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Université François Rabelais Tours UNIVERSITÉ FRANÇOIS RABELAIS TOURS ÉCOLE DOCTORALE SST LABORATOIRE D’INFORMATIQUE : EA2101 EQUIPE HANDICAP ET NOUVELLES TECHNOLOGIES THÈSE présentée par : Alexis SEPCHAT soutenue le : 24 novembre 2008 pour obtenir le grade de : Docteur de l’université François Rabelais Tours Discipline / Spécialité : Informatique Jeux vidéo accessibles pour personnes en situation de handicap THÈSE dirigée par : Slimane Mohamed Professeur des Universités, Université François Rabelais de Tours THÈSE co-encadrée par : Monmarché Nicolas Maître de conférences, Université François Rabelais de Tours RAPPORTEURS : Natkin Stéphane ProfesseurdesUniversités,CNAM,Paris Pissaloux Edwige Professeur des Universités, Université de Rouen JURY : Archambault Dominique Maître de conférences, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris 6 Miesenberger Klaus Professeur, Université de Linz (Autriche) Monmarché Nicolas Maître de conférences, Université François Rabelais de Tours Natkin Stéphane ProfesseurdesUniversités,CNAM,Paris Olivier Damien Professeur des Universités, Université du Havre Pissaloux Edwige Professeur des Universités, Université de Rouen Slimane Mohamed Professeur des Universités, Université François Rabelais de Tours 2 Résumé : Les jeux vidéo sont un acteur important des loisirs numériques et jouent un rôle toujours croissant dans notre société de l’information et de la communication. Outre leur aspect lu- dique, ils représentent un remarquable outil d’intégration et un excellent support pédagogique. L’accès des personnes en situation de handicap aux jeux vidéo est devenu un enjeu éthique, légal et financier. Ces travaux présentent la problématique générale de l’accessibilité aux jeux vidéo et proposent une classification des problèmes associés selon deux axes : les problèmes d’interaction et les problèmes de niveau de difficulté. Des solutions sont apportées pour chacun des ces problèmes respectivement à l’aide de la multimodalité et d’un moteur d’intelligence artificielle auto adaptatif. Finalement, ces travaux constituent un nouvel apport en faveur de l’accessibilité au sein des jeux vidéo en proposant des solutions pour souligner la faisabilité de leur intégration dans des jeux vidéo « grand public ». Mots clés : Accessibilité, Jeux vidéo, conception pour tous, handicap, intelligence artificielle, fourmis ar- tificielles, jeux audio, jeux haptiques, jeux tactiles, multi modalité Abstract : Computer games are one of the main elements of the digital entertainment and there role is growing in our society of information and communication. Indeed, more than a play aspect, they are a notable social integration tool and a very good pedagogical tool. The disabled players’ access to the computer games’ universe is become an ethical, legal and financial issue. These works introduce the computer games accessibility outcome and propose to separate the associated problems into two clusters : the interaction ones and the level of difficulty ones. They also propose to solve these problems with auto adaptive artificial intelligence and thanks to multi modality. Finally, these works are a new contribution in support of the computer games accessibility. They propose some solutions to underline the feasibility of the integration of the computer games accessibility mechanisms in the bosom of the mainstream game universe. Keywords : Computer game accessibility, design for all, artificial intelligence, artificial ants, audio games, haptic games, tactiles games, multi modality 3 Remerciements Mes travaux de recherche ont été menés au sein de l’équipe Handicap et Nouvelles Tech- nologies du Laboratoire d’Informatique de l’Université François Rabelais de Tours. J’ai com- mencé ces travaux au cours de ma formation au sein du département informatique de l’école polytechnique universitaire de Tours dans le cadre d’un projet de fin d’études. Mes premiers remerciements vont spontanément vers mon directeur de thèse Mohamed Slimane et mon codirecteur Nicolas Monmarché. Ils m’ont permis de réaliser mes recherches dans des conditions idéales en gérant une grande partie des aspects organisationnels de cette thèse et en me faisant part de leur expérience dans les différents domaines mis en œuvre dans ces travaux. Ensemble, ils ont su encadrer efficacement mes travaux, tout en me laissant développer mes propres idées. Je remercie les membres du jury pour l’intérêt qu’ils ont porté à mon travail. Je remercie les rapporteurs de cette thèse : Edwige Pissaloux et Stéphane Natkin, et les examinateurs : Dominique Archambault, Klaus Miesenberger et Damien Olivier. Je remercie tous les enseignants, doctorants et étudiants du Département Informatique de Polytech’Tours pour leur accueil et leur confiance. Je remercie en particulier les membres de l’équipe Handicap et Nouvelles Technologie qui m’ont soutenu durant ces trois années. Je remercie également l’ensemble des étudiants que j’ai eu l’occasion d’encadrer lors de stages ou de mini projets au cours de leur formation au sein de cette école et dont les travaux ont pu être intégrés, directement ou indirectement, à cette thèse. Je remercie Jean Desmazes, directeur de l’Institut d’Administration des Entreprises de l’Université de Tours, pour sa participation au montage financier m’ayant permis de mener ce projet et son soutien durant mes trois années durant lesquelles j’ai du gérer la charge de travail liée à mon poste d’administrateur réseau de l’IAE de Tours conjointement à mes travaux de recherches. Je remercie également Jean Philippe Réau et Stéphane Bourliataux-Lajoinie pour leurs collaborations concernant l’évolution du réseau de l’IAE de Tours. Je remercie l’ensemble des personnes ayant acceptées de participer aux tests de nos appli- cations et nous ont ainsi permis de les améliorer en particulier Marylène Jabely qui a accepté de participer régulièrement à ces évaluations. D’un point de vue plus personnel, je remercie les membres de ma famille qui m’ont apportés tout leur soutien dans l’accomplissement de ce projet. Enfin, je remercie tous ceux que je n’ai pas encore cités et qui ont contribué au bon déroulement de mes études vers le doctorat : le personnel administratif du Département Informatique de Polytech’Tours et du Laboratoire d’Informatique de l’Université François Rabelais de Tours. Table des matières Table des figures v Liste des tableaux xiii 1 Introduction 1 2 La déficience visuelle 5 2.1 Introduction..................................... 6 2.2 L’oeiletlavue ................................... 6 2.2.1 La structure anatomique de l’œil . 6 2.2.2 Le mécanisme de la vision . 7 2.3 La déficience visuelle . 8 2.3.1 La définition de la déficience visuelle . 8 2.3.2 La situation actuelle . 8 2.3.3 Les différentes formes de déficience visuelle . 9 2.3.4 Le projet VISION2020 : le droit à la vue . 11 2.4 Les conséquences sociales de la déficience visuelle . .. 12 2.4.1 Lacommunication ............................. 12 2.4.2 Ledéplacement............................... 12 2.4.3 Le développement de l’enfant . 12 2.4.4 L’apprentissage de la lecture et l’importance du Braille . 14 2.4.4.1 Une écriture accessible : le braille . 14 2.5 La déficience visuelle et l’informatique . 19 2.5.1 L’accès des malvoyants à l’information numérique . 19 2.5.2 L’accès des non voyants à l’information numérique . 19 2.6 Conclusion...................................... 23 3 Accessibilité aux jeux vidéo 25 3.1 Introduction..................................... 26 3.2 Lesjeuxvidéo.................................... 26 3.2.1 La définition des jeux vidéo . 26 3.2.2 La classification des différents types de jeux vidéo . 26 3.2.3 La définition de la notion de « gameplay » . 27 3.3 La place des jeux vidéo dans notre société . .. 28 3.3.1 Les jeux vidéo au sein de notre société . 28 3.3.2 Les enjeux de l’accès aux jeux vidéo . 29 3.3.2.1 Les jeux vidéo comme support pédagogique . 29 3.3.2.2 Les jeux vidéo comme outil d’intégration sociale . 31 3.3.2.3 L’enjeu des jeux vidéo chez le joueur en situation de handicap 31 3.4 La définition à l’accessibilité des jeux vidéo . 33 3.5 Pourquoi les jeux standards ne sont ils pas accessibles ? . ....... 34 3.5.1 La classification des problèmes de l’accessibilité aux jeux vidéo . 34 3.5.1.1 Les problèmes d’interaction . 34 3.5.1.2 Les problèmes de niveau . 35 i 3.5.2 Les difficultés rencontrées et les solutions apportées en fonction du type dehandicap................................. 37 3.5.2.1 Le handicap moteur . 37 3.5.2.2 Le handicap cognitif . 40 3.5.2.3 Le handicap auditif . 41 3.5.2.4 Le handicap visuel . 41 3.6 Les jeux vidéo accessibles, les outils et les projets qui les entourent ...... 45 3.6.1 Jeux partiellement accessibles ou jeux accessibles universels ? . .... 46 3.6.2 Une liste non exhaustives des principaux projets en relation avec l’ac- cessibilitéauxjeuxvidéo.......................... 48 3.6.3 Les outils associés à la conception de jeux accessibles pour personnes déficientes visuelles . 55 3.6.3.1 La synthèse vocale . 56 3.6.3.2 La transcription braille . 56 3.6.3.3 La spatialisation du son . 58 3.7 Commentrendreunjeuvidéoaccessible? . .. 59 3.7.1 Généralités ................................. 59 3.7.2 Les recommandations pour la conception de jeux accessibles . ... 61 3.7.2.1 Le livre blanc du « GA-SIG IGDA » . 61 3.7.2.2 Les directives pour le développement de jeux accessibles . 61 3.7.3 L’évaluation de l’accessibilité d’un jeu vidéo . 62 3.7.4 La notation de l’accessibilité d’un jeu vidéo . 63 3.7.5 L’évaluation du flow dans les jeux vidéo . 63 3.7.6 Les recommandations pour la conception de jeux . 65 3.8 Bilan et perspectives sur l’accessibilité aux jeux vidéo . .... 65 4 Modèle biologique et fourmis artificielles 67 4.1 Introduction..................................... 68 4.1.1 Desfourmisnaturelles... ......................... 68 4.1.2 . aux fourmis artificielles . 69 4.2 Larecherchedenourriture. 69 4.3 La division du travail et de l’allocation de tâches chez les fourmis et sa modé- lisation.......................................
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