy gum mo yeh la Then forget about it [laa3]

The presence of the reduplicative punctuation marks in Example 2.2(a) and 2.2(b) helps to “emphasise a particular expression” (Lee, 2002: 66) as well as to exaggerate speakers’ attitude and emotional feeling (Crystal, 2001: 89). Lee (2002: 66) suggests that the more a punctuation mark is repeated, “the more emphasis it gives”. In Example

2.2(b), Tracy is surprised by the fact that Daniel bleached his hair twice to get his hair done red. In order to emphasise this surprise, the reduplicative question mark is used.

Apart from the reduplication of the punctuation marks, there are some odd combinations of punctuation marks (Crystal, 2001: 90). The simultaneous use of exclamation marks and question marks in Example 2.2(c) expresses a sense of emphasis and query at the same time.

Example 2.2(c) Mess.no. Name Message English gloss are you still waiting for the offer from Police SE42 Ellen so still waiting for police? Training School? SE43 Shirley yes ar`~~ yes [aa3], I am still waiting SE44 Shirley very depress~~~ I am very depress SE45 Ellen y depress!!???? why do you feel depress? SE46 Shirley have to wait ma~~~ because I have to wait for the offer [maa3] SE47 Shirley i waited for a long time la~~~ I have been waiting for a long time [laa3]

In Example 2.2(c), when Ellen was told that Shirley felt depressed, she used the combination of exclamation marks and question marks to emphasise her concern and her query.

2.1.3 Vocalization

The excessive use of written vocalization is another distinctive feature of e-discourse.

“Vocalizations are all the nonwords or sounds that accompany the delivery of words or are used as interjections rather than for their manifest meaning” (Hiltz & Turoff, 1978:

78). It is found that onomatopoeic words like ‘haha’, ‘uummm’ and ‘hehe’ frequently occur in e-discourse (Example 2.3(a) and 2.3(b)).

Example 2.3(a) Mess.no. Name Message English gloss RL1 Raymond just on time back to c u online I came back on time, so I can see u online RL2 Lily good~~ that's good RL3 Raymond finally,~~~~~ finally RL4 Raymond u online la you are online [laa3] RL5 Lily long time on online at home I haven't been online at home for a long time RL6 Lily yes yes yes, I am online now Lily hehe (*giggle) Raymond hahhaa (*laugh)

In Example 2.3(a), Lily uses ‘hehe’ to represents the giggle sound while Raymond uses

‘haha’ to indicates that he is laughing.

Example 2.3(b)

Mess.no. Name Message English gloss HF25 Henry so, what are you going to do today?? so, what are you going to do today? HF26 Frank mmm..dunno yet.. uumm, I don't know yet HF27 Frank maybe go to gym maybe I will go to the gym oh, I see, you are being so healthy HF28 Henry oic... so healthy... haha... (*laugh) Frank *yeah (*emoticon)

In Example 2.3(b), Frank uses ‘mmm’ to represent that he is thinking while ‘haha’ in message HF28 is used to indicate the laughing sound.

Hiltz and Turoff (1978: 90) refer to such features as written vocalizations since they are transmitted through nonvocal channel. These written vocalizations, as with such

20 vocalizations in spoken discourse, are used to “guide the flow of interaction” (Hasan,

1996: 118).

Cheng (2002: 76) argues that some of the interpretations of the vocalizations depend strongly on the co-text of the conversation. For instance, ‘oh’ can means ‘I am surprised’ or ‘I am disappointed’ at the same time. Therefore, the interjection carries different meanings in different contents.

Apart from the English vocalizations, it is observed that some of the written vocalizations are borrowed from chatters’ mother tongue (Example 2.3(c)).

Example 2.3(c) Mess.no. Name Message English gloss MC63 Carol thought u wanna go malaysia I thought you want to go Malaysia Carol haha (*laugh) MC64 Marcus whtever la whatever [laa1] MC65 Marcus as long as i can leave ...…. as long as I can leave MC66 Marcus aiya.....I got to go la... oh…I have to go [laa3] MC67 Carol go clubbing ? Are you going clubbing? Carol haha (*laugh) MC68 Carol okok okok

The word ‘aiya’ in Example 2.3(c) (message MC66), is borrowed from Cantonese, and expresses shock or disapproval (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 357). Table 2.2 shows some of the exclamations in Cantonese that occur in the data.

Table 2.2: Cantonese exclamations Mess.no. Exclamations Meanings TD12 wah/wa 嘩 [waa4] CS15 expresses surprise or wonder (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 358) CS29 chur/cher 唓 [ce1] expresses disparagement, like tut-tut in English (Matthews & Yip, 1994 : 358) CS74 ai 唉 [aai1] sigh VY23 ha? 吓 [haa2] expresses surprise or shock, like ‘what did you?’ in English

Mess.no. Exclamations Meanings VY83 ah 啊 [aa3] sudden realization YV81 or 哦 [o2] I see PL19 or 哦 [o4] ok MC66 aiya 哎呀[aai1 aa3] negative exclamation, expresses shock or disapproval (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 357)

Since English is not the chatters’ first language, they may have difficulties in expressing their feeling with English interjections. Therefore, the use of the culture-specific vocalizations or interjections helps to overcome this difficulty.

2.1.4 Direct translations

The occurrence of direct translation is also worth noticing. The feature of direct translation can be separated into two parts, translation of grammar or translation of expressions.

2.1.4.1 Grammar translations

It is observed that the grammar being used by the Hong Kong netizens in CMC is heavily code-mixed between English and Cantonese. Instead of using standard English grammar, chatters tend to use a hybrised grammar, which is the combination of

Cantonese romanization and morpheme-for-morpheme translation (2002: 81) or the direct translation of the Cantonese grammar into English, word for word (Example

2.4(a), message 3, 4 & 7).

Example 2.4(a): the combination of Cantonese romanization and morpheme-for-morpheme translation

Mess. no. Name Message English gloss did u ask Wilson to pick PC1 Peter did u ask wilson to pick you up in the train station? you up in the train station? oh, I haven't asked him PC2 Chloe ah...not yet.....hahaaa yet..(*laugh) gum is u dun ask .…. then it's you who don’t PC3 Peter 咁係你唔問 ask him to pick you up

gam2 hai6 nei5 ng4 man6 PC4 Peter dun say wt danger later ar..ghaa don't say it is 唔好話咩危險一陣呀 dangerous later (*laugh) ng4hou2 waa6 me1 ngai4 him2 jat1 zan6 aa3 because I am doing PC5 Chloe i 'm doing assignment ar ma.....… assignment [aa1 maa3] PC6 Chloe forgot jo I forgot about it [zo1] Chloe hahaa (*laugh) PC7 Peter or.... gum u continue lo ok…then you continue 哦咁你繼續囉 working on your ngo4 gam2 nei5 gai3 zuk6 lo1 assignment [lo1]

Message PC4 in Example 2.4(a) is the direct translation of the Cantonese grammar while PC3 and PC7 are direct translations of the Cantonese grammar and the romanized

Cantonese morpheme ‘咁’ (gam2, meaning then). These two examples show the way the chatters directly translate the Cantonese grammar and convert it into English under the influence of their mother tongue (Cantonese).

The second type of direct translation in grammar is what Lee (2002: 81) refers to as “the reduplication in spoken Cantonese”. In Cantonese grammar structure, there is a repetition of the verb form, as shown in Example 2.4(b), 2.4(c) and 2.4(d).

Example 2.4(b) 睇睇啦 tai2 tai2 laa1 see see Particle Have a look

Example 2.4(c) (excerpted from Lee, 2002: 81) 等我問問啦 dang2 ngo5 man6 man6 laa1 wait me ask ask Particle Let me ask

Example 2.4(d) 試試啦 si3 si3 laa1 try try Particle Try it

The repetition of the verb form like those stated above helps to soften the speech act as well as to make the utterances sound less aggressive and challenging to the addressee.

Since some speech acts, especially commands, may sound too strong and aggressive to the addressee, with the use of verb reduplication, a challenging utterance is turned into a softer and more polite request and the utterance will sound more friendly or lively in tone. Therefore, Hong Kong CMC users tend to adapt this feature of Cantonese grammar structure into CMC (Example 2.4(e)).

Example 2.4(e): verb reduplication Mess.no. Name Message English gloss PPL7 Peter i also got video there wo I also have video in that website PPL8 Louis send me the link la send me the link [laa1] Peter http://www.youtube.com/******************* (*the link) PPL9 Louis your dog is very cute wor your dog is very cute [wo3] PPL10 Louis did you read my space Did you read "myspace"? PPL11 Peter i didnt ar I didn't [aa3] Peter (*LINK) *the link is omitted c c la PPL12 Louis 睇睇啦 have a look of “myspace” [laa1] tai2 tai2 laa1 PPL13 Peter now seeing I am browsing it now

In Example 2.4(e), message 12, the repetition of the verb ‘see’ is used by the ‘speaker’

Louis to soften the command.

2.1.4.2 Cantonese expressions

Transliteration of the Cantonese expressions into English is the other type of direct translation that occurs in CMC (Cheng, 2002: 47). Chatters tend to translate some of the

Cantonese characters or compound words into English (word by word) when no English words are suitable to represent or replace the Chinese words (Cheng, 2002: 47) (refer to

Example 2.4(g), 2.4(h) & 2.4(i)).

Example 2.4(g) Background: two students are discussing the maximum luggage weight they can carry on board and they suspect that their friend Percy babbles about the luggage weight Mess.no. Name Message English gloss CS51 Cathy but i've asked the question of luggage weight but I've asked the luggage weight the staff said the maximum CS52 Cathy she said, virgin is 23KG luggage weight for Virgin is 23KG CS53 Stella huh? huh? CS54 Stella not 30 meh? it's not 30KG [me1]? CS55 Cathy but i think if u buy from STA, but i think if u buy in STA, the maximum luggage weight will CS56 Cathy will be different be different since the staff in golden travel as golden travel said the price is student CS57 Cathy (name of a travel agent) said the price already, price is student price already, they won't help you to get extra CS58 Cathy they won't help u to get more weight weight CS59 Stella ooooooooooohh oh honestly, I don't think the luggage CS60 Cathy honestly, i don't think it can be 30 KG la weight can be 30kg [laa1] CS61 Stella but still la, so expensive but it's still very expensive [laa1] CS62 Cathy i think Percy "blows water" I think Percy was babbling Keys: blows water (吹水) – babble

In Example 2.4(g), Cathy directly translates the Cantonese expression ‘吹水’ (ceoi1 seoi2, means ‘blow water’ literally but its meaning in this context is ‘babble’) into

English (blows water) instead of using the English word ‘babble’.

Example 2.4(h) Mess.no. Name Message English gloss SE74 Shirley i have to bath I have to bath SE75 Shirley and sleep la.… and sleep because I have to go to work really early SE76 Shirley as i work very early tomolo ar in the morning [aa3]

SE77 Shirley 7:00am..… I have to work at 7:00am SE78 Shirley very shit lei`~~ it's very bad [ne]5 SE79 Ellen ahaha~~~ add oil!!!! (*laugh) work hard! SE80 Ellen then goodnight and sweet dreams la Goodnight [laa1] SE81 Shirley talk to u next time! talk to you next time Key: add oil – work hard

Similarly, the ‘speaker’ Ellen in Example 2.4(h) directly translates the Cantonese expression ‘加油’ (gaa1 jau4, it means ‘add oil’ literally but its actual meaning in this context is ‘work hard’) into English ‘add oil’.

The occurrence of transliterated Cantonese expressions is due to the difficulty of translating Chinese slang expressions into English which lacks equivalent translations of certain Cantonese words and slang. Therefore, in order to communicate more effectively in CMC, the chatters have to directly translate the Cantonese expressions into English word by word. In addition, the use of direct translations also helps to make the expressions sound more vivid as well as to help the chatters overcome the difficulties in the context of English communication.

These Cantonese additions appear not only to be helping the writers overcome their lack of ability to adjust to the style of English written conversation, and enabling them to supply from their native language what they cannot express adequately in English (James, 2001: 9).

2.1.5 Subject omission

Lee (2002) argues that personal pronouns are often omitted in CMC. According to

Matthews and Yip (1994: 83), subject or object of the sentence is able to be omitted in

Cantonese grammar under two conditions: the omitted subject or object has been

5 Chinese final particle 26 mentioned previously (Example 2.5(a)) or when the “reference is clear from the context”, i.e. during one to one communication. Lee (2002: 72) provides another reason for the subject omission, that is, both of the participants are identified in one to one communication, therefore it is not necessary to point out the subject or object of the utterance. Hong Kong CMC users tend to apply this Cantonese grammar structure when they communicate online (Example 2.5(a) and Example 2.5(b)).

Example 2.5(a) Mess.no. Name Message English gloss PJ1 Perry hey... hey PJ2 Jenny yes yes, what's up? PJ3 Perry how are u ar??? how are you [aa3]? PJ4 Jenny good ar (I am) good [aa3] PJ5 Jenny working now (I am)working now

Example 2.5(b) Mess.no. Name Message English gloss HF25 Henry so, what are you going to do today?? so, what are you going to do today? HF26 Frank mmm..dunno yet.. uumm, (I)don't know yet HF27 Frank maybe go to gym Maybe (I) will go to the gym oh, I see, (you) are being healthy HF28 Henry oic... so healthy... haha... (*laugh)

In both Example 2.5(a) and 2.5(b), the subject ‘I’ and ‘you’ are omitted in one to one communication.

2.1.6 Shortenings

Shortening is another notable feature of e-discourse (Yu, 2001; Lee, 2002; Cheng, 2002;

Crystal, 2001). Lee (2002: 57) suggests that there are six types of shortening in CMC: abbreviations, acronyms, letter homophones, number homophones, combinations of a letter and number homophones, reduction of individual words and abbreviations. Each of the features carries different characteristics and will be discussed in the following section.

Abbreviation is the shortened form of a longer word or a phrase. It is commonly used not only in CMC but also in everyday life such as when doctor is abbreviated as ‘Dr.’, street as ‘St’ and professor as ‘Prof’. Abbreviations usually consist of the first few initial letters of a word which are used to represent a whole word. Abbreviations in

CMC are formed in a similar way. When abbreviation is used in CMC, chatters tend to represent the whole word by typing the first few initial letters. Example 2.6(c) shows the abbreviations that occur in this study. For instance, picture is represented as ‘pic’, have as ‘hav’, just as ‘jus’ and want as ‘wan’.

Example 2.6(c): abbreviations Mess. Speaker Message Shortening Target expression No. VY74 Yvonne or lib to give u the receipt ar lib Library CS62 Stella soooooooo ex ar ex expensive YV31 Vicky this is the 2nd sem for her?? sem semester YV73 Yvonne she was in syd for summer... syd Sydney YV39 Vicky i mean dip dip diploma YV5 Yvonne wen will u start uni? Uni university PC22 Peter n go to comp lab lo Comp lab Computer laboratory PPL14 Peter wa....the pic pic picture really ma??? i jus saw that every1 there have TD45 Tracy jus Just pink, green, orange color hair hahaha TD25 Tracy and u hav short hair maaa... Hav have BS7 Betty do u wan anythIng from hk?? wan want

The second type of shortening is the use of acronyms. Unlike abbreviations which are derived from the first few initial letters, an acronym is “derived from the initials of several words” (Fromkin, Rodman etal., 2001: 95, 97). Example 2.6(d) presents a number of acronyms found in the data used in the present study.

Example 2.6(d): Acronyms Mess. no. Speaker Message Shortening Target expression MC44 Carol omg omg oh my god MC71 Carol bb bb bye bye YV85 Yvonne gtg gtg got to go RL35 Lily btw, send some songs to me ar~~ btw by the way FM15 Maggie lol lol laugh out loud CS69 Cathy icic~~so fast la~ ic ic I see I see 28

VY69 Vicky oic oic oh, I see

Traditionally, acronyms occur only in technical jargon such as URL (Uniform Resource

Locator’) (Lee, 2002: 56) and they are normally restricted to words or phrases.

However, in order to enhance the efficiency of the CMC, acronyms have become one of its most distinctive features. In CMC, chatters tend to pick up the initial letters of a phrase and form the acronym from this phrase. For example, Oh my god is typed as

‘omg’, by the way as ‘btw’ and got to go as ‘gtg’. However Crystal (2001: 86) notes that acronyms in CMC are not restricted to words or phrases, but also can be applied in a sentence- length expressions such as AYSOS [are you stupid or something?] or WDYS

[what did you say?].

Reduction of individual words is another type of shortening that occurs in CMC. As can be noticed by the name, the formation of this type of shortening is by reducing the length of a word. For instance, ‘becos’ represents because, people as ‘ppl’, nothing as

‘nth’, thanks as ‘thz’/ ‘thx’/ ‘ths’. Example 2.6(e) lists some reductions found in the data.

Example 2.6(e): Reduction of individual word Mess.no. Speaker Message Shortening Target expression PL19 Peter or....juz think u mean now tim juz Just i think they have to let ppl know wheather SE56 Ellen ppl people they are in or not, PC39 Peter gd gal Gd gal Good girl TD43 Tracy coz that salon look so punk hahaha Coz VY5 Yvonne cos its difficult to find old tb for my sub Cos Because SE24 Shirley bcoz her Bf back working there.... bcoz Because BS40 Betty becoz it is a small hotel, becoz PPL47 Louis there is a big match tonite wor tonite tonight PC15 Peter reali nth ar..haaa.. reali really FM120 Florence ahaha, thx! thx Thanks FM89 Florence of coz not yet la!!! Of coz of course PPL44 Peter coz my gf juz back from US today gf girlfriend SE24 Shirley bcoz her Bf back working there.... bf boyfriend

PC13 Peter nth.... nth nothing SE63 Shirley i know all of my fds care me so much..... fds friends CS17 Stella then how abt i book now? abt about PPL2 Paul whts that? wht what YV4 Yvonne tmr nite leaving HK Tmr PL18 Louis talk to you tmw Tmw tomorrow SE76 Shirley as i work very early tomolo ar tomolo PS9 Perry so do u hv HK mobile phone no. then??? hv have FM111 Maggie next wk wk week k, i come n meet u at 11 la, outside post VY76 Yvonne k ok office, ok? TD5 Tracy where did u color ur scary red hair b4 ga? ur your PJ25 Perry what's yr salary rate per month ar??? yr HF14 Frank nvm la nvm never mind TD17 Tracy but duno... dono don’t know VY8 Vicky i dunno ah donno VY108 Yvonne cos i have dental appt at 11:45 appt appointment MM43 Margaret c ya c ya See you

Apart from abbreviations, acronyms and the reduction of individual words, letter homophones, number homophones and combination of a letter and number homophones are also frequently used in CMC. A letter homophone occurs if a word is represented by a letter that has a similar pronunciation. For example, the letter ‘u’ resembles the pronunciation of ‘you’. Therefore, ‘u’ is usually being used to represent the word ‘you’ in CMC. Example 2.6(f) illustrates some of the letter homophones that occur in this study.

Example 2.6(f): Letter homophone Mess.no. Speaker Message Shortening Target expression TD5 Tracy where did u color ur scary red hair b4 ga? u you BS1 Betty r u ok there?? r are VY13 Yvonne n one only $11… n and VY89 Yvonne y not ar? y why VY125 Yvonne k, c u there c see VY132 Yvonne bibi la bibi Bye bye

Number homophones have a similar formation as letter homophones. The only difference between these two types of shortening is that number homophones are formed by homophones of numbers. Example 2.6(g) shows an example of number

30 homophone. 88 is used to represent ‘bye bye’ in CMC due to the fact that its pronunciation in Cantonese is similar to the English word ‘bye bye’.

Example 2.6(g): Number homophone Mess.no. Shortening Target expression MM45 88 Bye bye

On the other hand, the combination of a letter and number homophone is formed by the homophone of a letter and a number. An example of this type of shortening is ‘b4’, which is the representation of the word ‘before’. Some of the letter and number homophones that occur in the present study are listed in Example 2.6(h).

Example 2.6(h): Combination of a letter and number homophone Mess.no. shortening Target expression VY15 2nd second YV86 me2 me too SE41 b4 before

Lee (2002: 57) argues that some shortenings are culture-specific and influenced by users’ native tongue, therefore, CMC abbreviations in the English-speaking context can go beyond 4 words such as ‘AWGTHTGTTA6’ (are we going to have to go through this again) but it is not the case in Hong Kong. Instead, the Hong Kong CMC users create some shortenings influenced by their mother tongue, for instance, ‘88’ (bye bye) and ‘tomolo’ (pronunciation confusion between the /1/ and /r/ sound) (Lee, 2002: 57).

2.1.7 Romanization

Romanization of Cantonese words or expressions is another distinctive feature of the

Hong Kong Internet language. Cheng (2002), Lee (2001, 2002) and Fung and Carter

(2008) suggest that there is a frequent use of romanized Cantonese final particles and

Cantonese expressions in CMC. However, instead of using formal romanization

6 Source: Jansen, E. 1995-2008, Netlingo: Then Internet Dictionary, URL:http://www.netlingo.com 31 methods (IPA symbols or Jyutping 粵拼) (Cheng, 2002: 30), the Hong Kong CMC users adopt an informal romanization method. Cheng (2002: 31) refers to this as ‘impromptu romanization’. The occurrence of the informal romanization is due to the fact that there is little training or education in the Cantonese phonetic system. Therefore, the users tend to improvise romanized Cantonese expressions by themselves.

The use of the informal romanization method is due to the difficulty of inputting

Chinese into computers. Unlike English, Chinese has many different ways for inputting on computer and people have to learn it specifically. In order to enhance the efficiency of communicating online, most Hong Kong CMC users tend to type in English rather than Chinese. In addition, the use of romanization allows the chatters to express themselves freely even with an English input system or with an English keyboard. Some computers may not have installed the Chinese input systems; therefore, it is difficult for the users to type in Chinese. However, with the use of romanization, the users can express themselves even in a non-Chinese environment computer. Although the Chinese input systems are able to be installed in computers, the users have to switch to the input methods that they want to use in order to type a message. This slows down the typing speed and therefore the communication speed. Therefore, the use of romanization helps to increase the typing speed “by avoiding switching between inputting methods”

(Cheng, 2002: 31).

2.1.7.1 Romanised Cantonese expressions

Romanized Cantonese expressions and Cantonese sayings occur frequently in Hong

Kong e-discourse. Fung and Carter (2007: 352) found that a large number of loan words

32 are borrowed from interlocutors’ mother tongue and relexicalized into English

(Example 2.7(a) and 2.7(b)).

Example 2.7(a): excerpted from (Fung & Carter, 2007: 354)

好變態, 無恥,

In the above example, the Cantonese expressions ‘ho bean tai’ and ‘mo cheer’ are used instead of the English word ‘deviant’ and ‘shameless’. In Example 2.7(b), Raymond uses the Cantonese word ‘ma fan’ instead of ‘troublesome’.

Example 2.7(b) Mess.no. Name Message English gloss the department head asked you for RL9 Raymond head ask u for resume?? resume? RL10 Raymond how come ge how come [ge2]? RL11 Lily yes ar, Yes [aa3] he said he has asked everyone for RL12 Lily he said he ask all people la wor resume already [laa3 wo5] RL13 Raymond what for what is that for? RL14 Raymond ma fan it's so troublesome RL15 Lily not my head he is not my supervisor my supervisor is the head of the RL16 Lily programmer head programming department Key: ma fan (麻煩, maa4 faan4) – troublesome

There are two types of relexicalizations in CMC, the romanization of the whole utterance (Example 2.7(c)) or the Cantonese expressions (Example 2.7(d)).

Example 2.7(c): Romanization of the whole utterance Mess.no Message English gloss TD13 gum mo yeh la Ok, forget about it 咁無嘢喇 gam2 mo4 je5 laa3 the no Particle

YV44 hai ya yes 係呀 hai6 aa3

yes [Particle]

PC49 hai meh Really? 係咩 hai6 me1 yes [Particle]

PC50 hai ar yes 係呀 hai6 aa3 yes [Particle]

RL33 call lei call you call 你 call nei5 call you

Example 2.7(c) lists the examples of utterances that are romanized in CMC while

Example 2.7(d) shows a list of romanized Cantonese expressions that occur in CMC.

Example 2.7(d): Cantonese expression Mess.no. Message English gloss MC34 chi sin so crazy 痴線 ci1 sin3 crazy

MC69 leng lui Pretty girl 靚女 leng3 neoi5 pretty girl

FM44 dai b Idiot 低 b dai1 b low b

RL14 ma fan troublesome 麻煩 maa4 faan4 troublesome

TD14 ho lang very pretty 好靚 hou2 leng3 very pretty

YV45 ho charm very pathetic

好慘 hou2 caam2 very pathetic

TD1 wei hey 喂 wai3 hey

In these examples, the Cantonese utterances are romanized word by word. For instance, the message TD13 (Example 2.7(c)) ‘gum mo yeh la’ is an informal phonetic transcription of the Cantonese utterance ‘咁(gam2)無(mo4)嘢(je5)喇(laa3)’, meaning

‘forget about it’. However, this phonetic transcription is an informal one, being the improvisation of the chatters. Therefore, such phonetic transcriptions might vary between chatters.

Fung and Carter (2008: 356) argue that “code-mixing tends to emerge in situations when feelings or emotions are intensified or when physical conditions are strained which, from a pragmatic point of view, can be better expressed with the sender’s first language”. Furthermore, a desire to increase a sense of friendliness and to forge a sense of belonging also led to the occurrence of the romanization. Although some of the romanized Cantonese expressions are able to translate into English, they are better expressed with users’ first language. Since both interacting chatters belongs to the same society and share the same cultural background, the use of the romanized Cantonese expressions not only helps the chatters to express the situation more vividly but it also helps to increase a sense of friendliness as well as a mutual understanding between

‘speakers’.

2.1.7.2 Cantonese final particles

Other than the romanization of the Cantonese expressions, the heavy use of Cantonese final particles is another feature of the Hong Kong e-discourse. Fung and Carter (2007) note that Cantonese discourse particles are frequently used by the Hong Kong netizens in CMC and these particles are always romanized and attached at the end of the English message as shown in Example 2.7(e).

Example 2.7(e): Cantonese final particles Mess.no. Name Message English gloss HIHI... have you tried to download the Hihi…have you tried to download the file HF1 Henry folder again ar?? again [aa3]? HF2 Frank yes ar~~ yes [aa3], I have HF3 Frank but i only can access 32 files but I can access 32 files only HF4 Henry haha... yes ar... yes [aa3], that is right HF5 Henry just level 1 ja ma... because it is level one only [zaa3 maa3] HF6 Frank icic~~ I see I see there is no level 2 or level 3 notes available HF7 Henry there is no level 2 and 3 notes online ar online Henry hehe~~ (*giggle)

Lee (2002) argues that the use of the romanized Cantonese final particles in CMC is due to the absence of the character representation in the standard character set (Lee, 2002:

76). In order to process those ‘special characters’, “a supplementary character set called

‘Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set’ has to be installed in the computer” (Lee,

2002: 76-77). However, the use of the romanized Cantonese final particles helps to avoid the installation of this software due to the fact that the users can insert the

Cantonese final particles even with an English character set or keyboard.

However, there is no standard representation of the romanized Cantonese final particles.

Instead, these representations are ‘coined’ or invented by the Hong Kong netizens (Lee,

2002: 15). Therefore, different users might have different representations of the

36 particles. Some of the ‘inventions’ are shown in Example 2.7(f) 2.7(g), 2.7(h) and

2.7(i).

Example 2.7(f): romanization of [aa3] – [ar] Mess.no. Name Message English gloss and I am going back to Hong Kong on BS6 Betty n i am going back to hk on thur Thursday BS7 Betty do u wan anythIng from hk?? Do you want anything from Hong Kong? Samuel haha... (*laugh) BS8 Samuel why ar? why are you going back to Hong Kong [aa3]? BS9 Samuel u go for holiday ma Are you go back for holiday [ma] Samuel ? ?

Example 2.7(g): romanization of [aa3] – [ah] Mess.no. Name Mess.no. English gloss tell me ur timetable on Thur la, tell me your Thursday timetable between 4:00 VY116 Yvonne from 4- 9 and 9:00 [laa1] VY117 Vicky no class ah I don't have class [aa3] VY118 Yvonne no class? you don't have class? VY119 Vicky 2-4, 6-9 My class is from 2:00 to 4:00 and 6:00 to 9:00

As shown in Example 2.7(f) and 2.7(g), the romanization of particle [aa3] varies between users. ‘ar’ is used by chatter Samuel while Vicky uses ‘ah’ to represent [aa3].

Example 2.7(h): romanization of [gwaa3] – [gwa] Mess.no. Name Message English gloss PJ34 Perry so will mark up after probation??? will you receive a pay rise after probation? the staff in the company said I will receive a PJ35 Jenny they said should be lor.... pay rise [lo4] and I think 2 years later I can be I think maybe I can be a merchandiser 2 PJ36 Jenny Merchandiser gwa.... years later [gwaa3] because my in-charge Merchandiser PJ37 Jenny because my supervisor only work for 3 years also only work for 3 years... PJ38 Perry what kind of the merchandiser is ??? what kind of merchandiser is it? PJ39 Jenny and she is younger than me !! and she is younger than me!!

Example 2.7(i): romanization of [gwaa3] – [gua] Mess.no. Name Message English gloss MC5 Carol how is yr job? how is your job? MC6 Marcus where you have been ar? where have you been [aa3]? long time havn;t seen you online la MC7 Marcus haven't seen you online for long time [laa3 wo3] wor

MC8 Carol busy working I am busy with work MC9 Marcus I'm good .. I am good MC10 Marcus working in IT company as a salve .. I am working in IT company like a slave MC11 Carol hahaha, not that bad gua (*laugh) not that bad [gwaa3], right? MC12 Marcus want to try something different later I want to try something different later

Similarly, Example 2.7(h) and 2.7(i) also illustrate the occurrence of different representations of the Cantonese final particles in CMC. Both ‘gwa’ and ‘gua’ are used by the chatters to represent [gwaa3].

As a result, the Cantonese final particles that occur in CMC might have more than one representation. Cantonese final particles tend to be a feature of spoken language rather than written language, therefore, the use of particles in CMC indicates the users are aware that CMC is similar to oral conversation.

As mentioned in Chapter 1, Cantonese final particles (or discourse particles) are words that carry an important function in indicating the emotional and attitudinal feeling of the speakers (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 338; Kwok, 1984). Since smileys are used to express mood and attitude in CMC, it is believed that Cantonese final particles are ‘lexical equivalents of smileys’ (James: 2001: 11).

James (2001: 14) argues that this type of e-discourse is used only when there is no presence of the non-Cantonese speakers and when there is, the Hong Kong netizens tend to use “a mutually comprehensible variety, without the use of the final particles and all the other linguistic features that only can be interpretable by the Cantonese speakers”

(James, 2001: 14).

This section has examined the characteristics of the e-discourse that is used among the

Hong Kong netizens. It also confirmed that this e-discourse is a variety that is interweaved with the features of spoken language (i.e. vocalizations, Cantonese final particles, code mixing) and written language (written English and Cantonese).

Therefore, the nature of CMC between speech and writing will be explored in the following section.

2.2 Is the e-discourse a spoken or written language?

The increasing popularity of computer-mediated Communication (CMC) has aroused the interest of many scholars (Hiltz & Turoff, 1978; Reid, 1991; December, 1996;

Crystal, 2001; Surratt, 1998; Ten Have, 2000). Research is being done not only on the psychological (Wallace, 1999; Kiesler, Siegel & McGuire, 1984) and social aspects

(Jones 1995) of CMC but also on the literary aspects (Davis & Brewer, 1997; Herring,

1996, 2001; Baron, 1998, 2001; Lee, 2002; Cheng, 2002; Fung & Carter, 2007). Within the literary aspects of CMC, the medium of e-discourse is always a controversial topic.

Werry (1996) argues that e-discourse is more like speech than writing while Yates

(1996), Moran & Hawisher (1998), Crystal (2001) and Collot and Belmore (1996) suggest that it is a language that carries both written and spoken features. These studies of the CMC will be outlined in this section.

The study of Moran and Hawisher (1994) focuses on the difference between email and face to face communication. They argue that CMC is different from face-to-face communication due to “the absence of paralinguistic cues and the potential geographical distance between correspondents” (Moran & Hawisher, 1994: 84). Furthermore, Moran and Hawisher (1994: 90) suggest that CMC is neither spoken nor written medium due to 39 the fact that CMC not only fails to transmit intonation and timbre but it also fails to convey the personality of the writers since it is not written by hand. Despite the fact that some of the face-to-face communication related features such as emoticon and vocalization are used in CMC, the use of these features “demonstrates that the e-mail user feels restricted by the conventional written language” (Moran & Hawisher, 1994:

90). As a result, these scholars argue that CMC is a new medium, which carries “its own rhetorics and languages” but is strongly related to both written and spoken language.

Similar to Moran and Hawisher (1994), Yates (1996) also agrees that the language used in CMC is neither a spoken language nor a written language. Yates (1996) distinguishes the features of CMC by looking at the lexical density of written and spoken language and CMC language. His study indicates that the language used in CMC is more like writing in terms of the use of vocabulary since it allows users to have longer gestation of the ‘text’, “to correct, change, restructure and review utterances” (Yates, 1996: 35).

In addition, in terms of lexical density, “CMC users package information in text in ways that are more written than speech-alike” (Yates, 1996: 39). However, CMC has a higher proportion of the first and the second person pronouns, which is neither written nor speech like (Yates, 1996: 42). As a result, Yates (1996) concludes that a simple dichotomy cannot be applied in describing CMC since it carries the characteristics of both spoken and written language. Therefore, he believes that CMC is a unique language that carries its own features (Yates, 1996: 42).

Crystal (2001) is another researcher who has studied CMC, providing a more comprehensive description of the paper-based communication and the CMC by comparing the nature of the written, spoken language and CMC language. According to 40

Crystal (2001: 25-26),

speech is time-bound, spontaneous, face-to-face, socially interactive, loosely structured, immediately revisable, and prosodically rich while writing is space-bound, contrived, visually decontextualized, factually communicative, elaborately structured, repeatedly revisable, and graphically rich.

Crystal (2001: 29) argues that CMC language carries features of both written and spoken language as well as having properties that are absent in written and spoken language. Unlike written language, CMC is time-governed, which expects or requires an immediate response (Crystal, 2001: 29). However, it differs from face-to-face communication in the sense that face-to-face communication allows simultaneous feedback between speakers and addressees while CMC has time lag in message transmission. “There is no way that a recipient can react to our message while it is being typed” (Crystal, 2001: 30). Furthermore, the use of smileys and emoticons as well as the exaggerated use of spelling, punctuation, capitals, spacing and special symbols is another feature that indicates the difference between traditional writing and CMC. As a result, Crystal (2001: 47) argues that CMC language is more than the minglement of speech and writing but, rather, it is “a new species of communication”.

The study of Collot and Belmore (1996) attempted to find out the linguistic features of the electronic language by analyzing the features of the language use on bulletin board systems (BBS) and the written and spoken language under six dimensions: informativity, narrativity, explicitness, persuasiveness, abstraction and elaborativity (Lee, 2002). It found that “there is no absolute difference between speech and writing” in the electronic language since it associated with linguistic features of both written and spoken language

(Collot & Belmore, 1996: 21). 41

Unlike the researches stated above, Werry (1996) investigated the language use of

Internet Relay Chat (IRC). This study found that IRC has “a high degree of addressivity7”, “a strong drive towards brevity and abbreviation”, “paralinguistic and prosodic cues” and “an almost manic tendency to produce auditory and visual effects in writing, a straining to make written words simulate speech” (Werry, 1996: 52-58). As a result, Werry (1996: 61) concludes that IRC has distinctive and interactional features and it is more speech like.

These previous studies provide a general idea of the nature of CMC. Although these studies have different ideas about the relationship between spoken and written language and CMC (some researches regard CMC as a new literacy which carries its own features while some argue that CMC is a more speech-like medium), these researches are similar in the sense that they all agree CMC is a hybrid between the spoken and written medium.

2.3 Conclusion

This chapter has introduced the characteristics of the Hong Kong e-discourse, which includes the use of emoticons, vocalization, direct translations, shortenings, subject omission, romanized Cantonese expressions and final particles as well as the use of reduplicative punctuation marks. Moreover, some of the previous studies on the nature of CMC have also been reviewed. One of the most striking features of CMC by Hong

Kong chatters is the use of Cantonese final particles, normally a feature of spoken discourse. Therefore, the focus of this thesis is on the Cantonese final particles used in

7 Since IRC allows more than two persons to join the chat, the speakers in IRC tend to indicate the intended addressee by putting their names before the start of the message. For example, Jenny: see you tomorrow 42

CMC with the aim of describing them in terms of the systemic functional model of language developed by M.A.K. Halliday since Cantonese final particles may have a specific function within the context of their use in online chat. The next chapter

(Chapter 3) will review the literature on the colloquial functions and meanings of these particles.

Chapter3 Literature Review

3.0 Introduction

Studies of the discourse particles in the spoken language started decades ago

(Chao, 1968; Gibbons, 1980; Kwok, 1984) and it continues. Some of these studies examine the meanings of discourse particles and particle clusters in Cantonese (Chao,

1968; Gibbons, 1980; Kwok, 1984; Luke, 1990, 1997, 2002; Law, 1990; Matthews &

Yip, 1994; Bruche-Schulz, 1998; Fung, 2000; Lee & Law, 2001; Law, 2002; Li, 2006) while others focus on the discourse particles in Singapore English (Gupta, 1992; Wee,

2004).

Most of these studies agree that Cantonese particles have important functions in

Cantonese speech. Kwok (1984: 27,36) states that linguistic devices like Cantonese particles can be used to express mood, attitudes and emotions and these functions are able to be described in terms of the ideational, interpersonal and textual functions defined by Halliday. Matthews and Yip (1994: 338) suggest that

the sentence-final particles are important features of Cantonese speech, which serve various communicative (pragmatic) functions and textual functions such as: i.) indicating speech-act types such as questions, assertations and requests, ii.) evidentiality (indicating the source of knowledge), iii.) affective and emotional colouring.

Since Cantonese final particles carry important semantic functions in Cantonese, it will be worthwhile to review their functions in spoken Cantonese, which, in turn, will help

44 to ascertain their functions in CMC as well as to build up the systematization. Therefore, this chapter reviews the existing research on the colloquial functions and meanings of the Cantonese final particles. However, not all the Cantonese particles will be included; rather only the particles that occur frequently in the online chat will be reviewed.

3.1 Previous studies of the Cantonese final particles

Most of the studies of discourse particles focus mainly on the colloquial meanings.

Therefore the functions of the Cantonese final particles which will be surveyed in the following studies might differ from those that occur in CMC since Kwok (1984) suggests that the actual meanings of the particles depend on the specific context in which they occur. Despite this, an overview of the research that is relevant to this study will be given in this section.

3.1.1 [laa] 啦

This section discusses the functions of [laa] particles, which include [laa1] and [laa3].

Fung (2000: 74) argues that “the core semantic features share by l-particles is

‘realization of state’” while Li (2006: 83-84) suggests that [laa3] seems to be the particle that “expresses this core meaning more literally”. The meanings of [laa1] and

[laa3] will be discussed in the following section.

3.1.1.1 [laa1] 啦

[laa1] is one of the most frequently used particles in Cantonese. According to Kwok

(1984), the particle [laa1] occurs with statements and commands. However, [laa1] carries different meanings when attached in different ways. Kwok (1984) mentions that

[laa1] indicates tentativeness, lack of forcefulness and definiteness when appearing in statements (Example 1(a)). In order to show the characteristic of [laa1] more explicitly, the particle [laa1] and [aa3] are compared in Example 3.1(a) and 3.1(b).

Example 3.1(a): [laa1] (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 55) A: 要茶定要咖啡啊?

With the use of [laa1] in Example 3.1(a), the speaker indicates that s/he is unsure about the decision s/he made while the use of [aa3] in Example 3.1(b), indicates that the speaker is more certain about the decision. Therefore, it is suggested that [laa1] is a particle which expresses lack of forcefulness and finality (Kwok, 1984: 56; Li, 2006:

86).

Luke (1990: 69) notes that [laa1] is often used in listing, to “mark the listener’s proposed boundary of the current item and seek acknowledgement or recognition” as well as “to display the lister’s intention to move on and disclose the next item on the list” (Luke, 1997: 69). Such function of [laa1] is shown in Example 3.1(c).

Example 3.1(c) (extracted from Luke, 1990: 71)

A: 有唔有點唱啊?

A similar description of [laa1] is provided by Kwok (1984). Kwok finds that [laa1] can be used in a non-complete statement to “describe a sequence of actions in a narrative”.

This function of [laa1] is shown in Example 3.1(d), which indicates that the speaker is still telling the story and has not yet reached the end.

Example 3.1(d) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 56) 噙日我哋買咗啲油，預備油牆啦，油

Furthermore, Luke (1990: 98) proposes that [laa1] is always found in “agreement sequences”. According to Luke (1990), [laa1] is often attached to an eliciting utterance that requires a positive response (Example 3.1(e), first arrow) and agreement (Example

3.1(e), second arrow). Example 3.1(e) illustrates that the speaker is trying to elicit a positive response from the hearer and Luke (1990: 99) glosses this as “I now invite you to confirm that…”. Thus, when [laa1] occurs with agreement, it shows mutual agreement and common understanding between speaker and addressee (Luke, 1990:

99).

Example 3.1(e) (extracted from Luke, 1990: 98) A: 酒店管理咁樣吓嘛？

Other than agreement, [laa1] is also applicable in non-committal answers (Luke, 1990:

88) having a similar function to English phrases ‘so so’, ‘sort of’ and ‘you know’.

Example 3.1(g) illustrates the use of [laa1] in such non-committal answers.

Example 3.1(g): [laa1] – non-committal answer (excerpted from Luke, 1990: 89) A: 咁都好似幾順利啊

Finally, [laa1] is identified as a pre-closing initiator due to its presence in pre-closing sequences (Luke, 1990: 104). Luke suggests the function of [laa1] in this case is “to generate pre-closing sequences which may lead eventually to conversational disengagement” and the final closing will not come until both of the participants have produced the pre-closing (Luke, 1990: 104). Such use of [laa1] is shown in Example

3.1(h). 48

Example 3.1(h) (excerpted from Luke, 1990: 103) A: 十點零啊，好唔好啊

On the other hand, when [laa1] occurs in commands, it performs a persuasive function

(Kwok, 1984: 79; Fung & Carter, 2007; Matthews & Yip, 1994: 341). Kwok (1984) argues that since [laa1] implies lack of forcefulness, when used with commands, it expresses a polite request or persuasion rather than a command (Matthews & Yip, 1994:

350; Kwok, 1983: 79; Wee, 2004: 118) (Example 3.1(i)).

Example 3.1(i) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 80) 七點半去啦

With the use of [laa1] in Example 1(i), the speaker is persuading the addressee to leave at 7:30.

However, Li (2006) suggests that [laa1] with commands represents impatience and a friendly or hospitable attitude at the same time. Consider Example 3.1(j); if this

49 utterance is addressed to guests, it sounds friendly and hospitable while it sounds impatient if this utterance is addressed to a naughty child (Li, 2006: 87).

Example 3.1(j) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 87) 快啲食啦

Since [laa1] is used as a polite request, some scholars suggest that [laa1] can be treated as a solidarity marker (Platt, 1987; Richard & Tay, 1977; Wee, 2004). Wee (2004: 119) notes that the main function of solidarity markers is to “mitigate face-threatening speech”. Objections or annoyance are regarded as having strong speech force. Therefore, the use of [laa1] helps to reduce or “soften the force of the speech act” (Wee, 2004:

119).

3.1.1.2 [laa3] 喇

[laa3] is a versatile particle which can be used with statements, questions and commands. [laa3] is similar to ‘了’ (le/ liǎo) in Mandarin Chinese since both function as aspect markers (Kwok, 1984: 46). The use of ‘了’ (liǎo) in Mandarin represents: i.) the starting of a new action; ii.) an action is progressing; or iii.) an action has been completed (Kwok, 1984: 46). Example 3.2(a) exemplifies the use of [le] as stated above.

Example 3.2(a) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 46) 糟了下雨了

When [laa3] occurs with statements and questions, it is used as “the expression of aspect”, indicating that “an action is beginning, has begun, will begin, or has ended”

(Kwok, 1984:47) (Example 3.2(b)).

Example 3.2(b) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 47) 佢高咗喇

On the other hand, when [laa3] is attached to commands, it indicates that a certain action has to be carried out (Kwok, 1984: 81). According to Kwok (1984), the difference between [laa1] and [laa3] with commands is that [laa1] conveys a sense of persuasion of the speaker while [laa3] carries a sense of supplication of the speaker.

Consider Example 3.2(c) and 3.2(d),

Example 3.2(c) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 81) 唔該你唔好理咁多喇

Example 3.2(d) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 81 with modification) 唔該你唔好理咁多啦 m4 goi1 nei5 m4 hou2 lei5 gam3 do1 laa1 please you don’t care so much [Particle] Won’t you please mind your own business (I am persuading you to mind your own business)

With the use of [laa3] in Example 3.2(c), the speaker is ordering the addressee to carry out the action while the use of [laa1] in Example 3.2(d), the speaker is persuading the addressee to perform the action.

3.1.2 [me1] 咩 [me1] is a question particle that is used to express a sense of surprise as well as disbelief of the speaker (Kwok, 1984: 88; Law, 1990: 18). Similarly, Wee (2004: 121) suggests that [me1] is generally used to express scepticism and doubt. Consider Example 3.3(a),

Example 3.3(a) (excerpted from Law, 1990:18) 你唔記得咩?

The occurrence of [me1] in Example 3.3(a) implies that the current situation contrasts with the presupposition of the speaker. Therefore, with the use of [me1], the speaker is surprised by the current situation and he/she is querying the truthfulness of the situation

(Kwok, 1984: 88). For this reason, [me1] is restricted to yes/no questions or the questions that contain negation marker [m4] as in Example 3.3(a) (Li, 2006: 94).

Furthermore, [me1] is always attached to ‘yes’ to form ‘係咩(hai6 meh1)’, meaning

‘really?’. According to Kwok (1984: 89), when [me1] is attached to ‘yes, it denotes “a signal of attention and a lively interest in what is being said by the speaker”.

3.1.3 [gaa]

[gaa3] and [gaa4] are the particles that have the same basic form [gaa]. They are distinguished from each other in meaning by tone. According to the literature, [gaa] particles are related to factuality - either asserting factuality in statements or query factuality in questions. The functions of [gaa] particles will be examined in detail in the following section.

3.1.3.1 [gaa3] 咖 Luke (1997) suggests that the particle [gaa3] is used to make a comment and such use of [gaa3] is illustrated in Example 3.4(a).

Example 3.4(a) (excerpted from Luke, 1997: 7) 我成日幫手做家務咖

On the other hand, Li (2006) provides a more comprehensive description of [gaa3]. Li

(2006: 78) argues that both [gaa3] and [ge2] assert factuality. However, [gaa3] sounds softer in comparison with [ge2].

Example 3.4(b) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 78) 果啲書呀二叔會陸續寄返呢咖

In Example 3.4(b), the fact that second uncle will continue to send the books is asserted by the particle [gaa3].

3.1.3.2 [gaa4] 嘎 [gaa4] is a question particle which is formed by the particle [ge2] and [aa3] (Luke, 1997:

8; Matthews & Yip, 1994: 340). [gaa4] turns “a fact into a question” and “double checks the existence of a given situation, or the assumption of the situation conveyed by the declarative” (Li, 2006: 79; Fung, 2000: 79) (Example 3.5(a)).

Example 3.5(a) (excerpted from Luke, 1997: 8) 乜你真係唔知嘎?

With the use of [gaa4] in Example 3.5(a), the statement ‘乜你真係唔知’ (so you really don’t know) is turned into question.

Li (2006: 80) points out that [gaa4] indicates the realization of the current situation of the speaker.

Example 3.5(b) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 79) 果啲書呀二叔會陸續寄返呢嘎

Therefore, with the use of [gaa4] in Example 3.5(b), the speaker is asking the addressee

‘is it really the fact that..?’.

3.1.4 [ge2] 嘅 According to Kwok (1984), [ge2] occurs with both statements and questions. However,

[ge2] has quite distinct meanings when used with statements versus questions. When it is used with a statement, [ge2] indicates a low degree of definiteness, uncertainty as well as reservation (Kwok, 1984: 43; Law, 1990: 96; Fung, 2000: 161; Matthews & Yip,

1994: 349; Li, 2006: 80). With the use of [ge2] attached to statements, the speaker suggests that “such would be the case if…” or “such would be the case but…” (Kwok,

1984: 44) (Example 3.6(a)).

Example 3.6(a) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 43) 佢會嚟嘅

In Example 3.6(a), the occurrence of [ge2] indicates that the speaker is not sure if he

(third person) is coming or not.

Li (2006) asserts that [ge2] displays a sense of reservation by the speaker. However, according to Li (2006), [ge2] has no sense of ‘uncertainty’ due to the fact that “the speakers have admitted the factuality of the situation that is being claimed but they have something else to say” (Li, 2006: 81). Consider Example 3.6(b),

Example 3.6(b) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 81) 我點都會幫你嘅

In Example 3.6(b), the conjunction ‘but’ is hidden in the particle [ge2]. With the use of

[ge2], the speaker is not just stating he/she is willing to help, but he/she is also pointing out that she/he has something else to say.

On the other hand, [ge2] is also applicable with questions (Kwok, 1984: 43; Li, 2006:

81; Fung, 2000: 43). However, the way of using [ge2] with questions is controversial.

Law (1990) and Kwok (1984) argue that [ge2] is restricted to interrogative words like

‘how come’ and ‘why’. Such restriction is shown in Example 3.6(c) and 3.6(d).

Example 3.6(c) (excerpted from Matthews & Yip, 1994: 349) 點解會咁嘅?

Li (2006: 82) argues, however, [ge2] adds an extra meaning of surprise and unexpectedness to the question (Li, 2006: 82) (Example 3.6(d)).

Example 3.6(d) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 82) 後面有條河嘅?

In Example 3.6(d), the speaker is surprised with the fact that there is a river running at the rear.

However, Matthews and Yip (1994) regard [ge2] as the expression of puzzlement as seen in Example 3.6(c).

3.1.5 [gwaa3] 啩 [gwaa3] is like ‘I suppose’ or ‘I guess’ in English (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 353). It represents the subjective opinion or belief of the speakers (Luke, 1997: 9). “What is being stated by the speaker is mere conjecture” (Kwok, 1984: 66; Lee & Law, 2001: 10).

Furthermore, the presence of [gwaa3] also indicates the uncertainty of the speaker towards the subject matter (Example 3.7(a)).

Example 3.7(a) (excerpted from Matthews & Yip, 1994: 353) A: 的士又加價啦

In Example 3.7(a), ‘唔係’ (m4 hai6) means ‘it’s not true’ literally. However, with the use of [gwaa3], speaker B turns this disagreement into an uncertainty and what he/she states (it’s not true) is merely his/her conjecture.

3.1.6 [maa3]嘛 / [aa1maa3] 吖嘛 8 Matthews and Yip (1994: 352) assert that [maa3] or [aa1maa3] provides “an explanation that the speaker should already know or readily understand”. Kwok (1984)

8 [maa3]嘛 is represented as [aa1maa3] 吖嘛 in most of the literature 56 has a similar description of [aa1maa3], suggesting that the function of [aa1maa3] is to

‘point out the reason for something’ and it can be interpreted as ‘you should be aware of it’ or ‘I have already told you the reason’. Consider Example 3.8(a),

Example 3.8(a) (excerpted from Matthews & Yip, 1994: 352) A: 邊個呢咖?

In Example 3.8(a), speaker B was questioned about the reason why he/she was late.

Speaker B provides the reason (I have to finish all my work first) with the use of [aa1 maa3], which indicates that this is something that speaker A should have known. On the other hand, Wee (2004:119) and Kwan-Terry (1991) propose that [maa3] ([aa1 maa3]) carries a sense of obviousness and such meaning is illustrated in Example 3.8(b),

Example 3.8(b) (excerpted from Wee, 2004: 119) A: How come you call me?

3.1.7 [zaa3]咋 [zaa3] means ‘only’ literally (Kwok, 1984: 50) and it functions the same as ‘only’ does in English, i.e. meaning ‘not more than that’ (Example 3.9(b)).

Example 3.9(b) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 51) 佢對啲下屬衰咋

Kwok (1984: 51) argues that since [zaa3] indicates that “what is being stated is not more, or bigger, or longer, or better or more desirable”, it always carries a negative meaning in the utterance (Example 3.9(c)).

Example 3.9(c) excerpted from Kwok (1984: 51) 我同我爸爸去咋

In Example 3.9(c), the speaker uses [zaa3] to show that “the trip is not as exciting as the addressee thinks it will be” (Kwok, 1984: 51).

3.1.8 [ne1]呢 According to Li (2006), [ne1] can be used with statements and questions. However, the meaning of [ne1] varies depending on which of these speech functions it is attached to.

[ne1] with statements has the function of “drawing someone’s attention to something, or of pointing to something” as well as “reminding the hearer for something” (Kwok, 1984:

60; Law, 1990: 122; Li, 2006: 95) (Example 3.10(a)).

Example 3.10(a) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 60) A: 你幾時講過我聽啊?

In Example 3.10(a), speaker B is “pointing out the time and reminding the addressee of it” through the use of [ne1] (Kwok, 1984: 60).

Kwok (1984) suggests that when [ne1] is attached to a statement, it usually refers to the time, location or person that has been discussed or should have been known by the addressee. Therefore, with the use of [ne1], the speaker is trying to remind and point out something that the addressee should have known.

On the other hand, [ne1] can occur with wh-questions, alternative and hypothetical questions (Li, 2006: 94; Law, 1990: 123). However, in these different environments,

[ne1] functions differently. According to Law (1990: 122-123), when [ne1] occurs with wh-questions, it conveys the meaning of ‘I wonder’. Example 3.10(b) illustrates the use of [ne1] with a wh-question.

Example 3.10(b) (excerpted from Law, 1990: 123) 佢幾時嚟呢

When it appears in hypothetical questions, [ne1] has the meaning “what will happen if…” (Example 3.10(c)). When [ne1] ends with a noun phrase, time or place adverbial, it has the meaning of ‘how about…’. Example 3.10(c) and Example 3.10(d) show the use of [ne1] with a hypothetic question and a how about question respectively.

Example 3.10(c) (excerpted from Law, 1990: 123) 如果佢唔相信你嘅說話呢?

Example 3.10(d) (excerpted from Matthews & Yip, 1984: 60) 啲家俬賣囇俾人嘞

Kwok (1984: 73) and Wee (2004: 122) suggest that the interrogative clause ‘do you know’ is hidden in the particle [ne1], therefore, the occurrence of [ne1] with questions implies a sense of tentativeness and wonder. For example, in Example 3.10(b), someone is supposed to come now, but he/she still hasn’t shown up. In order to find out when he

/she will come, the speaker adopts an indirect approach to bring up the question by using the particle [ne1]. With the use of [ne1], the speaker avoids asking the addressee

‘do you know when is he/she coming?’ directly; instead, the speaker is eliciting the reply from the addressee. ‘I wonder when is he/she coming (do you know?)’. Therefore, according to Kwok, (1984: 73) and Law (1990: 124), [ne1] shows a high degree of curiosity in the question.

3.1.9 [aa] 啊 Although [aa1], [aa3] and [aa4] are all derived from [aa], they each carry different meanings. In the following section, the features of [aa1], [aa3] and [aa4] will be discussed in detail.

3.1.9.1 [aa1] 吖 The particle [aa1] is applicable in statements, commands and questions (Li, 2006: 98).

Most of the studies state that the main function of [aa1] is to make “the clauses sound more lively in tone” (Li, 2006: 98; Kwok, 1984: 72; Matthews & Yip, 1994: 340; Law,

1990: 108) as well as “to show greater interest of the speaker” (Li, 2006: 98; Kwok,

1984: 72; Matthews & Yip, 1994: 340; Law, 1990: 108). However, Li (2006: 98, 101) argues that [aa1] does more than vitalize the clause: it also provides extra information.

Such a function of [aa1] is shown in Example 3.11(a) and 3.11(b).

Example 3.11(a) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 98) 前面有好多人吖

Example 3.11(b) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 98) 你識唔識吖?

On the other hand, [aa1] also functions as vitalizer (Kwok, 1984: 80) in commands.

Since [aa1] is lively in tone and it “invites the addressee to agree to the action proposed”

(Kwok, 1984: 80; Law, 1990: 109), therefore, commands with [aa1] sound softer and more consultative (Kwok, 1984: 80; Law, 1990: 109) (Example 3.11(c)).

Example 3.11(c) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 98) 快啲食吖

The clause in Example 3.11(c) is softened by the use of [aa1] due to the fact that the occurrence of [aa1] turns a direct command ‘快啲食’ (faai3 di1 sik6, eat faster) into a consultative request – ‘east faster, will you?’.

3.1.9.2 [aa4] 呀 Similar to [me1], [aa4] is a question particle which occurs with confirmation-seeking questions (Luke, 1997: 6). However, unlike [me1] and [gaa4], [aa4] carries no meaning of unexpectedness but it expresses a sense of sudden awareness of the speaker instead

(Kwok, 1984: 89; Li, 2006: 99). Therefore, surprise is not an essential component of

[aa4] (Kwok, 1984: 87). Furthermore, [aa4] is a confirmation-seeking particle that is used with yes/no questions as well as A-not-A questions. Example 3.12(a) and 3.12(b) illustrate the use of [aa4] with yes/no question and A-not-A question respectively.

Example 3.12(a) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 99) 佢就去美國啊?

Example 3.12(b) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 86) 你聽日去唔去洗頭啊?

3.1.9.3 [aa3] 啊 [aa3] has a wide range of usage and is one of the most frequently used particles in

Cantonese. [aa3] is applicable in statements, commands as well as questions (Li, 2006:

96). Matthews and Yip (1994: 346) suggest that the absence of the particle makes the utterance sounds more severe. Therefore, [aa3] will be used with questions when there is no other question particles present (Li, 2006: 97).

On the other hand, Kwok (1984: 45) argues that [aa3] carries little semantic content and it does not change the meaning of the clause. However, Kwok (1984: 45) and Law

(1990: 108) endorse the proposition of Matthews and Yip (2004). They argue that the main function of [aa3] is to make the utterance sound more natural since the clause without [aa3] will sound abrupt and curt. As a result, utterances containing [aa3] are usually considered softer and more natural (Law, 1990: 108; Matthews & Yip, 1994:

340; Fang, 2003: 58; Li, 2006: 96). The use of [aa3] with statements is indicated in

Example 3.13(a) while Example 3.13(b) and 3.13(c) show the use of [aa3] in a command and a question respectively.

Example 3.13(a) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 96) 前面有好多人啊

Example 3.13(b) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 97) 快啲食啊

Example 3.13(c) (excerpted from Law, 1990: 108) 你去唔去睇戲啊?

3.1.10 [wo3] 喎 Kwok (1984) suggests that [wo3] is a particle that only occurs with statements, where it performs various functions. Firstly, [wo3] is used to contrast the expectation proposed by the addressee (Example 3.14(a)) (Luke, 1990: 15).

Example 3.14(a) (excerpted from Luke, 1997: 15) A: 咁你係唔係好開心呢

In Example 3.14(a), speaker A assumes that speaker B is happy; however, such assumption turned out to be wrong. Therefore, [wo3] is used to contrast the expectation of speaker A.

The second function of [wo3] is to emphasize ‘noteworthy’ information (Matthews &

Yip, 1994: 353; Li, 2006: 103; Fung & Carter, 2007: 352). Such a function of [wo3] is stated in Example 3.14(b).

Example 3.14(b) (excerpted from Matthews & Yip, 1994: 103) 美金升咗喎

Fung (2003: 67) and Matthews and Yip (1994) provide a similar description of [wo3].

They point out that [wo3] functions as a ‘reminder’ when it appears with statements

(Example 3.14(c)).

Example 3.14(c) (excerpted from Matthews & Yip, 1994: 103) 你記住唔好遲到喎

With the use of [wo3] in Example 14(c), the speaker is reminding the addressee not to be late.

3.1.11 [lo1] 囉 The occurrence of [lo1] is restricted to statements. [lo1] is used as an instrument to show that the speaker is reluctant to talk or communicate (Luke, 1990: 195), e.g.

Example 3.16(a) (My example) A: 我哋幾時去睇戲啊?

In Example 3.16(a), speaker B is reluctant to continue the conversation with speaker A.

Therefore, [lo1] is used by speaker B to show a sense of reluctance, so that the conversation will be disengaged. Furthermore, with the use of [lo1], the speaker is trying to point out something that is obvious to the hearer (Example 3.16(b), 3.16(c)) and provides a reason for something (Example 3.16(b)) (Kwok, 1984: 58; Luke, 1990:

188; Law, 1990: 111; Fung & Carter, 2007: 352).

Example 3.16(b) (excerpted from Li, 2006: 89; which also occurs in Fung, 2000: 112, 119) 佢風濕病就發作囉

In Example 3.16(b), the speaker uses [lo1] to point out the obviousness of the reason why he (third person) looks miserable (because of the rheumatic attack).

Example 3.16(c) (excerpted from Kwok, 1984: 59) A: 幾時開場啊?

Similarly, speaker B in Example 3.16(c) also uses [lo1] to point out the time when the film starts and this is something obvious.

Since [lo1] assumes the hearer has a high level of understanding towards the subject matter (Fung, 2000: 119-220; Li, 2006: 89), [lo1] always indicates a severe attitude as the hearer has failed to recognise what is obvious (Kwok, 1984: 59; Li, 2006: 89).

3.2 Conclusion

This chapter has introduced the functions of the Cantonese final particles in spoken

medium. These functions are summarized in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: summary table of the Cantonese final particle functions (Based on the descriptions in the literatures) Particles Functions of the particles Attitude statement question command [laa1] statement y lack of forcefulness and definiteness y indicates tentativeness y listing sequence y Agreement sequence y eliciting utterance that requires a positive y tentativeness √ √ response from the hearer y persuasive y non- committal answer y pre-closing command y performs a persuasive function y solidarity marker [laa3] y similar to ‘了’ (le) in Mandarin Chinese √ √ √ y functions as aspect markers [aa1] y makes “the clauses sound more lively in tone” y “to show greater interest of the speaker” √ y consultative √ √ y “invites the addressee (of commands) to agree to the action proposed”, so commands sound softer/ consultative [aa3] y used with interrogatives when there is no other question particles present y the absence of the particle makes the y softening/ √ √ √ message sound more severe. Therefore, naturalising [aa3] is utterances containing [aa3] are considered softer and more natural [gaa3] y asserts factuality √ [wo3] y used to contrast the expectation proposed by the addressee; y noteworthiness √ y to emphasize “noteworthy” information; as a “reminder” [lo1] y is used to show that the speaker is reluctant to talk or communicate y severe attitude y marks the obviousness of the utterance √ y obviousness y always indicate a severe attitude y reluctant as the hearer has failed to recognise what is obvious. [gaa4] y turns “a fact into a question” and “double checks the existence of a given situation, or the assumption √ of the situation conveyed by the y assumptive √

declarative” y The speaker is asking the addressee “is it really the fact that..? [aa4] y occurs with confirmation seeking questions y carries no meaning of unexpectedness y sudden √ y expresses a sense of sudden awareness awareness of the speaker instead 66

Particles Functions of the particles Attitude statement question command [me1] y restricted to yes/no questions or questions that y surprise contain negation marker [m4] y disbelief √ y used to express a sense of surprise / disbelief y scepticism or to express scepticism and doubt. doubt [ge2] statement y displays a low degree of definiteness, uncertainty and reservation y uncertainty question y reservation y restricted to interrogative words like ‘how come’ √ √ y puzzlement and ‘why’

y providing extra meaning of surprise and unexpectedness to the question y expression of puzzlement. [gwaa3] y indicates the uncertainty of the speaker y uncertainty √ towards the subject matter [maa3] y provides “an explanation that the speaker should already know or readily understand”. y obviousness √ y It “points out the reason for something” [zaa3] y means ‘only’ literally & functions the same as ‘only’ in English. y It indicates that “what is being stated is not more, or bigger, or longer, or better or more y scorn √ desirable” y it always carries a negative meaning in the utterance. [ne1] statements: y has the function of “drawing something’s attention to something, of pointing to something” as well as “reminding the hearer for something” – pointing out something that the addressee should have known questions: y in wh-question, it conveys the meaning of ‘I wonder’ y wonder √ √ y in hypothetical questions, it has the meaning of “what will happen if…” y ends with a noun phrase, time or place adverbial, it means “how about…” y the interrogative clause “do you know” is hidden in the particle [ne1], therefore, implies a sense of tentativeness and wonder. With the use of [ne1], the speaker does not ask the addressee directly, but instead, elicits a reply indirectly

It is observed in Table 3.1 that these particles can be used in different speech functions, i.e. in statement, questions or commands. Some of the particles carry totally different meanings when occurring in different speech functions; for example, [ge2] indicates uncertainty or reservation in statements while it expresses a sense of puzzlement in questions. Furthermore, the personal attitude expressed by the particles is another remarkable feature of the Cantonese final particles. It is noticed that some of the particles reviewed in this chapter express the attitude of the speakers either towards the message or person (addressee).

As previously noted, Kwok (1984: 27, 36) has pointed out that the meanings of the

Cantonese final particles can be described in terms of Halliday’s metafunctional theory of language, i.e. the meanings they express can be described as ideational, interpersonal or textual. Since one of the aims of this research is to present such a description,

Halliday’s systemic functional model of language will be outlined in the next chapter

(Chapter 4).

68 Chapter4 The Theoretical prospective

4.0 Introduction There are many ways of examining language and Systemic Functional Linguistics

(SFL) is one model. Systemic functional linguistics was developed by M.A.K. Halliday

(1976, 1978, 1981, 1985a, 1985b) under the influence of Saussure (Harris, 1983),

Malinowski (1923) and Firth (1935). The main ideas of SFL can be summarised as follows:

a.) Language is a complex semiotic system, which has various strata (Halliday &

Matthiessen, 2004) - the semantic stratum, the lexicogrammatical stratum and the

phonological stratum. The relationship between each stratum is one of realization.

Thus, language is viewed as a stratified system in SFL. b.) Context of situation is a stratum external to language and can be described in a

simple conceptual framework under 3 headings: field, tenor and mode. The field

of discourse refers to what is happening, the tenor of discourse refers to who is

taking part and the mode of discourse refers to the part that language is playing

(Halliday, 1985a: 12). The combination of these 3 factors is the context of

situation which determines the register (genre) of the text. c.) In SFL, language is regarded as functional and the functions of language can be

identified in terms of three bundles of meanings or metafunctions - ideational,

interpersonal and textual. The functions of language construe the context of

situation in a particular environment. In other words, the context of situation is

realized in the functions of language (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004). 69 d.) SFL proposes that language can be represented in system networks at any stratum

as a system of systems of choices or options. These system networks capture the

potential of a language (Halliday, 1976).

This chapter consists of five sections. Section 4.1 describes the systemic functional model of language (hereafter SFL), which includes the concepts listed above: the notion of context of situation, stratification of language and three bundles of meanings or metafunctions (ideational, interpersonal and textual). Section 4.2 introduces the concept of system network. Section 4.3 presents the semantic network of progressive messages while section 4.4 presents the semantic network of punctuative messages. Section 4.5 summarises and concludes this chapter.

4.1 The Systemic functional model of language

4.1.1 Context of situation

Context of situation is the fundamental notion in SFL which expresses the immediate environment of the text. According to Halliday (1978: 28), “language comes to life only when functioning in some environment”. However, not every feature in the speech environment is related to the text, but only those features that are relevant to

“the speech that is taking place” (Halliday, 1978: 29) and this is called context of situation.

Context of situation can be described in a simple conceptual framework under three headings: field, tenor and mode (Halliday, 1985a: 12). The concept of these three aspects is described as follows (Halliday, 1977: 200-201):

70 Field: The social action: that which is ‘going on’, and has recognizable meanings in the social system; typically a complex of acts in some ordered configuration and in which the text is playing some part; and including ‘subject-matter’ as one special aspect.

Tenor: The role structure: the cluster of socially meaningful participant relationships; both permanent attributes of the participants and role relationships that are specific to the situation; including the speech roles, those that come into being through the exchange of verbal meanings.

Mode: The symbolic organization: the particular status that is assigned to the text within the situation; its function in relation to the social action and the role structure; including the channel or medium, and the rhetorical mode.

Field, tenor and mode are the constituents of the context of situation and the combination of these three aspects determines the register (genre) of the text, as well as the functions of language (see section 4.1.3). The systemic functional interpretation of context is represented graphically in Figure 4.1:

Figure 4.1: Parameters of context of situation (Butt, Fahey et.al., 1994: 4 with modification)

71 4.1.2 Stratification of language

SFL views language as a means for meaning exchanging, therefore, language is “a system of meaning – semiotic system” (Halliday, 2003: 2). This semiotic system is stratified into different levels or strata: Semantics, Lexicogrammar and Phonology

(Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 24). These language strata together with the language-external stratum of context are represented graphically in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Stratification (Hasan, 1996: 105)

In Figure 4.2, the circles within circles is a representation of the relation of realisation between the strata. Thus, context of situation is realised in the semantic stratum – the stratum of meaning. The semantic stratum is realised by the stratum called

‘lexicogrammar’ - wordings and structures. The lexicogrammatical stratum is realised by the phonological stratum and it is expressed in the system of sounds or letters. In other words, realization is the relation between each stratum; it is the relation which links the entire system together (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 26). Since language contains various strata: semantics, lexicogrammar and phonology, language is viewed

72 as multi stratal in SFL. Figure 4.3 illustrates ‘realization’ as the relationship between each stratum.

Figure 4.3: relationship between each stratum

The stratified system in language presents the way human potential is transformed into the meaning potential (Halliday, 2003: 8). The human organism is full of potential and this potentiality is crucial in understanding how meaning is being exchanged. The phonological stratum reveals the phonological potential of the human body and this potential is constructed by the lexicogrammatical stratum (grammar and vocabulary) and the semantic stratum (meaning). In other words, ‘behaviour potential’ is encoded in

‘meaning potential’. More technically, language is a means to express what humans

‘can do’ in interaction, by turning it into what s/he ‘can mean’ while what s/he can mean (the semantic system) is encoded into what s/he can say (the lexicogrammatical system) (Halliday, 1978: 21). As a result, language is regarded as ‘meaning potential’.

73 4.1.3 Three bundles of meaning

Humans use language to carry out different functions when exchanging meanings.

Therefore, language is viewed as multi-functional. Halliday describes the functions of language as follows,

i) language has to interpret the whole of our experience, reducing the indefinitely varied phenomena of the world around us, to a manageable number of classes of phenomena (Halliday, 1978: 21-22). ii) language has to express our participation, as speakers, in the speech situation; the roles we take on ourselves and impose on others; our wishes, feelings, attitudes and judgments (Halliday,1978: 21-22). iii) language has the function to provide texture, the organization of discourse as relevant to the situation (Halliday in Kress, 1976: xix).

These functions of language are identified as ideational, interpersonal and textual metafunctions. Each of these metafunctions contributes to the structure of language.

“The term ‘structure’ refers to the relations among the parts of a linguistics unit (of a sentence, a clause, and so on): that is it refers to abstract grammatical relations on the syntagmatic axis” (Halliday, 1981: 29).

As mentioned in section 4.1.2, realization is the relation between context of situation and language functions. In other words, the context of situation: field, tenor and mode is realised by the language functions: ideational, interpersonal and textual as represented in Table 4.1:

74 Table 4.1: Relation of the text to the context of situation (excerpted from Halliday, 1985a: 26)

As mentioned in section 4.1.1, the field of discourse “refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place” (Halliday, 1985a: 12) and it determines the ideational function in the semantics. The tenor of discourse, being “concerned with the personal relationships involved” is expressed through the interpersonal function.

The textual function is determined by the mode of discourse since this is concerned with

“the particular part that the language is playing in the interactive process” (Halliday,

1985a: 24).

4.1.3.1 Ideational metafunction

“The ideational metafunction uses language to represent experience” (Butt, Fahey et.al.,

1994: 5). It consists of 2 components, experiential and logical meanings. Experiential meanings are concerned with the expression of human experience in the real world, in terms of processes, events and circumstances (Halliday, 1985a: 18) while logical meaning expresses the relations between processes.

According to Halliday & Matthiessen (2004: 176), process is the most central part of the experiential configuration since it is the most important component for displaying human experiences (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4: Central and peripheral elements in the experiential structure of the clause (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 176)

Being the most crucial component in the experiential structure, processes construe not only human experiences but, as far as English is concerned, also the time when the speech event takes place; this is done through the system of aspect. There are two types of aspect in English; imperfective and perfective (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 426).

“The imperfect means act in progress, actual, present, ongoing, steady state or

(dependent) position, while the perfective means goal to be attained, potential, future, starting and stopping, change of state or (dependent) proposal” (Halliday & Matthiessen,

2004: 426) (Example 4.1 and 4.2).

Example 4.1: imperfective (excerpted from Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 430)

The person taking pictures (‘who is/ was taking’)

Example 4.2: perfective (excerpted from Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 430)

The best person to take pictures (‘who ought to take’)

76 As mentioned in Chapter 3, the Cantonese final particle [laa3] functions as an aspectual marker in spoken Cantonese. It maybe that such use of [laa3] will be found in CMC and can be described under the system of aspect. As a result, the system of aspect is singled out in this section.

4.1.3.2 Interpersonal metafunction

The interpersonal metafunction is concerned with the way language is used “to encode interaction, to show how defensible we find out propositions, to encode ideas about obligation and interaction and to express our attitudes” (Butt & Fahey et.al., 1994: 5).

There are two main aspects in interpersonal meanings; the first concerns the types of social action or exchange together with the commodity that is being exchanged and this is expressed in English through the system of MOOD – declarative, interrogative and imperative. The second area concerns the expressions of opinions, which is expressed mainly through modality (Butt & Fahey et.al., 1994: 86).

We use language to exchange meaning and this meaning has a distinct speech role. “In the act of speaking, the speaker adopts for himself a particular speech role, and in so doing assigns to the listener a complementary role which he wishes him to adopt in his turn” (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 106). Halliday categorizes the speech roles and the meanings exchanged into two parts, i.) role in exchange and ii.) commodity exchanged. Role in exchange contains two categories i.) giving and ii.) demanding. The speaker either demands something from or gives something to the listener (Halliday &

Matthiessen, 2004: 107). On the other hand, the commodity exchanged consists of a) goods & services, or b) information. The combination of these categories results in the four speech functions: statement, command, offer and question (Halliday &

77 Matthiessen, 2004: 108), which are expressed through declaratives (statements),

imperatives (typically commands) and interrogatives (typically questions). Table 4.2

summarises these facts:

Table 4.2: Giving or demanding, good and services or information (Halliday, 2004: 107) Commodity exchanged

The expression of opinions and judgements is another area of interpersonal meaning.

The judgements and opinions of the speakers are expressed through modality.

“Modality refers to all oppositioning by speakers about probability, usuality, typicality,

obviousness, obligation and inclination” (Butt & Fahey et.al., 1994: 113). There are two

ways of expressing modality in English: via a modal Finite (Example 4.3) or modal

Adjunct (Example 4.4).

Example 4.3: Modal Finite you should come Subject Finite modal Predicator Mood Residue

Example 4.4: Modal Adjunct I usually go to school by bus Subject Modal Adjunct Finite Complement Adjunct circ Mood Residue

Examples of modal Adjuncts are listed in Table 4.3

Table 4.3: Examples of the Modal meanings and forms of expression (excerpted from Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 128) Modal meanings Forms of expression

78 Modal meanings Forms of expression

Other than modal Finite and modal Adjunct, comment Adjunct is another type of

Adjunct that is used to express judgement. Comment Adjuncts are “those which comment on the experiential analysis but do not form part of it” (Butt & Fahey et.al.,

1994: 123). Example 4.5 exemplifies the use of a comment Adjunct:

Example 4.5: Comment Adjunct Honestly, I don’t believe him Comment Adjunct Subject Finite Predicator Complement Mood Residue

Examples of Comment Adjuncts are listed in Table 4.4.

Table: 4.4 Examples of the Comment Adjuncts (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 130) with modifications Comment Adjunct positive fortunately, wisely, correctly negative (un)wisely, stupidly, foolishly, wrongly, unjustifiably neutral frankly, honestly, seriously, apparently, presumably, hopefully, understandably, surprisingly, mistakenly, regrettably, on the whole, broadly speaking, undoubtedly, not doubt, luckily, tentatively,

4.1.3.3 Textual metafunction

Butt and Fahey et.al., (1994: 6) point out that “the textual metafunction uses language to organise our experiential, logical and interpersonal meanings into a coherent and, in the case of written and spoken language, linear whole”. In other words, the textual metafunction reveals the texture and structure of the text and shows the way all lexicogrammatical units hang together (Hasan, 1978: 228). The textual metafunction is expressed by the system of Theme, Information and cohesion.

79 The way in which the structures of each of the metafunctions are mapped onto a single grammatical unit such as the clause is shown in Example 4.6.

Example 4.6: structure of the three metafunctions She is sitting on the chair Ideational: Actor Process: Material Circ: Loc: Sp Interpersonal: Subject Finite Predicator A Circumstance Textual: Theme Rheme

4.2 System networks

As mentioned previously, SFL views language as a system of choices and these choices can be represented in system networks. Systems networks are a way of representing what Saussure (Harris, 1983) called the paradigmatic axis of language. According to

Hasan (1996: 106), “system network is a form of representation for the description a systemic linguist assigns to some (part of a) linguistic stratum”. Every stratum in language can be represented as a system of network. Halliday has described the lexicogrammatical systems of English at clause and group rank. Units at the semantic stratum can also be described in terms of systems of choices. Such a description has been undertaken by Hasan (1996), and this description will be outlined in section 4.3.

As previously mentioned, the systemic functional model views language as meaning potential and such potential is revealed in the system networks since a system network tries to specify all the possible combinations of choices that could be made when constructing a text (Halliday, 1976b: 4). “The system is meaning potential, which is actualized in the form of text” (Halliday, 1977: 199).

Halliday (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 22) describes system networks as “the patterns in what could go instead of what”. Each option in the system network is defined by the

80 opposite option. Therefore, the opposition of two language features provides a better understanding of the nature of each other (Harris, 1983: 123). It is in this way that system networks show the paradigmatic relations in language.

A system network contains a set of options with an entry condition. There are different sets of options in system networks and one of the options has to be chosen within a set of options, together with a distinctive statement which differentiates one option from another (Halliday, 1976: 3). Such a statement is called “realization statement”, and this describes the fundamental condition for selecting the option. The selected option is meaningless unless it is validated by the realization statement. As previously mentioned, language is a stratified system and realization is the relationship between each stratum; it is the process by which one stratum is linked to another. Halliday (1981) defines realization as follows,

Realization is the process of making manifest the options that have been selected. It is the process of expressing the choice made. By this step meanings are ‘encoded’ in wordings, and these in turn are ‘recoded’ in some form of expression, typically sounds (Halliday, 1981: 14).

Figure 4.5 shows that a clause is either major or minor; a major clause is realized by the presence of a predicator while a minor clause is realized by the absence of a predicator.

In other words, if a clause is a major clause, there must be a predicator in its structure.

Thus, the realization statement for the feature [major] is: insert functional element

Predicator.

Figure 4.5: realization of the major and minor clause

According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2004: 22), structure is the “syntagmatic ordering in language, which indicates ‘what goes with what’”. Figure 4.6 shows a fragment of the English Mood system network.

Figure 4.6: The system network of Mood in English (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 23) with modification

Figure 4.6 is read as follows: a major clause gives access to the features [indicative] versus [imperative]; an indicative clause has a Subject and Finite in its structure. So the realization accompanying the feature [indicative] is: insert S + F. The feature [indicative] is the entry condition to the choice between [declarative] or [interrogative]. The realization statement for the feature [declarative] and [interrogative] are instructions for ordering (i.e sequencing) S+F. The subject comes before the Finite if the clause is declarative while the Finite comes before the subject if it is interrogative. The feature interrogative is the entry condition to two further choices which specify interrogative type: yes/no or wh- in the former, yes/no type, Finite occurs before the Subject while if it is WH-type, the clause contains Wh- element as theme. What is indicated in the

82 system is that every choice in the system network contributes to the formation of the structure (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 24). In other words, successive choices result in a choice path known as selection expression (SE) (Hasan, 1996: 108). SE is the combination of a set of features that have been selected. Therefore, the SE of the clause you did come will be [major: indicative: declarative].

By using the system network, the language structure can be shown clearly. Thus, structure can be viewed as the product of system.

In system networks, different shapes of brackets represent different meanings. A square bracket represents the relationship of ‘or’ while a curly bracket represents the relationship of ‘and’. However, the bracketing system can be used to represent a more complicated relation in a system network. The right and left facing bracket in Figure 4.7 indicates that feature [m] gives simultaneous access to system x/y and a/b; if feature [x] is chosen, then it is either [c] or [d]; the conjunction of [d] and [e] gives access to the feature [g] and [h].

Figure 4.7: two possible entry conditions

As mentioned previously, every stratum of language can be represented in system networks. The discussion in this section has focussed on the lexicogrammatical stratum;

83 in section 4.3, Hasan’s description of some systems at the semantic stratum will be outlined.

4.3 Semantic network of progressive messages

Semantic networks show the possible choices that speaker can make within the system of meaning. Unlike lexicogrammatical system networks, semantic networks describe

“what a speaker ‘can do’ in a specific environment, where doing is to be interpreted as the acts of meaning and saying” (Hasan, 1996: 114).

In the previous section, the point of entry to lexicogrammatical stratum networks was the clause. At the semantic stratum, Hasan (1996: 117) proposes that the unit of description is ‘message’. Message is the smallest linguistic unit at the semantic stratum and it is realized by the lexicogrammatical unit, clause, through the preselection of ranking clause except where a clause complex exists in which the constituent clauses are related by projection (Hasan, 1996). In such instances, the projecting clause and the projected clause are considered as “one message with the feature of [prefaced]” (Hasan,

1996: 118).

Example 4.7 She says it is easier to get second-hand books on Campus

She says in Example 4.7 projects it is easier to get second hand books on Campus.

Without any phoric presupposition, She says fails to function as an element of text structure. As a result, a projecting clause and a projected clause are considered as a single message in the semantic stratum.

84 As mentioned in section 4.2, language is a stratified system and realization is the relation between each stratum: context is realized by the semantic stratum, the semantic stratum is realized by the lexicogrammatical stratum, the lexicogrammatical stratum is realized by the phonological stratum (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 26). In other words, “the facts of one stratum of language are re-stated as facts of another one”

(Hasan, 1989: 244). Similarly, “message in the semantic level is realised as clause in the lexicogrammatical level” (Hasan, 1989: 244). These relationships are shown in Figure

4.8.

LEVEL OF LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS UNIT CLASSES

Figure 4.8: Strata, units and classes of linguistic analysis (adapted from Cloran, 1994: 126)

Figure 4.8 shows that the semantic stratum activates the lexicogrammatical stratum.

Similarly, the smallest linguistic unit in the semantic level named “message” activates

the largest linguistics unit named “clause” in the lexicogrammatical stratum.

Hasan (1996) proposes that every message can be described as either i) progressive or

ii) punctuative (Figure 4. 9). Messages selecting the feature [progressive] are realized by

[major clause] which, as discussed above, is realized in turn by the feature [+predicator].

The feature [progressive] allows access to all four metafunctions, logical, interpersonal,

experiential and textual which are realized by choices in expansion, mood, modality,

transitivity and theme etc. Figure 4.9 shows these facts. Note that Hasan names the

85 systems accessed via the feature [progressive] [amplification] (i.e. aspects of logical meaning), [role allocation] (i.e. aspects of interpersonal meaning), [classification]

(aspects of experiential meaning) and [continuation] (aspects of textual meaning). Each of these systems operates simultaneously as indicated by the brace.

Figure 4.9: Primary systems in a context open semantic network (Hasan, 1996: 120)

Hasan’s (1989: 246, 1996: 121) work mainly focuses on the system of ROLE

ALLOCTAION, which captures the options in expressing the speech acts: questions, commands and offers. Figure 4.10 shows that the primary terms in the system of ROLE

ALLOCATION are [give] versus [demand] and [information] versus [goods/services].

Figure 4.10: Primary terms in the system of ROLE ALLOCATION

The conjunction of the feature [give] and [information] gives access to the system of

[statement]; the system of [questions] is conjointly accessed by the feature [demand]

86 and [information] while the conjunction of the feature [demand] and [goods/services] and the feature [give] and [goods/services] give access to the system of [command] and

[offer] respectively. The semantic network of [questions] in English will be described in detail in section 4.3.1 since it will be used in the semantic network that describes the functions of the Cantonese final particles (Chapter 6).

4.3.1 Semantic network of questions

As mentioned in section 4.1.3.2, question is expressed through the combination of the feature [demand] and [information], as shown in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11: Options in expressing questions – a simplified fragment (Hasan, 1989: 246)

Figure 4.11 shows that the conjunction of the feature [demand] and [information] is the entry condition to a more delicate system [CONFIRM] versus [APPRIZE]. The feature [CONFIRM] is selected if the question is used to elicit a yes/no response while

[apprize] is selected if it is used to demand specific information (Hasan, 1989: 247).

The option [confirm] is the entry condition to the system whose terms are [VERIFY] versus [INQUIRE]. The option [verify] is realized by the MOOD feature declarative: tagged (Hasan, 1989: 246). The option [PROBE] versus [REASSURE] is available if

87 the option [verify] is selected. The feature [probe] is chosen if the speaker wants to

“probe the veracity of a proposition” (Hasan, 1989: 246) and it is realized by the lexicogrammatical features [tagged: constant]. The feature [reassure] is chosen if the speaker wants to reassure concerning the veracity of the proposition and it is realized lexicogrammatically by the features [tagged: reversed].

On the other hand, the feature [inquire] is realized by the preselection of the options in mood system [major: indicative: untagged]. The feature [inquire] permits entry to the system [CHECK] versus [ASK]. [Check] is realized by an untagged declarative with rising tone while the option [ask] is realized by the preselecting the lexicogrammatical features [interrogative: polar] (Hasan, 1989: 247).

The option [apprize] gives access to a more delicate choice between [VAGUE] and

[PRECISE]. The option [VAGUE] is selected if the theme of the question is ‘how/ what about’ while the contrasting option [precise] is selected if precise information is required and gives access to a more delicate choice between [EXPLAIN] versus

[SPECIFY]. The former option is realized by a clause whose theme is ‘why/ how’ while the latter one is realized by a clause whose theme is ‘when/ where/ who/ what/ what happen’.

The system [ASSUMPTIVE] versus [NON-ASSUMPTIVE] is open to the questions having the feature [apprize: explain] or [confirm: enquire]. The option [assumptive] is realized by negative polarity within the clause realising the message while

[non-assumptive] is realized by positive polarity.

88 Hasan’s semantic network of questions as outlined above is taken here as a starting point for the description of questions occurring in CMCs. It will be adapted to accommodate the kinds of questions that arise there (cf Chapter 6).

4.4 Semantic network of punctuative message

The description of questions has as its point of origin the message feature [progressive].

Opposing the feature progressive in Figure 4.10 is the feature [Punctuative]. As previously mentioned, punctuative messages are expressed by [minor clauses] (realized by the absence of predicator). Unlike [progressive] messages which give access to multiple metafunctions, [punctuative] messages are dominated by interpersonal and textual meanings since [punctuative] messages are more concerned with speech role allocation management and the speakers’ emotional attitude such as surprise, joy or disgust (Hasan, 1996: 119). ‘hi, you know what?, okay, Pardon? Bye etc are some examples of [punctuative] messages in English. These words or phrases seem meaningless for most listeners. However, these minor clauses do function in messages to guide the flow of interaction. Hasan (1996: 118) describes punctuative messages as providing “locutionary and/or expressive guidance” while Ventola (1979) and Levinson

(1983) refer to such messages as ‘conversational devices’ and ‘presequences’ or

‘pragmatic particles’ (Cloran, 1994: 152) . Figure 4.12 shows some of the systemic choices for English punctuative messages.

Figure 4.12: Network of semantic options for punctuative messages in English (Cloran, personal communication)

In this research, the Cantonese final particles are considered to be punctuative messages.

However, they are meaningful only when they are attached to the end of a message.

English punctuative messages on the other hand, can occur in isolation, e.g.

FM69 Maggie i didnt know u drink bor I don't know you drink [wo3]! FM70 Maggie next time unibar ar we should go unibar next time [aa1]

Maggie :) (*smiley)

FM71 Florence hhaha, i drink ga, (*laugh) I drink [gaa3] FM72 Florence but just a bit ja but just a bit [zaa3] FM73 Maggie ic ic I see I see FM74 Florence coz i can't drink much,hahahhaa because I can't drink much (*laugh)

FM75 Maggie me either la me either [laa1]

In this extract, message FM73 is a punctuative message, which occurs in isolation without attaching to any message. Therefore, the difference between the English and

90 Cantonese punctuative messages is that the English punctuative message is free while the Cantonese punctuative is bound to utterances.

4.5 Conclusion

In this chapter, some of the underlying systemic functional linguistics concepts have been introduced. These concepts can be summarized as follows, i.) Context of situation is the immediate environment of a text and it can be

described in terms of field, tenor and mode. ii.) Language contains various strata (Semantics, Lexicogrammar and Phonology)

and realization is the relation between each stratum. iii.) Language is functional and the functions of language are described in terms of

ideational, interpersonal and textual meanings. iv.) Language is viewed as a system of choices and these choices can be represented

in system networks. v.) Other than describing language in the lexicogrammatical stratum, language can

also be described in the semantic stratum via semantic networks. vi.) Message is the point of entry to semantic networks, having the feature

[progressive] versus [punctuative] as the primary terms in the system.

It is believed that the Cantonese final particles are discourse (semantic) particles and are able to be described in terms of SF theory and systematized in a semantic network.

Such a systematization will be presented in Chapter 6. In the next chapter (Chapter 5), the methods of data collection and analysis will be outlined.

91 Chapter 5 Data and Methodology

5.0 Introduction

This chapter describes the methods used in data collection and analysis. Section 5.1 provides the background information of the informants. The methods used in data collection and analysis will be described in section 5.2 and 5.4 respectively. In addition, the details of the collected data will be reviewed in section 5.3.

In order to understand the functions of the Cantonese particles in CMC, data was collected from Hong Kong CMC users. The corpus was then analysed and the

Cantonese particles and their functions systematized in a network that is similar to

Figures 4.11 and 4.12.

5.1 The Subjects

Data were collected from 13 Hong Kong young adults, including university students

(studying in Hong Kong or overseas, undergraduate and postgraduate programmes) and working adults. These informants, aged between 20 and 30, have as their first language

Cantonese (spoken) and Chinese9 (written), and had already taken the Hong Kong

Advanced Level Examination (HKALE) in English.

People in this age group were selected because they are likely to be regular users of instant messaging tools. According to a Nielsen/ NetRatings research in 2004 (Ming

9 Cantonese refers to speaking while Chinese refers to writing 92 Pao, 2004), 86% of the instant messaging tools users in Hong Kong are under 30 years.

This research indicates that young adults are the majority users of the instant messaging tools in Hong Kong.

Second, the educational background of the informants was also taken into consideration because only those who have received training in English are more likely to use English as the medium of online communications.

5.2 Data collection

Data was collected from Instant messaging tools like ICQ and MSN messenger and form the main source of the data in this research. All of the participants were approached by email or in person, and consent to use their conversations was given by each of the participants in the research. After giving permission to access participants’ private conversations, the data was extracted from the ‘history’ of the online communication tools of ICQ (I seek you) and MSN messenger and collected through email attachments. As mentioned in Chapter 1, ‘history’ is the database of the online communication tools which stores all the outgoing and incoming conversation activities.

Since the data collection has ethical implications concerning the participants’ privacy, this research had to be approved by the human research ethics committee and consent had to be granted by the participants.

Furthermore, in order to protect the privacy of the participants, all the identifying features such as names and location of the participants appearing in their conversations were changed.

93 5.3 Description of the data

Example 5.1 shows a fragment of the selected data. It shows that all the data extracted from ‘history’ was organized according to the name (pseudonym) of the participants

(first column), date and time when the conversations were carried out (second and third column) and the content of the conversations (fourth column). As a result, all the details of the conversations were saved without missing one word.

Example 5.1: Example of the CMC conversations Cathy 12:43:45 29/8/2006 so we have to check the price from STA Cathy 12:43:56 29/8/2006 yes la~~but if u take virgin it will cheap Cathy 12:43:58 29/8/2006 Cheaper Stella 12:44:11 29/8/2006 how much? Cathy 12:44:12 29/8/2006 may be save $ 80 Stella 12:44:20 29/8/2006 how abt s'pore airline? Stella 12:44:29 29/8/2006 chur $ 80 ja.... Cathy 12:44:43 29/8/2006 yes ar~ but $80 quite different la Stella 12:44:47 29/8/2006 i don't wanna take British airline le Cathy 12:44:55 29/8/2006 HKD $480

However, not all received conversations were used in the analysis. The received conversations were selected for analysis only if they satisfied the following conditions, i.) the conversations had to be to one-to-one communication, i.e. only two

participants were involved in a conversations; ii.) English had to be the medium of communication with the mixture of English and

Chinese lexis and grammar; iii.) Each conversation had to contain at least 20 messages.

17 one-to-one conversations of varying length with 1080 messages in total were collected and used for analysis. As mentioned previously, only 2 participants were involved in every conversation. However, some of the participants were involved in more than one conversation; as a result, 26 participants were involved in this research

94 and the data was collected from one of the participants in the conversation. Table 5.1 states the background information of the selected conversations in terms of the number of messages in each and the gender of the participating chatters. Gender was noted simply in order to provide the possibility of noting any systematic variation in the use of particles according to this factor.

Table 5.1 Background information of the data dyad name Gender length of text Number of particles11 (number of messages)10 used TD male-female 53 12 PC male-female 54 28 PJ male-female 43 15 PS male-female 28 8 BS male-female 60 13 MC male-female 81 24 MM male-female 45 17 RP male-female 34 16 RL male-female 50 18 total: 448 total: 151 CS female-female 80 17 VY female-female 134 24 YV female-female 89 17 SE female-female 90 25 FM female-female 132 40 total: 523 total: 123 PL male-male 23 7 PPL male-male 58 26 HF male-male 28 10 Total: 17 total: 109 total: 43

All of the selected conversations were written (typed) in English with a mixture of

English and Chinese lexis and grammar. The interference of the Cantonese grammatical features in CMC is shown in the following examples.

Example: 5.1: Romanization of Cantonese expression Marcus 1:16:21 20/8/2007 i went to macau, taiwan to join marathon as well haha Marcus 1:16:59 20/8/2007 japan and thai will be next place fo me... Marcus 1:17:18 20/8/2007 i think it is so fun Carol 1:17:37 20/8/2007 chi sin ga~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Key: chi sin (痴線, ci1 sin3) = crazy

10 messages here refers to the notion “message” as defined by Hasan (1996) and outlined in Chapter 4. 11 the particles used in CMC include only Cantonese final particles; Chinese (Mandarin) particles were excluded. 95 Instead of typing the Cantonese expression in Chinese, Hong Kong CMC users tend to improvise the romanization of the Cantonese expressions in CMC as shown in Example

5.1. The reason for applying the romanized Cantonese expressions in CMC was revealed in Chapter 2.

Example 5.2: Chinese grammar structure Peter 1:52:41 9/7/2005 did u ask wilson? Chloe 1:53:04 9/7/2005 ah...not yet.....hahaaa Peter 1:53:35 9/7/2005 gum is u dun ask ....dun say wt danger later ar..ghaa Chloe 1:54:04 9/7/2005 i 'm doing assignment ar ma...... forgot jo Chloe 1:54:06 9/7/2005 hahaa Key: it’s you who didn’t ask him, don’t say it’s dangerous later

Example 5.2 shows that the chatters adopt the Cantonese grammar structure into

English. This feature was also discussed in Chapter 2.

Apart from the direct translation of the Cantonese grammar, it was observed that the selected conversations are also full of direct translations of Cantonese expressions as shown in Example 5.3. The reason for such use was reviewed in Chapter 2.

Example 5.3: Direct translation of Cantonese expression Florence 0:41:40 19/4/2007 u don't have any mid term meh? Maggie 0:41:50 19/4/2007 next wk Maggie 0:42:00 19/4/2007 i'm on my 5.5 weekend at the moment Maggie 0:42:05 19/4/2007 reading week for marketing Maggie 0:42:12 19/4/2007 had a midterm at wk 6 Florence 0:42:43 19/4/2007 wah, poor u Florence 0:42:46 19/4/2007 add oil la Key: add oil (加油, gaa1 jau4) = study hard

Example 5.4(a): Cantonese and final particles Cathy 12:43:45 29/8/2006 so we have to check the price from STA Cathy 12:43:56 29/8/2006 yes la~~but if u take virgin it will cheap Cathy 12:43:58 29/8/2006 Cheaper Stella 12:44:11 29/8/2006 how much? Cathy 12:44:12 29/8/2006 may be save $ 80 Stella 12:44:20 29/8/2006 how abt s'pore airline? Stella 12:44:29 29/8/2006 chur $ 80 ja.... Cathy 12:44:43 29/8/2006 yes ar~ but $80 quite different la Stella 12:44:47 29/8/2006 i don't wanna take British airline le Cathy 12:44:55 29/8/2006 HKD $480 96 Example 5.4(b): Chinese (Mandarin) particles Tracy 17:27:09 2/4/2006 i think i will go to a salon in newtown Tracy 17:27:09 2/4/2006 if i want to color my hair like that girl... Tracy 17:27:09 2/4/2006 i think they can make that Tracy 17:27:09 2/4/2006 coz that salon look so punk hahaha Daniel 17:27:41 2/4/2006 the saloon in NT always won prizes really ma??? i jus saw that every1 there have Tracy 17:27:46 2/4/2006 pink, green, orange color hair hahaha Daniel 17:28:25 2/4/2006 yes ar

Examples 5.4(a) and 5.4(b) show that the use of the Cantonese and Chinese (Mandarin) final particles at the end of messages is another distinctive feature resulting from interference of the chatters’ mother tongue. As mentioned in Chapter 2, the Cantonese particles that occur in CMC are romanized. However, these romanizations are improvised by the Hong Kong chatters. Therefore, the romanized Cantonese and

Chinese particles might vary between chatters. As a result, it is important to point out all

the improvised romanizations that occur in the selected conversations. Table 5.2 shows

the representations of the Cantonese final particles that occur in the selected

conversations, and Table 5.3 shows the representations of the Chinese particles.

Table 5.2: the representations of the Cantonese final particles in CMC Cantonese particles Romanization of the Cantonese characters in online chat aa1 吖 aa3 啊 ar aa4 呀 aa5 咓 ah

aak3 呃 gaa4 ga gaa3 咖 lo1 囉 lor lo4 囖 lo law laa1 啦 la, lah laa3 嚹 ne1 呢 lei le ge2 嘅/嘅 ge, gei gwaa3 啩 Gwa, gua maa3 嘛 ma , maa

97 me1 咩 Meh ,mei wo3 喎啝 Wor ,wo zaa3 咋 ja ze1 啫 je tim1 tim jo1 咗 jo sin1 先 sin

Table 5.3: the representations of the Chinese final particles in CMC Chinese particles Romanization of the Chinese characters in online chat ma 嗎 ma ne 呢 le, lei

As Tables 5.2 and 5.3 show some of the particles have more than one representation in the selected conversations.

Despite the fact that Chinese final particles are also used in CMC, only the Cantonese final particles were included in this study since Cantonese particles occur more frequently in the data in comparison to the Chinese final particles and it is also the

Cantonese final particles which have “a much larger inventory” as well as convey “a wider range of meanings” than the Chinese final particles (Li, 2006: 72).

5.4 Preparation of the data for analysis

After selecting the data, the conversations were first segmented into messages according to Hasan’s (1996) definition (Chapter 4). Second, the Cantonese final particles were identified and their functions were examined according to the literature noted.

Meanwhile the messages were examined in terms of speech functions and they were also glossed in English according to the functions and meanings of the particles as well as the interference of the Cantonese grammatical features. Example 5.5 shows a fragment of the data analysis. The identifying features of each individual message are

98 shown in columns 1-3, i.e. dyad name plus message number, time, name of ‘speaker’.

The message is given in the fourth column. The particles that occurred in the message were placed in the fifth column. The sixth column shows the semantic functions of the particles according to the literature while the seventh column gives the speech functions of the messages that carry a particle. The eighth column captures the Cantonese vocalization and the English gloss of the message is provided in the last column.

99 Example 5.5: fragment of the data analysis 100

semantic function of particles message Time Name Message Particle (according to Matthews & Yip, 1984; Fung & speech function Cantonese vocalization English Gloss no. Carter, 2007; Kwok, 1984; Li, 2006; Luke 1990; Fung, 2000) chur, that means no expresses disparagement, like oh, that means no matter CS29 Stella 12:43:15 matter how early i book, tut-tut in English how early I book, • solidarity marker - used to 'soften the force of a speech act' • lacks of definiteness/lack of finality or completeness the price will be the CS30 Stella the price will be $1600 la la (laa1) • uncertainty statement same • conveys a sense of indefiniteness or tentativeness • establishes common grounds and marks obviousness Because it is graduation CS31 12:43:15 Cathy graduation time period CS32 12:43:25 Cathy is 1650~~~ so, the price is $1650 CS33 12:43:31 Stella wahhhhhhhhh expresses surprise or wonder oh my god CS34 12:43:38 Stella freaking expensive! it is so expensive! so we have to check the so we have to check the CS35 12:43:45 Cathy price from STA price in STA yes, I agree that we have CS36 12:43:56 Cathy yes la~~ la (laa1) • as above statement to check the price in STA

100 It is important to note that all the Cantonese final particles in the data are in written format (romanized), which is insufficient to define the tones of the particles. As mentioned in Chapter 1, tone has an important function in Cantonese (a change in tone might result in a change of the meaning), therefore, it is very important to identify the tones of the particles. One of the ways to identify the particle tones is by examining the environment of particles in messages as well as my knowledge of Cantonese as a native speaker. Apart from this, an online database ‘Chinese Character Database: with word-formations’ (The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2008) was also used as reference to identify the tone of the particles. This database provides the pronunciations of Chinese characters, which helps to test the tone of the particles in every message as well as to define the pronunciation of the particles.

After identifying all of the Cantonese final particles in the data, these were systematized in terms of a semantic network of options (refer to Chapter 4), so that the functions of the Cantonese particles could be considered in terms of their expression of the different metafunctions. This systematization of the particles in a semantic network will be presented in Chapter 6.

5.5 Conclusion

This chapter has reviewed the data collection and background of the informants. The data has been described and an overview of the preparation of the data for the analysis was also given in this chapter. In the next chapter (Chapter 6) the analysis will be presented in a semantic network and the functions of the particles in CMC will also be described in the next chapter.

101 Chapter 6 Findings of the research

6.0 Introduction This chapter will explore the functions of the most frequently occurring particles in the

CMC data. The particles in focus are shown in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: The most frequently occurring particles in the CMC data Particles Number of instances laa laa1 64 97 laa3 33 me1 4 gaa gaa3 12 14 gaa4 2 ge2 7 gwaa3 3 maa3 9 zaa3 5 ne1 4 aa aa1 3 aa3 92 101 aa4 6 wo3 9 lo1 13

As previously signaled, the representation of the meanings of the Cantonese particles as expressions of punctuative messages (Hasan 1996) is presented in the form of semantic system networks. The most primary options in the semantic network are shown in

Figure 6.1.

102

Figure 6.1: A primary system of punctuative messages realized by particles

Figure 6.1 shows that [Punctuative] permits entry to three different systems

[Ideational], [Interpersonal] and [Textual]. In other words, [Punctuative] is the initial environment for selecting the feature [ideational], [interpersonal] and [textual]. It should be noted that Figure 6.1 represents punctuative meanings as either ideational or interpersonal or textual. This contrasts with grammatical structures such as clauses or groups which are able to be described in terms of each of these metafunctions, i.e. ideational and interpersonal and textual.

Section 6.1 of this chapter presents, in the form of a semantic network, the ideational functions expressed by Cantonese punctuative messages realized by particles. In section

6.2 and 6.3, the various interpersonal functions expressed by Cantonese punctuative messages are presented and section 6.4 presents the Cantonese punctuative messages expressing textual meaning features. In section 6.5 the entire semantic network is presented and section 6.6 concludes the chapter.

6.1 Ideational function of particles

Figure 6.2 shows that the primary distinction within the [Ideational] system is [marked] versus [unmarked].

103

Figure 6.2: primary options in the Ideational system

The option [marked] is selected if the particle [laa3] is attached to a message while

[unmarked] indicates the absence of the particle.

Although [laa3] can be used with statements, questions and commands in spoken

Cantonese, it is restricted to statements when it occurs in the CMC data in this study. As mentioned in Chapter 3, Kwok (1984: 47) suggests that [laa3] functions as an aspectual marker, indicating that “an action is beginning, has begun, will begin, or has ended”.

Similarly, the occurrence of [laa3] in CMC is used to indicate that an action is about to start (Example 6.1(a)), is progressing (Example 6.1(b)), has been completed (Example

6.1(c)) or will happen in the future (Example 6.1(d)).

Example 6.1(a): starting (dyad PS) [Ideational: marked] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 20 Perry any part time job??? Do you have any part time job? (*laugh) I haven't applied for any part time job yet 21 Stella ahaha, not yet ar [aa3] but I want to get a part time job and I will look for 22 Stella wanna look for it it 23 Perry will not do la, right??? but you won't look for it [laa1], right? 24 Perry only 2 month It's only 2months 25 Stella i will try to look for it I will try to look for it 26 Perry okok...anyway, i go la, okok….anyway, I am about to go out now [laa3], 27 Perry talk to u when u come back la, talk to you after you come back [laa1],

In message 26, Perry tells Stella that he has to go out and with the use of [laa3], indicates that this action is about to start.

104 Example 6.1(b): progressing (dyad MM ) [Ideational: marked] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 1 Margaret how is yr master going ar? how is your master going [aa3]? 2 Matthew ok la, it's so so [laa1] 3 Matthew need to write thesis la I need to write my thesis [laa3] 4 Margaret already? you have started writing thesis already? 5 Matthew writing la I have started writing [laa3]

Matthew’s use of [laa3] in message 5 indicates the action is progressing, correcting the impression that may have been given in message 3 that the writing has not yet begun.

Example 6.1(c): completed (Dyad VY) [Ideational: marked] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss u got all the books u need for this Have you bought all the books you need for 40 Vicky sem already?? this semester? 41 Yvonne yes ar! Yes [aa3]! 42 Yvonne bought all la... I've bought all of it [laa3]? 43 Yvonne 3 books plus one workbook I bought 3 books and 1 workbook

Yvonne’s use of [laa3] in message 42 indicates that the action of buying is completed; the use of the English past tense ‘bought’ confirms this interpretation.

Example 6.1(d): futurity (dyad BS) [Ideational: marked] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss oh…(*laugh) my final exam is coming soon 42 Samuel oh... haha... my final exam is coming la.. [laa3] 43 Samuel getting to vy busy soon. I am getting busy 44 Betty when is it start?? when is your exam? 45 Samuel two weeks later la two weeks later [laa1] 46 Betty ooh!!! so when i come back ooh!! so when I come back 47 Betty then u will be having exam!!! you will be having exam

Similarly, in message 44, Samuel uses [laa3] to indicate that the action will happen in the future.

105 The aspectual function of [laa3] is similar to the experiential meaning of the verbal group in English where aspect is marked. Recall from Chapter 4, verbal groups in

English express two types of aspect: imperfective and perfective (Halliday &

Matthiessen, 2004: 427). “The imperfective means act in progress, actual, present, ongoing, steady state or (dependent) proposition, while the perfective means goal to be attained, potential, future, starting and stopping, change of state or (dependent) proposal” (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 427).

However, while English verbal groups are either imperfective or perfective, the particle

[laa3] carries the feature of imperfective and perfective simultaneously due to the fact that it expresses that the action is starting, ongoing, completed or will happen in the future at the same time. The selection expression of [laa3] is shown in Table 6.2

Table 6.2: selection expression of [laa3] Particle Selection expression [laa3] [Ideational: marked]

The particle [laa3] is the only particle in the data that has an ideational function. All other particles function interpersonally or textually; in the following two sections the interpersonal function of particles is described.

6.2 Interpersonal function of particles

As indicated in Figure 6.1, particles may express interpersonal meaning. As mentioned in Chapter 4, the [Interpersonal] system concerns how language is used “to encode interaction, to show how defensible we find out propositions, to encode ideas about obligation and interaction and to express our attitudes” (Butt & Fahey et.al., 1994: 5).

Figure 6.3 shows that the feature [interpersonal] gives access to two simultaneously

106 operating interpersonal systems: [SPEECH FUNCTION] and [ATTITUDE].

Figure 6.3: Primary options in the [Interpersonal] system

In the present study, the system of [SPEECH FUNCTION] is concerned with the use of particles to indicate the speech function of a message while the system of [ATTITUDE] is concerned with the attitudinal features of the particles. The options that are available in these two systems are shown in Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4: The system [exchange info] versus [exchange good & services]

Figure 6.4 shows that the [SPEECH FUNCTION] system permits entry to the system

[marked] versus [unmarked] and [exchange info] and [exchange goods & services]

107 simultaneously. The feature [marked] indicates the presence of a particle in the message while the feature [unmarked] indicates the absence of a particle.

The option [exchange info] is selected if the particle is attached to a message that is used to exchange information such as a question or a statement, while the feature

[exchange good & services] is selected if the particle is attached to a message that is used to exchange goods and services such as an offer or a command. Thus, the feature

[exchange info] is the entry condition to the system of [query] versus [state] while

[exchange goods & services] gives access to the options [give] versus [demand]. The feature [query] is selected if the particle is attached to a question. However, if the particle is attached to a statement, the option [state] is selected.

In the [exchange goods & services] system which is the entry condition to the option

[give] versus [demand], the feature [give] indicates giving goods and services, i.e. offer

- while the feature [demand] refers to demanding goods and services, i.e. command.

This latter feature, if simultaneously selecting the feature [marked], is realized by particle [laa1]. The function of this particle is shown in Example 6.2(a), message 8, where the ‘speaker’, Louis, attaches the particle [laa1] to his command.

Example 6.2(a): [laa1] (Dyad PPL) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange goods and services: demand; ATTITUDE: marked] Mess Name Message English Gloss no. 7 Peter i also got video there wo I also have video on that website [wo3] 8 Louis send me the link la send me the link [laa1] Peter http://www.youtube.com/********** (*the link) 9 Louis your dog is very cute wor your dog is very cute [wo3]

In the data, the speech function [give] does not occur. Therefore this system will not be further described. 108 The system [ATTITUDE] gives access to the options [unmarked] and [marked]. The feature [unmarked] is selected if a ‘speaker’s’ attitude is captured in the speech functions and so need not be further elaborated while the feature [marked] is selected if the attitude of the particle is expressed separately.

In the following section, the use of punctuative messages involved in the exchange of information will be described.

6.2.1 The use of particles in the exchange of information

The primary options to which the feature [query] gives access are [confirm] versus

[apprize] (following Hasan, 1989) while the feature [state] gives access to the system

[initiate] versus [respond]. These facts are represented in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5: the system [query] versus [state]

The feature [confirm] is selected if the speaker wants to “elicit a yes/no response” while the option [apprize] is selected when specific information is required by the speakers

(Hasan 1989: 246).

109 6.2.1.1 The use of particles in giving information

In the system of [initiate] versus [respond], [initiate] refers to those statements that do not come in response to a question and it contrasts with the feature [respond], which is an answer. The feature [respond] permits entry to the system [agree] versus [confirm].

The distinction between the options [agree] and [confirm] is that [agreement] is the response to statements while [confirm] is the response to questions. The feature

[confirm], when a particle is present, is realized by particle [aa3].

It is noticed that [aa3] is applicable in responsive statements when it is used in CMC.

Most often, [aa3] is attached to ‘yes’ when it occurs in responsive statements which function as confirmation (Example 6.2(b)) as well as agreement.

Example 6.2(b): [aa3] in confirmation (responsive statement) (Dyad HF) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: respond: confirm] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss HIHI... have you tried to download the Hihi…have you tried to download the file 1 Henry folder again ar?? again [aa3]? 2 Frankie yes ar~~ yes [aa3], I have 3 Frankie but i only can access 32 files but I can only access 32 files 4 Henry haha... yes ar... yes [aa3], that is right

In Example 6.2(b), Frankie uses the particle [aa3] to form the confirmative statement

(message 2) in reply to Henry’s question (message 1).

The feature [agree], which is an option that systemically contrasts with [confirm] is further elaborated into the system [mutual agreement] versus [normal]. The option

[mutual agreement] is realized by particle [laa1] while [normal] is realized by [aa3].

110 It is suggested that when [aa3] is used as agreement, it expresses a rather normal attitude of the speaker while the use of [laa1] in agreement indicates a mutual understanding between the speaker and the addressee. In order to describe the use of [aa3] more explicitly, the particle [aa3] and [laa1] are compared in Example 6.2(c) and Example

6.2(d),

Example 6.2(c): agreement with [aa3] (Dyad HF) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: respond: agree: normal] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss HIHI... have you tried to download the folder Hihi…have you tried to download the file 1 Henry again ar?? again [aa3]? 2 Frank yes ar~~ Yes [aa3], I have 3 Frank but i only can access 32 files but I can access 32 files only Yes [aa3], that is right 4 Henry haha... yes ar... (I agree we can only access 32 files)

Example 6.2(d): agreement with [laa1] (Dyad CS) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: respond: agree: mutual agreement] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 34 Stella freaking expensive! it is so expensive! 35 Cathy so we have to check the price from STA so we have to check the price from STA Yes [laa1], we have to check the price 36 Cathy yes la~~ from STA (I totally agree with you)

Although the particle [laa1] and [aa3] are both used in agreement, it is argued that [aa3] agreement in Example 6.2(c) indicates a neutral agreement, i.e. selects the feature

[normal], while [laa1] in Example 6.2(d) conveys a rather higher agreeability in comparison to [aa3]. Therefore, it is suggested that [aa3] and [laa1] can be glossed as ‘I agree’ and ‘I totally agree’ respectively.

In the next section, the particles involved in demanding confirmation will be presented.

111 6.2.1.2 Demanding confirmation

In the system to which the entry condition is [query], the feature [confirm] gives access to two simultaneous systems: [check] versus [ask] and [assumptive] versus

[non-assumptive], as shown in Figure 6.6:

Figure 6.6: Options in the system of [query]

The feature [check] occurs when the speaker requires the addressee to confirm the truthfulness of their propositions (Hasan, 1989: 247) while with [ask], the speaker is simply making a query.

In the system of [assumption], the feature [assumptive] is selected if the speaker has presupposed the existence of a certain situation (Hasan, 1989: 252). However, with

[non-assumptive], the speaker has no presupposition towards the situation. The conjunction of the feature [check] and [assumptive] is realized by particle [gaa4]

(Example 6.2(e))

112 Example 6.2(e): [gaa4] (Dyad PC) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: check; assumptive] Mess English gloss no Name Message 19 Peter i back to my room I went back to my room 20 Peter n slept b4.. and slept for awhile 21 Peter then wake up then I woke up 22 Peter n go to comp lab lo and went to the computer laboratory [lo1] Is it really the fact that you slept at that time [gaa4]? 23 Chloe wah...... u sleep at the time ga (I thought you slept earlier than that) 24 Peter wt u mean what do you mean? 25 Chloe u sleep until 3.… you slept until 3:00 26 Chloe and then wake up for awhile.… then woke up for awhile

In Example 6.2(e) (message 23), Chloe had apparently assumed that Peter sleeps early at night. However, the fact that Peter sleeps late at night contradicts this assumption. As a result, with the use of [gaa4], Chloe is questioning whether the situation that Peter states really is a fact.

It is observed that [gaa4] is a particle that is restricted to confirmation-seeking questions when it is applied in CMC. Similar to what the literature describes, the main function of

[gaa4] in CMC is to double check “the existence of a given situation or the assumption of the situation conveyed by the declarative” (Li, 2006: 79; Fung, 2000: 79). However, it is argued that the presence of [gaa4] also indicates that a certain situation is being assumed by the ‘speaker’ so that, with the use of [gaa4], the speaker is double checking whether the current situation really is a fact (Li, 2006: 80).

Other than [gaa4], [aa4] is another particle that is restricted to confirmation-seeking questions when it occurs in CMC. However, unlike [gaa4], [aa4] carries no meaning of expectation or assumption of the speaker. Instead, with the use of [aa4], the speaker is expressing a sense of sudden awareness (Kwok, 1984: 89; Li, 2006: 99) of the situation

113 as well as double checking this awareness. Thus, [aa4] is the expression of the conjunction of the feature [check] and [non-assumptive] (Example 6.2(f)).

Example 6.2(f): [aa4] (Dyad TD) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: check; non-assumptive] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 19 Daniel the colour is easy to remove by the way By the way, the colour can be removed easily 20 Tracy u mean ur red or the blonde one ar? which one do you mean, the red or the blonde [aa3]? 21 Daniel red I mean the red one 22 Tracy how to remove it ar?? How to remove [aa3]? 23 Tracy jus dye another color ar? Remove it by dying another colour [aa4]? 24 Daniel no, i mean the colour is easy to come off no, I mean the colour fades off easily

In message 22, Tracy questions the way Daniel removes his hair colour; she seems to suddenly become aware that by easy to remove Daniel might mean that one could dye one’s hair another colour. In order to double check this awareness, the particle [aa4] is used in message 23.

Thus, [gaa4] and [aa4] are particles that, in the CMC data, carry the features

[Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: check; assumptive] and [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: check; non-assumptive] respectively. However, because so few instances of these particles occur in the data ([aa4] occurs 6 times and [gaa4] occurs twice), these functions would need to be confirmed by further research.

The conjunction of the feature [ask] and the feature [non-assumptive] is realized by particle [aa3] while the feature [ask] when conjoined with the feature [assumptive] is expressed by particle [me1].

114 It is found that [aa3] is applicable in confirmation-seeking questions when it occurs with

CMC. Similar to the particle [aa4], [aa3] also carries no presumption of the speakers when it occurs with confirmation-seeking questions. However, the distinction between

[aa4] and [aa3] is that with the use of [aa4], the speaker is double checking his or her awareness while with the use of [aa3], the speaker is simply enquiring. Consider

Example 6.2(g),

Example 6.2(g): [aa3] (Dyad HF) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: ask; non-assumptive] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 15 Henry will you go to harbor bridge today ar?? will you go to harbor bridge today [aa3]? 16 Frankie probably not.. I am probably not going 17 Henry O... people said that it's a very huge event.. oh, people said it's a very huge event… 18 Henry never mind... never mind 19 Henry I just ask ask... I am just curious 20 Henry since my flatmate will go... since my flat-mate will go

In Example 6.2(g), Henry has no presupposition towards Frankie’s action (going to the

Harbor Bridge). With the use of [aa3], he is simply asking Frankie to confirm if he is going or not.

As mentioned in Chapter 3, [me1] is a question particle which is restricted to yes/no questions or questions that contain negation marker [m4] (Li, 2006: 94). A similar situation occurs in CMC. It is noticed that the four occurrences of [me1] in CMC are restricted to confirmation-seeking questions, as shown in Example 6.2(h).

Example 6.2(h): [me1] (Dyad FM) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: ask; assumptive] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 110 Florence u don't have any mid term meh? you don't have any mid term exams [me1]? 111 Maggie next wk I will have mid term exams next week 112 Maggie i'm on my 5.5 weekend at the moment I am on my 5.5 week at the moment

115 113 Maggie reading week for marketing I am having reading week for marketing 114 Maggie had a midterm at wk 6 I will have mid term at week6

The particle [me1] in CMC also indicates the presupposition of the speakers. Therefore, when the current situation is different from the expectation of the speakers, the particle

[me1] will be used to express their surprise and doubt as well as to query the truthfulness of the situation (Kwok, 1984: 88). Consider Example 6.2(i),

Example 6.2(i): [me1] (Dyad CS) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: ask; assumptive] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss but i've asked the question of 49 Cathy but I've asked about the luggage weight luggage weight the staff said the maximum luggage weight 50 Cathy she said, virgin is 23KG for Virgin is 23KG 51 Stella huh? huh? 52 Stella not 30 meh? it's not 30KG [me1]? 53 Cathy but i think if u buy from STA, but i think if u buy from STA, the maximum luggage weight will be 54 Cathy will be different different

In Example 6.2(i), Stella had assumed that the maximum luggage weight is 30kg; therefore, she feels surprise and doubt when she is told the actual maximum luggage weight is 23kg (This also explains her use of the vocalization ‘huh’ in message 51). In order to express her doubt and surprise as well as to query the truthfulness of the situation, the particle [me1] is used.

Since the attitude expressed by the particles [gaa4], [aa3], [me1] and [aa4] are captured by the combination of the features [check] versus [ask] and [assumptive] versus

[non-assumptive], these particles are all [unmarked] in the system of [attitude] (Figure

6.4). Their selection expressions are as stated in Table 6.3.

116 Table 6.3: the selection expressions of the particle [gaa4], [aa4], [aa3] and [me1] Particle selection expressions [gaa4] [Interpersonal: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: check; assumptive; attitude: unmarked] [aa4] [Interpersonal: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: check; non-assumptive; attitude: unmarked] [aa3] [Interpersonal: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: ask; non-assumptive; attitude: unmarked] [me1] [Interpersonal: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: ask; assumptive; attitude: unmarked]

6.2.1.3 Demanding specific information

In addition to questions that seek a yes/no answer, particles may be attached to questions that seek some specific item of information; these questions have the feature

[apprize] (Hasan 1989).

Figure 6.7: options in the system of [apprize]

Figure 6.7 indicates that the feature [apprize] is the environment for the choice between the options [precise] versus [vague]. The feature [vague] is selected if the theme of the message is “how about” or “what about” (Hasan, 1989: 247) and it is realized by particle [ne1].

Although [ne1] is used with statements and questions in spoken Cantonese, it is found that in CMC this particle is used only with questions. The absence of [ne1] in CMC

117 statements may be due to the limited occurrence of this particle in the CMC data – it occurs only 4 times. On the other hand, the occurrence of [ne1] with statements in

English, (the medium of the CMC data) sounds unpleasant, which also led to the absence of this particle in statements.

The particle [ne1] with questions in CMC carries the same function as in questions in spoken Cantonese, being used to express the meaning ‘how about’. However, the particle [ne1] in spoken Cantonese can be attached after a nominal group, time or place adverbial (Kwok, 1984: 91) while [ne1] in CMC it only attaches to a nominal group

(mainly ‘you’). Consider Example 6.2(j), message 42 where [ne1] occurs after the nominal group ‘you’.

Example 6.2(j): [ne1] (Dyad RL) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: vague] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 40 Lily doing what? what are you doing? 41 Raymond looking esdlife website I am surfing the esdlife website Raymond hahaha (*laugh) 42 Raymond u le? how about you [ne1]? 43 Lily just start the resume, hehe I just started to edit the resume (*giggle) 44 Lily and online at the same time and I online at the same time

In message 42, Raymond uses the particle [ne1] to form the ‘how about’ question.

The contrasting option [precise] is selected if some precise item of information is required by the speaker. The feature [precise] gives access to a more delicate option between [explain] and [specify]. The feature [explain] is expressed by “a clause whose theme is ‘why’ (or equivalent expression e.g. ‘what for’) or ‘how’” (Hasan, 1989: 247) while the latter one - [specify] - is expressed by a clause whose theme is wh- participant or wh- circumstance (Hasan, 1989: 247).

118 The particles [gaa3] and [aa3] occur with the feature [query: apprize: precise] and the feature [state: initiate]. In other words, both of the particles [gaa3] and [aa3] are applicable with precise questions (both explanation-seeking and specification-seeking questions) and statements (all statements except those in answer). Example 6.2(k) illustrates the use of [gaa3] with explanation-seeking questions, and Example 6.2(l) illustrates the use of [aa3] with such questions:

Example 6.2(k): [gaa3] in explanation-seeking question (Dyad SE) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: explain] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 45 Ellen y depress!!???? why do you feel depressed? 46 Shirley have to wait ma~~~ because I have to wait for the offer [maa3] 47 Shirley i waited for a long time la~~~ I have been waiting for long time [laa3] 48 Ellen how come have to wait for so long ga? Why do you have to wait for a long time [gaa3]? 49 Ellen u sure others not in PTS? Are you sure no one gets the offer from PTS?

Example 6.2(l): [aa3] in explanation-seeking question (Dyad BS) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: explain] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 6 Betty n i am going back to hk on thur and I am going back to Hong Kong on Thursday 7 Betty do u wan anythIng from hk?? Do you want anything from Hong Kong? Samuel haha... (*laugh) 8 Samuel why ar? why are you going back to Hong Kong [aa3]? 9 Samuel u go for holiday ma Are you going back for holiday Samuel ? ? 10 Samuel so happy ar that’s good? 11 Betty yes!!! yes, I’m going back for holiday

[gaa3] and [aa3] are used with specification-seeking questions in Example 6.2(m) and

6.2(n).

Example 6.2(m): [gaa3] in specification-seeking question (Dyad TD) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: specify] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 4 Daniel wei Hey 5 Tracy where did u color ur scary red hair b4 ga? Where did you get your scary red hair

119 done [gaa3]? 6 Daniel i did it by myself ga I did it by myself [gaa3] 7 Tracy u bleach it yourself? Did you bleach it by yourself? 8 Daniel yes, yes

Example 6.2(n): [aa3] in specification-seeking question (Dyad PJ) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: specify] Mess. no. Name Message English Gloss 14 Perry what kind of the job are u working ar??? what kind of job are you working now [aa3]? 15 Jenny merchandising I am working as a merchandiser 16 Jenny how about u? how about you? 17 Perry sales lor... I am working as a salesman [lo1]

In Example 6.2(o) and 6.2(p), [gaa3] and [aa3] are used with statements that initiate rather than respond:

Example 6.2(o): [gaa3] in initiating statement (Dyad PPL) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate] Mess. no. Name Message English Gloss 28 Louis which one do you like most Who do you like the most? 29 Peter i like the one outside the green dor I like the one outside the green door 30 Peter door door 31 Louis oic oh, I see 32 Louis i chose that door ga I chose that door [gaa3] 33 Peter wa....u ar oh, is it you [aa4]? 34 Peter great it's great

Example 6.2(p): [aa3] in initiating statement (Dyad PL) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate] Mess. no. Name Message English Gloss 1 Louis hello hello 2 Louis i back I am back Louis from taiwan from Taiwan 3 Peter wei,,,..... hey 4 Peter i know ar...... I know [aa3] 5 Louis how are you ar? how are you [aa3]?

Although [gaa3] and [aa3] can be used with explanation-seeking and specification-seeking questions as well as with initiating statements, [gaa3] and [aa3]

120 carry different functions and attitudes. Their difference will be described in the following section.

6.3 The use of particles to express Attitude As mentioned in section 6.2, a second aspect of interpersonal meaning is that of attitude.

A speaker’s attitude may or may not be [marked] by a punctuative as Figure 6.8 shows:

Figure 6.8: the system of [marked] Attitude

Figure 6.8 shows that the option [marked] in the system of [ATTITUDE] permits entry to the system [person] versus [message]. The option the option [message] is selected if the particle expresses an attitude towards the message while the option [person] is selected if the particle expresses an attitude towards either of the interactants. Thus, the feature [person] is the entry condition to the system whose terms are

[speaker-oriented] versus [hearer-oriented]. The feature [speaker-oriented] is concerned with the feeling of the speaker while [hearer-oriented] is concerned with the feeling of the hearer.

The option [message] is the environment for a more delicate choice between [actuality] and [softening/naturalising]. The feature [actuality] indicates the factuality of an action

121 and it is realized by particle [gaa3] while the feature [softening/naturalising] is realized by particle [aa3].

As mentioned previously, [gaa3] is applicable in both precise questions and initiating statements. Similar to the suggestions of Li (2006: 78), who argues that the function of

[gaa3] is to assert factuality, it is found that [gaa3] in CMC indicates the actuality of the situation whether it is used with statements or questions (refer to Example 6.2(k),

6.2(m), 6.2(o)).

The contrasting option [softening/neutralising] refers to the softening or naturalizing function of the punctuative and it is realized by particle [aa3]. [aa3] is the most frequently occurring particle in CMC where it carries the same functions as [aa3] in spoken Cantonese, i.e. to soften the speech act and to naturalize the message (Law,

1990: 108; Matthews & Yip, 1994: 340; Fang, 2003: 58; Li, 2006: 96). Since the messages without [aa3] sound abrupt and curt (Kwok, 1984: 45), the presence of [aa3] helps to tone down the message, so that it will sound softer to the addressee.

It is found that [aa3] is often used in denial and refusal statements. Since these kinds of statements might sound challenging to the addressee, the presence of [aa3] in these speech acts helps to soften the threatening and challenging attitude of the speakers.

Consider Example 6.3(a),

Example 6.3(a): [aa3] in denial statement (Dyad SE) Background: Shirley made a blog and she tells Ellen that the link is shown in her ICQ info [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/naturalising] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 10 Shirley open my info ..… open my 'info' 11 Shirley can see ga la~~ then you can see the link [gaa3 laa3] 122 12 Shirley have u ga~~ u are mentioned in the blog [gaa3] 13 Ellen no ar...... there is no link in the 'info' [aa3] 14 Ellen i can't find it.... I can't find it 15 Shirley ok...send to u~~~ ok, I will send it to you

In the above example, Shirley tells Ellen that the link to her blog can be found in her

ICQ info. However, Ellen replies that such a link does not exist. In order to soften or mitigate the denial, the particle [aa3] is used.

Other than denial and refusal statements, it is observed that [aa3] also functions as softener when it is applied with questions. Since explanation-seeking questions in particular may also be considered a challenging speech act to the addressee, the presence of [aa3] with questions helps to decrease the challenging attitude towards the addressee as shown in Example 6.3(b).

Example 6.3(b) [aa3] in questions (Dyad BS) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/naturalising] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 6 Betty n i am going back to hk on thur and I am going back to Hong Kong on Thursday 7 Betty do u wan anythIng from hk?? Do you want anything from Hong Kong? Samuel haha... (*laugh) 8 Samuel why ar? why are you going back to Hong Kong [aa3]? 9 Samuel u go for holiday ma Are you going back for holiday [ma3] Samuel ? ? 10 Samuel so happy ar that’s good [aa4]? 11 Betty yes!!! yes, I am going back for holiday

As seen in Example 6.3(b) (message 8), [aa3] is used by Samuel in asking ‘why’ questions. In message 6, Betty tells Samuel that she is going back to Hong Kong soon; instead of answering the question, Samuel brings up another question glossed as ‘why are you going back to Hong Kong’ (message 8). Without any particle, questions such as

123 this will sound challenging and severe to the addressee. Therefore, Samuel uses [aa3] to soften the challenging attitude of the message.

As a result, it is argued that [aa3] carries a softening or naturalizing function with both statements and questions. The selection expressions of the particle [gaa3] and [aa3] are summarized in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4: the selection expressions of the particle [gaa3] and [aa3] Particle selection expressions [gaa3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: message: actuality ] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise; ATTITUDE: marked: message: actuality ] [aa3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/ naturalising] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/ naturalizing] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: respond: confirm; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/ naturalizing] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: respond: agree: normal; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/ naturalizing] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: ask; non-assumptive; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/ naturalizing]

6.3.1 The constraint of speaker-oriented attitude [wonder] and

[puzzlement] in speech functions

It is found that an option from the system of [Attitude] may be constrained to occur only with certain speech functions. This situation is represented in Figure 6.9 which shows that the system [wonder] versus [puzzlement] is restricted to the feature [precise: explain] and the feature [person: speaker-oriented].

124

Figure 6.9: The system [wonder] versus [puzzlement]

The option [wonder] is realized by particle [ne1]. As mentioned previously, [ne1] can be used in questions that have the feature [query: apprize: vague]. However, [ne1] can also be used in questions that have the feature [query: precise: explain]. As mentioned in Chapter 3, Law (1990: 122-123) suggests that [ne1] conveys a sense of wonder of the speakers when it is used in spoken Cantonese. It is found that the attitude of wonder is retained when [ne1] is applied in English wh-questions. Consider Example 6.3(c),

Example 6.3(c): [ne1] – wonder (Dyad YV) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: explain; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: wonder] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss How many days do you have to go to the 9 Yvonne how many days do u have to go to uni? university? 10 Yvonne Jessica will come to my place Jessica will come to my place 11 Yvonne to stay for a few nites from Tues and stay for few nights from Tuesday 12 Vicky 4 I have class for 4 days 13 Vicky why lei?? why does she stay in your place [ne1]? 14 Yvonne jus ask her to come n accompany me ja ma… I just want her to accompany me [zaa3 maa3],

125 In the above example, Vicky is wondering why Jessica is coming to stay in Yvonne’s place. In order to express a sense of wondering, Vicky uses the particle [ne1].

Therefore, message 13 can be glossed as ‘I wonder why she will stay in your place’.

Secondly, the opposing option [puzzlement] is realized by particle [ge2]. This particle is restricted to questions having the feature [query: apprize: precise: explain]. This finding is similar to what Law (1990) and Kwok (1984) suggest in the literature: [ge2] expresses a sense of surprise and puzzlement when it attaches to questions, and this applies in CMC as well as in spoken language. Consider Example 6.3(d),

Example 6.3(d): [ge2] - puzzlement (Dyad RL) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: explain; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: puzzlement] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss the department head asked you for your 9 Raymond head ask u for resume?? resume? 10 Raymond how come ge how come [ge2]? 11 Lily yes ar, Yes [aa3] he said he has asked everyone for resume 12 Lily he said he ask all people la wor already [laa3 wo5]

In Example 6.3(d), Raymond is surprised by the fact that the department head asked for

Lily’s resume and he speculates about the department head’s intentions. With the use of

[ge2] in the question, both feelings can be captured. Table 6.5 summarized the selection expressions of the particle [ne1] and [ge2].

Table 6.5: The selection expressions of the particle [ne1] and [ge2] Particle selection expressions [ne1] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: explain; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: wonder] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: vague; ATTITUDE: unmarked] [ge2] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: explain; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: puzzlement]

126 The features [tentativeness], [noteworthiness], [reason] and [only] are permitted by the entry condition [speaker-oriented] but are constrained as Figure 6.10 shows:

Figure 6.10: The options [tentativeness], [noteworthiness], [reason] and [only]

In Figure 6.10, the speech function features [state: initiate] must be co-selected with the attitude features [marked: person: speaker-oriented] to give access to the features

[tentativeness], [noteworthiness], [reason] and [only]. The option [tentativeness] is realized by particle [laa1] and this feature is interchangeable with the feature

[elicitation]. In other words, [laa1] is a particle that functions in two ways in statements:

1. [SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE:

marked: person: speaker-oriented: tentativeness]; and

2. [SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE:

marked: person: speaker-oriented: elicitation].

It is observed that when [laa1] is used with statements, it conveys a less certain attitude of the speaker. As mentioned in Chapter 3, [laa1] is a less definite particle, therefore, the statements that contain [laa1] sound softer to the addressee. Consider Example

6.3(e) and 6.3(f), 127 Example 6.3(e): [laa1] – tentativeness (dyad BS) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: tentativeness] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 32 Samuel any chance to change this year any opportunity to change a new job this year? 33 Betty may be won't change job yet... maybe I won't change the job yet 34 Betty see what happen la see what will happen [laa1] 35 Betty may stay with thIs hotel for a bit longer I may stay in this hotel for a bit longer 36 Samuel oh... really good ma ? oh…..is it that good [ma]? 37 Betty not say good la.. I can’t say that’s good [laa1] 38 Betty but it is a good place to start with but it is a good place to start with

As seen in Example 6.3(e), in message 34 the writer, Betty, uses [laa1] to indicate that she has no firm plan; similarly in message 37, the use of [laa1] suggests that she is non-committal about the value of her job.

Example 6.3(f): [laa1] – tentativeness (dyad RP) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: tentativeness] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 2 Rita i know her from Form 1 ga lah, I've known her from Form 1[gaa3 laa3] 3 Rita must go ga. That's why I have to go [gaa3] 4 Rita if i know any pretty girls there, if I meet any pretty girls there 5 Rita let you know la. haha I will let you know [laa1] (*laugh)

In Example 6.3(f) message 5, [laa1] is used by Rita to promise something which is conditional upon the circumstance expressed in message 4.

Other than the tentative meaning of [laa1], the occurrence of [laa1] with statements can also be used to elicit a positive response from the addressee (Luke, 1990: 98). Consider

Example 6.3(g),

Example 6.3(g): [laa1] - elicitation (dyad CS) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: elicitation] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 24 Stella what i mean is, if i book now, what I mean is, if I book now, but I leave Australia in the mid of 25 Stella but i leave here in mid of december, December, 128 26 Stella then the price will be $1600 or $1100? then the price will be $1600 or $1100? 27 Cathy $1650 la of course it is $1650 of course [laa1] 28 Cathy it's peak time to leave ma Because it's during peak time [maa3] (tut-tut), that means no matter how 29 Stella chur, that means no matter how early i book, early I book 30 Stella the price will be $1600 la the price will be the same [laa1] 31 Cathy graduation time Because it is graduation period 32 Cathy is 1650~~~ so, the price is $1650

In Example 6.3(g), Stella has already assumed that the plane ticket costs $1650 no matter how early she books and with the use of [laa1] in the statement, she is eliciting a positive response (agreement) from Cathy. Note that Cathy’s agreement is implicit in her response (message 30).

The option [noteworthiness] is the second option accessed via the feature path

[SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented]. It indicates that the speaker wants to point out something that is noteworthy to the hearer and it is realized by particle [wo3].

It is found that the use of [wo3] in CMC is also restricted to statements that are not in response. However, unlike the [wo3] that occurs in spoken language, which can be used to contrast the expectation of the addressee (Luke, 1990: 15; 1997: 15) as well as functioning as a ‘reminder’ (Fung, 2003: 67; Matthews & Yip, 1994: 103), all instances of [wo3] that occur in CMC only function as noteworthiness marker. Consider Example

6. 3(h),

129 Example 6.3(h): [wo3] – noteworthiness (Dyad MM) (Dyad MM) Marshall is going to Shanghai to collect data for his research [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: noteworthiness] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss i needa go to shanghai to collect I need to go Shanghai for collecting 19 Matthew data,haha data (*laugh) 20 Margaret so good~~ that's so good! 21 Margaret can go travel wor You can go travel [wo3] yes, I also can go travel at the same 22 Matthew also ok ,,hahaha time

In message 21, the speaker Margaret points out that Matthew can travel in Shanghai presumably for purposes other than just collecting data there. With the use of [wo3],

Margaret is expressing that such a situation is noteworthy and Matthew should notice it.

The third option [reason], which is realized by particle [maa3] provides an explanation for the current situation while the feature [only] is realized by particle [zaa3], which indicates something that is not enough as well as a sense of disdain or scorn of the speakers (Kwok, 1984: 52-53).

It is observed that the occurrence of [maa3] in CMC is restricted to statements that are not in answer and its main functions are to provide “an explanation that the speaker should already know or readily understand” (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 352) as well as to point out something that is obvious (Wee, 2004: 119) or something that the addressee should beware of (Kwok, 1984: 61). Consider Example 6.3(i),

Example 6.3(i): [maa3] – reason (Dyad CS) Background: Stella and Cathy are discussing the price of plane ticket [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reason] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 24 Stella what i mean is, if i book now, what I mean is, if I book now,

130 but I leave Australia in the mid of 25 Stella but i leave here in mid of december, December, 26 Stella then the price will be $1600 or $1100? then the price will be $1600 or $1100? 27 Cathy $1650 la of course it is $1650 of course [laa1] 28 Cathy it's peak time to leave ma it's during peak time [maa3] chur, that means no matter how early i (*tut-tut), that means no matter how early 29 Stella book, I book, 30 Stella the price will be $1600 la the price will be the same [laa1]

In message 27 and 28, Cathy points out that the plane ticket is expensive because Stella plans to leave Australia during peak time. With the use of the particle [maa3], Cathy is indicating that the reason why the plane ticket is expensive is obvious, because it is peak time and this is something that Stella should beware of or should have known.

Since the particle [maa3] indicates that the explanation that is provided by the speaker should have been known or noticed by the addressee (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 352), it may be argued that [maa3] functions the same as ‘because’ in English. The conjunction

‘because’ can be used as an internal conjunction that describes the causal relationship with the involvement of speakers’ interpretation (Halliday & Hasan, 1976: 243, 257).

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 240), internal conjunctions refer to those conjunctions that express interpersonal meaning. “It is a relation between meanings in the sense of representations of the speaker’s own ‘stamp’ on the situation - his choice of speech role and rhetorical channel, his attitudes, his judgments and alike” (Halliday &

Hasan, 1976: 240).

The occurrence of [zaa3] in spoken Cantonese and CMC functions in a similar way; in both environments [zaa3] is restricted to statements and conveys the meaning of ‘only’.

Since [zaa3] means ‘only’ literally (Kwok, 1984: 50), ‘only’ is always replaced by the use of the particle [zaa3] in CMC (Example 6.3(j)).

131 Example 6.3(j): [zaa3] – only (Dyad YV) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: only] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 35 Yvonne u mean her? Do you mean Jessica? 36 Yvonne she just started ja... She only just started the course [zaa3] 37 Vicky yes ha yes, (*laugh) 38 Yvonne 5 more sem for her... She has 5 more sessions

In the above example, Yvonne wants to indicate that Jessica only just started the course.

However, ‘only’ in the message (message 36), the particle [zaa3] is used.

In addition, the occurrence of [zaa3] in CMC is similar to what Kwok (1984: 51) suggests: it always carries a sense of scorn in the utterance as [zaa3] indicates “what is being stated is not more, or bigger, or longer, or better or more desirable”. However, it is found that this negative meaning is not an essential component of [zaa3] in the CMC data. Compare Example 6.3 (k) and 6.3(l),

Example 6.3(k): [zaa3] – only (Dyad FM) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: only] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 69 Maggie i didnt know u drink bor I don’t know you drink [wo3]! 70 Maggie next time unibar ar we should go unibar next time [aa1] Maggie :) (*smiley) 71 Florence hhaha, i drink ga, (*laugh) I drink [gaa3] 72 Florence but just a bit ja but just a bit [zaa3] 73 Maggie ic ic I see I see

In Example 6.3 (k), the occurrence of [zaa3] in message 72 carries no sense of scorn or negative attitude of the speaker; instead, Florence uses the particle [zaa3] to convey that she does not drink much, just a bit only and this attitude is rather neutral. However, in

Example 6.3(l), Stella is told that she can save more money if she flies with Virgin

132 Airline, but she is disappointed with the fact that flying with Virgin Airline can save only $80.

Example 6.3(l): [zaa3] – only (negative attitude) (Dyad CS) Background: two students are discussing the price of plane ticket of different airlines [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: only] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 37 Cathy but if u take virgin it will cheap but if you fly with virgin 38 Cathy it will cheap it will be cheaper 39 Cathy cheaper it will be cheaper 40 Stella how much? how much does it cost? 41 Cathy may be save $ 80 may be we can save $80 42 Stella how abt s'pore airline? how about Singapore airline? 43 Stella chur $ 80 ja.... (*tut-tut), it's only $80 [zaa3] 44 Cathy yes ar~ Yes [aa3], it is 45 Cathy but $80 quite different la but $80 is quite different [laa1]

Therefore, in this case, [zaa3] does express a scornful attitude of the speaker and this attitude is amplified by the vocalization ‘chur’ (tut-tut).

The selection expressions of the particle [laa1], [wo3], [maa3] and [zaa3] are summarized in Table 6.6.

Table 6.6: The selection expressions of the particle [laa1], [wo3], [maa3] and [zaa3] Particle selection expressions [laa1] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: tentativeness] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: elicitation] [wo3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: noteworthiness] [maa3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reason] [zaa3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: only]

133 6.3.2 The constraint of hearer-oriented attitude [consultative] and [persuasive] in speech functions The features [consultative], [persuasive] are permitted by the entry condition

[hearer-oriented] but are constrained as Figure 6.11 shows:

Figure 6.11: the system of [consultative] versus [persuasive]

Figure 6.11 illustrates that the system [consultative] versus [persuasive] is a system that is restricted to the feature [SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange goods & services; ATTITUDE: marked: person: hearer-oriented]. The option [consultative] is realized by the particle [aa1] while [persuasive] is realized by particle [laa1].

Although [aa1] in spoken Cantonese is applicable with statements, commands and questions (Li, 2006: 98), the [aa1] that occurs in CMC is used with commands only.

The main function of [aa1] in spoken Cantonese is to make “the clauses sound more lively in tone” (Li, 2006: 98; Kwok, 1984: 72; Matthews & Yip, 1994: 340; Law, 1990:

108) while the application of [aa1] in commands functions to make the commands seem

134 softer and more consultative (Kwok, 1984: 80, Law, 1990: 109). Consider Example

6.3(m):

Example 6.3(m): [aa1] – consultative (Dyad RL) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange goods & services; ATTITUDE: marked: Person: hearer- oriented: consultative] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 32 Lily i want to know too I want to know as well 33 Raymond :"call lei" :P hahhaa I will call you (*laugh) Lily :P (*smiley) 34 Lily i get it now , hah I got it, (*laugh) 35 Lily btw, send some songs to me ar~~ by the way, send me some songs [aa1] 36 Raymond okie ok, I can send you some new songs 37 Raymond zipping now I am zipping those songs now 38 Lily good~~ that's good

When Lily requests Raymond to carry out an action (message 35), she uses the particle

[aa1]. With the use of this particle, the command sounds softer and less aggressive to

Raymond since Lily is consulting him to carry out the action. As a result, Raymond will be more willing to perform the action.

The option [persuasive] that is shown in Figure 6.11 is realized by the particle [laa1].

According to the data, [laa1] is one of the most frequently used particle in CMC.

Similar to those [laa1] that occur in spoken Cantonese, the [laa1] used with CMC is not used only in statements but also with commands.

When [laa1] attaches to commands, it expresses a sense of persuasiveness. Commands that end with [laa1] are not forceful and this finding is in keeping with the suggestions of Kwok (1984: 79). Consider Example 6.3(n),

135 Example 6.3(n): [laa1] persuasive (dyad PJ) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange goods & services; ATTITUDE: marked: Person: hearer- oriented: persuasive] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 18 Jenny what kind of sales? what kind of salesman? 19 Perry 行街 sales lor.... sales representative [lo1] I am selling labeling materials in US 20 Perry selling labelling materials in a US based co. based co. 21 Jenny how much? how is the salary? 22 Perry u say first la... you tell me yours first [laa1] 23 Perry here??? are you here? 24 Jenny yes yes, I am here how much do you get paid per month 25 Perry what's yr salary rate per month ar??? [aa3]? 26 Jenny I'm here ar I am here [aa3] how much do you get paid per month 27 Perry what's yr salary rate per month ar??? [aa3]? 28 Perry and how about the career advancement???? and how about the career advancement? 29 Jenny I am now on the lowest position la.. I am in the lowest position now [laa1] 30 Jenny as a assistant merchandiser I am an assistant merchandiser 31 Jenny 9k I have $9000 per month

In message 22, Perry counters Jenny’s question about his salary by telling her to first say what her own salary is. The messages following this suggest that Jenny is equally reluctant to disclose her salary, though she eventually does.

The selection expressions of the particle [laa1] and [aa1] are summarized in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7: The selection expressions of the particle [laa1] and [aa1] Particle selection expressions [laa1] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: tentativeness] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: elicitation] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: respond: agree: mutual agreement; ATTITUDE: unmarked] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange goods and services: demand; ATTITUDE: marked: person: hearer-oriented: persuasive] [aa1] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange goods and services: demand; ATTITIDUE: person: hearer-oriented: consultative]

136 6.3.3 The constraint of the speaker-oriented attitude, [reservation], [conjecture] and [reluctance] in speech functions The features [reservation], [conjecture] and [reluctance] are permitted by the entry condition [speaker-oriented] but are constrained as Figure 6.12 shows:

Figure 6.12: the options [reservation], [conjecture] and [reluctance]

The options [reservation], [conjecture] and [reluctance] that are shown in Figure 6.12 are restricted to the feature [SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state;

ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented]. In other words, the particles that carry these features occur with statements only, either initiating or in a responsive agreement.

The option [reservation] refers to the uncertainty of the speaker and it is realized by particle [ge2]. As mentioned previously, [ge2] is used with questions in which the speaker seeks an explanation, having an attitude of puzzlement (selection expression:

137 [SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: explain;

ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: puzzlement]). Therefore, [ge2] is a particle that has two functions.

It is noticed that [ge2] is used with statements and questions in both the spoken medium and in CMC. The particle [ge2] has no restriction with statements; it can be used with initiating statements (Example 6.4(a)) as well as statements in response (Example

6.4(b)).

Example 6.4(a): [ge2] in initiating statement (Dyad VY) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reservation] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss last time u said there is a you mentioned that there is a booth selling 15 Vicky booth selling 2nd books?? second hand books, right? 16 Yvonne yes yes 17 Vicky where is it Do you know where is it? i think its easy to find ur I think it is quite easy to get the books on 18 Yvonne books on campus la... campus [laa1] 19 Vicky but i hate to call those ppl but I hate calling those people 20 Yvonne that booth is only for week 1, that booth only works in week 1 but i think u can check it out but I think you can check it from SAM shop 21 Yvonne in SAM shop, coz I saw some 2nd hand because I saw some second hand books at SAM 22 Yvonne book in SAM shop be4 before 23 Yvonne ha?, but if u wan to safe $$, what? but if you want to save money 24 Yvonne u have to ga wor... You have to call them [gaa3 wo3] 25 Vicky ai~~~ sigh 26 Vicky and the queue was so long but the queue was so long 27 Vicky to the co-op it is until co-op or i can ask my frds who r or I can ask my friends who are doing accounting 28 Yvonne doing acct gei.. for you [ge2]

In Example 6.4(a), [ge2] occurs with a statement that is not in response to any question; this contrasts with Example 6.4 (b) where it is used with a responsive statement:

138 Example 6.4(b): [ge2] in statement in response (Dyad VY) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reservation] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss meet u outside E7B163 after ur 2-4 I will meet you outside E7B163 after the class at 122 Yvonne classes 2:00 123 Yvonne u know where is E7B? Do you know where is E7B ? 124 Vicky yes gei~ yes [ge2] I know where it is (but I am not sure)

In the above example, [ge2] attaches to ‘yes’, which is the response to message 123.

As mentioned in Chapter 3, [ge2] statements show a sense of uncertainty and reservation of the speakers when it is used in spoken Cantonese (Kwok, 1984: 43, Law,

1990: 96; Fung 2000: 161; Matthews & Yip, 1994: 349; Li, 2006: 80). It is observed that same situation occurs in CMC. Consider Example 6.4(c),

Example 6.4(c): [ge2] – reservation (Dyad TD) Daniel has just got his hair done and his new hair colour arouses the desire of Tracy to get her hair done as well [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reservation] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 22 Tracy how to remove it ar?? How to remove the colour [aa3]? 23 Tracy jus dye another color ar? Remove it by dying another colour [aa3]? 24 Daniel no, i mean the colour is easy to come off no, I mean the colour fade off easily 25 Tracy and u hav short hair maaa... and your hair is short [maa3]…. 26 Tracy u can cut You can have a haircut 27 Tracy whenever u want... whenever you want … 28 Tracy but i cant... but I can't….. 29 Tracy but i cant… but I can't….. 30 Tracy i will kill myself I would rather kill myself 31 Tracy if my the color is ugly if my hair colour is terrible 32 Tracy and i cant cut it... hahahaha and I can't have a haircut…(*laugh) 33 Daniel yes gei, yes [ge2] 34 Daniel but i just keep dying but I just keep dying my hair

In Example 6.4(c), Tracy notes that Daniel has short hair, therefore, he can dye it any colour he wants; however, since she has long hair, she has to pick the hair colour

139 carefully. Daniel uses the particle [ge2] in message 33 in response to Tracy’s argument indicating that Daniel does not totally agree with what Tracy says but has reservations.

This sense of [ge2] with statements is similar to the finding of Li (2006) who argues that [ge2] carries no sense of uncertainty but only reservation. It would seem that all the instances of [ge2] in the CMC data indicate a sense of reservation of the speakers rather than uncertainty. Consider Example 6.4(d),

Example 6.4(d): [ge2] – reservation (Dyad FM) Background: Florence misunderstands that Maggie took pictures with sauces bottles [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reservation] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 26 Maggie those are bottles of alcohols those are bottles of alcohols 27 Maggie and soft drinks and soft drinks Florence hahhaha!!!! (*laugh) 28 Florence is it!!!??? really? 29 Maggie not sauces ar those are not sauces [aa3] yes, those are bottles of alcohols and 30 Maggie yup soft drinks 31 Maggie crazy, hahahhaa!!!!!!!! you are crazy (*laugh) 32 Florence i thought is sauses,kakakaaa I thought those are sauces (*giggle) 33 Maggie lol (*laugh out loud) 34 Maggie they do look like it ge they do look like sauce bottles [ge2] 35 Maggie i didnt think of that before I didn't think of that before

In the above example, Florence misunderstands Maggie’s picture as being of sauce bottles. Although Maggie agrees that those alcohol bottles do look like sauce bottles, she does not completely agree. In order to express this reservation, the particle [ge2] is used (they do look like sauce bottles but…).

The option [conjecture] is realized by particle [gwaa3]. It is observed that [gwaa3] functions the same way in both the spoken language and in CMC. As mentioned in

Chapter 3, [gwaa3] is restricted to statements, which indicates the uncertainty of the

140 speaker and what the speaker is uncertain about is merely his/her conjecture (Kwok,

1984: 66; Lee & Law, 2001: 10) and it has a similar meaning to “I suppose” and “I guess” in English (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 354). It is found that in the few occurrences of [gwaa3] in the CMC data, it also carries these meanings. Consider Example 6.4(e),

Example 6.4(e): [gwaa3] - conjecture (Dyad MC) Background: Carol and Marcus are discussing the working life in Hong Kong [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: conjecture] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 5 Carol how is yr job? how is your job? 6 Marcus where you have been ar? where have you been [aa3]? 7 Marcus long time havn;t seen you online la I haven't seen you online for a long time [laa3 wor wo3] 8 Carol busy working I am busy for working 9 Marcus I'm good .. I am good 10 Marcus working in IT company as a salve .. I am working like a salve in an IT company 11 Carol hahaha, not that bad gua (*laugh) It’s not that bad [gwaa3] 12 Marcus want to try something different later I want to try something different later

In the above example, Marcus tells Carol that he works like a slave in an IT Company.

However, Carol says to him (I suppose it’s not that bad). In order to bring up this disbelief indirectly and to emphasize what she says is merely her conjecture; the particle

[gwaa3] is used.

Thirdly, the feature [reluctance] is realized by particle [lo1] which is restricted to statements in both spoken Cantonese and CMC. It is found that [lo1] occurs with both initiating (Example 6.4(f) and responsive statements (Example 6.4(g)) in CMC.

Example 6.4(f): [lo1] in initiating statement (Dyad MC) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: obviousness] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 28 Marcus i'll go to sg to join marathon .... I will join a marathon in Singapore 29 Marcus on dec... in December

141 Carol hahahahahahaha!!! (*laugh) 30 Carol i heard that from joanne I heard that from Joanne 31 Carol u are so crazy lor you are so crazy [lo1]! 32 Marcus wht jek What [zek1] 33 Carol go there just for marathon you go to Singapore just for marathon

In the above example, [lo1] occurs with a non-responsive statement, i.e. message 31 is a statement that is initiated by the speaker Carol.

Example 6.4(g): [lo1] in responsive statement (Dyad PC) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: impatience] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 46 Chloe too many la but I have so many assignments to do [laa3] 47 Peter um..dun alwayz so slow ...haaa don't be slow (*laugh) 48 Chloe i'm very fast now la~ I am doing it quicky [laa3] 49 Peter hai meh?haaa Really [me1]? (*laugh) 50 Chloe hai ar~!!!>_< Yes [aa3] 51 Peter how fast sin? How fast is it [sin1]? 52 Chloe uummm...... fast lor (*thinking) it's just fast [lo1] Chloe hahahaa (*laugh) then you better concentrate on your assignments 53 Peter then concentrate more la [laa3] 54 Chloe okay~~okay ok, ok

In Example 6.4(g), [lo1] occurs with a statement (message 52) that is used to respond to the questions raised by the speaker Peter (message 51).

As mentioned in Chapter 3, the particle [lo1] is associated with negative attitudes such as reluctance and impatience (Luke, 1990: 195; Fung, 2002: 111), therefore, the occurrence of [lo1] with responsive statements indicates the speaker is reluctant to agree with the addressee or impatient to respond. Consider Example 6.4(h) and 6.4(i),

Example 6.4(h): [lo1] in agreement (Dyad PC) Background: Chloe is complaining about Peter’s sleeping habit [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reluctance] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 25 Chloe u sleep until 3.… you slept until 3:00

142 26 Chloe and then wake up for awhile.… then woke up for awhile 27 Chloe sleep again after dinner.… and you slept again after dinner 28 Chloe wake up you woke up for awhile 29 Chloe ain land sleep ag and you slept again 30 Chloe wake up you woke up for awhile 31 Chloe and sleep again and you slept again 32 Peter i slept late at nite ar ma because I slept late at night [aa1 maa3] Chloe uuummmmm...... (*thinking) 33 Chloe may be la...... hahaa maybe [laa1] 34 Peter wt maybe… what maybe 35 Peter must be la it's 'must be' [laa1] ummmm...... okay~~okay~ (*thinking) ok, ok, yes [lo1], you are then 36 Chloe yes lo then 37 Peter cher...seems not agree (*tut-tut) it seems that you don't agree

In Example 6.4(h), Chloe tells Peter what she thinks about his sleeping habit while Peter explains to Chloe that he slept late the night before; therefore, he is tired. However,

Chloe does not want to agree with Peter. In order to let Peter know that she is reluctant to agree with him, the particle [lo1] is used. Peter picks up her reluctance and comments on it in the following message (37).

Example 6.4(i): [lo1] - impatience (Dyad PC) Background: Peter is urging Chloe to work faster on her assignment [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: impatience] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 44 Peter do it faster la..... do it quickly [laa1] 45 Chloe trying la...... … I am trying my best to finish it quickly [laa3] 46 Chloe too many la but I have so many assignments to do [laa3] 47 Peter um..dun alwayz so slow ...haaa don't be slow (*laugh) 48 Chloe i'm very fast now la~ I am doing it quickly [laa3] 49 Peter hai meh?haaa really [me1]? (*laugh) 50 Chloe hai ar~!!!>_< yes [aa3] 51 Peter how fast sin? How fast is it [sin1]? 52 Chloe uummm...... fast lor (*thinking) it's just fast [lo1]

In Example 6.4(i), the fact that Peter keeps asking about the progress of Chloe’s assignment really irritates her. In order to show that she is impatient to respond, the

particle [lo1] is used by the ‘speaker’ Chloe (message 52).

143 It is observed that [lo1] expresses the obviousness of something (Example 6.4(j)) as well as to provide the reason for something (Kwok, 1984: 58; Luke, 1990: 188; Law,

1990: 111; Fung & Carter, 2007: 352) (Example 6.4(k)) in spoken Cantonese and CMC.

This is clearly seen in Example 6.4 (j):

Example 6.4(j): [lo1] - Obviousness (Dyad RL) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: obviousness] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 46 Raymond but very late la wor it is very late now [laa3 wo3] 47 Lily yes ar.. yes [aa3], it is very late now 48 Lily dun want to rewrite it ma.. heheh because I don't want to rewrite it [maa3] (*giggle) 49 Raymond then just pass yr original one lor then just pass him the original one [lo1] 50 Raymond i roughly amend some la I amend some parts roughly [laa3]

In the above example, Lily tells Raymond that the reason why she has to stay up late is because she has to rewrite her resume. However, Raymond does not understand why she has to rewrite it; obviously, she can just hand in the original one. In order to express this obviousness to Lily, the particle [lo1] is used. Therefore, message 49 can be glossed as ‘obviously, you can pass him the original one, so that you don’t have to rewrite it ’.

However in Example 6.4(k), Shirley expresses the reason why her friend cannot work with her in the same company.

Example 6.4(k): [lo1] – reason (Dyad SE) [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reason] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 21 Ellen u guys working together now? u guys work together now? 22 Shirley no.… no, we are not 23 Shirley she cant ar.… she can't work in my company [aa3] 24 Shirley bcoz her Bf back working there.... because her boyfriend is back working there 25 Shirley so the manager didnt allow law.… so the manager doesn't allow her to work there [lo1] 26 Shirley very bad ar~ it's very bad [aa3] 144 The reason is illustrated in message 24 while the effect is indicated in message 25. It would appear that [lo1] is often found with this kind of cause and effect sequence.

Since [lo1] can be interpreted as ‘obviously’ in English, it is suggested that [lo1] functions as a kind of modality. As mentioned in Chapter 4, “modality refers to all oppositioning by speakers about probability, usuality, typicality, obviousness, obligation and inclination” (Butt & Fahey et.al., 1994: 113) and its function is to express the judgements and opinions of the speakers. In SFL, ‘obviously’ is regarded as the modal adjunct that indicates obviousness. Since [lo1] carries the same meaning as

‘obviously’, it is argued that [lo1] is a particle that functions in this same way.

Due to the fact that [lo1] indicates obviousness, reluctance, reason and impatience simultaneously, the feature [reluctance] in Figure 6.12 is interchangeable with the feature [obviousness], [reason] and [impatience] (as marked in Figure 6.12).

The selection expressions for the particles [ge2], [gwaa3] and [lo1] are summarised in Table 6.8.

Table 6.8: the selection expressions of the particle [ge2], [gwaa3], and [lo1] Particle Selection expressions [ge2] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reservation] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: explain; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: puzzlement] [gwaa3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: conjecture] [lo1] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reluctance] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: impatience] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reason] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: obviousness]

145 6.4 Textual function of particles

Apart from the ideational and interpersonal functions, punctuative messages expressed by particles also have textual functions. Textual meaning is concerned with the use of

“language to organize our experiential, logical and interpersonal meanings into a coherent and, in the case of written and spoken language, linear whole” (Butt & Fahey et.al., 1994: 6). Therefore, the textual use of particles is related to the organization of the text.

Figure 6.13: The [Textual] system

Figure 6.13 shows that the primary distinction within the [Textual] system is [greeting] versus [closure]. The feature [greeting] is realized by particle [aa3]. Consider Example

6.5(a),

Example 6.5(a): [aa3] in greeting (Dyad MC) [Textual: greeting] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 1 Carol how are u ar how are you [aa3]? 2 Marcus i ok I am ok 3 Marcus wht about you lei how about you [ne1]? 4 Carol ok la so so [laa1]

146 It is noticed that [aa3] is a key component in forming greetings. When [aa3] occurs with greeting, it often attaches to the English clause ‘how are you’ like the one shown in

Example 6.5(a). When [aa3] is used with greeting, it carries no sense of softening as is usually the case when it occurs with questions; instead, it helps to make the greeting sound more natural and friendly.

The feature [closure] permits entry into a more delicate system of options: [topic closure] and [conversation closure]. The former option is realized by particle [laa1]. It is found that [laa1] is used as topic closure in CMC. When [laa1] is used as topic closure, it is always attached to ‘whatever’, which indicates the speaker’s desire to close the topic. Consider Example 6.5(b),

Example 6.5(b): [laa1] – topic closure (dyad MC) Background: Carol is asking Marcus if he is going to join Standard Chartered Marathon in Hong Kong [Textual: closure: topic closure] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 60 Marcus apply a job in sg ar... I will apply a job in Singapore [aa3] 61 Carol serious ?? are you serious? 62 Martin yes ar.... yes, I am serious 63 Carol thought u wanna go malaysia I thought you wanted to go Malaysia Carol haha (*laugh) 64 Marcus whtever la whatever [laa1] 65 Marcus as long as i can leave ...…. as long as I can leave 66 Marcus aiya.....I got to go la... oh…I have to go 67 Carol go clubbing ? Are you going clubbing? Carol haha (*laugh) 68 Carol okok okok 69 Marcus talk you later ....leng lui I talk to you later, pretty 70 Marcus see u see you 71 Carol bb bye bye

In message 64 Martin indicates his intention of discontinuing the conversation by using

[laa1] and makes this fact plain in message 66 though in this message the immediacy of

147 his desire to leave the conversation is expressed both in the main message as well as in the use of [laa1].

The feature [conversation closure] permits entry of the system [voluntary] versus

[reluctant]. The feature [voluntary] is realized by particle [laa3], which indicates a voluntary closure of the speaker while the feature [reluctant] is realized by particle

[lo1], which indicates the speaker is reluctant to end the conversation or topic. Consider

Example 6.5(c) and 6.5(d),

Example 6.5(c): [laa3] - conversation closure (Dyad MM) [Textual: closure: conversation closure: voluntary] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss 38 Matthew hard to approach athletes it 's hard to approach athletes 39 Matthew go to bath sin I go shower first [sin1] 40 Margaret i can imagine that,KEKEKE I understand it's hard t approach the athletes 41 Margaret okok okok 42 Matthew see u tomorrow see you tomorrow 43 Margaret c ya see you 44 Matthew bb la bye bye [laa3] 45 Margaret 88 bye bye

It is observed that [laa3] is used with statements to indicate the closure of a conversation

(Example 6.5(c)). When [laa3] is used as conversation closure, it always ends with

‘bye’, which indicates a voluntary closure of the speaker as shown in the above example.

Example 6.5(d): [lo1] - reluctant disengagement (Dyad PC) [Textual: closure: conversation closure: reluctance] Mess. no. Name Message English gloss did u ask Wallace to pick you up in the did u ask Wallace to pick you up at the train 1 Peter train station? station? 2 Chloe ah...not yet.....hahaaa oh, I haven’t asked him yet..(*laugh) 3 Peter gum is u dun ask .…. it’s you who won’t ask him to pick you up 4 dun say wt danger later ar..ghaa don’t say it is dangerous l [aa3] *laugh)

148 5 Chloe i ‘m doing assignment ar ma.....… because I am doing assignment [aa1 maa3] 6 Chloe forgot jo I forgot [zo2] about it Chloe hahaa (*laugh) 7 Peter or....gum u continue lo ok…you continue then [lo1] 8 Chloe okay~~okay~~ ok, ok 9 Chloe may be i ask him later la~hahahaa maybe I will ask him later [laa1] (*laugh) 10 Peter maybe… maybe only,

It is found that the presence of [lo1] in conversation closure also indicates the reluctant attitude of the speakers. In Example 6.5(d), Peter is unwilling and reluctant to discontinue the conversation. In order to express this feeling to Chloe, the particle [lo1] is applied. As a result, the conversation can be continued.

The selection expressions of the particles [aa3], [laa3] and [lo1] are summarized in

Table 6.9.

Table 6.9: The selection expressions of the particle [aa3], [laa1], [laa3] and [lo1] Particle selection expressions [aa3] [Textual: greeting] [laa1] [Textual: topic closure] [laa3] [Textual: closure: conversation closure: voluntary] [lo1] [Textual: closure: conversation closure: reluctant]

6.5 The complete semantic network of the Cantonese final particles

Figure 6.14 shows the complete semantic network of the Cantonese final particles that have been discussed in this chapter. Figure 6.14 thus consolidates the network fragments presented in the previous figures in this chapter.

149

*no instance in the data ** impatient/reason/obviousness/reluctant ***elicitation Figure 6.14: the semantic system of the Cantonese punctuatives expressed by final particles (refer to appendix B)

The selection expressions of the particles are summarized in Table 6.10

Table 6.10: the summary table of the selection expressions of the Cantonese final particles Particle selection expressions [gaa3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: message: actuality ] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise; ATTITUDE: marked: message: actuality ] [gaa4] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: check;

150 assumptive; ATTITUDE: unmarked] [aa3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: ask; non-assumptive; ATTITUDE: unmarked] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked;: exchange info: query: apprize: precise; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/ naturalizing] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/ naturalizing] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: respond: confirm; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/ naturalizing] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: respond: agree: normal; ATTITUDE: marked: message: softening/ naturalizing] [Textual: greeting] [aa4] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: check; non-assumptive; ATTITUDE: unmarked] [me1] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: confirm: ask; assumptive; ATTITUDE: unmarked] [ne1] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: precise: explain; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: wonder [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: vague; ATTITUDE: unmarked] [ge2] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: query: apprize: explain: ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: puzzlement] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reservation] [laa1] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: respond: agree: mutual agreement; ATTITUDE: unmarked] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: tentativeness] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: elicitation] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange goods & services: demand; ATTITUDE: marked: person: hearer-oriented: persuasive] [Textual: closure: topic closure] [aa1] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange goods and services: demand; ATTITIDUE: person: hearer-oriented: consultative] [wo3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: noteworthiness] [maa3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reason] [zaa3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state: initiate; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: only] [gwaa3] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: conjecture] [lo1] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reluctace] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: reason] [Interpersonal: SPEECH FUNCTION: marked; exchange info: state; ATTITUDE: marked: person: speaker-oriented: obviousness] [Textual: closure: conversation closure: reluctant] [laa3] [Ideational: marked] [Textual: closure: conversation closure: voluntary]

151 6.6 Conclusion In this chapter, the semantic network representing the functions of the Cantonese final particles was presented and the features and functions of the Cantonese final particles that are used in CMC were reviewed. This semantic network captures the features of the

Cantonese final particles in terms of the ideational, interpersonal and textual metafunctions.

Some of the particles that were presented in the network have more than one function, e.g. [aa3] carries an interpersonal as well as a textual function; and [laa3] carries ideational and textual functions. Furthermore, some of the particles carry different meanings when they occur in different speech functions, i.e. [laa1] with commands indicates persuasion while, when used with statements it indicates tentativeness or to elicit a positive response from the addressee. As a result, the functions or meanings of the particles are heavily dependent on their environment.

The next chapter (Chapter 7) presents the summary and conclusion of this thesis according to the research questions provided in Chapter 1. Suggestions for further research will also be provided in the next chapter.

152 Chapter 7 Conclusions

7.0 Introduction

This chapter provides the summary and conclusions reached in this thesis. In this chapter, the research questions that were stated in Chapter 1 will first be reviewed in light of the findings of this research. The features of the Hong Kong e-discourse and the meanings that Cantonese sentence final particles express in CMC will also be re-examined in this chapter. Suggestions for further research will then be presented in the later section (7.2) of this chapter.

7.1 Research outcomes

The research questions that motivated this thesis were outlined in Chapter 1 as follows: i.) Which Cantonese particles are the most frequently used by CMC chatters? ii.) What functions do the Cantonese final particles play from a systemic function

linguistic perspective? iii.) What is the significance of using Cantonese sentence final particles in computer-

mediated communication in English?

The answers to each of these questions as outlined in the previous chapters will be briefly recapitulated in the following sections.

7.1.1 The features of the Hong Kong e-discourse

Chapter 2 reviewed the literature on the characteristics of the e-discourse in Hong Kong.

These characteristics of the e-discourse were discussed under seven headings

153 ‘emoticons’, ‘emphasis of personal feeling’, ‘vocalization’, ‘direct translations’, ‘subject omission’, ‘shortenings’ and ‘romanization’ and summarized as follows,

1.) There is heavy use of emoticons and smileys in the e-discourse due to the

difficulties in expressing interpersonal features such as attitudes, gestures and facial

expressions in CMC. However, some smileys are culture dependent such as :米,

which is used only in Hong Kong (Lee, 2002: 61).

2.) The punctuation marks that are used in CMC are excessively reduplicated (Lee,

2002: 66; Fung & Carter, 2008: 249) and odd combinations of the punctuation

marks (i.e.!!??) are used in CMC.

3.) Vocalizations such as ‘hehehe’, ‘hahaha’ and ‘mmm’ are used excessively in CMC

to guide the flow of the conversation. Apart from the English vocalizations, it has

also been observed that some of the vocalizations are borrowed from Cantonese (i.e.

‘aiya’, ‘ai’ and ‘wah’).

4.) Direct translation of the Cantonese grammar and expressions are used extensively in

CMC. The Cantonese grammar is either translated into English in morpheme to

morpheme fashion or only the reduplicative verbs (e.g. see see la) are translated,

while the Cantonese expressions are translated into English word by word (i.e. ‘add

oil’- work hard). It is suggested that the occurrence of the direct translation is due to

the difficulty of finding the equivalent Cantonese expressions or descriptions in

English.

5.) Personal pronouns are often omitted in CMC because MSN or ICQ are one to one

communication, where the chatters are identified. In addition, the influence of the

Cantonese grammar structure (subjects that have been mentioned previously are

able to be omitted) also led to the omission of personal pronouns.

154 6.) Shortenings include abbreviations, acronyms, letter homophones, number

homophones, combination of a letter and number homophones, reduction of

individual words as well as abbreviations are frequently used in CMC. However, it

is found that some of the shortenings such as ‘88’, ‘tomolo’ are culture specific (Lee,

2002: 57).

7.) Cantonese expressions and final particles are heavily romanized in CMC. It is

suggested that the use of rominization helps to enhance the communication speed

and also helps the chatters express themselves freely in a non-Chinese environment

computer. On the other hand, the romanized Cantonese final particles are

considered an important feature in indicating speakers’ attitudes and feelings.

Therefore, Cantonese particles are used extensively in CMC.

It is observed in the study that some features of the spoken language are integrated with the features of the written medium. For instance, Cantonese final particles and vocalizations are used with the written English and Cantonese. It is suggested that the use of these spoken features signify that the chatters are conscious about the intrusion of the spoken medium and it also indicates that they are typing or writing their speech.

Due to the fact that the e-discourse carries features of written and spoken medium simultaneously, it is suggested that this e-discourse is a written form of spoken language.

7.1.2 The meanings that Cantonese sentence final particles express in CMC

Chapter 3 presented the colloquial functions and meanings of the Cantonese final particles as outlined in the literature while their functions in CMC have been described in Chapter 6. It was found that most of the Cantonese final particles express

155 interpersonal meanings in both spoken Cantonese and in CMC. For instance, [lo1] carries the meaning of reluctance or obviousness with statements; [laa1] carries a persuasive meaning with commands. All these features are related to speakers’ personal emotions, judgements and attitudes. As a result, it is suggested that the Cantonese particles are mostly used to express speakers’ point of view as well as their attitudes.

Table 7.1 summarizes the functions and meanings of the particles in CMC and in spoken Cantonese. The left-hand side of the table summarises the colloquial meanings of the Cantonese final particles, according to the literature reviewed in Chapter 3 while the right hand side of the table summarises the meanings of the particles in CMC data examined in this research. Their differences will be pointed out in the following section.

156 Table 7.1: The functions of the Cantonese particles in spoken Cantonese and in CMC Particles colloquial meanings S Q C meanings in CMC S Q C [laa1] statement: lack of forcefulness and definiteness; tentativeness; listing sequence; √ √ • Persuasion √ √ agreement sequence; eliciting utterance that requires a positive response • Elicitation from the hearer; non- committal answer; pre-closing • Tentativeness • Topic closure command: persuasive function; solidarity marker • mutual agreement [laa3] y similar to ‘了’ (le) in Mandarin Chinese √ √ √ • aspect √ y aspect marker • conversation closure: voluntary [aa1] y makes the messages sound more lively in tone; shows the interest of the √ √ √ • Consultative √ speaker; y invites the addressee to agree to the action proposed, so commands sound softer/ consultative [aa3] y used with interrogatives when there is no other question particles present; √ √ √ • Softening/naturalising √ √ y the absence of the particle makes the messages sound more severe. Therefore, • greeting those containing [aa3] are considered softer and more natural • confirmation • neutral agreement [gaa3] y assert factuality √ • actuality √ √ [wo3] y contrasts the expectation proposed by the addressee; √ • noteworthiness √ y to emphasize noteworthy information; as a reminder [lo1] y the speaker is reluctant to talk or communicate √ • Reluctant to close conversation; impatient √ y marks the obviousness of the utterance • Reason y indicates a severe attitude as the hearer has failed to recognise what is obvious. • obviousness [gaa4] y turns a fact into a question and double checks the existence of a given situation √ • Assumptive: check √ [aa4] y occurs with confirmation seeking questions √ • Non-assumptive: check √ y expresses a sense of sudden awareness of the speaker [me1] y restricted to yes/no questions or questions that contain negation marker [m4] √ • assumptive: ask √ y used to express a sense of surprise / disbelief or scepticism and doubt.

157

158 Particles colloquial meanings S Q C meanings in CMC S Q C [ge2] • statement: displays a low degree of definiteness, uncertainty and reservation √ √ • puzzlement √ √ question: restricted to interrogative words like ‘how come’ and ‘why’, providing • reservation extra meaning of surprise and unexpectedness to the question; expresses puzzlement. [gwaa3] y indicates the uncertainty of the speaker towards the subject matter √ • uncertainty (conjecture of the speakers) √ [maa3] y provides an explanation that the speaker should already know √ • reason √ y points out the reason for something [zaa3] y means ‘only’ literally & functions the same as ‘only’ in English. √ • functions the same as ‘only’ in English √ y It indicates that “what is being stated is not more, or bigger, or longer, or better or more desirable” y it always carries a negative meaning in the utterance. [ne1] statements: √ √ • restricted to why and how about question √ y has the function of “drawing something’s attention to something, of pointing to • expresses a sens of wonder something” as well as “reminding the hearer for something” – pointing out something that the addressee should have known questions: y in wh-question, it conveys the meaning of ‘I wonder’ y in hypothetical questions, it has the meaning of “what will happen if…” y ends with a noun phrase, time or place adverbial, it means “how about…” y the interrogative clause “do you know” is hidden in the particle [ne1], therefore, implies a sense of tentativeness and wonder. With the use of [ne1], the speaker does not ask the addressee directly, but instead, elicits a reply indirectly

158 As is obvious from a close study of Table 7.1, some of the particles are used differently in CMC by comparison with their use in spoken Cantonese. The particle [laa1] performs similar functions in both spoken Cantonese and in CMC, except that the use of [laa1] in listing is absent from CMC. Secondly, the particle [laa3] can be used with statements, questions and commands in spoken Cantonese while it is restricted to statements in

CMC. Furthermore, [laa3] is also used to display a voluntary conversation closure of the speakers in CMC. Although it is believed that [laa3] can be used as conversation closure in the spoken medium, most of the literature considers it to indicate the start of a new action or that the information presented in the utterance is something new to the addressee (Fung, 2000: 93; Li, 2006: 84).

Thirdly, [aa1] occurs with statements, questions and commands in spoken Cantonese while it is restricted to commands when it is used in CMC. As mentioned in Chapter 6, the absence of [aa1] statements in CMC is due to the fact chatters are unable to hear the lively tone in CMC. Therefore, it is hardly surprising that [aa1] statements do not occur in CMC.

Apart from the particles mentioned above, it has also been found that the particle [aa3] carries different features in CMC. [aa3] is one of the most frequently occurring particles in CMC. However, it is used only with statements and questions in CMC while it occurs with statements, questions as well as commands in spoken Cantonese. In addition, it has been observed that [aa3] is an essential constituent in forming a greeting in CMC where it functions to make the utterance sounds more natural and less abrupt.

159 It has also been discussed in Chapter 6 that the particle [gaa3] is used with both statements and questions in CMC while it is restricted to statements when occurring in spoken Cantonese. Kwok (1984), Luke (1997) and Li (2006) have pointed out that

[gaa3] can only be used with statements in spoken Cantonese. However, it is found that

[gaa3] can be applied with statements as well as questions when it occurs in CMC, functioning as the assertion of factuality or actuality in both speech functions.

Although Table 7.1 illustrates that [wo3] in spoken Cantonese can be used to contrast the expectation proposed by the addressee (Luke, 1997: 15; Luke, 1990: 15), to emphasize ‘noteworthy’ information as well as a reminder (Matthews & Yip, 1994: 353;

Li, 2006: 103; Fung & Carter, 2007: 352; Fung, 2003: 67), the [wo3] that occurs in

CMC functions only as a noteworthiness marker.

Finally, the particle [ne1] applies with statements and questions in spoken Cantonese but it is restricted to certain types of questions when it is used in CMC. It has been noticed that although [ne1] can be applied with wh-questions, hypothetical questions as well as how about questions in spoken Cantonese, [ne1] is restricted to how about questions in CMC, and means ‘how about you?’.

In conclusion, this study has found that most of the particles express the speakers’ personal attitudes, emotions and judgements. With the use of the particles, the feeling of the speakers can be conveyed to the addressee easily. In addition, this study has also found that some of the Cantonese particles are restricted to certain speech functions when used in CMC (as stated above). The main reason for this restriction is the influence of English grammar and the conflicts of the English and Cantonese phonetic

160 system. Take [laa3] as an example: it can be used with statements, questions and commands in spoken Cantonese but it is restricted to statements in CMC. If [laa3] occurs in CMC questions like the one in Example 7.1, it sounds redundant and unpleasant to the addressee since there is contradiction between the English and

Cantonese grammars.

Example 7.1: [laa3] questions have you been to Australia? Have you been to Australia [laa3]?

In the above example, the time when the action is carried out is expressed by English present prefect tense ‘have been’. Therefore, the use of particle [laa3] seems redundant since it also indicates the aspect of the action. Second, the message in Example 7.1 is expressed in proper English grammar; therefore, the use of particle with this message also seems redundant and verbose. As a result, it is argued that the occurrence of particles in certain speech functions is influenced by the Cantonese phonetic system as well as the Cantonese grammar.

7.1.3 The most frequently occurring particles in CMC

Chapter 6 (cf Table 6.1) has pointed out the most frequently occurring particles in CMC are [laa1], [aa3], [me1], [gaa3], [gaa4], [ge2], [gwaa3], [maa3], [zaa3], [ne1], [aa1],

[aa3], [aa4], [wo3] and [lo1]. Within these particles, it is found that the particle [laa1] and [aa3] occur most frequently in CMC.

It is suggested that the frequent use of [laa1] and [aa3] is due to the versatile nature of these two particles. As mentioned previously, [laa1] particles can be used with statements and commands while [aa3] particles are applicable with statements, questions as well as commands. Since these particles can be used with different speech 161 functions, it increases the probability of the occurrence of these particles. In addition, the multi-function of [laa1] and [aa3] also leads to their frequent occurrence. As is seen in Table 7.1, [laa1] conveys a sense of tentativeness and persuasiveness and it can be used with statements to elicit a positive response from the addressee, to display mutual agreement and functions as the topic closure marker. On the other hand, [aa3] can be used with agreement, confirmation, confirmation seeking and precise questions as well as functioning to soften the speech acts. Since [laa1] and [aa3] perform various functions in CMC, it is not surprising that both of the particles are the most frequently occurring particles in CMC.

In addition, the versatility of [aa3] with questions also leads to its high occurrence in

CMC. As has been pointed out in Chapter 3, [aa3] occurs with questions (both confirmation seeking and precise specification-seeking questions) when there is no other question particle present (Li, 2006: 97). For this reason, it is not surprising that

[aa3] occurs with most of the questions in CMC, which increases the frequency of occurrence of [aa3] in CMC.

Based on the data above, it is suggested that the versatility of the particles [laa1] and

[aa3] and the various functions they perform are the main reason for their extensive use in CMC.

7.1.4 The description of the Cantonese sentence final particles in terms of

SF theory

In Chapter 6, it was argued that the Cantonese sentence final particles can be described in terms of SF theory. The meta-functional location of the Cantonese punctuative

162 messages realized by final particles in SF theory is summarised in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2: The metafunction location of the Cantonese punctuative messges realized by particles Situation: Text lexico-grammatical system Field Ideational meanings rank • logical clause complexes: taxis & logico-semantic relations of expansion & projection ; group complexes : logico-semantic relations of expansion • experiential clause: transitivity relations; group: nominal: Thing type etc; verbal: event type; aspect Tenor interpersonal clause: Mood; meanings group: nominal: person; verbal: polarity; modality Mode textual meanings text*12: cohesion clause: Theme; information group: nominal: determination; verbal: contrast; voice

Table 7.2 shows that the Cantonese particles express mood and modality, function as aspectual marker as well as a cohesive device in terms of SF theory. In other words, the

Cantonese particles carry the features of the ideational, interpersonal and the textual meanings. The specific meanings that the particles express in SF theory are described in

Table 7.3.

Table 7.3 Cantonese final particles in terms of SF theory Particles meanings Speech functions Functions of the SF theory particles S Q C laa1 啦 Interpersonal √ √ • Persuasion • Elicitation • Tentativeness Textual √ • Topic closure laa3 喇 Ideational √ • aspect aspect Textual √ • Conversation closure: voluntary [me1] 咩 Interpersonal √ • assumptive: ask [gaa3]咖 Interpersonal • actuality Internal conjunction: actually [gaa4] 嘎 Interpersonal √ • Assumptive: check [ge2] 嘅 (questions) Interpersonal √ • puzzlement [ge2] 嘅(statements) Interpersonal √ • reservation

12 Cohesion here refers to the cohesion of the text structure 163

Particles meanings Speech functions Functions of the SF theory S Q C particles [gwaa3] 啩 Interpersonal √ • conjecture [maa3] 嘛 / Interpersonal √ • reason Internal [aa1maa3] 吖嘛 conjunction: because [zaa3] 咋 Interpersonal √ • only [ne1] 呢 Interpersonal √ √ • wonder [aa1] 吖 Interpersonal √ • Consultative [aa4] 呀 Interpersonal √ • Non-assumptive: check [aa3] 啊 Interpersonal √ √ • Non-assumptive: ask • Softening/naturalising Textual √ • greeting [wo3] 喎 Interpersonal • noteworthiness [lo1] 囉 Interpersonal √ • Reluctant / impatient Modality: • Reason obviously • obviousness Textual √ • Conversation closure: reluctant

It is suggested in Table 7.3 that all the particles except [laa3] express interpersonal meaning. As mentioned in Chapter 4, interpersonal meaning contains two main parts, mood and modality. The former part is realized in speech functions while the latter part is realized in speakers’ attitudes and judgements.

It is observed that the particles can be used to mark the speech functions of the messages. Since all the particles are restricted to certain speech functions (i.e. [me1],

[aa4], [gaa4] and [ne1]13 are restricted to questions in CMC), it is suggested that the speech functions of the messages are identified by the Cantonese final particles.

Furthermore, it has also been observed in this study that the Cantonese final particles function as modality. As seen in Table 7.3, all the particles except [laa3] convey speakers’ attitudes and judgements, i.e [gwaa3] indicates that what is stated by the speaker is merely his/her conjecture and [ne1] expresses a sense of wonder. These meanings of the particles carry a similar function to modality, because both are used to

13 [ne1] in here refers to the one that occur in CMC since it is only this [ne1] that is restricted to questions 164 convey speakers’ emotion and judgement.

Furthermore, it has been suggested in Chapter 6 that the particle [laa3] is similar to the experiential meanings of the English verbal group since both function as aspectual marker.

Apart from the interpersonal and ideational meanings, the Cantonese particles can also be interpreted as expressions of textual meanings. However, the textual meanings of the particles are more towards the structure of the text. For instance, [aa3] is used in greeting, [laa1], [laa3] and [lo1] are used in topic closure and conversation closure.

These features of the particles are related to the structure of the text, beginning and closing. As a result, it is argued that the particles carry the textual meanings in terms of the text structure.

The semantic network presented in Chapter 6 captures the functions and meanings of the particles as expressions of three metafunctions. Since most of the particles are associated with interpersonal meanings, the attitudes which the particles express as well as the speech functions where they signal are also captured in the network.

7.1.5 The significance of using the Cantonese final particles in CMC in

English

It is suggested that the Cantonese final particles are an important feature in CMC. They are significant in the sense that their use indicates the informality of CMC. Despite the fact that the language used in ICQ or MSN is presented as written text, there is no clear distinction between the language that is used in other CMC such as email (Ho, 2003: 44)

165 and in MSN and ICQ. However, with the use of the Cantonese final particles, which is regarded as an informal feature of Cantonese, the informal nature of the e-discourse used in MSN and ICQ can be clarified.

As previously mentioned, the occurrence of the Cantonese particles helps to express chatters’ attitudes, moods and judgements in non face-to-face conversation. In Chapter

2 it was noted that CMC is different from face to face communication, where the attitude of the speakers can be expressed through facial expressions, intonations or body posture. In order to overcome this limitation, emoticons, smileys and Cantonese particles are used in CMC. It is suggested in the literature reviewed in Chapter 1 and

Chapter 2 that Cantonese particles are the key element in expressing feelings, mood and emotions in Cantonese (Kwok, 1984: 27; Luke, 1990: 6; Matthews & Yip, 1994: 338;

James, 2001: 12). Therefore, it is agreed that Cantonese final particles are equivalent to emoticons and smileys (James, 2001: 11), and therefore crucial in expressing mood and attitude in non face-to-face conversations such as CMC. However, it is found that the occurrence of smiles and emotions are much lower in frequency than the Cantonese final particles. Therefore, it is argued the Hong Kong netizens tend to use Cantonese particles to express their feeling instead of using emoticons. However, this assumption would need to be further investigated, which could be a new research direction.

7.2 New research directions

The importance of the Cantonese final particles is being noticed not only on CMC but also in Hong Kong magazines and newspapers. Therefore, a wide range of research can be carried out on Cantonese final particles. This study suggests the following research areas,

166 First, further research can be carried out through an appraisal analysis of the Cantonese final particles. Due to the limitation of the present study, an appraisal analysis was omitted. Since it was found that the Cantonese final particles largely express interpersonal meanings it is worth looking at the particles using the appraisal framework.

Therefore, it is suggested that further research can focus on appraisal analysis of the

Cantonese final particles.

Second, further studies of the Cantonese final particles could focus on the use of

Cantonese final particles by male chatters as opposed to female chatters. It is believed that the use and the selection of the Cantonese final particles might vary between genders. For instance, some particles may be used more frequently in female speech as opposed to male. Table 7.4 provides a rough calculation of the particles used between different genders in this study.

Table 7.4: the proportion of the particles used between different genders Gender number of total number of Total number of percentage of the instances of messages particles particles used each gender male-female 9 448 151 35% female-female 5 523 123 25% male-male 3 109 43 39%

Table 7.4 shows that the frequency of particles used between speakers when both are female (female – female) is relatively low - 25% of messages from interacting females carry a particle. This compares with the frequency of interacting male speakers

(male-male) where 39% of messages carry a particle; and when female and male speakers interact, 35% of their messages carry a particle. Therefore, it would be worthwhile to investigate this phenomenon further.

167 In addition, besides the gender differences outlined above, some particles may be gender specific. Despite the fact that some research has been done on the gender difference in the use of particles (Chan, 1997), only the particles ‘je’ and ‘jek’ have received attention. It is suggested that all of the Cantonese final particles should be taken into consideration in future research.

Third, it is suggested that the use of the Cantonese final particles in CMC can be further investigated from the perspective of the reasons that particles are used in a some messages but not in others. It is noticed that not all eligible messages in CMC carry particles. Therefore, it would be worthwhile to find out the reasons why the particles occur with certain messages.

Finally, according to the network presented in Figure 6.14 in Chapter 6, as well as Table

7.3, some particles express more than a single function. Table 7.5 re-presents the information provided in Table 7.3 in order to more clearly capture the multiple functions of some particles.

Table 7.5: the functions of the Cantonese final particles in CMC according to metafunction Particles no. ideational interpersonal textual speech function attitude 1. mutual agreement; 1. tentative; laa1 64 topic closure 2. demand g/s 2. persuasive laa3 33 voluntary conversation aspect closure gaa3 12 1. initiate statement; actuality 2. specifying query gaa4 2 ge2 7 1. statement 1. reservation; 2. explain 2. puzzlement gwaa3 3 statement conjecture maa3 9 initiate statement reason me1 4 confirm: ask: assumptive zaa3 5 initiate statement ‘only’ 168 ne1 4 1. explain; wonder 2. vague aa1 3 demand g/s consultative aa3 92 1. state softening / greeting 2. query: confirm: ask; naturalising apprize: specify aa4 6 query: confirm: check wo3 9 initiate statement noteworthiness lo1 13 state reluctance topic closure: reluctant

Thus: • [laa1] functions interpersonally to convey speakers’ tentative and persuasive attitude,

and textually to indicate topic closure

• [laa3] functions ideationally to indicate aspect, and textually to indicate

conversation closure;

• [aa3] functions interpersonally to soften/naturalise information exchanges, and

textually in greetings;

• [lo1] functions interpersonally to indicate a speaker’s reluctance; and textually to

indicate reluctant topic closure.

Since the particles stated above carry more than one function, it is suggested that further research should attempt to represent the underlying meaning of such particles. For example, what is the meaning underlying [laa3] which enables it to function both ideationally (to indicate aspect) and textually (to indicate topic closure).

Since Cantonese final particles are being used not only in the spoken medium but also in the written medium, it is hoped that extensive research on the use of particles will be further developed according to the suggestions stated above.

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176 Appendix A: The data

TD Mess. speech function of Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss No. messages Vocalization TD 1 17:13:09 Tracy wei Hey TD2 17:13:09 Tracy wei Hey TD3 17:14:07 Daniel wei Hey TD4 17:14:08 Daniel wei Hey TD5 Tracy where did u color ur scary red hair b4 ga? Where did you get your scary red hair done? question: apprize: precise:

17:14:31 ga (gaa3) specify TD6 Daniel i did it by myself ga I did it by myself statement in response to

17:14:43 ga (gaa3) [specify] TD7 17:15:05 Tracy u bleach it yourself? Did you bleach it by yourself? TD8 17:15:08 Daniel yes, yes TD9 17:15:19 Daniel i bleached twice I bleached it twice TD10 17:15:22 Daniel and dyed and dyed 17:15:32 Tracy =* (*smiley) TD11 17:16:00 Tracy bleach twice??????? you've bleached your hair twice? wah (=expresses TD12 17:16:01 Tracy wah wow surprise or wonder) TD13 17:16:05 Tracy gum mo yeh la la (laa3) Then forget about it statement 17:17:21 Tracy http://www.imagestation.com/****/****/*******.jpg TD14 17:17:21 Tracy her hair ho lang her hair is so pretty 17:17:42 Daniel hahaa hahaa [laugh] TD15 17:17:45 Daniel u wanna do it? u want to get your hair done like hers? statement in response to TD16 17:18:20 Tracy i want la la (laa1) I want to dye my hair like hers [TD15]

177 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization TD17 Tracy but duno... but I am not sure if I really want to do it or not TD18 Tracy i dont want to regret hahahahahah because I don't want to regret TD19 17:19:09 Daniel the colour is easy to remove by the way By the way, the colour can be removed easily TD20 17:19:46 Tracy u mean ur red or the blonde one ar? ar (aa3) which one do you mean, the red or the blonde ? question: confirm: check TD21 17:20:06 Daniel red I mean the red one question: apprize: TD22 17:21:55 Tracy how to remove it ar?? ar (aa3) How to remove the colour? precise:specify TD23 Tracy jus dye another color ar? ar (aa4) Remove it by dying another colour? question: confirm: check TD24 17:22:16 Daniel no, i mean the colour is easy to come off no, I mean the colour fade off easily maa TD25 17:23:55 Tracy and u hav short hair maaa... and your hair is short…. statement (maa3) TD26 Tracy u can cut You can have a haircut TD27 Tracy whenever u want... whenever you want… TD28 Tracy but i cant... but I can't….. TD29 Tracy but i cant… but I can't….. TD30 Tracy i will kill myself I would rather kill myself TD31 Tracy if my the color is ugly if my hair colour is terrible TD32 Tracy and i cant cut it... hahahaha and I can't have a haircut…(*laugh) statement in response to TD33 17:24:27 Daniel yes gei, gei (ge2) maybe [TD25-32] TD34 Daniel but i just keep dying but I just keep dying my hair TD35 17:24:39 Daniel so expensive it is so expensive TD36 17:26:23 Tracy u still color it yourself ar??? ar (aa4) You still dye it by yourself? question: confirm: check statement in response to TD37 17:26:31 Daniel no la la (laa1) no [confirm] TD38 17:26:33 Daniel now I don't have time now TD39 17:26:35 Daniel no time I don't have time TD40 17:27:09 Tracy i think i will go to a salon in newtown I think I will go to the salon in Newtown TD41 Tracy if i want to color my hair like that girl... I want to dye my hair like that girl TD42 Tracy i think they can make that I think they can do it

178 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization TD43 Tracy coz that salon look so punk hahaha because the salon looks very punk (*laugh) TD44 17:27:41 Daniel the saloon in NT always won prizes the salon in Newtown which received many awards Oh really!?I only know that everyone in there really ma??? i jus saw that every1 there have question: confirm: enquire: TD45 17:27:46 Tracy ma have pink, green or orange color hair (*laugh) pink, green, orange color hair hahaha check statement in response to TD46 17:28:25 Daniel yes ar ar (aa3) yes, they always win prizes [check] TD47 17:28:35 Tracy kathy tried to get blonde highlights Kelly tried to get blonde hair highlights but those normal salon can color mk yellow but those normal salon can only dye "MK" blonde TD48 17:29:24 Tracy only TD49 17:30:05 Daniel i think so I think so TD50 17:30:07 Daniel so mk that's really 'MK' TD51 17:30:53 Tracy look at her http://www.myspace.com/****** Check her out at http://www.myspace.com/***** , TD52 Tracy so chicken she looks like a prostitute TD53 17:30:59 Tracy but i still like her hair haha but I like her hair colour anyway

179

CS Mess Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages Cantonese No. Vocalization CS1 12:38:08 Cathy WEI WEI~ hey hey CS2 12:38:13 Stella yes yes CS3 12:38:42 Cathy i"ve checked the price of the flight ticket I've checked the price of the flight ticket CS4 12:38:51 Cathy quite expensive it's quite expensive CS5 12:39:45 Cathy if u wanna leave aus after 7/12, If you want to leave Australia after 7/12, the price of Cathay Pacific is around $1650 CS6 Cathy cathay pacific is around $1650 (including tax) (Tax included) CS7 12:40:02 Stella what!!!!!!!!!!!!?????????? what!? CS8 12:40:11 Stella yes, yes, that is right CS9 Stella coz around x'mas because it is around X'mas CS10 12:40:25 Stella but if i book now but what if I book it now? CS11 12:40:32 Cathy yes ar~ ar (aa3) yes,that's right statement CS12 Cathy but before 6/12, it costs $1300 but it costs $1300 before 6/12 CS13 12:40:33 Stella the price will be the same? Will the price be the same? CS14 12:40:47 Cathy and before 10/11, it costs $1100 and it costs $1100 before 10/11 wah (= surprise or CS15 12:40:54 Stella wahhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh oh my god! wonder) CS16 12:41:00 Cathy so big different it's a huge difference CS17 12:41:02 Stella then how abt i book now? Then how about if I book it now? CS18 12:41:12 Stella will the price be the same? will the price be the same? CS19 12:41:17 Cathy same price of course it's the same price of course CS20 12:41:21 Cathy same as last year it is the same as last year Do you remember we paid $1100 last CS21 12:41:33 Cathy u remember we paid for $1100 last year year? CS22 12:41:53 Cathy so i think we better check the price in STA so I think it's better for us to check in STA CS23 12:42:01 Cathy it claimed $939 They claimed it costs $939 only

180 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization CS24 12:42:18 Stella what i mean is, if i book now, what I mean is, if I book it now, CS25 Stella but i leave here in mid of december, but I leave Australia in the mid of December, CS26 Stella then the price will be $1600 or $1100? then the price will be $1600 or $1100? statement in response to CS27 12:42:46 Cathy $1650 la of course la (laa1) it is $1650 of course question[CS26] ma statement in response to CS28 12:42:54 Cathy it's peak time to leave ma (maa3) Because it's during peak season question[CS26] - continue (tu-tu), that means no matter how early I CS29 12:43:15 Stella chur, that means no matter how early i book, book, CS30 Stella the price will be $1600 la la (laa1) the price will be the same statement CS31 12:43:15 Cathy graduation time Because it is graduation period CS32 12:43:25 Cathy is 1650~~~ so, the price is $1650 wah (=surprise or CS33 12:43:31 Stella wahhhhhhhhh oh my god wonder) CS34 12:43:38 Stella freaking expensive! it is so expensive! CS35 12:43:45 Cathy so we have to check the price from STA so we have to check the price from STA CS36 12:43:56 Cathy yes la~~ la (laa1) yes, we have to check the price from STA statement in response to [CS35] CS37 Cathy but if u take virgin it will cheap but if you fly with virgin CS38 Cathy it will cheap it will be cheaper CS39 12:43:58 Cathy cheaper it will be cheaper CS40 12:44:11 Stella how much? how much does it cost? CS41 12:44:12 Cathy may be save $ 80 may be we can save $80 CS42 12:44:20 Stella how abt s'pore airline? how about singapore airline? chur (=disparagement, CS43 12:44:25 Stella chur $ 80 ja.... ja (zaa3) (tut-tut), it's only $80 statement in response to [CS41] like tut-tut in English) CS44 12:44:43 Cathy yes ar~ ar (aa3) yes, it is statement in response to [CS43] statement in response to [CS41] - CS45 Cathy but $80 quite different la la (laa1) but $80 is quite different continue CS46 12:44:50 Stella i don't wanna take British airline le le (ne) I don't want to fly with British Airline statement CS47 12:44:59 Cathy HKD $480 AUD80 equal to HK $480

181 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization 12:45:03 Stella ? what do you mean? CS48 12:45:08 Stella icic I see I see 12:45:10 Stella sigh sigh CS49 12:45:29 Cathy but i've asked the question of luggage weight but I've asked about the luggage weight the staff said the maximum luggage weight CS50 12:45:44 Cathy she said, virgin is 23KG for Virgin is 23kg CS51 12:46:05 Stella huh? huh? meh CS52 12:46:20 Stella not 30 meh? it's not 30kg? question: confirm: enquire: check (me1) CS53 12:46:30 Cathy but i think if u buy from STA, but i think if u buy from STA, the maximum luggage weight will be CS54 Cathy will be different different as golden travel said the price is student price CS55 Cathy already, since it is already student price CS56 Cathy they won't help u to get more weight they won't provide you to get extra weight CS57 12:47:11 Stella ooooooooooohh oh honestly, I don't think the luggage weight can CS58 12:47:15 Cathy honestly, i don't think it can be 30 KG la la (laa1) be 30kg statement CS59 12:47:19 Stella but still la, so expensive la (laa1) but it's still very expensive statement CS60 12:47:27 Cathy i think Percy "blows water" I think Percy was babbling CS61 12:47:38 Stella qutas can Qantas allows 30kg of luggages 12:47:47 Stella >_< >_< (emoticon) CS62 12:47:52 Stella soooooooo ex ar ar (aa3) it is so expensive statement CS63 12:47:56 Cathy if u first go to aus, if you go to Australia first Cathy it can the luggage weight can be 30kg CS64 12:48:10 Cathy yes la~~~ la (laa1) yes, it is statement in response to [CS63] CS65 Cathy no choice there is no other option CS66 Cathy if u wanna go back if you want to go back CS67 12:48:19 Cathy when will u leave? when will you leave Australia?

182 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization maybe I will leave Australia on 17th CS68 12:48:39 Stella maybe 17th december December CS69 12:49:37 Cathy icic~~so fast la~ la (laa3) I see I see, it's soon statement in response to [CS63] CS70 Cathy still have 2 months more left it's only 2 months left CS71 12:49:48 Stella aiiiiiiiiii *sigh CS72 12:49:54 Stella i think we have to ask sta la la (laa1) I think we have to check in STA statement CS73 12:50:31 Cathy sure la~ la (laa1) sure, statement in response to [CS72] CS74 Cathy so cheap, the price is cheaper there. CS75 Cathy last time percy just spent for $9XX, Percy just spent $9xx last time CS76 Cathy but i spent for $1000 but I spent $1000 statement in repsonse to CS77 12:51:54 Stella yes la la (laa1) yes [CS75-77]

183 YV Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization YV1 02:18:24 Yvonne back to Aus? Are you back in Australia? statement in response to question YV2 02:23:12 Vicky yes ah ar (aa3) yes [YV1] YV3 02:23:13 Vicky u?? How about you? YV4 02:23:24 Yvonne tmr nite leaving HK I will leave Hong Kong tomorrow night YV5 02:23:30 Yvonne wen will u start uni? When will you start uni? statement in response to question YV6 02:23:40 Vicky tuesday lor lor (lo1) Tuesday [YV5] YV7 02:23:43 Yvonne wanna meet u in Aus ar ar (aa3) I want to meet you in Australia statement YV8 02:23:48 Vicky haha, ho ah ar (aa3) yes, sure! statement in response to[YV7] How many days do you have to go the YV9 02:24:01 Yvonne how many days do u have to go to uni? university? YV10 02:24:18 Yvonne Jessica will come to my place Jessica will come to my place YV11 Yvonne to stay for a few nites from Tues and stay for few nights from Tuesday YV12 02:25:18 Vicky 4 I have class for 4 days YV13 02:25:30 Vicky why lei?? lei (le1) why does she stay in your place? question: apprize; precise ja ma (ze1 aa1 YV14 02:26:09 Yvonne jus ask her to come n accompany me ja ma… I just want her to accompany me , maa3) statement in response to [precise] YV15 Yvonne dun wan to feel too bored… I don't want to feel bored YV16 02:26:14 Yvonne n lonely... and lonely YV17 02:26:31 Vicky jessica also study in syd?? Jessica also study in Sydney? statement in response to YV18 02:27:30 Yvonne yes ar ar (aa3) yes question[YV17] YV19 02:27:35 Yvonne in **** Uni she is studying in ****** YV20 02:27:41 Vicky ic I see YV21 02:27:54 Yvonne many 5A ppl in Syd ar ar (aa3) There are many 5A classmates in Sydney statement YV22 02:27:55 Vicky **** uni, but in syd..… She is studying in ***** but it's in Sydney… YV23 Vicky it is so strange It's strange

184 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization YV24 02:27:57 Yvonne u can meet her too you can meet her as well YV25 02:28:05 Yvonne jus one of the campus.... It's just one of the campus YV26 02:28:10 Vicky ya i know yes, I know YV27 02:28:14 Vicky but still strange but I still think it's strange 02:28:16 Vicky haha (*laugh) YV28 02:29:00 Yvonne si dan la… la (laa1) whatever…. statement she is considering of transferring to **** after she is thinking to transfer to ****** after YV29 Yvonne diploma finishing her diploma YV30 02:29:12 Vicky haha, ok~ (*laugh), ok YV31 02:29:31 Vicky this is the 2nd sem for her?? Is this her 2nd session? YV32 02:29:56 Yvonne jus finished the 1st one No, she just finished the 1st session YV33 02:30:05 Vicky ic I see YV34 02:30:26 Vicky how many sem still have?? How many sessions left? YV35 02::31:01 Yvonne u mean her? Do you mean Jessica? statement in response to question YV36 02:31:05 Yvonne she just started ja... ja (zaa3) She just started the course [YV34] statement in response to question YV37 02:31:06 Vicky yes ha ar (aa3) yes, (*laugh) [YV35] YV38 02:31:11 Yvonne 5 more sem for her... She has 5 more sessions YV39 02:31:17 Vicky i mean dip I mean diploma YV40 02:31:25 Yvonne dip until June The diploma course is until June YV41 02:31:35 Yvonne anyway, which day do u have to go to uni? anyway, which day do you have to go uni? YV42 02:31:45 Vicky off mondays I have Monday off YV43 02:31:53 Yvonne only monday? You only have Monday off? statement in response to question YV44 02:31:56 Vicky hai ya ar (aa3) yes [YV44] YV45 02:31:58 Vicky ho charm so miserable what time will you finish your class on YV46 02:32:00 Yvonne what time do u finish uni on wed? Wednesday? YV47 02:32:04 Yvonne can we meet u on wed? can we meet you on Wednesday?

185 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization YV48 02:32:09 Vicky when i enrol, By the time I enrol, YV49 Vicky all the classes are full already all the classes are full already YV50 02:32:49 Vicky after 1pm if wednesday I finish my class at 1pm on Wednesday YV51 02:33:29 Yvonne oic... oh, I see i think almost all the 2nd year students enrolled I think most of the 2nd year students YV52 02:33:52 Yvonne in late Jan... enrolled in late January YV53 02:34:05 Yvonne ok, call u on Tuesday nite la... la (laa1) ok, I will call you on Tuesday night statement YV54 02:34:12 Yvonne do u know how to get to****** CEn? Do you know how to get to ****** CEN? YV55 02:34:12 Vicky okok okok YV56 02:34:21 Vicky what is CEn what is CEN? YV57 02:35:33 Yvonne center centre YV58 02:36:14 Vicky i dunno, I don't know, YV59 Vicky i just know where SAM is I only know where SAM is YV60 02:36:32 Yvonne k...meet u in SAM... ok… let's meet at SAM YV61 Do you know where is the news agent in

02:36:55 Yvonne do u know where is the SAM news agent? SAM? YV62 Yvonne middle of the post office n CO It's in the middle of the post office and CO YV63 02:37:00 Yvonne COOP bkshop COOP bookshop YV64 02:37:16 Yvonne there's a kinda big clock outside the shop, there is a big clock outside the shop, YV65 Yvonne we can wait underneath we can meet underneath the clock YV66 02:37:42 Vicky haha, remind me later~wakaka (*laugh), remind me again (*laugh) YV67 02:38:01 Yvonne k...call u on tues la la (laa1) ok…I will call you on Tuesday statement YV68 02:38:20 Vicky alright alright YV69 02:38:33 Vicky how about jessica? How about Jessica? YV70 Vicky when start classes When will her classes start ? YV71 02:38:55 Yvonne i think 1 or 2 weeks later I think 1 or 2 weeks later

YV72 02:39:20 Vicky wa...... then how come come back so early?? oh my god,then why is she coming back so wa (expresses surprise early? or wonder) YV73 02:39:41 Yvonne she was in syd for summer... She stayed in Sydney for summer YV74 02:39:55 Vicky oh icic oh, I see I see

186 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization YV75 02:40:07 Vicky what did she study before the dip what did she study before her diploma? command: non suggestive; YV76 02:40:12 Yvonne u ask her on Wed la... la (laa1) you better ask her on Wednesday non-exhortative YV77 02:40:16 Yvonne A level she was studying A-level before the diploma YV78 02:40:30 Vicky haha ok (*laugh) ok ha what? then how come she is still studying YV79 02:40:44 Vicky ha? so late? (surprise or shock, like diploma? “what?” in English) YV80 02:40:48 Yvonne then started dip in Oct she started the diploma in October YV81 02:41:48 Vicky or, ic, she repeated AL? oh, i see, she repeated A-level? or (ok) YV82 02:42:07 Yvonne repeated F.6 She repeated Form 6 YV83 02:42:32 Vicky ic... I see I see YV84 02:42:52 Yvonne anyway, call u on Tues la... la (laa1) anyway, I will call you on Tuesday statement YV85 02:42:56 Yvonne gtg got to go YV86 02:43:04 Vicky me2, go to bed la la (laa3) me too,I have to sleep now statement YV87 02:43:07 Vicky bye bye bye bye YV89 02:43:24 Yvonne bibi bye bye

187 VY Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization VY1 10:56:04 Yvonne hey Hey VY2 10:56:07 Yvonne what's up? what's up? VY3 10:56:16 Vicky do u buy new textbooks?? Are you buying new text books? VY4 10:56:33 Yvonne yes Yes Because it is hard to buy second hand VY5 10:56:49 Yvonne cos its difficult to find old tb for my sub textbooks for my subjects VY6 10:56:50 Yvonne u? How about you? but then, will you sell the textbooks after this VY7 10:57:10 Vicky but then will u sell it out after the semester session? statement in repsonse to question VY8 10:57:16 Vicky i dunno ah ar (aa3) I don't know [VY6] VY9 10:57:25 Vicky cos the new bks are so expensive because new textbooks are very expensive i try to sell out from the counter of cash 4 VY10 10:57:59 Yvonne I tried to sell 4 books to the counter of cash book, VY11 Yvonne but one has become old edition but one of the book has become old edition VY12 Yvonne (i bought it last year) I bought it last year VY13 Yvonne n one only $11… and one of the book costs only $11 VY14 10:58:07 Yvonne so i may sell them to my frd so, I might sell those books to my friends last time u said there is a booth selling 2nd you mentioned that there is a booth selling VY15 10:58:30 Vicky books?? second hand books, right? VY16 10:58:46 Yvonne yes yes VY17 10:58:53 Vicky where is it Do you know where is it? i think its easy to find ur books on campus I think it is quite easy to get the books on VY18 10:59:05 Yvonne la (laa1) la... campus statement VY19 10:59:28 Vicky but i hate to call those ppl but I hate calling those people VY20 10:59:29 Yvonne that booth is only for week 1, that booth only works in week 1 Yvonne VY21 but i think u can check it out in SAM shop, but I think you can check it from SAM shop coz I saw some 2nd hand book in SAM I saw some second hand books at SAM VY22 Yvonne shop be4 before

188 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization

VY23 10:59:46 Yvonne ha?, but if u wan to safe $$, what? but if you want to save money ha (surprise or shock, like “what?” in English) ga wor VY24 Yvonne u have to ga wor... you have to call them (gaa3 wo3) command: non:exhortative VY25 10:59:53 Vicky ai~~~ sigh ai (sigh) VY26 11:00:13 Vicky and the queue was so long but the queue was so long VY27 11:00:18 Vicky to the co-op it is until co-op or maybe I can ask my friends who are doing VY28 11:00:23 Yvonne or i can ask my frds who r doing acct gei.. gei (ge2) statement accounting for you

i think it won't be that long for the coming I think it won't be that long in the coming VY29 11:00:32 Yvonne week... week VY30 11:00:42 Vicky haha, hope so (*laugh), I hope so so, how much do your textbooks cost VY31 11:00:54 Vicky so usually how much are ur textbooks normally? VY32 11:01:21 Yvonne if u wan to buy new books, if you want to buy new textbooks VY33 Yvonne i've got a $65 receipt from refund, I've got a $65 receipt from refund, VY34 Yvonne u can use it, you can use it, VY35 Yvonne then pay me back... then pay me back later cos i m not sure if i have to buy any book because I am not sure whether I have to buy VY36 Yvonne for my final sem... any books for my final session or not VY37 11:01:34 Yvonne around $80 with 10% off it is around $80 with 10% off VY38 11:01:54 Vicky wa...... so cheap.… oh my god, it 's so cheap wa( surprise or wonder) VY39 Vicky mine are all over 100 mine are all over $100 u got all the books u need for this sem Have you bought all the books you need for VY40 11:03:12 Vicky already?? this semester? statement in response to question VY41 11:05:56 Yvonne yes ar! ar (aa3) yes! [VY40] VY42 11:05:56 Yvonne bought all la... la (laa3) I've bought all of it statement VY43 11:06:02 Yvonne 3 books plus one workbook I bought 3 books and 1 workbook 189 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization 11:06:20 Vicky ahh (*laugh) 11:06:39 Yvonne =] (*smiley) VY44 11:06:51 Yvonne when do u have to go to uni again? when do you have to go uni again? VY45 11:07:04 Vicky tuesday Tuesday icic...so will u go n buy the books on I see, I see, so will you buy the books on VY46 11:07:22 Yvonne Tues? Tuesday? VY47 11:07:25 Yvonne new books? I mean new books statement in response to question VY48 11:07:29 Vicky maybe la la (laa1) maybe [VY47] VY49 11:07:52 Vicky actually i called one guy actually, I've contact one guy I will buy an old edition of finance book from VY50 Vicky to sell me an older version finance book him VY51 11:07:59 Vicky on tuesday I will go uni again on Tuesday VY52 11:08:08 Yvonne icic, what abt others? I see, I see, how about some other day? VY54 11:08:49 Yvonne if u buy the new one, if you are going to buy the new one, VY55 Yvonne then can u wait till Wed or Thurs? can you wait until Wednesday or Thursday? VY56 11:08:59 Yvonne then i can give u the receipt... so that, I can give you the receipt VY57 11:09:06 Vicky ok.... ok.. VY58 11:09:14 Vicky but how did u get that receipt?? but how did you get that receipt? VY59 11:09:33 Yvonne cos i bought one book, because I've bought one book, VY60 Yvonne then changed sub but I changed the subject afterwards VY61 Yvonne n refund… that’s why I have to refund the book so i have that receipt for 12 months VY62 11:09:48 Yvonne but I have to use the receipt within 12 months expiry... you just told them you have changed the VY63 11:10:06 Vicky u just tell them u changed sub?? subject? VY64 11:10:15 Yvonne yes yes VY65 11:10:23 Yvonne n they gave me the receipt and they gave me the receipt wa.....but should be in the first few weeks oh my god, you can only refund it within the VY66 11:10:41 Vicky wa ( surprise or wonder) right?? first few weeks right? VY67 11:11:21 Yvonne 10 days to have the book refund you can refund the book within 10 days

190 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization VY68 11:11:28 Yvonne since the day u bought it since the day you bought it VY69 11:11:36 Vicky oic oh, I see 11:11:38 Vicky haha (*laugh) VY70 11:11:51 Yvonne what time do u have classes on Wed ar? ar (aa3) what time is your class on Wednesday? question: apprize: specify VY71 11:12:04 Vicky haha, i got no class on wed la la (laa1) (*laugh), I have no class on Wednesday statement in repsonse to [specify] 11:12:09 Vicky kekeke (*giggle) VY72 11:12:11 Yvonne what abt Thur? how about Thursday? I can give you the receipt outside SAM, post VY73 11:12:40 Yvonne i can wait u outside SAM postoffice office VY74 Yvonne or lib to give u the receipt ar ar (aa3) or library? statement VY75 11:12:42 Vicky i am free from 11-2 I am free between 11:00-2:00 k, i come n meet u at 11 la, outside post ok, I will meet you outside the post-office at VY76 11:13:04 Yvonne la (laa1) statement office, ok? 11:00, ok? VY77 11:13:25 Vicky ok ok VY78 11:13:30 Yvonne o...sorry, oh, sorry VY79 Yvonne i think 12 will be better, I think 12:00 is better VY80 Yvonne cos i won't have classes until 4 that day, because I won't have class until 4:00 that day VY81 Yvonne wanna get some more sleep I want to sleep longer VY82 11:13:52 Vicky then later also ok we can meet in the afternoon VY83 11:13:52 Yvonne ar....nono oh, no, it's ok ar(sudden realization) i've got to go to Hurstville for dental appt Because I have a dental appointment in VY84 11:14:02 Yvonne ar (aa3) statement ar... Hurstville VY85 11:14:04 Yvonne sorry ar ar (aa3) sorry statement - continue VY86 11:14:10 Yvonne what time do u finish classes? what time will you finish your class? ga la VY87 11:14:17 Vicky u cant wait ga la I don’t think you cannot wait until that late statement (gaa3 laa1) VY88 11:14:22 Vicky i have class until 9 I have class until 9:00 VY89 11:14:42 Yvonne y not ar? ar (aa3) why not? question: apprize: specify ga wor VY90 Yvonne i live on campus ga wor… I live on campus statement (gaa3 wo3)

191 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization VY91 Yvonne we can prob meet between classes, uh? we can probably meet between classes, uh? VY92 11:15:00 Yvonne can we meet outside lib at 3:55? can we meet outside library at 3:55? VY93 11:15:13 Vicky i got class 2-4 I have class between 2:00 to 4:00 command:suggestive:exhortative: VY94 11:16:03 Yvonne then 4 outside lib la, la (laa1) then let's wait outside the library at 4:00 marked VY95 Yvonne once u finish classes, once you’ve finished the classes VY96 Yvonne go straight to the entrance of lib la, la (laa1) go straight to the entrance of the library command: non:exhortative VY97 Yvonne i will have classes from 4-6 in E7B I have classes from 4:00 to 6:00 in E7B VY98 11:16:24 Vicky how about tuesday?? How about Tuesday? statement in response to question VY99 11:16:36 Yvonne no la, la (laa1) No [VY98] statement in response to question VY100 Yvonne gotta go to work ar ar (aa3) I have to work on Tuesday - continue I have to work from 9 something until late VY101 11:16:47 Yvonne work from 9 sth until late afternoon afternoon VY102 11:17:10 Vicky wow wow VY103 11:17:28 Vicky then will u arrive uni at 2?? then will you come to uni at 2:00? VY104 11:17:44 Yvonne u mean on Thurs? you mean Thursday? VY105 11:17:48 Vicky ya yes VY106 11:17:56 Yvonne lemme check let me check VY107 11:19:16 Yvonne i dun think so… I don't think so because I have a dental appointment at VY108 Yvonne cos i have dental appt at 11:45 11:45 so after dental appt,i will arrive uni at I will arrive uni around 2:30 after the dental VY109 11:19:45 Yvonne around 2:30 or so appointment VY110 11:19:50 Vicky ok..... ok VY111 11:20:03 Vicky what time will u class end what time will you finish your class? which room will you be having your class VY112 11:20:08 Yvonne which room will u have classes from 2-4? from 2-4? VY113 11:20:09 Yvonne 6.. 6:00 VY114 11:20:49 Vicky W6B W6B

192 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization VY115 11:21:14 Yvonne n what abt 4-5? and what about 4:00 to 5:00 tell me your Thursday timetable between VY116 11:21:43 Yvonne tell me ur timetable on Thur la, from 4- 9 la (laa1) 4:00 and 9:00 command: exhortative statement in response to VY117 11:21:43 Vicky no class ah ar (aa3) I don't have class command VY118 11:21:50 Yvonne no class? you don't have class? VY119 11:22:05 Vicky 2-4, 6-9 My class is from 2:00 to 4:00 and 6:00 to 9:00 VY120 11:22:11 Yvonne then come to E7B163, ok? then you come to E7B163, ok? VY121 11:22:28 Vicky what time i come what time should I go? meet u outside E7B163 after ur 2-4 I will meet you outside E7B163 after the class VY122 11:22:36 Yvonne classes at 2:00 VY123 11:22:46 Yvonne u know where is E7B? Do you know where is E7B? VY124 11:22:51 Vicky yes gei~ gei (ge2) yes,I think I know(but I’m not sure) statement in response to [VY123] VY125 11:23:03 Yvonne k, c u there ok, see you there VY126 11:23:24 Vicky umum. remind me again on wed umum. Remind me again on Wednesday 11:23:27 Vicky kekeke (*giggle) VY127 11:23:48 Yvonne okie ok VY128 11:24:19 Yvonne ttyl, talk to you later VY129 Yvonne i m watching a Japan TV series, I am watching a Japanese drama series VY130 Yvonne have to go to bed after finishing that, I have to go to bed after finishing because I have to wake up early for work VY131 Yvonne c0s have to wake up early for work tmr tomorrow VY132 11:24:21 Yvonne bibi la la (laa3) bye statement VY133 11:24:26 Vicky ok ok VY134 11:24:27 Vicky bye bye

193 PS Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. vocalization PS1 0:54:56 Perry start packing ??? Have you started packing? PS2 0:55:53 Stella yup! yes, I have started packing PS3 Stella almost finished la la (laa3) I've almost finished packing statement PS4 1:48:10 Perry what time's flight???? What time is your flight? PS5 1:48:30 Stella 4:00p.m oz time My flight is at 4:00 p.m. in Australia time PS6 I will arrive at Hong Kong around 9 or 10

1:48:41 Stella arrive hk @ 9/10 sth p.m. PS7 1:48:53 Perry 17/12??? Is it 17th of December PS8 1:49:03 Stella yup!!! yes, it is PS9 1:49:33 Perry so do u hv HK mobile phone no. then??? Can I have your Hong Kong mobile number? PS10 1:50:09 Stella *******(the number is omitted) My number is ********* PS11 1:50:31 Stella same number the number is same as before PS12 1:51:01 Perry since i lost the phone before ar, ar (aa3) Since I lost my mobile, statement that's why I lost all my friends' mobile PS13 Perry that's y i lost all the friends' phone no. number PS14 1:51:16 Stella oooooooooooh, icic!!!!!! oh, I see PS15 1:51:20 Stella poor u!!! poor you!!! anyway, let's have dinner together after you command:suggestive:exhortative: PS16 1:52:01 Perry anyway, hv dinner after u come back la... la (laa1) come back pointed statement in response to PS17 1:52:29 Stella sure la!!!!!! la (laa1) sure! command [suggestive] PS18 1:52:46 Perry so how long will u stay??? so, how long will you stay in Hong Kong? PS19 1:53:30 Stella 2 months~~~~ I will stay for 2 months PS20 1:53:42 Perry any part time job??? Do you have any part time job? (*laugh) I haven't applied for any part time statement in response to question PS21 1:53:48 Stella ahaha, not yet ar ar (aa3) job yet [PS20] but I want to get a part time job and I will look PS22 1:53:53 Stella wanna look for it for it PS23 1:53:55 Perry will not do la, right??? la (laa1) but you won't look for it, right? statement

194 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. vocalization PS24 Perry only 2 month It's only 2 months PS25 1:54:13 Stella i will try to look for it I will try to look for it PS26 1:54:57 Perry okok...anyway, i go la, la (laa3) okok….anyway, I am about to go now, statement PS27 Perry talk to u when u come back la, la (laa1) talk to you after you come back, statement PS28 Perry safey trip have a safe trip back

195 PL Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. vocalization PL1 2:54:34 Louis hello hello PL2 2:54:35 Louis i back I am back 2:54:35 Louis from taiwan from Taiwan PL3 2:59:47 Peter wei,,,..... hey PL4 3:00:01 Peter i know ar...... ar (aa3) I know statement PL5 3:00:02 Louis how are you ar? ar (aa3) how are you? question: apprize: precise PL6 3:00:11 Peter so tired.,...... I am so tired 3:00:16 Peter working...... because of work PL7 3:00:28 Peter happy trip? Did you have a great trip? PL8 3:01:07 Louis very good the trip was very good PL9 3:01:07 Louis very tired but it was so tiring PL10 3:01:07 Louis and very expensive and it was very expensive PL11 3:01:34 Peter why ar.... ar (aa3) why? question: apprize; precise PL12 3:01:44 Peter how expensive.... How expensive was it? PL13 3:01:59 Louis tell you over the phone la la (laa1) I will tell you through telephone statement in response to [precise] PL14 3:07:35 Peter now, tell me now, PL15 Peter ok? is it ok? statement in response to PL16 3:07:55 Louis no la la (laa1) No question [PL15] PL17 Louis sleep I have to sleep PL18 3:08:02 Louis talk to you tmw I will talk to you tomorrow PL19 3:08:07 Peter or....juz think u mean now tim ok, I thought you meant now or (=ok) PL20 3:08:13 Peter okie....no problem ok, no problem disagreement in response to PL21 3:08:20 Louis no no la la (laa1) No, I don't mean now statement PL22 3:08:30 Louis still very tired I am still very tired PL23 3:18:47 Peter why not sleep ar ar (aa3) why don't you sleep? question: apprize; precise

196 PPL Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. vocalization 23:18:56 Louis http://www.youtube.com/********** (*web site) PPL1 23:18:56 Louis very funny it's very funny PPL2 23:18:57 Peter whts that? what is that? PPL3 23:19:09 Louis watch watch sin la la (laa1) have a look first command: exhortative PPL4 23:19:32 Peter so crazy it's so crazy PPL5 23:38:13 Louis yeah...very funny right yes, it is very funny, right? PPL6 23:39:09 Peter yea....haaa...... yes (*laugh) PPL7 23:42:49 Peter i also got video there wo wor(wo3) I also have video on that website statement PPL8 23:42:54 Louis send me the link la la (laa1) send me the link command: exhortative 23:43:19 Peter http://www.youtube.com/********** (*the link) PPL9 0:28:04 Louis your dog is very cute wor wor(wo3) your dog is very cute statement PPL10 0:28:35 Louis did you read my space Did you read "MySpace"? statement in response to question PPL11 0:28:48 Peter i didnt ar ar (aa3) I didn't [PPL12] 0:28:48 Peter (*LINK) *the link is omitted PPL12 0:29:24 Louis cc la la (laa1) have a look at MySpace command: exhortative PPL13 0:29:32 Peter now seeing I am browsing it now wa (surprise or PPL14 0:30:12 Peter wa....the pic oh my god, the pictures… wonder) PPL15 0:30:43 Louis yeah just got 10 pics from them I just got 10 pictures from them PPL16 0:30:56 Peter so cool wo wor(wo3) it's so cool statement PPL17 0:31:42 Louis really?? do you like them?? really? Do you like them? statement in response to question PPL18 0:32:40 Peter not bad ar ar (aa3) they are not bad [PPL20] PPL19 0:33:15 Louis i think so..... I think so too PPL20 0:33:26 Louis q is much beautiful than them la la (laa1) Q is much more beautiful than them (?) statement ar ma PPL21 0:33:50 Peter haa....she is thinner ar ma (*laugh) she is skinnier statement (aa1 maa3) 197 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. vocalization PPL22 0:34:20 Louis yeah...that's alright… yes, that is right PPL23 Louis she Is the master she is the master ha (expresses 0:36:33 Peter haa....u are? surprise or shock, PPL24 huh? What is your role then? like “what?” in English) PPL25 0:37:16 Louis no no, it should be PPL26 Louis she is the master….. she is the master PPL27 Louis I am the helper I am the maid PPL28 0:37:27 Louis which one do you like most Who do you like the most? PPL29 0:57:48 Peter i like the one outside the green dor I like the one outside the green door PPL30 0:57:50 Peter door door PPL31 0:58:45 Louis oic oh, I see PPL32 0:59:06 Louis i chose that door ga ga (gaa3) I chose that door statement wa (surprise or PPL33 0:59:33 Peter wa....u ar ar (aa4) oh, is it you? question: confirm: enquire: check wonder) PPL34 0:59:41 Peter great it's great 0:59:42 Peter haa (*laugh) PPL35 1:00:18 Louis ...dunno ga… ga (gaa3) I didn't know the effect statement I just felt that, it would be a good background for PPL36 Louis just felt that would be a good position ja ja (zaa3) statement-continue taking photos PPL37 1:00:22 Peter yes ar ar (aa4) really? question: confirm: enquire: check PPL38 1:00:29 Peter gd background it's a good background but i chose the one in the tunnel but I chose the picture with a tunnel standing in PPL39 1:00:25 Louis standing just infront of the stairs as my wor (wo3) statement front of the stairs as my wallpaper (?) wallpaper wor I see…..there are so many girls/dogs(?) which are PPL40 1:02:10 Peter or....so many not bad also la la (laa1) statement or (I see) not bad PPL41 1:02:40 Louis ok la.… la (laa1) ok… statement

198 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. vocalization PPL42 Louis why don't you sleep ar ar (aa3) why don't you sleep? question: apprize: precise PPL43 1:03:00 Peter juz talk phone ja, ja (zaa3) I just finished talking on phone statement in response to [precise] PPL44 coz my gf juz back from US today because my girlfriend just came back from US PPL45 1:03:35 Louis wow....so you talk la… la (laa1) wow….so keep chatting on the phone statement PPL46 Louis i am out la...anyway .… la (laa3) I am going out…anyway statement PPL47 Louis there is a big match tonite wor wor (wo3) there is a big soccer match tonight statement PPL48 1:03:46 Louis are you going to watch oh yes, will you watch it? PPL49 1:03:55 Peter finished talking lu lu (lu3) I've finished talking with my girlfriend already statement PPL50 1:03:56 Peter yea yes, I will watch it PPL51 1:04:08 Peter want to watch ar.… ar (aa3) I want to watch statement but I don't know if I have the energy to watch it or PPL52 Peter dunno if i have energy not PPL53 1:04:13 Louis where to watch where will you watch it? PPL54 1:04:23 Louis i got a dayoff tmw I have a day off tomorrow statement in response to question PPL55 1:04:29 Peter home ar.... ar (aa3) I will watch it at home [PPL53] PPL56 1:04:39 Peter so happy dayoff it's so nice that you have a day off PPL57 1:04:54 Louis yea yes, it is PPL58 1:05:09 Peter u watch at home as well? will you watch it at home as well?

199 HF Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization HIHI... have you tried to download the HF1 23:58:50 Henry ar (aa3) folder again ar?? Hihi…have you tried to download the file again? question: confirm: enquire: ask HF2 23:59:37 Frank yes ar~~ ar (aa3) yes, I have statement in response to [ask] HF3 Frank but i only can access 32 files but I can only access 32 files HF4 12:00:16 ar (aa3) Henry haha... yes ar... yes, that is right statement in response to statement ja ma (ze1 statement in response to statement HF5 Henry just level 1 ja ma... because it is only level one aa1 maa3) -continue HF6 12:00:31 Frank icic~~ I see I see HF7 12:00:32 Henry there is no level 2 and 3 notes online ar ar (aa3) there are no level 2 or level 3 notes available online statement 12:00:39 Henry hehe~~ (*giggle) forgot to tell you i have sent the team list to la (laa3) statement HF8 12:04:41 Henry I forgot to tell you that I had email the team list to the the teacher la teacher HF9 12:04:56 Frank yes yes~~ Yes, I know HF10 Frank I got ur rmail I had received your email HF11 12:05:37 Henry have i cc to you two?? Did I send you two carbon copies? HF12 Henry sorry…forgot already~~ sorry, I forgot HF13 12:05:55 Frank yes ar~~~ ar (aa3) yes, you did statement in response to [HF11] statement in response to statement HF14 Frank nvm la la (laa1) never mind -continue HF15 11:21:54 Henry will you go to harbor bridge today ar?? ar (aa3) will you go to harbor bridge today? question: confirm: enquire: ask HF16 11:22:16 Frank probably not.. I am probably not going O... people said that it's a very huge HF17 11:23:17 Henry oh, people said it's a very huge event… event... HF18 Henry never mind... never-mind HF19 Henry I just ask ask... I am just curious HF20 Henry since my flatmate will go... since my flat-mate will go HF21 11:23:30 Frank 75 th anniversary ma~ ma (maa3) it's the 75th anniversary statement haha... but i am going to do the other HF22 11:23:47 Henry (*laugh) but I have something else to do thing...

200 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization HF23 11:24:18 Henry to help my friend to choose car I have to help my friend to choose a car HF24 11:25:35 Frank icic~ I see, I see HF25 11:25:49 Henry so, what are you going to do today?? so, what are you going to do today? HF26 11:26:45 Frank mmm..dunno yet.. uumm, I don't know yet HF27 Frank maybe go to gym maybe I will go to the gym HF28 11:27:30 Henry oic... so healthy... haha... oh, I see, you are being healthy (*laugh) 11:28:05 Frank *yeah (*smiley)

201 PC Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization

did u ask Wallace to pick you up in did u ask Wallace to pick you up at PC1 1:52:41 Peter question: confirm: enquire: ask the train station? the train station? 1:53:04 Chloe ah...not yet.....hahaaa ah (sudden PC2 oh, I haven't asked him yet..(*laugh) statement in response to [ask] realization) PC3 1:53:35 Peter gum is u dun ask .…. it's you who won't ask him to pick you up PC4 Peter dun say wt danger later ar..ghaa ar (aa3) don't say it is dangerous (*laugh) command: exhortative ar ma because I am doing assignment statement in response to 1:54:04 Chloe i 'm doing assignment ar ma.....… (aa1 PC5 [command] maa3) PC6 Chloe forgot jo jo (zo1) I forgot about it 1:54:06 Chloe hahaa (*laugh) PC7 1:54:20 Peter or....gum u continue lo lor (lo1) ok…you continue then or (ok) PC8 1:54:28 Chloe okay~~okay~~ ok, ok offer:initating: conclusive: PC9 1:54:36 Chloe may be i ask him later la~hahahaa la (laa1) maybe I will ask him later (*laugh) addressee: benevolent PC10 1:54:49 Peter maybe… maybe, PC11 Peter u like lo....ai. lor (lo1) whatever statement ai (sigh) question: apprize: precise: PC12 1:55:11 Chloe what ar? ar (aa3) what? specify PC13 1:55:20 Peter nth.... nothing PC14 1:55:32 Chloe tell me ar~~ ar (aa1) tell me command: exhortative PC15 1:56:01 Peter reali nth ar..haaa.. ar (aa3) really nothing (*laugh) statement PC16 Peter how to tell … What am I suppose to tell you? 1:56:17 Chloe =___=...... (*smiley) PC17 1:57:39 Chloe haha~but u woke up finally~ (*laugh) u woke up finally 1:57:40 Chloe haha (*laugh) statement in response to PC18 1:58:17 Peter yes ar.… ar (aa3) yes, I woke up finally statement PC19 Peter i back to my room I went back to my room

202 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization PC20 Peter n slept b4.. and slept for awhile PC21 Peter then wake up then I woke up PC22 Peter n go to comp lab lo lor (lo1) and went to the computer laboratory statement wah (expresses oh my god….is it really the fact that u slept at that surprise or PC23 1:58:38 Chloe wah...... u sleep at the time ga ga (gaa4) time? wonder) PC24 1:59:00 Peter wt u mean what do you mean? PC25 1:59:40 Chloe u sleep until 3.… you slept until 3:00 PC26 Chloe and then wake up for awhile.… then woke up for awhile PC27 Chloe sleep again after dinner.… and you slept again after dinner PC28 Chloe wake up you woke up for awhile PC29 Chloe ain land sleep ag and you slept again PC30 1:59:50 Chloe wake up you woke up for awhile PC31 Chloe and sleep again and you slept again ar ma (aa1 statement PC32 2:00:07 Peter i slept late at nite ar ma because I slept late at night maa3) 2:00:16 Chloe uuummmmm...... (*thinking) PC33 2:01:17 Chloe may be la...... hahaa la (laa1) maybe statement PC34 2:02:01 Peter wt maybe… what maybe PC35 Peter must be la la (laa1) it's 'must be' statement ummmm...... okay~~okay~ yes lo PC36 2:03:22 Chloe lor (lo1) (*thinking) ok, ok, yes you are then statement then chur (=disparagement, PC37 2:03:42 Peter cher...seems not agree (tut-tut) it seems that you don't agree like tut-tut in English) PC38 2:03:49 Chloe AGREE~! I agree PC39 2:04:10 Peter gd gal you are a good girl PC40 2:05:17 Chloe YEAH~haha yeah (*laugh)

203 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of message No. Vocalization question: aprrize: precise: PC41 2:05:36 Peter hows your work ar ar (aa3) How’s your assignment going? explain statement in repsonse to PC42 2:05:48 Chloe ai...... still doing la...... la (laa3) sigh, I am still working on it [explain] ai (sigh) statement in repsonse to PC43 2:06:03 Chloe i hope i can finish on time la la (laa1) I hope I can finish it on time [explain] - continue PC44 2:06:51 Peter do it faster la..... la (laa1) do it quickly command: exhortative statement in repsonse to PC45 2:07:15 Chloe trying la...... … la (laa1) I am trying my best to finish it quickly [command: exhortative] statement in repsonse to PC46 Chloe too many la la (laa1) but I have so many assignments to do [command: exhortative] - continue PC47 2:07:40 Peter um..dun alwayz so slow ...haaa don't be so slow PC48 2:08:23 Chloe i'm very fast now la~ la (laa3) I am doing it quickly statement in response to [PC47] PC49 2:09:22 Peter hai meh?haaa meh(me1) really? (*laugh) question:confirm: enquire: check PC50 2:10:06 Chloe hai ar~!!!>_< ar (aa3) yes statement in response to [check] PC51 2:11:41 Peter how fast sin? sin (sin1) How fast is it? statement in response to PC52 2:11:51 Chloe uummm...... fast lor lor (lo1) it's just fast [specify] 2:11:53 Chloe hahahaa (*laugh) PC53 then you better concentrate on your assignments 2:13:40 Peter then concentrate more la la (laa1) command: non-exhortative PC54 2:13:48 Chloe okay~~okay ok, ok

204

PJ Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization PJ1 Perry hey... hey PJ2 Jenny yes yes, what's up? question: apprize: precise: PJ3 Perry how are u ar??? ar (aa3) how are you? explain statement in repsonse to PJ4 Jenny good ar ar (aa3) I am good [exaplain] PJ5 Jenny working now I am working now PJ6 Jenny u? How about you? PJ7 Perry that's gd then la… la (laa1) that's good statement PJ8 Perry will hcange to new job in May 21st I will get a new job on 21st May PJ9 Jenny where will u work? what company is it? PJ10 Perry Fotan It is called Fotan PJ11 Perry and where do u work now???? where are you working now? PJ12 Jenny wah (*exclamation) oh my god PJ13 Jenny so far... my company is very far away question: apprize: precise: PJ14 Perry what kind of the job are u working ar??? ar (aa3) what kind of job are you working now? specify PJ15 Jenny merchandising I am working as a merchandiser PJ16 Jenny how about u? how about you? PJ17 Perry sales lor... lor (lo1) I am working as a salesman statement in repsonse to [PJ16] PJ18 Jenny what kind of sales? what kind of salesman? PJ19 Perry 行街 sales lor.... lor (lo1) sales representative statement in repsonse to [PJ18] I am selling labeling materials in a US based PJ20 Perry selling labelling materials in a US based co. co. PJ21 Jenny how much? how is the salary? PJ22 Perry u say first la... la (laa1) you tell me first command: exhortative: pointed PJ23 Perry here??? are you here? 205 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization PJ24 Jenny yes yes, I am here question: apprize: precise: PJ25 Perry what's yr salary rate per month ar??? ar (aa3) how much do you get paid per month? specify PJ26 Jenny I'm here ar ar (aa3) I am here statement in repsonse to [PJ 23] question: apprize: precise: PJ27 Perry what's yr salary rate per month ar??? ar (aa3) how much do you get paid per month? specify PJ28 Perry and how about the career advancement???? and how about the career advancement?

PJ29 Jenny I am now on the lowest position la.. Statement in repsonse to [PJ la (laa1) I am in the lowest position now 28] PJ30 Jenny as a assistant merchandiser I am an assistant merchandiser PJ31 Jenny 9k I have $9000 per month PJ32 Jenny but I really have interest on it… but I am really interested in this job PJ33 Jenny so I think it's ok la... la (laa1) so, I think it's ok statement PJ34 Perry so will mark up after probation??? will you have a pay rise after probation? the staff in the company said I will receive a pay PJ35 Jenny they said should be lor.... lor (lo1) rise statement in repsonse to [PJ34] gwa I think maybe I can be a merchandiser 2 years PJ36 Jenny and I think 2 years later I can be Merchandiser gwa.... statement (gwaa3) later because my in-charge Merchandiser also only work for PJ37 Jenny because my supervisor only work for 3 years 3 years... PJ38 Perry what kind of the merchandiser is ??? what kind of merchandiser is it? PJ39 Jenny and she is younger than me !! and she is younger than me!! PJ40 Jenny garment it is about garment PJ41 Jenny mainly in denim and is mainly in denim PJ42 Perry which co aR??? ar (aa3) which company? question: precise: specify PJ43 Perry so do u hv to go to other countries??? and do you have to go other countries?

206

SE Mess Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization SE1 23:49 Shirley Ellen...... Ellen SE2 23:50 Ellen Shirley~~~~~~~>_< Shirley SE3 23:51 Ellen how are u ar? ar (aa3) how are you? question: apprize: precise: explain SE4 Ellen miss u soooooooo much I miss you so much SE5 23:53 Shirley i made a new blog la~~~ la (laa3) I made a new blog statement SE6 23:54 Ellen really!!!!!!!???? really? SE7 Ellen good that's good SE8 Ellen good~~~ that's good SE9 Ellen send me~~~>_< send it to me SE10 23:54 Shirley open my info ..… open my 'info' ga la SE11 Shirley can see ga la~~ then you can see the link statement (gaa3 laa3) SE12 Shirley have u ga~~ ga (gaa3) u are mentioned in the blog statement SE13 23:55 Ellen no ar...... ar (aa3) there is no link in the 'info' statement SE14 23:55 Ellen i can't find it.... I can't find it SE15 23:55 Shirley ok...send to u~~~ ok, I will send it to you 23:55 Shirley (*the link) (*the link) SE16 23:57 Shirley seeing~~ahahha I am browsing it SE17 0:00 Ellen ahaha~~it is sooo cute!!! (*laugh) it is so cute u know, momo and i will have this SE18 0:02 Shirley 遊船河 u know maria and I will go for a cruise this saturday~~~ saturday wah (= surprise SE19 0:03 Ellen wahhhhhhhhhhhhhh, so good~~~ wow, that's so good or wonder) SE20 Ellen u hang out with momo a lot le le (ne) u hang out with maria all the time statement SE21 Ellen u guys working together now? u guys work together now? SE22 0:03 Shirley no.… no, we are not

207 Mess Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization SE23 Shirley she cant ar.… ar (aa3) she can't work in my company statement SE24 Shirley bcoz her Bf back working there.... because her boyfriend is working there SE25 Shirley so the manager didnt allow law.… lor (lo1) so the manager doesn't allow her to work there statement SE26 Shirley very bad ar~ ar (aa3) it's very bad statement SE27 0:04 Shirley but she had just had a interview today.... but she had an interview today SE28 Shirley bank of china ar… ar (aa3) it is in Bank of China statement SE29 Shirley i introduce to her ~~~ I recommend her to the manager (??) SE30 0:04 Ellen whahhaa~~is it~!? (*laugh) is it? SE31 Ellen can't imagine she works as a clerk...... I can't imagine she works as a clerk SE32 0:05 Ellen then u still working in bank of china now? then u still work in Bank of China now? SE33 Shirley snot clerk..… her position is not clerk SE34 Shirley maybe teller~~~ maybe she will be a teller SE35 0:05 Shirley no… no, I don't work in Bank of China anymore SE36 Shirley i work at momo's previous club house..... I am working in the club house where maria used to work in SE37 0:05 Shirley together with her bf`~~ I am working with her boyfriend SE38 0:06 Ellen ahahhaa, u guys swap....||| (*laugh) u guys swap the position SE39 Ellen ahahhahaaaa, so funny!!!! (*laugh) it is so funny SE40 0:06 Shirley yes ar..… ar (aa3) yes, it is funny statement i suppose i can work with maria together b4 ga ma SE41 Shirley I thought I can work with maria statement ga ma~~ (ge3 aa1 maa3) are you still waiting for the offer from thePolice SE42 0:07 Ellen so still waiting for police? Training School? SE43 0:07 Shirley yes ar`~~ ar (aa3) yes, I am still waiting statement SE44 Shirley very depress~~~ I am feeling very depress SE45 0:07 Ellen y depress!!???? why do you feel depress? SE46 0:10 Shirley have to wait ma~~~ ma (maa3) because I have to wait for the offer statement SE47 Shirley i waited for a long time la~~~ la (laa3) I have been waiting for a long time statement SE48 0:11 Ellen how come have to wait for so long ga? ga(gaa3) Why do you have to wait for so long? question: apprize: precise: exaplain

208 Mess Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization Are you sure no one gets the offer from PTS SE49 Ellen u sure others not in PTS? (Police Training School)? SE50 Ellen I mean u still have to wait? I mean you still have to wait for it? I knew some applicants have received the offer SE51 0:11 Shirley i knew someone have enroll to PTS la.... la (laa3) statement already but i also knew someone who is earlier than but I also knew that some applicants who had SE52 Shirley me are same as me~~ applied earlier than me are still waiting SE53 0:13 Ellen uumm....i wonder what is happening...... uumm…I wonder what is happening SE54 0:13 Shirley u mean...... ? what do you mean? SE55 0:14 Ellen so strange..… I mean it's so strange i think they have to let ppl know wheather I think they have to notify the applicants whether SE56 Ellen they are in or not, they will get the offer or not SE57 Ellen shouldn't ask ppl just wait they shouldn't let people wait SE58 0:14 Shirley SO...... very bad ~~~ it's so bad command:non-suggestive:non SE59 0:14 Ellen u should have confidence la!!!!! la (laa1) you should believe in yourself exhortative SE60 Ellen don't be upset, don't be upset SE61 Ellen u are the best! you are the best SE62 0:15 Shirley i get it..… I know SE63 Shirley i know all of my fds care me so much..... I know all my friends care about me so much SE64 Shirley i must have confidence.… I must believe in myself SE65 Shirley as i am sharon~~~ as I am Sharon SE66 0:16 Ellen yeah!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! yeah!!! SE67 Ellen don't give up ar, ar (aa3) don't give up command:non-suggestive:exhortative SE68 Ellen as this is yr dream ma~~ ma (maa3) since being a policewoman is your dream statement SE69 0:17 Shirley yes....u too...... yes, you shouldn't give up your dream as well SE70 Shirley both of us have to follow our dream both of us have to follow our dream SE71 Shirley and make it come true~~~ and make it come true ahahhaaa, sigh.....i also don't know what is SE72 0:18 Ellen (*laugh) (*sigh) I don't know what is my my dream....ahaha dream….(*laugh) 209 Mess Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization SE73 0:19 Shirley think about it.....~ then you should think about it SE74 Shirley i have to bath I have to bath SE75 Shirley and sleep la.… la (laa3) and sleep statement because I have to go to work really early in the SE76 Shirley as i work very early tomolo ar statement ar (aa3) morning SE77 Shirley 7:00am..… I have to work at 7:00am SE78 Shirley very shit lei`~~ le (ne) it's very bad statement SE79 0:22 Ellen ahaha~~~ add oil!!!! (*laugh) work hard! SE80 then goodnight and sweet dreams la la (laa1) goodnight statement SE81 0:22 Shirley talk to u next time! talk to you next time command: suggestive: SE82 0:23 Ellen must la.… la (laa1) we must talk again next time non-exhortative SE83 Ellen we have to chat more ~~~ we have to chat more SE84 Ellen have a nice night..... have a goodnight SE85 Ellen but dun forget.… but don't forget SE86 Ellen my birthday is coming la~~haha!!!!! la (laa3) my birthday is coming (*laugh) statement SE87 0:23 Shirley ahahhaa~~~okok !!! (*laugh)ok, I will not forget SE88 Shirley must remember la~~~ la (laa1) I must remember your birthday statement SE89 0:24 Ellen bye~~ bye SE90 0:25 Shirley see you`~~ see you

210

BS Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization BS1 12:54:04 PM Betty r u ok there?? Is everything ok in wollogong? BS2 12:54:22 PM Samuel yes' yes, everything is ok BS3 12:54:29 PM Samuel u don't have to work ma? ma yo don't have to work? question: confirm:enquire: check BS4 12:54:56 PM Betty no ar!!! ar (aa3) No, I don't have to work statement BS5 Betty day off!! I have a day off today BS6 12:55:08 PM Betty n i am going back to hk on thur and I am going back to Hong Kong on Thursday BS7 12:55:21 PM Betty do u wan anythIng from hk?? Do you want anything from Hong Kong? 12:55:22 PM Samuel haha... (*laugh) question: apprize: precise: BS8 12:55:25 PM Samuel why ar? ar (aa3) why are you going back to Hong Kong? explain BS9 12:55:33 PM Samuel u go for holiday ma ma Are you going back for holiday question:confirm: enquire:check 12:55:33 PM Samuel ? ? BS10 12:55:43 PM Samuel so happy ar ar (aa4) that’s good? question: confirm:enquire: ask BS11 12:55:47 PM Betty yes!!! yes, I am going back for holiday BS12 12:55:55 PM Betty ok la!! la (laa1) it's ok statement BS13 12:56:12 PM Betty see my paRents I have to see my parents BS14 Betty n my frd's wedding and attend my friend's wedding BS15 12:56:28 PM Samuel i don't know wt hv to buy from hk,,, I don't know what should I get from Hong Kong 12:56:39 PM Betty haha!! (*laugh) BS16 12:56:55 PM Betty think about it think about it BS17 Betty n let me know and let me know BS18 Betty if u wan anytHing!! if you want anything BS19 12:57:15 PM Betty i will be flying off hk on the 10th June my flight to Hong Kong is on 10th June BS20 12:58:01 PM Samuel okok.... okok… I see, I see…(laugh)..it's good to go back to Hong BS21 Samuel icic.... haha..good to be back to hk Kong BS22 12:58:46 PM Betty ok la!!! la (laa1) it's ok statement BS23 12:59:01 PM Betty haven't gone back for 1 yr+ I haven't been back for more than 1 year 211 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization BS24 12:59:56 PM Samuel i know.... I know…. BS25 Samuel don't think u will enjoy it,,, I don't think you will enjoy the holiday in Hong Kong BS26 Samuel it's so hot in hk it's so hot in Hong Kong now BS27 1:00:31 PM Betty i know... I know BS28 1:00:41 PM Betty around 30C... it’s around 30 BS29 1:01:26 PM Samuel sound bad ar... ar (aa3) it sounds bad statement BS30 1:02:19 PM Betty i know... I know… BS31 1:02:21 PM Samuel haha... how 's ur work? (*laugh) how's your work going? BS32 Samuel any chance to change this year any opportunity to change a new job this year? BS33 1:02:43 PM Betty may be won't change job yet... maybe I won't change the job yet BS34 1:02:51 PM Betty see what happen la la (laa1) see what will happen statement BS35 Betty may stay with thIs hotel for a bit longer I may stay in this hotel for a bit longer BS36 1:04:09 PM Samuel oh... really good ma ? ma oh…..is it that good? question: confirm:enquire: check BS37 1:07:29 PM Betty not say good la.. la (laa1) I can't say it's good statement in repsonse to [ask] BS38 1:07:41 PM Betty but it is a good place to start with but it is a good place to start with as in get to learn about the hotel BS39 1:07:59 PM Betty so that I can get to learn more about this industry industry BS40 1:08:13 PM Betty becoz it is a small hotel, because it is a small hotel

BS41 Betty n not too busy and it is not too busy oh... haha... my final exam is coming BS42 1:10:02 PM Samuel la (laa3) oh…(*laugh) my final exam is coming soon statement la.. BS43 1:10:09 PM Samuel getting to vy busy soon. I am getting busy BS44 1:11:16 PM Betty when is it start?? when is your exam? statement in response to BS45 1:11:26 PM Samuel two weeks later la la (laa1) two weeks later question BS46 1:12:44 PM Betty ooh!!! so when i come back oh!!so when I come back BS47 Betty then u will be having exam!!! you will be having exam BS48 1:16:53 PM Samuel yet yet (??) 1:17:26 PM Betty haha!! (*laugh) BS49 1:18:01 PM Betty r u busy?? are you busy? BS50 1:18:11 PM Betty if so if so

212 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization BS51 Betty i talk to u later lor lor (lo1) I will talk to you later statement BS52 1:19:33 PM Samuel just writing up my progress report now.. I am just writing my progress report now BS53 Samuel haha... have to hand in on friday.. (*laugh) I have to hand it in on Friday BS54 1:19:54 PM Samuel my last assignment this semester,, this is my last assignment in this semester BS55 Samuel then , i will be freee I will be free after that BS56 1:19:55 PM Betty next fri?? the due day is next Friday? BS57 1:20:05 PM Betty good la!!! la (laa1) that's good! statement BS58 1:20:24 PM Samuel this friday la.. so ,,, la (laa1) the due day is this Friday?so… statement BS59 1:21:25 PM Betty ooh!!! ooh!!! BS60 1:21:33 PM Betty yesyes!! of course!!! yes, the due day is this Friday of course

213 RL Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization RL1 11:12:22 Raymond just on time back to c u online I came back on time, so I can see u online RL2 11:12:34 Lily good~~ that's good RL3 11:12:34 Raymond finally,~~~~~ finally RL4 11:12:43 Raymond u online la la (laa1) you are online RL5 11:12:45 Lily long time on online at home I haven't been online at home for a long time RL6 11:12:48 Lily yes yes yes, I am online now 11:12:49 Lily hehe (*giggle) 11:12:52 Raymond hahhaa (*laugh) 11:13:05 Raymond (cool) (icon) coz computer ah head ask me RL7 11:13:08 Lily because supervisor of the computer for resume wor... wor (wo5) department asked me for resume statement RL8 Lily gotta edit I have to edit it 11:13:09 Lily haha (*laugh) 11:13:14 Lily hhaa (*laugh) (跳舞)(跳舞)(跳舞)(跳舞) 11:13:20 Raymond (跳舞)(跳舞)(跳舞)(跳舞)(跳舞) (*icon) 11:13:26 Lily star~ (*icon) 11:13:30 Lily hhaha (*laugh) RL9 11:13:44 Raymond head ask u for resume?? the department head asked you for resume? RL10 11:13:50 Raymond how come ge ge (ge2) how come? question: apprize:precise:explain statement in response to question RL11 11:14:08 Lily yes ar, ar (aa3) yes [RL10] RL12 Lily he said he ask all people la wor la wor he said he has asked everyone for resume (laa3 wo5) already statement RL13 11:15:07 Raymond what for what is that for?

214 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization RL14 11:15:11 Raymond ma fan it's so troublesome RL15 11:17:30 Lily not my head he is not my supervisor RL16 11:17:34 Lily programmer head my supervisor is the head of the programming department RL17 11:17:42 Raymond icic I see, I see RL18 11:17:57 Lily ask my resume during work he asked for my resume during work RL19 11:18:02 Lily i dun have time to prepare I don't have time to perpare it RL20 11:18:46 Lily nono, no, no (????) RL21 Lily ask during work he asked me for resume during working hour I guess it is because he doesn't have RL22 11:18:54 Lily i guess he dun have my mobile la la (laa1) statement my mobile number RL23 11:21:10 Raymond i thought u sleep tim tim (tim1) I thougt you slept already statement RL24 11:21:12 Lily iicc I see I see RL25 11:21:24 Lily i dunno wor, wor (wo3) I don't know statement RL26 Lily he will not show to me he will not show it to me (???) RL27 11:21:38 Lily "CALL LEI" ~~ I will call you RL28 11:21:45 Lily i can 8 8 later I can get some first hand news RL29 11:21:57 Raymond just ask ask je :P je (ze1) I am asking only statement RL30 11:22:00 Lily want to sleep ar, ar (aa3) I want to sleep statement RL31 Lily have somethg to do with comp ma ma (maa3) I have something to do with computer statement RL32 11:22:04 Lily i want to know too I want to know as well RL33 11:22:10 Raymond :"call lei" :P hahhaa I will call you (*laugh) 11:22:32 Lily :P (*smiley) RL34 11:22:46 Lily i get it now , hah I got it, (*laugh) RL35 11:23:02 Lily btw, send some songs to me ar~~ ar (aa1) by the way, send me so songs command:ehortative:muted RL36 11:23:15 Raymond okie ok, I can send you some new songs 215 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization RL37 Raymond zipping now I am zipping those songs now RL38 11:23:28 Lily good~~ that's good 11:24:53 Raymond (cool) (*icon) 11:26:46 Raymond heeee (*giggle) 11:32:56 Raymond sends J:\吳雨霏 - In Control.rar (*sending songs) RL39 11:33:11 Lily yeah yeah RL40 11:41:01 Lily doing what? what are you doing? RL41 11:41:55 Raymond looking esdlife website I am surfing the esdlife website 11:41:57 Raymond hahaha (*laugh) RL42 11:42:06 Raymond u le? le (le1) how about you? question: apprize:vague RL43 11:42:29 Lily just start the resume, hehe I just started to edit the resume RL44 11:42:33 Lily and online at the same time and I online at the same time RL45 11:42:43 Raymond oh~ ic oh, I see la wor RL46 11:42:54 Raymond but very late la wor it is very late now statement (laa3 wo3) RL47 11:44:43 Lily yes ar.. ar (aa3) yes, it is very late now statement RL48 Lily dun want to rewrite it ma.. heheh ma (maa3) because I don't want to rewrite it (*giggle) statement RL49 11:46:12 Raymond then just pass yr orginal one lor lor (lo1) then just pass him the orginal one statement RL50 11:48:05 Lily i roughly amend some la la (laa3) I amend some parts roughly statement

216

MC Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization MC1 1:02:05 Carol how are u ar ar (aa3) how are you? question: apprize: precise: explain MC2 1:02:16 Marcus i ok I am ok MC3 Marcus wht about you lei lei (le1) how about you? question: apprize:vague MC4 1:02:26 Carol ok la la (laa1) so so statement MC5 1:02:35 Carol how is yr job? how is your job? MC6 1:03:04 Marcus where you have been ar? ar (aa3) where have you been? question: apprize: precise: specify lor wor MC7 Marcus long time havn;t seen you online la wor haven't seens you online for long time statement (laa3 wo3) MC8 1:03:23 Carol busy working I am busy for working MC9 1:03:34 Marcus I'm good .. I am good MC10 Marcus working in IT company as a salve .. I am working like a slave in an IT company gua MC11 1:03:49 Carol hahaha, not that bad gua (*laugh) it is not that bad, right? statement (gwaa3) MC12 1:04:40 Marcus want to try something different later I want to try something different later MC13 1:05:05 Carol how different sin? sin (sin1) how different question: apprize: precise: explain I want to dosomething which is my

MC14 1:08:10 Marcus do something wht is my profession lor lor (lo1) profession statement MC15 1:08:52 Carol I.T? that means IT? MC16 1:10:35 Marcus sure of course MC17 1:10:41 Marcus u lei? lei (le1) how about you? question: apprize:vague statement in response to [question: MC18 1:11:10 Carol don't know ar...... ar (aa3) I don't know vague] MC19 1:11:20 Carol haven't think abt it yet I haven't think about it yet MC20 1:11:30 Carol u met jen , right? you met Jen, right? MC21 1:11:35 Carol when she came to hk when she came to Hong Kong she came to Hong kong a couple of weeks MC22 1:12:15 Marcus couple of weeks ago … ago

217 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization maybe she came to Hong Kong few weeks

MC23 Marcus may be .. ago MC24 1:12:23 Marcus can't remember la la (laa3) I can't remember the date statement MC25 1:12:28 Marcus hey hey hey hey MC26 1:12:36 Marcus you know wht you know what MC27 1:12:36 Carol what ar? ar (aa3) what? question: apprize:precise: specify MC28 1:12:54 Marcus i'll go to sg to join marathon .... I will join a marathon in Singapore MC29 1:12:58 Marcus on dec... in December 1:13:05 Carol hahahahahahaha!!! (*laugh) MC30 1:13:11 Carol i heard that from jenny I heard that from Jenny MC31 1:13:15 Carol u are so crazy lor lor (lo1) you are so crazy! statement MC32 1:13:19 Marcus wht jek jek (zek1) what question: apprize:precise: specify MC33 1:13:23 Carol go there just for marathon you go to Singapore just for marathon 1:13:29 Carol hahah (*laugh) MC34 1:13:31 Carol so chi sin you are so crazy! MC35 1:13:37 Marcus ya.… yes,I go to Singapore just for marathon MC36 Marcus anything wrong mei mei (me1) is there anything wrong? question: confirm: enquire: ask MC37 1:13:47 Carol quite wrong it is uite wrong 1:13:50 Carol hahahahaha (*laugh) MC38 1:14:15 Carol y u wanna join? why do you want to join the marathon? MC39 1:15:46 Marcus my hobby.... that's my hobby i went to macau, taiwan to join marathon i went to Macau and Taiwan for marathon

MC40 1:16:21 Marcus as well haha as well (*laugh) MC41 1:16:59 Marcus japan and thai will be next place fo me... Japan and Thailand will be the next stop MC42 1:17:18 Marcus i think it is so fun I think it is so fun MC43 1:17:37 Carol chi sin ga~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ga (gaa3) you are crazy! statement 1:17:43 Carol hahahahhahahahahahah (*laugh) MC44 1:17:48 Carol omg oh my god 1:17:57 Carol hahha (*laugh) MC45 1:18:01 Carol u really like running you really like running

218 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization so, will you join "Standard Chartered MC46 1:18:27 Carol so will u join the "ja da marathon " 2008? Marathon in 2008? MC47 1:19:43 Marcus hk or sg or… you mean Hong Kong or Singapore one? MC48 Marcus where sin? sin (sin1) where do you mean? question: apprize: precise: specify Standard Chartered hold marathon in many

MC49 Marcus ja da hold marathon in many place wor wor (wo3) places statement MC50 1:22:08 Carol hk la la (laa1) I mean the one in Hong Kong statement I will not join Hong Kong Standard Chartered MC51 1:23:54 Marcus may be not hold marathon next year MC52 Marcus i joined that already.… I joined it before MC53 Marcus and weather is so bad in hk.… and the weather is so bad in Hong Kong MC54 Marcus dont wanna die because of air pollution I don't want to die because of air pollution 1:24:08 Carol hahahaha (*laugh) gua MC55 1:24:18 Carol not that bad gua...... statement (gwaa3) not that bad, right? MC56 1:24:32 Marcus really worest...in here it is really bad in here MC57 1:25:17 Marcus just like 60's 70's england.... it is just like England in 60s and 70s wah (= surprise or MC58 1:25:38 Carol wahhhhh Oh my god wonder) MC59 1:26:39 Carol that's y u wanna go back to oz that's why you want to go back to Australia? 1:26:40 Carol hahaha (*laugh) MC60 1:27:13 Marcus apply a job in sg ar... ar (aa3) I will apply a job in Singapore statement MC61 1:27:55 Carol serious ?? are you serious? statement in response to statement MC62 1:28:08 Marcus yes ar.... ar (aa3) yes, I am serious [MS65] MC63 1:28:14 Carol thought u wanna go malaysia I thought you want to go Malaysia 1:28:15 Carol haha (*laugh) MC64 1:28:43 Marcus whtever la la (laa1) whatever statement MC65 Marcus as long as i can leave ...…. as long as I can leave

219 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization aiya (negative exclamation, expresses MC66 1:29:16 Marcus aiya.....I got to go la... la (laa3) oh…I have to go statement shock or disapproval) MC67 1:29:24 Carol go clubbing ? Are you going clubbing? 1:29:26 Carol haha (*laugh) MC68 1:29:30 Carol okok okok MC69 1:29:55 Marcus talk you later ....leng lui I talk to you later, pretty MC70 1:30:00 Marcus see u see you MC71 1:30:09 Carol bb bye bye

220

MM Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization MM1 1:22:40 Margaret how is yr master going ar? ar (aa3) how is your master going? question:apprize:precise:explain MM2 1:23:20 Matthew ok la, la (laa1) it's so so statement respeonse to [explain] statement response to [explain] - MM3 Matthew need to write thesis la la (laa3) I need to start writing thesis continue MM4 1:23:31 Margaret already? you have to start writing thesis already? MM5 1:23:38 Matthew writing la la (laa3) I have started writing already statement in response to [MM4] MM6 1:23:39 Margaret is this yr second session? is this your second session? MM7 1:23:53 Matthew not a ar (aa3) no, this is not my second session statement in response to [MM6] statement in response to [MM6] - MM8 1:24:10 Matthew 4 seme total a, ar (aa3) I have 4 sessions in total continue MM9 Matthew 3rd la now this is my third session now I see, I see, that means this is your second MM10 1:24:33 Margaret icic!!!, that means 2 years? year? MM11 1:24:41 Matthew yes a ar (aa3) yes, this is my second year statement in response to [MM10] MM12 1:24:43 Margaret are u doing part time of full time ar? ar (aa3) are you doing part time or full time? question:apprize:precise:specify MM13 1:24:49 Matthew part time, haha I am doing part time MM14 1:24:55 Margaret oh, yes oh, yes! MM15 1:24:58 Margaret i forgot I forgot that you are doing part time MM16 1:25:26 Matthew heehe, nevermind (*giggle) nevermind MM17 1:26:13 Margaret is it hard ar? yr thesis ar (aa3) is your thesis difficult? question: confirm:enquire:ask MM18 1:26:20 Margaret got everything u need? Have you gotten everything you need? MM19 1:26:41 Matthew i needa go to shanghai to collect data,haha I need to go Shangshai for collecting data MM20 1:26:51 Margaret so good~~ that's so good! MM21 1:26:55 Margaret can go travel wor wor (wo3) you can go travel!!!! statement MM22 1:27:11 Matthew also ok ,,hahaha yes, I also can go travel at the same time MM23 1:27:39 Margaret when will u go? when will you leave Hong Kong? 221 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization MM24 1:28:04 Matthew 28th sep I will leave Hong Kong on 28th September MM25 1:28:28 Margaret so nice!!!! it's so nice! MM26 1:28:39 Margaret how lon will u stay ar? ar (aa3) how long will you stay? question:apprize:precise:explain 1:28:42 Margaret long how long will you stay? MM27 1:28:43 Matthew not that good la,,, la (laa1) it's not that good actually statement MM28 Matthew need to do things there I have to get my information there 1:28:45 Matthew haha (*laugh) MM29 1:28:48 Matthew 15 days' I will stay for 15 days MM30 1:29:06 Margaret i envy u!!!!!!! I envy you! MM31 1:29:30 Matthew haha, not that good la,, la (laa1) (*laugh) it's not that good statement MM32 Matthew many things to do in shanghai, I have many things to do in Shangshai Matthew special olympics especially olympics oh ya, but yr topic is not related to olympics

MM33 1:30:03 Margaret wor wor (wo3) oh, yes! But your topic is ot related to olympic statement MM34 1:30:34 Matthew related now,,haha it is related now (*laugh) MM35 1:31:34 Margaret hahaha!!that's good, (*laugh) that's good MM36 Margaret easy to get information it is easy for you to get data MM37 1:31:53 Matthew hope so la,,, la (laa1) I hope so statement MM38 Matthew hard to approach athletes it 's hard to approach athletes MM39 1:32:41 Matthew go to bath sin sin (sin1) I go shower first statement MM40 1:32:42 Margaret i can imagine that,KEKEKE I understand it's hard t approach the athletes MM41 1:32:46 Margaret okok okok MM42 1:32:52 Matthew see u tomorrow see you tomorrow MM43 1:32:58 Margaret c ya see you MM44 1:32:58 Matthew bb la la (laa3) bye bye statement MM45 1:33:03 Margaret 88 bye bye

222

RP Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization RP1 Rita yes, you are correct. yes, you are right ga lah (gaa3 RP2 Rita i know her from Form 1 ga lah, I've known her from Form 1 statement laa3) RP3 Rita must go ga. ga (gaa3) That's why I have to go statement RP4 Rita if i know any pretty girls there, if I meet any pretty girls there offer:non-conclusive:benevolent: RP5 Rita let you know la. Haha la (laa1) I will let you know non-suggestive:assertive RP6 Perry haha...thanks wor...but canada, wor (wo3) (*laugh)thanks, but they are in Canada statement RP7 Perry too far la..hahaha… la (laa3) Canada is too far statement i choose some who will come back to HK. RP8 Rita then I will see if there are girls will come haha. back to Hong Kong RP9 Rita how's your new job too? how is your new job? RP10 Rita ok ma? ma (ma) is it ok? also, why you do not install msn on your RP11 Rita by the way, wh don't you install MSN on office computer? your office computer? RP12 Rita i know you are using web messenger I know you are using web messenger Rita (*icon) RP13 Perry my new job is ok ar.… ar (aa3) my new job is ok statement in response to [RP10] RP14 Perry actually not very hard lor.. lor (lo1) actually it's not that hard statement in response to [RP10] - continuing RP15 Perry yes ar, ar (aa3) yes, I am using web messenger statement in response to [RP12,13] I couldn't install anything in my computer because I cann't install anytihing on the statement in response to [RP12,13] - RP16 Perry la... la (laa1) computer continuing and i remember you said you can early RP17 Rita leave I remember that you said you can leave early RP18 Rita if you wish if you like RP19 Rita or see client ma. ma (maa3) or if you have to have meeting with clients statement RP20 Rita so good lei. lei (ne) it's really good statement 223 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization RP21 Rita msn in office is essential.… I think it is essntisl to have MSN in office RP22 Rita otherwise, will be bored if not, it will be really boring RP23 Perry yes la.... la (laa1) yes, I think soo too statement in repsonse to [RP21.22] that's why eventhough I cannot install it on my RP24 Perry that's y computer RP25 Perry even i was not permited to install, RP26 Perry i still keep using the web msn lor, hahaha lor (lo1) I still keep using web messenger (*laugh) statement RP27 Rita haha, yes (*laugh) yes RP28 Rita you are working on marketing? are you working in marketing? RP29 Perry no la… la (laa1) no, I am not statement in response to question [RP28] statement in response to question [RP28] - RP30 Perry sales executive ar... ar (aa3) I am working as sales executive continue RP31 Rita sell what ga?? ga (gaa3) what kind of product do you sell? question:apprize:precise:specify RP32 Perry labeling materials la... la (laa1) I am selling labelling materials statement in response to [specify] RP33 Rita such as price label? id price label one of the product? RP34 Rita upc label? How about upc label?

224

FM Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization FM1 0:23:27 Florence what are u doing ar? ar (aa3) what are you doing now? question:apprize:precise:specify FM2 0:23:32 Florence studying? are you studying? FM3 0:23:35 Maggie i was playing on my wii ar ar (aa3) I was playing Wii just now statement in response to question [FM2] FM4 0:23:41 Maggie wii tennis I was playing wii tennis FM5 0:23:48 Florence what!!!!!!!! are you serious? FM6 0:23:48 Maggie i was studying before I was studying before FM7 0:23:52 Florence gum good!!!!!!! that's so good FM8 0:23:59 Maggie u know wii ar ar (aa4) oh,you know wii? question:confirm:enquire:check FM9 0:24:02 Florence i am doing reading le le (ne) I am doing reading statement FM10 0:24:06 Florence i know ar ar (aa3) I know statement in response to [check] FM11 0:24:06 Maggie the new ninetendo wii is the new Ninetendo FM12 0:24:11 Maggie ic ic I see, I see 0:24:13 Maggie *ar (*icon) FM13 0:24:24 Maggie what kind of reading ar? ar (aa3) what kind of reading? question:apprize:precise:specify FM14 0:24:36 Florence ahaha, Japanese (*laugh), it's Japanese FM15 0:24:45 Maggie lol (*laugh out loud) FM16 0:24:47 Florence Japanese is so hard!!!! Japanese is so hard FM17 0:24:51 Maggie i know I know FM18 0:25:00 Maggie i have been in that situation before I have been in that situation before FM19 0:25:11 Florence hahaha, i know ar!!!! Hahahhaaaa ar (aa3) (*laugh) I know (*laugh) statement FM20 0:25:16 Maggie learning Japanese is so hard le haha le (ne) leaning Japanese is so hard statement what u toke photos with all those sources why did you take photos with so many FM21 0:26:58 Florence ar (aa3) question:apprize:precise: explain ar? sauces? FM22 0:27:03 Florence haha, so funny!!!! (*laugh), that's so funny FM23 0:27:13 Maggie what do u mean? what do yo mean?

225 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization FM24 0:27:20 Maggie no la la (laa1) no, you are wrong statement in response to question [explain] FM25 0:27:25 Florence yr msn photo your MSN photo FM26 0:27:31 Maggie those are bottles of alcohols those are bottles oof alcohols FM27 0:27:35 Maggie and soft drinks and soft drinks FM28 0:27:37 Florence hahhaha!!!! is it!!!??? (*laugh)is it?? FM29 0:27:40 Maggie not sauces ar ar (aa3) those are not sauces statement yes, those are bottles of alchohols and soft FM30 0:27:42 Maggie yup drinks FM31 0:27:50 Maggie crazy you are crazy (*laugh) I thought those are sauces, hahahhaa!!!!!!!!!i thought is sauses, FM32 0:27:52 Florence (*giggle) kakakaa FM33 0:28:05 Maggie lol (*laugh out loud) FM34 0:28:11 Maggie they do look like it ge ge (ge2) they do look like sauces statement FM35 0:28:22 Maggie i didnt think of that before, haha I didn't think of that before FM36 0:28:44 Florence i can c 1 tomato sauce,hahhaa I can see I tomato sauce in there FM37 0:28:49 Maggie lol (*laugh out loud) FM38 0:28:55 Florence and oil as well,hahaha and there is oil too (*laugh) FM39 0:28:58 Maggie haha,and bbq (*laugh) and bbq sauce FM40 0:29:07 Maggie *bbq sauces,haha there is bbq sauces (*laugh) FM41 0:29:11 Florence and soy sauce,hahaha and there is soy sauces (*laugh) FM42 0:29:17 Florence yes!!!!! yes FM43 0:29:18 Maggie and semame oil,haha and there is sesame oil (*laugh) FM44 0:29:30 Florence hahahha!!!!!!!!!!!!!!so dai b le!!! le (ne) (*laugh)we are so idiot statement FM45 0:29:37 Maggie haha (*laugh) 0:29:39 Maggie :D (*simely) FM46 0:29:40 Florence i don't know u drink! I didn't know that you drink FM47 0:29:45 Maggie not much ga ga (gaa3) I don’t drink much statement in response to statement [FM46] FM48 0:29:47 Florence u drink ga? ga (gaa4) Do you drink? question: confirm: enquire:check

226 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization 0:29:48 Maggie :P (*smiely) FM49 0:29:53 Maggie a bit la la (laa1) I drink a bit statement in repsonse to [check] FM50 0:30:03 Maggie see, i'm an Australian ma ma (maa3) see,because I am an Australian statement in repsonse to [check] - continue FM51 0:30:08 Florence hahha, yes (*laugh), yes, you are Australian FM52 0:30:10 Maggie of course i need to know how to drink la la (laa1) of couse I have to know how to drink statement in repsonse to [check] - continue FM53 0:30:11 Florence u are! yes, you are Australian 0:30:11 Maggie :P (*smiley) FM54 0:30:22 Florence hahhahaa!!!! be a real aussie (*laugh) be a real aussie FM55 0:30:27 Maggie no la la (laa1) no, I don't want to be a real aussie statement in repsonse to statement [FM54] FM56 0:30:34 Maggie dont want a beer belly I don't want a beer belly FM57 0:30:39 Maggie dont look good on me it doesn't look good on me 0:30:40 Maggie :P (*smiley) FM58 0:31:39 Florence hahha!!then u shouldn't drink much !!!! (*laugh) then you shouldn't drink much FM59 0:31:48 Florence especially beer especially beer FM60 0:31:48 Maggie i wont la la (laa1) I won't drink much statement in response to command [FM58] FM61 0:31:51 Florence will get fat ga ga (gaa3) beer makes you fat statement FM62 0:31:58 Maggie i rarely drink beer I rarely drink beer FM63 0:32:06 Maggie unless there arent any other alternatives unless there arent any other alternatives FM64 0:32:13 Maggie i prefer cocktails more I perfer cocktails FM65 0:32:24 Florence same me too FM66 0:32:37 Florence i don't like beer!! I don't like beer FM67 so bitter le le (ne) it is so bitter statement FM68 0:32:50 Maggie cocktails are much sweeter la la (laa1) cocktails are much more sweeter statement FM69 0:32:58 Maggie i didnt know u drink bor bor (bo3) I don't know you drink! statement FM70 0:33:03 Maggie next time unibar ar ar (aa1) we should go unibar next time statement 0:33:04 Maggie :) (*smiley) FM71 0:33:15 Florence hhaha, i drink ga, ga (gaa3) (*laugh) I drink statement in response to statement [FM69] FM72 but just a bit ja ja (zaa3) but just a bit statement

227 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization FM73 0:33:23 Maggie ic ic I see I see FM74 0:33:23 Florence coz i can't drink much,hahahhaa because I can't drink much (*laugh) FM75 0:33:31 Maggie me either la la (laa1) me either statement in response to statement [FM74] FM76 0:33:35 Florence yes la, we should drink togetther next time! la (laa1) yes, we should drink together next time statement in response to statement [FM70] FM77 0:33:41 Maggie of course of course FM78 0:33:46 Maggie but when i dont have to drink,hehe but when I don't have to drive (*giggle) FM79 0:33:56 Maggie dont want to get fine for drink driving ar ar (aa3) I don't want to get fine for drink driving statement 0:33:59 Maggie :( (*simely) FM80 0:34:25 Florence hahaha, yes wor, u are driver,hahaha wor (wo3) (*laugh), oh yes, you are driver statement in response to statement [FM79] FM81 0:34:29 Florence well, i am not,hahahah well, but I am not a driver FM82 0:34:34 Maggie lucky u lucky you FM83 0:35:36 Florence but have to get license la la (laa1) but I have to get a driving license soon statement FM84 0:35:40 Florence i need 1,hahahaa I need a driving license FM85 0:35:43 Maggie lol (*laugh out loud) FM86 0:35:50 Maggie haha,good luck with that (*laugh)good luck with that FM87 0:36:20 Maggie have u got ur Ls yet ar? ar (aa3) have you got your leraners license yet? question:confirm:enquire:ask FM88 0:36:21 Florence i hope i can get ,hahha I hop I can get it FM89 0:36:29 Florence of coz not yet la!!! la (laa1) of course not yet statement in response to [ask] FM90 0:36:29 Maggie of course u can get it of course you can get it FM91 0:36:36 Maggie its not hard gei ge (ge2) I suppose it's not that hard statement FM92 0:36:36 Florence still havn't finish reading !!! I still haven't finished reading FM93 0:36:44 Maggie u should get it asap you should get it as soon as possible FM94 0:36:46 Maggie ic ic I see I see FM95 0:36:51 Florence hahha, i know!!!!! (*laugh) I know FM96 0:37:06 Maggie waiting to hear ur good new I am waiting to hear your good news FM97 0:37:26 Florence haha, if i pass, (*laugh) if I pass, FM98 must tell u la! la (laa1) I will tell you for sure statement in response to [FM96]

228 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization FM99 0:38:12 Maggie of course of course FM100 0:38:40 Florence how can u play wii how can you play wii question:apprize:precise:explain FM101 and chat online at the same time ge? ge (ge2) and chat online at the same time? question:apprze:precise:explain ja wor FM102 0:38:49 Florence u only have 2 hands ja wor you have two hands only statement (zaa3 wo3) FM103 0:39:15 Maggie no la la (laa1) no, I am not playing will now statement in response to [explain] FM104 0:39:19 Maggie i was playing wii I was playing will FM105 0:39:22 Maggie past tense ar ar (aa3) it is past tense statement in response to [explain] - continue right now, i'm just chatting or msning FM106 0:39:38 Maggie I am just chatting on MSN…(*laugh) ...haha FM107 0:39:44 Florence hahaha, icic!!! (*laugh) I see I see!!! FM108 0:39:49 Florence past tense!!!hahahhaa it is past tense!!(*laugh) FM109 0:40:32 Maggie of course of course FM110 0:41:40 Florence u don't have any mid term meh? meh (me1) you don't have any mid term exams? question:confirm:enquire:ask FM111 0:41:50 Maggie next wk I will have mid term exams next week FM112 0:42:00 Maggie i'm on my 5.5 weekend at the moment I am on my 5.5 week at the moment FM113 0:42:05 Maggie reading week for marketing I am having reading week for marketing FM114 0:42:12 Maggie had a midterm at wk 6 I will have mid term at week6 FM115 0:42:43 Florence wah, poor u oh, poor you FM116 0:42:46 Florence add oil la la (laa1) you should work hard! statement FM117 0:42:54 Florence add more oil! work harder FM118 0:43:33 Maggie thank u thank you FM119 0:43:35 Maggie u too la la (laa1) you too statement FM120 0:43:48 Florence ahaha, thx! (*laugh) thanks FM121 0:44:01 Florence but i am running out of oil,hahaha but I am running out of oil, (*laugh) FM122 0:44:14 Maggie lol *(laugh out loud) then u need some of my bottles of then you might need some of my sauces FM123 0:44:28 Maggie "sauces",haha (*laugh) FM124 0:44:55 Florence hahhaa, yes!!!!! (*laugh) yes FM125 0:46:07 Florence then i should go wollies,hahha then I should go to woolworth (*laugh) 229 Mess. Cantonese Time Name Message Particles English Gloss speech function of messages No. Vocalization FM126 0:46:13 Florence to get more sauces,haha to get more sauces (*laugh) yes, you should get more sauces in FM127 0:46:29 Maggie yup,haha woolworth (*laugh) FM128 0:46:34 Maggie esp oil especially oil FM129 0:46:45 Florence yes la,haha la (laa1) yes, espically oil, (*laugh) statement in response to statement [FM125] FM130 0:46:47 Maggie olive or sesame do you want olive oil or sesame oil? FM131 0:46:54 Florence olive la, la (laa1) I want olive oil statement FM132 loq fat olive oil is low fat 0:46:57 Florence *low,hahha it is low fat (*laugh) FM133 0:47:00 Maggie yes,haha yes, it is low fat (*laugh)

230 Appendix B: The semantic system of the Cantonese final particles

231