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Home , Culture of Angola, Manikongo, Orisha, Quimbanda

The KiKongo-speaking Peoples

Central Africa has been dominated by speakers of the family, Kikongo, which is the Bantu language spoken by the peoples who live in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo and . Until the early 20th century, there was no single name for the peoples who resided within the region. Since then, the term (ethonym) Bakongo (“Kongo- speakers”) for all the various people in the region, though they consider themselves ethnically distinct groups. The term “Congo” has been used for Bakongo people who were enslaved in the New World.

In the mid-fifteenth century, the Kongo Kingdom was the most powerful state in west . The kingdom had been founded in the 14th century when moved south from the into northern Angola. They conquered the people they found there and established Mbanza Kongo (now Mbanza Congo) as their capital. The Bakongo assimilated the peoples they conquered and over time the peoples, their cultures, and political systems of the various provinces merged. Portuguese explorers reached the mouth of the Congo river in 1483 and became the first Europeans to come into contact with a major west African kingdom. An exchange of emissaries began. Portuguese came to the Kongo, and representatives from the Kongo were sent to Europe. This began a cultural exchange that would have long-lasting affect on Africa and the . In 1491, a year before Columbus made his voyage, the Mani (king) of the Kongo, Nzinga a Nukwu, converted to Catholicism, and was baptized João I, though he ultimately returned to the practice of his traditional African . However, in 1506, the new Manikongo was baptized Afonso I and became the first Catholic king of the .

Afonso instituted Catholicism as the , and he opened the Kongo to Portuguese merchants. Not all of his people wanted to give up their traditional religions. Competing factions were created with some allying themselves with the Portuguese and others seeking support from 's commercial and military enemies, such as the Dutch. Portugal began to establish even more Joao I of the Kongo permanent settlements in the Kongo. Left: Portuguese Emissaries being received by the King of Kongo, late c.1609

Lower left: Catholic performing mass in , 1740s.

Lower right: Catholic missionary and his entourage being greeted in Kingdom of Kongo, 1740s. Note the cannons in the foreground. Bakongo Oral Lore Like other members of the Bantu family, the Bakongo share oral, customary and material traditions that share general characteristics with hundreds of variations.

Bakongo oral lore contains accounts of migrations and encounters with other peoples, along with histories of the people and the achievements of the royal families. These oral records, though exaggerated, are often based in historical fact.

Bakongo lore also contains myths, moral tales, fables with talking animals, stories of spirits, fairies and monsters, sayings, proverbs and riddles. Many of the characters in these stories are tricksters who break social conventional rules. However, the most celebrated example of Bakongo oral lore is the epic narrative of the hero Mwindo.

Unlike the Mandé griots (djeli), Bakongo storytellers have no official political status, though they are often highly respected members of society. Most are ordinary people who have learned stories from family members or friends and may have formed associations and brotherhoods to carry on the tradition. The Mwindo epic was passed down this way for hundreds of years before being published in book form in the 1960s.

It was performed at village gatherings by storytellers who entered playing calabashes, rattles and wearing bells and other types of noisemakers. The storyteller would acts out the parts of the story with dancing and singing, sometimes accompanied by helpers who played drums and other instruments. In addition to knowing the essential parts of the story, good storytellers were expected to improvise and include new elements that the audience has not heard before.

Audience participation was a crucial part of the performance. There is a call and response where the audience sings along with the storyteller, responds to him, and repeat lines of the story when the narrator pauses. Good performers are rewarded with appreciation from the audience in the form of applause and gifts. The Mwindo Epic

In most versions told of his story, Mwindo is the son of Shemwindo, a powerful chief with seven wives who have been told that he would kill any male child. Six of his wives give birth to girl children; however, the seventh wife, his favorite, had a boy that the stories say emerged holding a “ fly swatter” (conga scepter), carrying an adze and a bag with a magic rope. He was also born able to walk and talk. Most of the Mwindo stories contain this refrain: I am Mwindo,

the one born walking,

the one born talking.

My father Shem-windo does not want me.

My father the chief wants to kill me.

But what can he do against me? Shemwindo learns of Mwindo's birth and tries to kill him with a spear, but Mwindo uses his magic fly swatter to make the spear miss. Shemwindo then tries to bury the child, but Mwindo digs his way out. Finally, Shemwindo put his son in a barrel and threw him into a river. Yet again, Mwindo uses his magic and manages to survive underwater.

Mwindo eventually goes out to find his father and take revenge; but, Shemwindo apologizes and agrees to share his kingdom. Mwindo and his father return, and at the end of several more adventures, Mwindo became king and ruled in peace and harmony. Oral Lore and Oral History

Among the Nyanga people of Central Africa, the Mwindo Epic is a public speech in praise of their culture hero, the trickster Mwindo. His exploits are heroic and epicbecause they take him to the four spheres of the Nyanga universe: earth, underworld, atmosphere, and sky. In each sphere, he battles and overcomes titanic forces; some are , some animal; some divine, some semi-divine, and some are utterly fabulous.

In addition to being about of a mythological hero, Mwindo's story offers moral guidance. Fathers should accept their children, and children should always reconcile with their parents.

After Mwindo gives up all forms of excesses, like revenge and boasting, he begins to rule wisely. Thus, in the end, Mwindo epitomizes moderation, courage, humility, wisdom and benevolence, which are the ideal qualities expected of a great Nyanga ruler. In this way, Nyanga society holds him up as a role model that citizens should emulate.

The performance of his story is a way of educating as well as entertaining the people. Oral lore, presented in various ways as forms of entertainment is designed to educate listeners in the social values and world view of their communities.

An Mwindo performance was more than a reading; it included singing, dancing, drumming and music, as well as the wearing of costumes and masks. Some of those traditions would survive, even among people who no longer remembered the Mwindo story. Effects of Europeans on Kongo

By 1516, members from Kongo's elite families were studying in Europe. Afonso's own son, Henrique Kinu a Mvemba, was installed as a bishop by the Vatican in 1518. Bakongo aristocrats adopted Portuguese names, titles, coats of arms and styles of dress. Christian festivals were observed, churches erected, and craftsman made Christian artifacts. Crucifx from Kongo, 19th c Portrait of an African Man by Jan Mostaert, c1525 Favorable relations with the Portuguese came at a high price. The Kongo Kingdom was eventually overwhelmed by a combination of civil wars and European exploitation. French, English and Dutch slave traders soon competed with the Portuguese and gained their own portions of the region. The Bakongo inhabitants of the region found themselves forced more and more deeply into the slave trade both as participants and as victims. Ultimately, peoples from this region formed a large percentage of the Africans who were captured then enslaved in the Americas. Many of the people from the Bakongo region were taken to , and Afro-Brazilian culture owes many of its characteristics to Bakongo culture. Those specific traits will be examined in a later chapters. Bakongo Customary Lore Though Europeans gradually gained control of the natural and human resources of the Kongo, the religious traditions of Portugal and traditional Bakongo beliefs continued to exist side by side.

Afonso had sought a that could accommodate BaKongo and Catholic religious traditions. Christian holidays such as Pentecost were celebrated with groups of devotees carrying statues of saints. Afonso was correct in believing that these could coexist. In fact, they continued to exist wherever Bakongo people were in the diaspora.

In upstate New York, African-American communities descended from Africans brought by Dutch colonists in the 17th century continued to celebrate “Pinkster” (Pentecost)., and some continue the tradition. The Afro-Brazilian religion of is a new world syncretism of Bakongo religion and . Kongo is thought to have played a role in the formation of Haitian voodoo. At the same time, it has been argued that some of the leaders of the Haitian revolution were Muslim. This may be true. in the Americas brought together Africans from various ethnolinguistic groups. Voodoo was a creaion that served to unite different peoples in a common set of beliefs.

However, one reason these beliefs could be mixed was that there were aready fundamental similarities. Both Bakongo and Catholics believed in one all-powerful who had created the world and all things in it. On the Lower Congo, that being was called Nzambi, or by the fuller title Nzambi a mpungu, meaning the “Being Most High." On the Upper Congo, the name Nyambe; other provinces used different names. Yet, all referred to a Supreme Creator.

The Supreme Being of the Bakongo was not concerned with the daily affairs of human beings, however. To address their day to day problems, the Bakongo turned to their doctors and spiritual advisers known as nganga. Customary lore

Language, customs cultural materials can be used for more than entertainment and education. The Bakongo used songs, dancing and drums to announce or warn of visitors approaching villages. Their music preserved history, accompanied the preparation of food, controlled the pace of work, and marked all the major and minor events in the lives of the villagers. Folklore could also be used as a weapon of resistance. Warriors sang before battles; merchants sang praises of their goods; music was a traditional part of daily life that was done during the best and the worst of times. Bakongo peoples also incorporated European songs and melodies into their own. However, African singing, dancing and drumming were often distasteful to European visitors who called them primitive, rude, savage and aggressive.

Kongo Musicians, 1670s Bakongo Material Culture Nganga (doctor-) use (medicine) to do their work, whether to cure illness or misfortune or to cause it. Nkisi are containers for magical medicines that could be animal, vegetable, or mineral. It was the nganga who could imbue the material with magical ability, specifically to allow the devotee to contact the spirit world and resolve his problem.

The Nganga are the traditional equivalent of Catholic priests and were sometimes called "Nganga a Nzambi" or "priests of God." In addition, the traditional African reverence for ancestors could be compared to the veneration of the saints to whom the Portuguese prayed.

Nkisi are neither good nor evil, and do not have, nor represent, any divine power. They are not sacred objects, such as the crucifixes or St. Christopher's medallions the Portuguese explorers wore or the relics in their churches. To the Bakongo, the nkisi were merely receptacles for “medicine.” If the nkisi did not work as expected, it could be reused for another purpose or discarded. Natives did not wood and stone, as Europeans often believed. Cultural Resistance

Culture heroes are not only created for entertainment and education. They are often created from the peoples' need and desire to survive. Inevitably, the peoples' heroes will use the lore of the people to unite them in the struggle against natural and manmade forces.

There were Africans who resisted the expansion of the slave trade. However, because they were unsuccessful in the long run, their stories remained in the oral traditions of the individual African people. One reason is that their memories could be continued through those stories, even if they did not appear in the official history books.

Folklore preserved their memories, but it also provided them with the tools needed to resist oppression. Obviously, having the technology to forge iron weapons, and the social organization necessary to wage war is required. However, most of these culture heroes relied on more than metal. Religious Resistance Beatriz Kimpa Vita (1684–1706), was a Kongo Empire prophet who waged war against the Portuguese and slavery by leading her own Christian movement, Antonianism, which taught that , Mary and other early Christian figures were from the Kongo Empire.

According to her testimony, reported by the Capuchin missionary Bernardo da Gallo, Beatriz had had spiritual visions since she was a child. She received training as an nganga marinda (a person said to be able to communicate with the spirit world). However, Kimpa Vita eventually began to adopt to her needs the views of the .

After Portuguese forces defeated the Kongo, Afonso’s religion became a mixture of Catholicism and African traditional practices. Into this cultural vacuum stepped Kimpa Vita, whose visions of St. Anthony, told her to create a Kongolese Catholicism. Soon, her followers numbered in the thousands. They were called Little Anthonies, and they went to other provinces spreading her word.

This worried the Portuguese authorities. They arrested Kimpa Vita, charged here with witchcraft and heresy, under Kongo law, and burned her at the stake in 1706. However, Kimpa Vita's followers continued to believe she was still alive. Only after most of her high-ranking Kongo adherents renounced their beliefs and rejoined Catholic church was the Crucifix, Kongo peoples, 17th c. movement truly crushed.

Kimpa Vita's life was short, but her influence can still be seen in crucifixes that bear distinctly Kongolese features. Beatriz Kimpa Vita

http://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/sites/womeninafrica/files/styles/unesco_wia_map_large/public/1 8.%20Painting%20of%20Kimpa%20Vita_Public%20domain_0.jpg?itok=oDSjY-Uh

Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita Nsimba (c. 1684-1706) was a prophetess, founder of Anthonyism, a Christian movement based on the adoration of Saint Anthony of Padua. Born into a noble Kongo family, as an adolescent she became a nganga marinda (an intermediary between the world men and the world of spirits). In 1704, she claimed to have seen Saint Anthony, appeared in the form of a black African, and announced that God would punish the inhabitants of the Kongo Kingdom if they failed to reunite. She preached a Christianity that was both hostile to European missionaries and blended with Kongo cultural symbolism. Condemned as heretical, she was burned at the stake in 1706.

UNESCO Women in African History: http://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/

Also see entry in Dictionary of African Christian Biography: http://www.dacb.org/stories/congo/kimpa_vita.html

Cultural Syncretism Yoruba Peoples The Yoruba peoples have traditionally occupied the region comprising modern day Nigeria and . They traditionally identify themselves by their local names --such as , Oyo, Ijebu, Ekiti, Egba, , Ondo, or . Approximately 30 million live in the region, making them one of the largest African ethnic groups.

Yoruba peoples share a complex cultural heritage at least one thousand years old. Many Yoruba believe that the world was created at Ile-Ife, the site of the first ancient Yoruba kingdom, and the spiritual center of Yoruba life. Located in southwestern Nigeria, evidence of settlement at Ile- Ife has been dated as far back as 500 B.C.E..

The Yoruba kingdom was divided into city-states under the control of leaders who were the equivalent to the kings and aristocrats of Europe. To this day, the Oni of Ilé-Ifè and the Alafin of Oyo are the most highly respected Yoruba kings in Nigeria. In addition to separate kings, each city-state maintains its own interpretation of history, religious traditions and unique art style. However, all acknowledge the and of Ilé-Ifè.

Yoruba Oral Lore

Yoruba lore begins with its myth of creation at Ilé-Ifè where the world was created. Although the different Yoruba city-states developed slightly different versions, and the character names may differ, all share the same general themes.

● In the beginning there was no land, only the sea and sky.

● One (divinity) descended from the sky on a chain carrying earth, seeds, and a bird (rooster).

● While hanging on the chain, the divinity sprinkles earth on the water and land begins to form.

● He drops the chicken and the seeds.

● The chicken begins to scratch the earth; the seeds fall in and begin to grow.

● When enough earth forms, the Orisha comes down and creates .

The details of the story vary: the name of the divinity may differ; the chain may be iron or gold; the seeds may be palm nuts; the chicken may be a pigeon, and the explanation for how humans came to be can also differ from one Yoruba society to another. However, all recognize Ile-Ife as the place where the life began. The Yoruba Orisha

Yoruba beliefs can still be found in the religious and cultural practices of people in , Brazil, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Guyana, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Suriname, , the United States, , Argentina, Venezuela, Canada and elsewhere. These beliefs are strongest where the density of enslaved Africans was highest. Free expression of African cultural beliefs was rarely permitted by slave masters. Africans who wanted to continue practicing their traditions had to find ways to hide their practices or find ways to make them appear acceptable. Consequently, syncretic religions emerged: Candomblé in Brazil; Lucumí/Santería in Cuba and Puerto Rico; in Trinidad; Orisa-Voodoo in the U.S.. Central to all these traditions were the Yoruba concept of the Orisha, the divinities that reflect different aspects of God. The complexity of their cosmology has led Western scholars to compare them to the pantheons of the ancient Greeks Their Supreme Being has three aspects: The Supreme God has three manifestations: as , the Creator; Olorun, the ruler of heavens; and , the conduit between Orun (Heaven) and Ayé (Earth). However, unlike all the other Orisha, there are no priesthoods or shrines in his honor. He is like the energy of the sun that gives life to everything. The Yoruba also believe that after they rejoin their ancestors but still have influence on earth. Homage is paid to the ancestors yearly for they are like Orisha in the sense that they are the ancestors of all people.

The Yoruba Orisha The Yoruba orisha have been crucial to the development of Africana folklore in the Diaspora, especially in the Portuguese and Spanish-speaking areas. Orisha worship involved the use of oral lore in the form of stories and songs, customs such as dances, celebrations and , as well as material symbols of the practice, such as the color of the clothing worn at the rituals and the symbols of the themselves. Orisha worship also provided a fundamental way for various African peoples in New World to unite, socialize and carry on their traditional practices. Because so many African societies shared similar systems, the orishas could be tailored to the specific needs of those who revered them. Africans from different ethnic groups whose genetic families might have been separated due to enslavement could find unity within an orisha family.

One reason orisha worship could continue in the New World was its commonalities to Christianity, particulary Catholicism. Yoruba orishas could be syncretized with Catholic saints. In some places, the saint's image replaced that of the orisha, but the name remained the same. In many cases, these saints became the official "patron saint" of the island or nation in which he or she was revered. Orisha worship could also include elements and characters of Amerindian origin.

In Haiti, divinities called orisha by the Yoruba are called loa (or ). Although many of the Haitian loa come from the Yoruba orisha, they are not the same. They often share many of the same qualities, but there are many loa that aren't from the Yoruba pantheon. One reason for this is that the French brought slaves from Benin, many of whom came from people who practiced a religion called Vodun, which also considered Ile Ife as the birthplace of mankind, but who had an entirely different creation story.

Eventually, characters from many types of religious belief could be incorporated into a single, unifying religion because they were fundamentally compatible with and within the Yoruba orisha pantheon. In fact, there was little that could not be incorporated.

Haiti

Eshu: The Yoruba Trickster Orisha

Trickster characters appear in the folklore, mythology (and often the religions) of all cultures. They exist because they fulfill an important social need. There are different types of tricksters, but all share the same quality; they symbolize the principle of uncertainty. All human societies face vast, uncontrollable forces. Hurricanes, volcanoes or floods can wipe out entire villages or cities. Yet, in every disaster, there will be tales of a miraculous survival. Tricksters represent the element of chance in life that enables hope. Tricksters remind people that there is always a chance no matter how hopeless life seems. However, tricksters also illustrate the fact that no matter how good things appear, things can easily change. The regularity of the seasons, critically important to agricultural societies, is not under human control. It is not surprising that people deify the fruits of the earth, water, the sun, and everything necessary to sustain life. Tricksters are ways to explain the times when there is too little water or too much sun, or too little sun and too much water. Tricksters act as balances to the conflicting phenomena of human beings and of nature.

Africans transported the New World brought trickster characters and stories with them. The most famous and widespread trickster character is , the Yoruba trickster Orisha. Tales about him illustrate the society's values and morals while providing entertainment and enjoyment. Eshu appears in many guises. However, his fundamental characteristic is that he is never exactly what he seems to be.

Depending on the region, Eshu may be called Legba, , Exu, or Eshu Elegbarra. In almost all cases, he is considered the “keeper of the ” and the messenger between the divine and earthly realms. He acts as the interpreter for the Orisha. He is always first honored because it is he who opens the gates to the spirit world. Only through Eshu can the other Orisha be contacted.

Eshu also unifies opposites and enables the communication between all worlds: male and female; young and old; living and dead; sacred and secular; day and night; and all transitions. The following story of Eshu is one of the most famous. It illustrates Eshu’s double nature, and the dual characters of tricksters in general.

“Eshu's Hat”

Once there were two friends whose farms bordered each other. One had a farm on the right hand side of the road, and the other had his farm on the left. At the same time every morning, Eshu would walk down the road that lay between the two farms; and every morning the two friends would see Eshu swinging his staff, smoking his pipe, and wearing his black cap. The two friends would look up from their work, wave at Eshu as he walked by, and then turn back to their chores.

One morning, Eshu decided to play a trick on the friends. Instead of his black cap, he put on a cap that was black on one side and red on the other. Eshu took his pipe and tied it so that it looked as though he was smoking his pipe at the back of his head. Then, he set off on his daily walk.

When he walked between the two farms as usual, the farmer on the right hand side of the road was busy, and he hardly looked up. All he saw was Eshu's pipe and a red hat. "That’s funny," he thought, "Eshu is wearing a red hat today. I wonder if my friend noticed."

The farmer on the left side of the road was also busy and barely looked up. When he did take a glance, he saw the other side of Eshu's cap. Everything looked as usual, except that Eshu seemed to be walking in the opposite direction. "Strange," he thought to himself," Eshu was walking in the wrong direction. I wonder if my friend noticed.”

At the end of the day, the two friends stopped for their usual evening talk. The farmer from the right hand side said, "Did you notice that Eshu was wearing a different hat today?" "No," said the farmer from the left side, "but I did see him walking in the opposite direction." The farmer other farmer disagreed, "He was walking in the right direction. He just had on a red cap.” "Are you calling me a liar?" demanded the farmer from the left side. "No, but it is obvious that you can't see very well," said the farmer from the right. "You shouldn’t insult me that way!" "Liar!" "Cheat!"

Angry words led to more insults, which eventually led to blows. Then one grabbed a knife and tried to cut the other, who also pulled a knife. As soon as each felt the prick of the knife, however, he ran away straight to the nearby village to tell the king and queen what had happened. They arrived at exactly the same time. Without stopping to catch his breath, each began to tell his story.

"Your majesties," said the farmer from the left, "this morning Eshu walked in a different direction wearing his black cap, and that man lies if he says anything different." "Your majesties," said the other farmer, "this morning Eshu wore a red cap and walked in the same direction he always walks, and no one dares to call me a liar!" "Liar!"

Before an eye could blink, they started fighting again. The king ordered them to stop. "We know how to settle this," said the queen. "Call Eshu to the throne room," said the king.

As soon as Eshu walked in, the king said, "You're both wrong!" "Yes," said the queen. "Look! His cap is black and red! You are both fools." Eshu just laughed.

"But which direction were you walking?" said one farmer. Eshu laughed again and explained; "I stuck my pipe in the back of my head, so if you looked at me one way you would think I was walking in one direction. However, if you looked at me another way you'd think I was walking in the opposite direction."

"You tricked us!" said the other farmer.

"But, you should know me by now. It’s my nature,” Eshu said, as he walked off.

The king and the queen ordered the two farmers to end their bickering saying, “The next time you think you disagree, perhaps you should talk it over before you start fighting.” The Mandé-speaking peoples

● The Mandé are a large group of related West African ethnic groups who speak any of the many Mandé languages spread throughout the region.

● They are found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, , , , , Guinea- Bissau, Liberia, Mali, , Niger, Nigeria, and ,

● The Mandinka people, a branch of the Mandé, are credited with being the founders West Africa's largest ancient empires. Other notable groups are the Soninke, Bambara and Dyula.

● Oral lore among Mandé peoples Mandé Oral lore includes stories about the origin of the universe and the nation as well as tales to entertain and educate.

● Perhaps their most famous stories are those about the ancient kingdom of Mali and its founder, Sundiata Keita.

● These stories are often sung by djelis (who were called griots by the French colonizers).

● Djelis are the professional historians, storytellers, praise singers, poets and musicians who serve as the archives of Mandé history and oral traditions.

● The djeli tradition goes back to the founding of the Mali Empire in the 14th century by Sundiata Keita. All Malinke royalty trace their lineage back to Sundiata, and his story is

one of the most important told. According to legend, Sundiata's father gave him a djeli, Bala Fasséké, to advise him when he became King. Dejli (Griot) Tradition Thereafter, each succeeding king and high-ranking family had a djeli. One of Sundiata's rivals was a sorcerer-ruler, Soumaoro Kante, the Mansa of the Susu people who was said to have a magic balafon. So, Sundiata sent his trusted djeli to learn the sorcerer's secrets. The djeli discovers the magic balafon, the "Soso Bala," that gave the sorcerer his power. He began to play, and when the sorcerer heard him, he gave him the name Bala Fasséké Kouyaté (“Master of the balafon”). Today, the Soso Bala is still kept by the descendents of the Kouyaté lineage in Guinea and played on important state occasions. All djelis are related, and certain surnames are possessed only by members of djeli families. Toumani Diabate and Kandia Kouyaté carry on the tradition today. Mandé Customary lore

● Mandé peoples had an agricultural economy that included the domestication grains and livestock. They are believed to be among the first to cultivate African rice.

● Mandé merchants dominated the trans-Saharan trade in leather, ivory, salt, gold, copper and slaves.

● Neighboring African peoples were conquered and enslaved for sale or use as domestic servants. However, servants could be completely assimilated and rise to important stations in Mandé society.

● The Legend of Chi Wara

● The mythology of the Bamana people of Mali tells the story of an antelope named Chi Wara who first taught farming skills to humanity. The headpieces were worn by a Bamana Mandé Material lore society to represent the mythical agricultural animal during dances held at sowing and harvesting times. At the start of the rainy season, after the fields have been seeded, the Chi Wara crests are danced in the evening.

● Chi Wara are danced in male and female pairs, a marvelous statement of the complementary nature of life. The dances are performed by vigorous young men in the fields while a chorus of women sing the praises of the ideal farmer.

● The women also contribute jewelry to the antelope sculpture. During the dance, each masked performer is accompanied by a woman who dances behind him. In this way the Chi Wara dance alludes to the fruitful union of male and female analogous to the union of the sun (considered a male power) with the earth (considered female), which leads to the fruitfulness of the fields.

● The headpiece depicts an antelope. The body of the Chi Wara is said to also represent an aardvark, whose habit of burrowing in the earth is seen to mimic farming. The zigzag mane parallels the path of the sun between the two solstices. The horns stand for the millet stalk, a staple of Bamana life. The female Chi Wara carries her baby on her back just as do African women.

● The headdress is worn with long owing raffia fringe which represents later, the third necessary element for the growth of plants.

● Thus is the fertility of the land evoked by the contributing elements of earth, sun, and water, as the fertility of humanity is saluted in the pairs of male and female dance headcrests. The Mandé and All the traditional Mandé rulers claim lineal descent from Bilal, the prophet Muhammad's faithful muezzin (person leads the call to ). Thus, Islam is an integral part of Mandé traditional cultures, even though not all adopt Islam.

In addition to being at the center of an important trade route, the Empire of Mali was a center of Islamic, legal, and scientific scholarship as well as the home of the oldest formal universities in West Africa. Sankore mosque The library at Timbuktu was known throughout the world as a repository of knowledge. Because of its Islamic culture, unlike many other West African societies, the Muslim Mandé peoples are patrilineal and patriarchal.

They practice ritual washing, and daily are observed. Men and women sit separately during; but women do not wear veils. Library at Timbuktu

Syncretism Syncretism is the combination of different, often seemingly contradictory, beliefs, practices and schools of thought. It involves the merger of originally discrete traditions, especially religious and mythological traditions, and the assertion of an underlying unity that allows for the inclusion of other beliefs. Syncretism can often be seen in the folklore of people who have been influenced by more than one culture. In many cases, syncretism is the product of the conflict between cultures.

Often this conflict exists because one culture dominates another, and the other culture has to adapt to or adopt it. The traditional African folklore and belief systems held by the Mande were influenced by the adoption of Islam. Other African peoples were influenced by the Catholic religion practiced by the Spanish and Portuguese; and, still others by the and British . These various beliefs systems, languages and lore were syncretized differently depending on the specific cultures and peoples involved.

When African peoples, such as the Mande, were eventually brought to the New World (the Americas) they often brought beliefs that were already syncretized. This means they were already combinations of both traditional African and syncretized lore. In the New World, syncretization would continue. Different European colonizers brought Africans to the American regions under their control. Mande peoples enslaved by the French would be taken to the French colonies. However, because control of the colonies was often exchanged between competing colonizers, some regions of the New World contained Africans who had come from various African regions. Moreover, in the New World were the entirely new Amerindian cultures. The people and lore of these regions became known as Creoles.

Mandé Syncretism "Marabouts are Islamic spiritualists who are also believed to have the capacity to foresee but not control the future. These spiritualists range from conventional Islamic clerics (imam) who are versed in the Koran and preside over services at local mosques, to local healers and diviners who mix Islam with indigenous beliefs and practices....

Most marabouts receive gifts or money for their services, with the most respected and renowned marabouts drawing substantial income from their practice. However, these practices are generally disapproved by Islamic orthodoxy." Marabouts are similar to psychics, healers and spiritualists in other cultures, including our own. Often, they are the community's resource for “folk medicine” and cures when other methods do not work.

Marabouts, or Obeahmen, Santeros, Hougan or persons with similar functions can be found wherever and whenever Africans and members of other cultures have been in contact. The Ashanti (Asante)

Modern Ghana was once the seat of the powerful Ashanti Empire. It is now the home of most of their descendants –the Twi-speaking peoples known as the Akan. In the 15th century, Europeans had named the region the “Gold Coast” because the richness of its mineral resources. It soon became the trade center for an even more valuable resource: African slaves. From the 15th to the 19th century, Akan people dominated the gold trade and were among the most powerful West African groups from the seventeenth century onward.

Akan gold attracted the Portuguese first, but Dutch and British traders soon began to compete for Akan gold which they used to buy Africans from other regions to help mine and transport it as well as to be sold in the Trans-Atlantic and Trans-Saharan slave trades. In exchange for gold, Europeans provided Akan peoples with guns and weapons that were used to wage wars on neighboring states.

However, Akan people, especially the Ashanti, fought against European colonists to maintain autonomy. The Anglo-Ashanti wars continued until the early twentieth century when the “Gold Coast” became a British Protectorate and the Ivory Coast became a French colony. In 1957, the independent nation of Ghana was founded under Kwame Nkrumah. The Ivory Coast (Cote d'Ivoire) gained independence in 1960. Ghana would officially apologize for the role some of its people played in the trade.

The Ashanti Empire was a powerful and highly organized society whose military power came from effective strategy and the early adoption of European firearms. The empire stretched from what is now central Ghana to present-day Benin and Ivory Coast. The Ashanti were able to resist European attempts to subjugate them, aligning themselves with different European powers in order to limit the influence of others. Ashanti was one of the few African states able to offer serious resistance to European colonizers. Between 1823 and 1896, Britain fought four wars against the Ashanti kings finally defeated the kingdom and incorporated it into their Gold Coast colony as a protectorate.

Akan Beliefs Akan traditional belief generally holds that there is one Supreme, uncreated, self-existent being who is omnipresent yet beyond human reach. He is known by various names that reflect his different aspects: Nyankopon or Nyame (God), Oboadee (the Creator), Odomankoma (the Infinite), Ananse Kokuroko (The Great Spider) and others. However, the various names are all manifestations of the same being. When Akan peoples began to adopt Christianity, many used Nyame (or Onyame) as a general name for God. Nyame does not communicate directly with humans. Rather, Nyame's wife, Asase Yaa, and their children, the abosom, function as Nyame's intermediaries in human affairs on Earth. The abosom are able to guide, protect, reward or punish human beings by making the elements under their control, such as wind, water, fire or earth, helpful or harmful. Each abosom demands different rituals and ceremonies in order to be satisfied. These rituals are performed by trained traditional priests called akomfo who specialize in communicating with the abosom in order to transmit messages to and from them. As in other traditional African belief systems, the Akan venerate their ancestors, Nsamanfo, and believe they can influence life from the spirit world. Failure to pay proper respect to them can result in misfortunes that are just as dramatic as if the abosom were disrespected. Another important category of spiritual beings are the Mmoatia, fairies who are often represented as dwarfs with backward-turned feet. These magical beings live in the forest and are skilled in the use of natural things. They are also considered to be the spiritual gatekeepers of Akan tradition.

Akan Oral Lore: The Golden Stool

To the Ashanti, the legend of their Golden Stool (Sika ') is their most important story. The Ashanti Golden Stool has the symbolic importance to them that the Soso Bala has to the Mande. The origin of the Golden Stool is the story of the birth of the Ashanti Empire. According to the story. the Golden Stool was called down from the heavens by Okomfo Anokye, the and advisor to the first Ashanti King, Osei Tutu I. The Golden Stool descended from the skies and came to rest on Osei Tutu's lap. Okomfo Anokye then declared the stool to be the symbol of the new Ashanti Union (Asanteman). All the Ashanti peoples then swore allegiance to the Golden Stool and to Osei Tutu as the Asantehene. Traditional Ashanti believe that the Golden Stool contains the spirit or of their people. Without it, the Ashanti would cease to exist. The Golden Stool is inlaid with gold and hung with bells (to warn the king of impending danger), and is so sacred that not even the king was allowed to sit on it. According to legend, only the king and trusted advisers know the hiding place of the true stool. Instead, copies of the stool are produced for chiefs for important ceremonies. “The Coming of the Golden Stool”

Ananse: the Trickster Hero In Akan folklore, the most popular and widespread character is the trickster figure known as Kwaku Ananse, or simply Ananse. He is so important that the Akan call all folktales “anansesem” or “Ananse stories.” At times Ananse is represented as a spider or a human being but he can also be a combination of both. As the archetypal trickster, Ananse is crafty, sly, mischievous, and can be malicious. In some tales, Ananse's greed or selfish behavior leads him into trouble; yet, in others, he condemns selfishness and embodies the virtues of generosity and honesty. In all cases, however, he uses wit and cunning to outsmart and overcome stronger opponents. Perhaps the most famous Ananse story is the one that explains how all stories came to belong to Ananse.

"Why Stories Belong to Ananse"

Long ago, all Akan stories belonged to the sky god, Nyankopon, and were called "Nyankonsem" or “sky-god stories.” One day, Nyankopon decided to sell his stories for a price: the buyer must bring to him alive the python who squeezes, the lion who roars, the hornets that sting, and a Mmoetia spirit. He announced this to his chiefs and the elders, but none of them even considered trying to meet the request because they assumed the sky-god had no real intent to give away his stories.

Ananse learned of Nyankopon's offer and began to consider how he could win. To get the python, he went to the snake's cave with a rope and a long bamboo pole. The two then began to argue loudly about the length of the python in comparison to the stick. The python heard the yelling, and came out to inquire about their problem. Ananse asked python to settle the argument by allowing them to tie him to the pole so they could compare his length. Python agreed, was tied up, and that is how Ananse carried him back to Nyankopon.

To catch the lion, Ananse and his son took a large sack to where the lion was and began to argue about whether the lion would be too fat to fit into it. When lion asked them not to disturb the animals in the area with their arguing, Ananse requested that, to settle the debate, lion simply prove that he was not too fat to fit into the sack. That would end the disturbance. The lion complied, and Ananse delivered him to the sky-god too.

For the hornets, Ananse and his son took a pot with a stopper to the tree with the hive. Ananse's son then climbed up and poured a gourd of water on the hive. Bees hate rain, so Ananse called and invited them to seek shelter in his pot. As soon as they did, he quickly put the stopper in and took the pot full of bees to Nyankopon.

Finally, all that was left was to catch a Mmoatia. Ananse prepared some mashed yam and boiled eggs --food that he knew the Mmoatia loved. He then made a statue out of sticky gum and placed the food in its hands. He placed the statue in the middle of the path leading to the village. After the Mmoatia came and ate the food, he told the statue to get out of his way. When it did not respond, he struck it and was immediately stuck on the sticky gum. He tried to kick it, and his foot got stuck too. When Ananse returned, he took the Mmoatia still attached to the gum statue on palm branches back to Nyankopon.

The next day when Nyankopon called all the chiefs and elders together, he announced that Ananse was wiser than any of them and that he could keep stories forever. Therefore, since that time, all stories belong to Ananse are have been called "Anansesem" or Ananse tales.

Adinkra Symbols

Adinkra are Akan visual symbols that represent concepts, proverbs or aphorisms (short, memorable sayings). Adinkra are used extensively in fabrics, pottery, and incorporated into walls and architecture. Though decorative, the adinkra encapsulate messages that convey Akan traditional wisdom and views on life. In that way, they can visually transmit complex social beliefs and practices.

GYE NYAME ANANSE NTONTAN "except for God" "spider's web" Symbolizes the supremacy of God. Symbol of wisdom, creativity, and It is a very common decoration. the complex web of life.

Another popular adinkra is the Sankofa, a word in the Akan language that equates in English to the phrase "reach back and fetch it." It can be symbolized as a bird with its head reaching to take an egg from its back and as a stylized heart shape. It is associated with the Akan proverb, "It is not wrong to go back for that which you have forgotten." The Sankofa adinkra symbol has also been incorporated into the lore of Africans in the diaspora as a symbol of the need to take from the past what is good for future.

Kente Cloth

Kente cloth is a type of silk and cotton fabric made of interwoven cloth strips native to the Akan people. Originating in the Ashanti Kingdom, it was adopted by people in Ivory Coast and other West African regions. It is the Akan royal and sacred cloth worn at important occasions. However, it has become universally recognized as a symbol of African culture.

Influences of Akan Culture Outside of Africa, Akan culture has survived in the folklore of the New World, particularly in the communiites of escaped Africans known as Maroons.

● In Suriname, the descendants of Africans who escaped into the forests, a traditional “pangi” cloth with multi-colored vertical and horizontal stripes similar to the Ashanti kente cloth. ● The Akan tradition of naming children after the day of the week on which they were born is still practiced by the Cormantins and Maroons on Jamaica: Kofi, Cudjoe, Kwasi, and Cuffe, for example, are names of Akan origin. ● People of high esteem or position in these societies are often given the Akan honorific title of Nana. ● The council of a Maroon settlement is called an Asofo, the Akan word for assembly, church, and society. ● Stories surrounding the Akan culture hero Ananse are among the most popular folkales in the New World. ● Akan symbols such as the adinkra have become universal symbols to signify a connection to African culture. ● Akan kente cloth is also worn and displayed to display the connection to African traditions in general.