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University Microfilms International 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 USA St. John's Road, Tyler's Green High Wycombe, Bucks, England HP10 8HR 77-10,563

LISKEVYCH, Taras Nestor, 1948- A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF WOMEN'S VOLLEYBALL AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1976 Education, physical

Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106

0 1976

TARAS NESTOR LISKEVYCH

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

1 1 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF WOMEN'S VOLLEYBALL

AT the international LEVEL

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillm ent of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Taras Nestor Liskevych, B.S., M.S.

*****

The Ohio State University

1976

Reading Committee; Approved By

Dr. Daryl Siedentop Dr. Bruce L. Bennett Dr. Barbara Nelson I Advi ser Department of Physical Education (J ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to thank his adviser, Dr. Daryl Siedentop for bearing with him the las t two years. Dr. Siedentop's patience and advice were most important in the author's graduate work at Ohio State.

Deep appreciation is extended to Dr. Charles Mand whose guidance and counseling was always available.

Thanks is extended to Dr. Bruce Bennett whose expertise in the fie ld of comparative physical education and sport was an important in­ fluence on this study, as well as the author's education.

Thanks are extended to committee members - Dr. Barbara Nelson,

Dr. Anna Gorman and Dr. William Reward.

Thanks are also extended to Cindy Cleveland for her meticulous work in typing the very first draft as well as this final copy of the dissertation, and to Cindy Kinman for the final proofreading.

A fin al thanks is extended to B ill Peer who did the fin al leg work to get the dissertation printed and bound.

n i VITA

October 14, 1948 Born - Munich, Germany

1970 B.S., Biology, Loyola University, Chicago, Illin o is

1970-1971 Student of Medicine, Loyola University Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illin o is

1972 M.S., Physical Education, George Williams College, Downers Grove, Illin o is

1973 Assistant Coach - Men's Varsity Volleyball Team, George Williams College, Downers Grove, Illin o is

1973-1974 Instructor, Physical Education Department, George Williams College, Downers Grove, Illin o is

1974 S taff Coach, USA Women's National Volleyball Team, Pasadena, Texas

1974-1975 Teaching Associate, Department of Physical Educa­ tion, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1974-1976 Men's Varsity Volleyball Coach, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1975 Assistant Coach, USA Women's National Volleyball Team, Pan American Games, Mexico City

PUBLICATIONS

A Pictorial Analysis of Power Volleyball with Jim Coleman, Hollywood; Creative Sports Books, 1974.

IV FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Physical Education

Professors Daryl Siedentop, Charles Mand and Bruce

Bennett

Minor Field: Applied Behavioral Analysis

Professors Daryl Siedentop and William Reward TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS m

VITA iv

LIST OF TABLES v iii

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER

1 BRIEF HISTORY OF VOLLEYBALL 7

2 ORGANIZATION OF VOLLEYBALL 13

Volleyball Federations 13 Development and Levels of Volleyball 20 League Structure 29

3 NATIONAL TEAM 38

Selection Procedures 38 Age, Occupation, Marital Status and International Experience 45 National Program 48 National Coach and S ta ff gO Traveling Squads 57

4 ECONOMY 70

5 INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION 77

6 STYLES OF PLAY 85

7 FUTURE OF VOLLEYBALL IN THEUNITED STATES 96

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 108

APPENDICES

I Sport Participation 114

I I Results of the Women's World Championships, Olympics and Pan American Games 115

VI Page

III Countries Selected for Study 117

IV Questionnaire 118

V Cover Letter 125

VI Value of Foreign Currency 126

V II Metric Conversion Factors 127

VIII Letter to USVBA Board of Directors 128

IX Glossary of Volleyball Terms 136

BIBLIOGRAPHY 140

vn LIST OF TABLES Tables Page

1 Percent of Sources of Funds for Women's National Team 71

2 Percent of Funds Used for Support of National Team 7^

3 Percent of Sources of Funds for League 76

4 Canadian Women's International Schedule 1975-76 78

5 International Record of USSR's National Women's Team 83

6 International Record of Japanese National Women's Team 83

v m INTRODUCTION

THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The game of volleyball was invented in the United States by

William G. Morgan eighty-one years ago in 1895. Originally designed as just an indoor, lunch-time recreational game for businessmen, it gained only lim ited success at home during the f ir s t two decades. At this time, the game spread to the Far East and to Europe where i t be­ came a popular recreational and competitive sport.

In these 80 years, volleyball has become one of the most popular sports in the world. Played by all ages at many different recreational and competitive levels, the sport is now known in virtually every corner of our globe. The main reason for its popularity is that it is relatively inexpensive, quite easy to learn, and the rules are simple.

Since the inception of the International Volleyball Federation

(FIVB) in 1947, the growth of volleyball has been significant.

According to the FIVB Coaches Manual (CVA, 1975, p. 1.6) close to 120 countries belong to the FIVB. In 1957 i t was recognized as an Olympic sport by the International Olympic Committee and was f ir s t included in the 1964 Tokyo Olympics.

The development of volleyball as a sport follows a pattern found in the development of other sports. As Lu (1950) stated:

Introduced abroad when young and immature, i t developed under different cultures and environments, in each case formulating its own style and regulations. These styles and regulations vary from one country to another, and in some instances, even from city to c ity within the same country. (Lu, 1950, p. 2) At the present time, similar regulations are followed in almost all the countries, but the styles and the development varies from country to country.

Internationally, volleyball is perhaps the best known team sport for women. Volleyball for women has closely paralleled the development of the men's game. In some countries, as compared to the men's pro­ gram, women's volleyball is much more successful internationally and is more widely accepted as a competitive and recreational a c tiv ity .

The primary purpose of this investigation was to compare interna­ tional women's volleyball program in several countries. The study dealt with specific factors that have contributed to the success and/or failure of these volleyball programs in their respective countries. It is hoped that this information will further stimulate the promotion of the sport of volleyball and specifically help to establish an ongoing program in the United States.

The one main hypothesis that was investigated can be stated as follows: success in international volleyball is directly correlated to one or more of the following factors:

1. broad base development of volleyball at a ll age levels;

2. development of a league structure for competition;

3. adequate amount of financial support; and

4. amount of time spent in international competition.

One sub-problem was investigated: for the United States to have a successful international program, i t cannot just "carbon-copy" an existing successful program. I t must create its own unique system based on principles which are necessary for the success of any international program.

The specific objectives of the study were to deal with several topics in comparing the programs in the different countries. The key topics were:

1. different levels of volleyball competition;

2. league structure - its development and mode of functioning;

3. organization of the national program;

4. finances - economic considerations;

5. relationship and interaction of the volleyball programs with

the sport structure and organization in each country;

6. success of programs at the international level; and

7. political, social, and cultural differences and their effect.

To date only one study has been done regarding some of the above

topics. This study is the doctoral dissertation by Hui-Ching Lu of

the Teachers College of Columbia University in 1950 entitled An

Analysis of Volley Ball in Various Regions of the World. Since this

period represented the early beginnings of international competition,

much has changed since this study was conducted. However, Lu's study

provided this present study with an excellent background of the

growth and development of volleyball in various countries.

METHOD AND PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY

Collection and Sources of Data

To obtain the necessary data for the study, three sources were

used: 1. Personal interviews - during the w riter's involvement as a s ta ff and assistant coach of the USA women's national team, he was able to conduct personal interviews. In the last two years, technical, administrative, coaching, and playing personnel of twelve countries were interviewed (see Appendix I I I ) .

2. Questionnaire - a questionnaire with a cover letter was

prepared by the w rite r. These were sent to twenty-eight countries.

To enhance the chance of response from four of the Spanish speaking

countries, the questionnaire was translated to Spanish. The cover

le tte r was translated into several languages - Japanese, Russian and

Polish (see Appendix IV and V).

3. Research - additional information pertaining to volleyball and

to the women's international programs was researched in books, journals,

periodicals, dissertations, reports, and international coaches manuals.

Countries Studied

Twenty-eight countries were under consideration.^ To all of these

a questionnaire was sent. The twelve interviewed countries were among

the twenty-eight (see Appendix III). Several factors came into play

in choosing these countries:

1 The countries were as follows: Australia, Belgium, B razil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), England, Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, Isra el, Ita ly , Japan, Mexico, People's Republic of China (Red China), Peru, Poland, Republic of China (Taiwan), Republic of Korea (South Korea), Roumania, Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia, United States of America, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and Yugoslavia. 1. Geographic location - the FIVB is sectioned into five geographic zones. "These zone confederations elect th e ir own leader­ ship and are presented directly to the International Volleyball

Federation" (Canadian Volleyball Association/CVA/1975, p. 1.7). The zone confederations are Europe; Asia; North, Central America and

Caribbean; Africa and Madagascar; and South America. At least two countries from each zone were chosen.

2. Past performances at Olympics, Pan American Games and World

Championships - on the basis of past results (see Appendix I I ) , a ll countries participating in the 1964, 1968, 1972 and 1976 Olympic games, the top finishers of the 1967, 1971, and 1975 Pan American games, and countries which finished in the top seven at the 1966, 1970 and 1974

World Championships were included in the study.

3. Political, social and cultural differences - an attempt was made to distinguish among some of these differences, so that the countries under investigation would not a ll have sim ilar backgrounds.

4. Availability of data - in the final analysis, this has been the crucial factor. Due to the time element in making this study, the writer was obliged to limit himself only to materials received up to the present moment. Seven countries responded to the questionnaire.

Appendix III contains the information that has been available on the twenty-eight countries to which the questionnaire had been sent to.

The major focus of the study w ill be on the Soviet Union, Japan, and

the United States. PRESENTATION OF THE MATERIALS

Presentation of the materials for the study will be based on existing facts as reported by the countries in the interviews, questionnaires and by researching data from a ll available sources.

The data will be arranged by topic. Each topic will be investigated by comparing and contrasting all the countries in the study. The individual chapters will be: brief history of volleyball; structure and organization of volleyball; national program; economic; international competition; different styles of play; and the future of volleyball in the United States.

The summary and conclusion w ill be based on the findings. No attempt was made to solve problems encountered in the various programs, other than a prescriptive chapter on the USA women's program. This was a descriptive study which was s tric tly for educational purposes.

In order to develop the international game on the soundest foundation,

a ll the programs and problems described in this study should be

carefully investigated and scientifically tested by future researchers. CHAPTER 1

BRIEF HISTORY OF VOLLEYBALL

Origins of a volleyball-like game date back to the Middle Ages.

Joseph S tru tt, in The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, recorded a v o lle yb a ll-lik e game called hand-tennis or fives played in the fourteenth century. Describing a plate in his book depicting people volleying a b a ll, S tru tt stated:

To the left is a player about to strike the ball with his right hand, whilst behind him stands another player apparently suggesting how he should make his stroke. To the rig h t, on the opposite page separated by an upright ornament - of which the designer apparently took advantage to indicate an intervening line - stand two players, with open hands or palms ready to receive and return the ball. (Strutt, 1903, pp. 81-82)

An article in the International Volleyball Review stated that

"volleyball is an American adaptation of an Italian game created in the Romantic Countries during the Middle Ages" (Englert, 1972, p. 12).

Another reference states that a v o lle yb all-like sport was

introduced in Germany in 1893, where i t was known as "faustball".

The Germans loved "faustball" and played i t with a great deal of precision and grace - bouncing a large ball over a rope. I t was a slow game then, slow to play and slow to win. Since the rules allowed for two bounces of the ball, it was pretty hard to lose. (Greenberg, 1975, p. 130)

Modern volleyball was in itia te d in Holyoke, Massachusetts in 1895

by William G. Morgan, Director of the Holyoke Young Men's Christian

Association (YMCA). Morgan f e lt that there should be a game that when

compared to the recently created game of basketball (creation of James

Naismith at YMCA Springfield College in 1891) would not be quite so

rough and strenuous for older members (Welch, 1968, p. 18). 8

The game had a very ordinary beginning; a basketball bladder was inflated and presented to a group for 'batting about with the hands.' The a c tiv ity proved enjoyable; a rope stretched between the group to make opposing sides, and another world game was born. (Anthony, 1976, p. 128)

During these early beginnings, the sport was called "minonette".

Morgan explained that the new game was designed for the indoor hall or gymnasium, but may also be played out-of-doors.

Any number of persons could play - the object being to keep a ball in motion over a high net from one side to the other, played in innings, combining aspects of two games, tennis and handball. After watching the demonstration and hearing Morgan's report, Professor Alfred T. Halstead pointed out the batting or volleying phase of the a c tiv ity and proposed the name of "volley b a ll." This name was accepted by Morgan (the name has continued throughout the years only one slight change: in 1952, the United States Volleyball Association Board of Directors voted to spell the name as one word "volleyball"). . (Welch, 1969, p. 19)

Volleyball became very popular at playground and resort areas throughout the United States. In 1900, Canada became the first foreign country to adopt the sport. A key to the growth of the sport was the international YMCA movement. With it, the popularity of volleyball spread throughout the world.

I t was f ir s t played by the YMCA group in Canada in 1900. From there i t went south with the YMCA and was introduced in Central and South America. Cuba reported that they began to play volleyball in 1905, Puerto Rico in 1909, Uruguay in 1912, Brazil and Mexico in 1917. I t was introduced to the Orient in the early 1900's but did not receive its real impetus until Elwood Brown popularized it in the Phillipines in 1910. It grew very fast a fte r the F irs t Far Eastern Olympic Games, which were held in 1913. From 1913 to 1930, the sport grew faster in the Far Eastern countries - the P hillipin es, China, and Japan - than in any other parts of the world. Volleyball was introduced to the European countries during the F irst World War. England first learned it in 1914... At that time, the YMCA Physical Directors were either at work or en route to the following countries: Argentina, Belgium, B ra zil, China, Serbia, Cuba, Chile, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, France, Hawaii, Ita ly , India, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Puerto Rico, P hillipin e Islands, Poland, Roumania, Turkey, Uruguay, Wherever the YMCA Physical Directors went, volleyball went with them. (Lu, 1950, pp. 13-14)

By 1923, volleyball was becoming structured on a competitive basis. In 1925, the USSR National Volleyball Federation was estab­ lished, the Japanese Federation was started two years later, and the

USA began in 1928 (Anthony, 1976, p. 128). One of the f ir s t recorded

international competitions was in Paris in 1931 when the Soviets competed against the Estonians (Peck, 1970, p. 108). The f ir s t attempt to organize an international volleyball federation during the

1936 Olympic Games fa ile d . I t was not until 1947 that the Federation

Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) was born with its headquarters in

Paris. Thus, while most of the Americans s t ill viewed volleyball as

a recreational a c tiv ity , Europe was developing i t into a formidable,

top-flight sport.

Iro n ic a lly , i t was the American Armed Forces during World War I I who gave the game its greatest following. During th e ir rest periods

they avidly played the game and, a fter 1945, the small number of

volleyball players grew into millions throughout the world (Greenberg,

1975, p. 130).

A fter World War I I , an additional factor helped to spread the

popularity of volleyball in several countries. This factor was the

immigration of displaced persons from Eastern Europe to western

countries, especially England, Canada, and the United States.

With the inception of the FIVB, the development of volleyball was

further enhanced by the establishment of unified rules and organized

international tournaments. 10

One of the f ir s t of these international tournaments was held in

Sofia, Bulgaria.

The Balkan Mid-European Volley Ball Tournaments for men and women were held at Sofia from September 12 to 15, 1948. The countries participating were Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, Roumania, Trieste, and Hungary. (Lu, 1950, p. 20)

The f ir s t European Championships (men) were held in 1948 in Rome with six countries taking part. The First International Volleyball

Championships for men and women were held at Prague, Czechoslovakia in

September, 1949. Eleven countries participated: Belgium, Bulgaria,

Czechoslovakia, France, Holland, Hungary, Ita ly , Israel, Poland,

Roumania, and the USSR (Lu, 1950, p. 21).^ The Eastern European

countries developed the sport to such an extent that official matches

attracted 30,000 to 60,000 spectators and filled outdoor athletic

stadiums (CVA, 1975, p. 1 .1 ). Consequently, the world of sport and

Olympic movement were forced to take notice. In 1957, the In te r­

national Olympic Committee viewed an international tournament in

Bulgaria and at th e ir meeting designated volleyball as an Olympic

sport. In 1961, the men's event was included in the 1964 Tokyo

Olympic program and two years la te r the women's competition was added

2 There is some confusion in regards to the F irs t World Championships for women. Most references acknowledge the 1952 Championships held in Moscow as the F irs t World Championships for women (CVA, 1975, p. 1.17; Thigpen, 1967, p. 129; Anthony, 1976, p. 128). Lu, in her dissertation, lis ts the tournament in Prague, Czechoslovakia as the First Championships (p. 21). Lu's 1949 results are exactly.the same as the results for the 1952 championships as reported by the CVA. Thigpen's 1952 results d iffe r from those of the CVA (Poland is in second place - see Appendix II). In a recent interview with Dr. Simri, he claimed that the 1949 tournament was not a World Champion­ ship, but a Democratic Youth Festival Tournament (Simri, 1976). n

(Anthony, 1976, p. 128). Thus, in 1964 volleyball became the f ir s t team sport accepted into the Olympic program with competitions for both men and women. Volleyball was f ir s t included on the Pan American

Games Program in Mexico City in 1955.

Presently, volleyball has become one of the most popular sports in the world.

Among the team sports played in the many countries of the world, there are few areas where you w ill not see a football (soccer) pitch, a basketball court, or a volleyball net. These three sports have found à home in school curricula almost everywhere. (Bennett, Howell and Simri, 1975, p. 47)

In 1970, a survey taken on behalf of the International Olympic

Committee reported that volleyball and basketball were equal with approximately 65 million participants in each sport. "Both these sports were more popular than athletics, swimming, and football combined" (CVA, 1975, p. 1.2, see Appendix I ) .

Bennett, Howell and Simri (1975, p. 145) l i s t a total of 120 nations belonging to the FIVB. Other sources l i s t 121 members (CVA,

1975, p. 1.3) and 116 members (FIVB, 1975. pp. 28-32) respectively.

Only track and field (athletics), soccer (football), and basketball have a larger number of affiliated countries in the International

Federations.

The women's international competitions is as extensive as the men's. Eastern European women's teams have dominated the sport for nearly three decades. In the 1960s, Japan made great strides to become a world power. The 1964 Japanese Olympic Team popularized the game of volleyball overnight by its spirited play before a world-wide tele­ vision viewing audience. In the mid and late 60s, the Republic of 12

Korea (South Korea), and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea

(North Korea) have produced world class teams. Recently Cuba and the

South American country of Peru have assembled national teams that are highly regarded internationally. A major step for the sport's further development would be internationally sound programs in the USA and

Canada. CHAPTER 2

ORGANIZATION OF VOLLEYBALL

Volleyball Federations

The firs t organized International Volleyball Conference was held in Paris on April 18-20, 1947. Fourteen countries were present at the

Congress: Belgium, B razil, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, France, Holland,

Hungary, Ita ly , Poland, Portugal, Roumania, United States, Uruguay and

Yugoslavia (Lu, 1950, pp. 41-42).

The result was the establishment of the International Volleyball

Federation (FIVB). The FIVB's formation had added a much needed admin­ istrative and organizational body. Its main responsibilities have been.

1. organization of international championships;

2. adoption and improvement of the rules;

3. instruction and certification of referees;

4. instruction and certificatio n of coaches; and

5. world-wide promotion of volleyball.

The major ruling body within the FIVB is the Congress which meets every two years in conjunction with the World Championships and the

Olympic Games. All the national federations belonging to the FIVB have a vote in this Congress. Aside from the Congress, the day to day func­ tioning of the FIVB is in the hands of its Executive Committee and its five technical commissions which are: sports organizing, referees, rules of the game, coaches, and medical.

The organization and administrative structure of the respective national federations is quite similar to the FIVB. In the Soviet

13 14

Union, the USSR Volleyball Federation, ju st as a ll the sport federa­ tions, "is under the jurisdiction of the All-Union Physical Culture and Sports Committee which is directly responsible to the Council of

Ministers" (Bennett, Howell and Simri, 1975, p. 110). The federation has six commissions that are responsible for all phases of volleyball

in the USSR. The individual commissions are: rules, specialized

schools, coaches council, research, equipment, and international re la ­

tions (Melanson, 1975, p. 10). The USSR Volleyball Federation was

started in 1925 and joined the FIVB in 1948.

The beginning of volley ball games in the USSR is just the same as in other European countries — dating from the First World War... Volley ball as a sport began to be organized in Soviet Russia as such in about 1924-25. The f ir s t uniform rules appeared in 1926 and in 1929 f ir s t Union tournaments were played. (Wirszyllo, 1948, p. 19)

In the USSR, volleyball is ju st a small part of an enormous, but

well organized sport program.

The Soviet model is characterized by strong control at the federal level with long-range and short-term goals and with considerable financial support from the government. A national secretariat is included and the secretaries of all the sport governing bodies are centrally located. National coaches in each sport organize the training and development of that parti­ cular sport. There is a national training center where the top athletes train under expert supervision, and a national research center where the research experts work with athletes and with problems associated with sport... The essential part of the model is that each state or province duplicates the national model — that is, there is a provincial or state centralized authority, a provincial secretariat, pro­ vincial coaches, provincial training center, and possibly a provincial research center. (Bennett, Howell and Simri, 1975, pp. 112-113)

All the Eastern European Communist bloc countries follow a similar

pattern in their sport organization. "The essential features are the 15 principle of mass participation, the triangle theory, state control of sport, and the state amateur athlete" (Bennett, Howell and Simri, 1975, p. 115). The triangle theory is the basis of the sport program

(Bennett, Howell, and Simri, 1975, p. 114).

NATIONAL PARTICIPATION PROVINCIAL PARTICIPATION CITY PARTICIPATION DISTRICT PARTICIPATION CLUB PARTICIPATION MASS PARTICIPATION SPORT SCHOOLS

A few western countries have begun to organize their sport pro­ grams in a similar fashion. Italy has a centralized sports program.

The majority of the employees of the various sport federations are graduates of a sport school which is a ffilia te d with the Ita lia n

Olympic Committee (CONI), the Scuola Centralle Dello Sport in Rome

(Romano, 1975). The Italian Volleyball Federation, formed in 1946, was an original charter member of the FIVB.

Canada's sports program is now very sim ilar to that of Eastern

European countries. The Canadian Volleyball Association (CVA) is part of a federally controlled sport structure. Sport Canada, which is under the supervision of the Minister of Health and Welfare. In addition, each province is also "dulipcating the national organizational framework" (Bennett, Howell and Simri, 1975, p. 115). Melanson (1975, p. n) states that while the CVA is very similar in structure to the 16

USSR Federation, "the one area we do differ is we hire an executive and technical director where there are no paid employees of the USSR

Volleyball Federation." From the interviews with Akhvlediani (1975), the Soviet women's coach, this is substantiated. Akhvlediani stressed that the volleyball federation does not pay salaries, for most USSR federation employees have a full-time job elsewhere. A question arises as to how much time is spent by these federation workers at their other jobs.

Canada has now hired or is in the process of hiring five provin­ cial technical directors who are employed by the Sports Board of each province. The executive director and training director are financed by the federal government and not by the CVA (Guerriero, 1975). The

CVA was founded in 1953. I t joined the FIVB in the same year.

The United States Volleyball Association (USVBA) was formed in

1928 and was an original charter member of the FIVB in 1947. Unlike its northern neighbor, the association is not at all funded by the federal government. The main purpose of the establishment of the

USVBA was to "join together all organizations national in scope that were promoting the sport. I t has continued that role ever since" (USA/

USSR Olympic Volleyball Program, 1975, p. 15).

The representatives of these organizations are the voting members of the USVBA, called the governing members.3 Annually these governing

3 The governing members represent the following organizations: Amateur Athletic Union (AAU); National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA); National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA); American Alliance of Health, Physical Education and Recreation (AAHPER); National Council of YMCA's; National Jewish Welfare Board (NJWB); 17 members elect members, to the main ruling body of the USVBA — the board of directors. These are the directors of the USVBA non-profit corporation (the USVBA became a California non-profit corporation in

1970) and they in turn elect the officers. The elected officers are the president, three vice presidents, the secretary, and the treasurer.

These officers make up the executive committee. There are fifteen standing committees — a large number compared to the volleyball federa­ tions of other countries.^

All the above positions are non-salaried. These volunteers worked full-time at another job. The Eastern Europeans reported to have a sim ilar situation. However, the USVBA workers attended th eir non-volleyball full-time job, whereas their Eastern European counter­ parts did so on paper only. There is one paid position, that of the

Executive Director. In practice the main administrative burden falls

upon this individual, even though theoretically all business of inter­

national and national importance should be transacted by the combina­

tion of elected officers, board of directors, committees and the

executive director. An additional salaried position will ease the load

National Catholic Youth Organization (CYO); Army; Navy; Marines; Air Force; the Boys' Club of America; National State High School Federa­ tion (NSHF); American Latvian Association; American Turners, and others (USVBA, 1976, pp. 30-35).

^USVBA standing committees: Archives, History and Records; Budget and Finance; Constitution and By-Laws; Equipment and Supplies; Interna­ tional Affairs; National Tournament Site Selection; Officials and C ertification; O fficial Scorers and C ertification; Player and Team Eligibility; Publications; Recognitions; Rules and Interpretations; United States Olympic Volleyball; Women's, G irl's and Co-Ed Volley­ b a ll; and National YMCA Operating Council on Volleyball (USVBA, 1976, pp. 10- 21). 18 of the Executive Director to some extent. A new position of the

National Training Director will commence after the 1976 Montreal

Olympics. The Training Director w ill be in charge of the international volleyball programs for both men and women.

An important part of the USVBA is the work of the Regional com­ missioners (the United States is geographically divided into eighteen regions). These volunteers have several responsibilities, such as: promoting the sport of volleyball; conducting USVBA-sponsored competi­ tion for all interested players and teams, and the organization and enrollment of players, coaches and o ffic ia ls as members of the USVBA.

An enormous amount of time and e ffo rt is spent by a ll the volun­ teer workers in the USVBA. Nevertheless, because the USVBA lacks additional paid positions, there are many administrative and functional deficiencies in the organization. In contrast, we find the efficient federations of the Asian countries.

Volleyball developed rapidly in Japan after its introduction in

1913 by F. H. Brown at the Chiness YMCA in Tokyo.

In 1926, the Education Ministry introduced volleyball in the items to be taught in gymnastic lessons in schools. The Japanese Volleyball Association was founded in 1927... The Second World War made i t impossible to continue sporting a c tiv itie s and no games were held during the years from 1941 to 1945. In 1946, the Japanese Volleyball Federation (JVA) was revived. (JVA, 1975)

Although volleyball was started re la tiv e ly early in Japan, i t was

not the common 6-player volleyball, but a 9-player game which was

popular until 1962. In 1951, Japan was admitted to the FIVE. "In

1953, the Waseda University Team went over to the United States and

brought back 6-men volleyball systems to Japan" (JVA, 1975). In 1960, 19 the JVA embarked on a'unique program, the goal of which was to bring an

Olympic or World Championship to Japan.

The reason we the volleyball o ffic ia ls are making utmost efforts to bring the championship to Japan in the Olympic Games and the world's championship series is that we expect as many people as possible take part in sports under impetus from the word "championship." This is ju s tifie d by the fact that the victory of Japan's women volleyball team in the Olympic Games in Tokyo brought about a volleyball boom in every part of the country. This fact also proves the assertion that the most ideal form of the development of a sport is a pyramid shape. Along with the slogan "Volleyball for a million people," I thought volleyball should be made to adapt its e lf to the four principles. They are: "It is fun to play," "It is pleasant to watch," "It is interesting to read about," and "It is enjoy­ able to hear about." We cannot expect any sports to become popular unless they are enjoyed by the people. (Maeda, 1971, p. 67)

From the organizational standpoint, no information on the JVA was.

found. One can assume that the JVA closely models the FIVE structure.

In this writer's observations, the Japanese traveling delegations have

been very well organized and th eir daily schedule has been planned to

the very last minute. To some degree this reflects the quality of the

organization of the JVA.

In other countries, the federations were established relatively

late as compared to the USA, Japan, USSR and other Eastern European

countries (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Poland started th e ir federa­

tions in the 1920's). West Germany started its federation in 1955 and

joined the FIVE in 1956. Spain also joined the FIVE the same year,

while its national federation was started in 1950. This federation

was part of the basketball federation until 1959 a fter which time i t

became independent. E razil's federation was started in 1954, but

according to the questionnaire, even they are not sure when i t joined 20 the FIVB. Mexico's federation began in 1933 and the questionnaire reported that i t joined the FIVB in 1940. This is an obvious error since the FIVB was not established until 1947. Many sim ilar discrep­ ancies have been found throughout the interviewing, questionnaire and research procedures.

Development and Levels of Volleyball

Three distinct patterns of youth participation in volleyball were found among the countries: 1. normal school system; 2. sport clubs; and 3. some type of specialized sport school. The more elaborate the organization of volleyball for children, the more chance there is of success internationally.

Without a systematic preparation of many years, today one even could not think of success in v o lle y b a ll... For this reason now mostly children 10-12 years are drawn into systematic volley­ ball occupations. For instance of the total number of pupils in the volleyball sport schools for children and young juniors, 50% are up to 14 years old. (Zheleznyak, 1970, p. 16)

In this statement Y. D. Zheleznyak, at that time president of the

Junior Commission of the USSR Volleyball Federation, underlines the fact that volleyball development must start very early for a country to be successful in international competition. For the past twenty years these types of sport schools have been the key to developing good volleyball players. There are approximately 1,000 volleyball schools in the Soviet Union and they are attended after regular school hours and during summer vacations.

Here top notch training and coaching is received by the youths and many have gone on to be international players. These schools for training and competitive reasons subdivide their 21

players according to age... As the student passes through each stage he progresses and i f he is one of the better ones he is selected for National and International Junior competition. The better ones may also join one of the large trade union clubs and play at the senior level even though he may s t ill be of junior age. 5 (Melanson, 1975, p. 10)

According to Melanson (1975, p. 10) an additional concept of the volleyball "boarding" school was introduced in 1958. There are the specialized schools for sport which Bennett, Howell and Simri (1975, p. 63) described as schools "that are attended by boys and girls who

show promise of unusual ath letic a b ility and ta le n t." In these schools

the students combine their academic and volleyball training.

Here the athletes with the most potential go for a period of about seven years beginning around the age of eleven. There are eight of these schools in the USSR with the most prestig­ ious being in K iev... I t is interesting to note that the program in a ll these schools is the same so when players from different schools get together to play internationally the individual techniques and team play of each are identical. (Melanson, 1975, p. 10)

This information has been substantiated through an interview with

the Soviet coach Givi Akhvlediani (1975). He stated that specialized

volleyball schools exist in each region. Concerning school competi­

tio n, he stated that tournaments among schools are held in every

region. In addition every city has a school championship and crowns

champions from eleven years on. An All-Union Championship for youth

is organized for two age groups 14-15 and 16-17.

Competition is keen and varied in the USSR school competition. It includes District Championships followed by city or rural

5 Melanson consistently used the pronoun "he" when referring to player. She may be substituted in all instances, for the girls follow a similar pattern. 22

area championships. This level of play is classified as juvenile play and is the responsibility of the Education Department. The "specialized" schools go a step beyond this; for after their city winners are decided, they will compete at the National level sometime during the January and March holidays. From the e lite "boarding" schools, a ll star teams are picked to compete internationally in a series of "Friend­ ship" Matches usually held with other s o c ia list countries. (Melanson, 1975, p. 9)

Sport clubs such as Spartak have programs for youth beginning at ages nine and ten. In this club program, the children have two to three years of learning basic techniques. They do not compete or play in tournaments until they are older.

It is estimated that over 300,000 juniors are playing volleyball at the competitive club level and that over seven m illion people in the Soviet Union play volleyball (Melanson, 1975, p. 9).

Extensively organized youth volleyball is also found in Bulgaria.

Training starts at ages 9-12 with a group called the pioneers. They play regular 6-player volleyball with mini-volleyball adaptations.6

These players train throughout the year in th e ir sport specialization.

Their normal, training period is four times per week for two hours. There are approximately f if t y teams in the f ir s t league of this age division. The second level of youth volleyball is called the Young Juniors from ages 13-15. These are normally club-related teams which have a fu ll-tim e coach related to the team for volleyball only and they conduct national championships in this age group... The third division is the regular junior division from ages 16 to 18. Again they train in the clubs and the clubs pick

6 Mi ni-volleyball was developed in Japan and in some Eastern European countries. All rules are similar to "senior" volleyball except the ball is of smaller circumference and lighter weight; the court dimen­ sions are reduced, and the net is lowered. 23

up a ll of the teams' expenses. In both junior age groups, they train a minimum of four times per week, with three hours for each training session. (CVA, 1974, p. 24)7

In a ll the Eastern European countries and in some of the Western

European countries we find close involvement of the youth with the sport club structure. University teams and university leagues are not well developed in Eastern European countries, since the sport clubs are the main organizer for sport at the university age. Some sport club involvement begins as early as the age of ten.

For example. West Germany in 1973 has started a few groups at age ten at certain sport clubs. The normal school age for starting volley­ ball play is 12 to 14 (Park, Dai-Hee, 1975). The questionnaire re­ sponse stated that there is a special program for youthcalled Jugend trainieren. There are 60 leagues, 800 teams and 5,000 participants in this program which is run by a joint effort of the volleyball federa­ tion and the federal government. There are over 200 youth teams a ffilia te d with sport clubs. There are no university level competi­ tions or leagues.

Ita ly has an elaborate sys :em for youth participation. According to Romano (1975) and the Italian federation reply to the questionnaire there are four age group divisions:

1. Schools - ages 11 to 14

2. Allievi - ages 15 to 16

7 A 1973 interview conducted by Val Keller-Canadian National Training Director with Dr. Elenkoelenkow, a medical doctor for the Bulgarian National Volleyball Team and a member of the FIVB Medical commission. 24

3. Ragazzi - ages 17 to 18

4. Juniors - ages 19 to 20

All of the above divisions are both for boys and girls. The school programs deal strictly with mi ni-volleyball (this is the only organized mini-volleyball in Italy). All the Italian schools partici­ pate in this program which was in itia te d in 1973. The season starts in February with the city qualification tournament. Then there are the regional qualifications. The National Championship is held in June.

There are separate competitions for boys and g irls . There are an estimated 300,000 participants in the women's school league.®

Surprisingly, there are no sport club leagues for youth. At the univer­ s ity level, there is one league with eight teams numbering one hundred

participants ages 18 to 25.

In Switzerland volleyball starts at age twelve in the schools.

Some sport clubs have activities for ages 14 to 15 (Miserez and Kessler,

1975).

Spain also begins organized volleyball at ages 12 to 14. There is

a g ir l's secondary school league (ages 12-17) consisting of 52 leagues,

416 teams and 5,000 participants. There are also fifteen university

leagues consisting of 60 teams and 800 participants. There are no

sport club leagues for youth.

3 This figure seems extremely high, but was the figure reported by the Ita lia n questionnaire. The figure may represent a combination of boys and g irls ' teams. 25

The Central and South American countries are in various stages of development. Cuba's entire volleyball program has been modeled after

the Eastern European system. In fa c t, East German and Soviet coaches

have spent many years building Cuba's entire program. L ittle is known

about its structure and especially about youth participation.

Peru has mini-volleyball prior to and during school competition.

Apparently school leagues do exist. Youth teams are not associated with sport clubs; in addition, there is no organized league structure

fo r the sport clubs themselves (Park, Mon Bok, 1975).

On the other hand, Brazil starts organized youth play at the age

of ten. There are 23 sport club leagues for youth with 200 teams and

4,000 participants. The questionnaire reports no organized activity

at the secondary level. There are 15 to 20 university leagues with 90

to 100 teams and over 4,000 participants.

Mexico has a very well developed youth program. As reported by

the questionnaire, the first organized youth play begins at age 13 in

the secondary schools. These are well developed with 32 leagues,

4,100 teams and 41,000 participants. The sport clubs have an additional

20 leagues for youth with 350 teams and 3,500 participants. A univer­

sity women's league also exists with 20 leagues, 300 teams and 3,000

total participants.

Canada has very little organization in its youth programs. Six

provinces play organized g irls ' high school volleyball under the

National Federation of State High School Associations, a United States

sports tody (National Federation, 1976). These competitions are held

in th e ir respective provinces with no national tournament. In the 26 questionnaire response, an estimate of 110,000 was listed as partici­ pating in some form of secondary school volleyball. According to

Guerriero (1975) there is no mini-volleyball. The noted Japanese coach, Matsudaira, held clinics in Canada on this subject in 1974, but neither the organization nor the refinement of s k ill teaching is pre­ sently found in Canada. One of the problems that Guerriero emphasized was that generalists and not experts were teaching physical education at the mini-volleyball-elementary schools levels.

Presently with technical directors in five provinces, junior volleyball is experiencing tremendous growth in Canada (Melanson, 1975, p. 10). As fa r as university leagues are concerned, there are 10 leagues with 50 teams and 5,000 female participants.

The United States may be in a worse position than Canada.

Although nearly every state has g irls ' competition at the high school level, there is s t i l l no national high school tournament. Thirty states belong to the National Federation of State High School Federa­ tions and hold state championships. Other states not belonging to the Federation also hold th eir championships. There are no uniform techniques that are being taught. Wide discrepancies in rule in te r­ pretations exist. The most notable example is that in some states the officials falsely interpret any overhand contact to be a thrown or carried b a ll. Other examples can be cited which account for the poor quality of volleyball that the majority of schools are playing.

However, the situation is improving. 27

At the college level there has been an enormous volleyball boom.

The 1975-76 Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW)

Handbook lists 535 colleges fielding varsity volleyball teams (AIAW,

1975, pp. 126-176). According to Women-Sports magazine over 130 of these colleges offer some type of financial assistance for volleyball

(Rindfleisch, 1975, pp. 26-27, 54-57, and Myers, 1976, pp. 62-63).

There is a National AIAW Volleyball Championship. In 1975, twenty-four teams took part in Princeton, New Jersey.

Although there is some USVBA involvement at the college le v e l,9 as yet there has been no national, unified attempt on the part of the

USVBA to introduce mi ni-volleyball at the elementary level or to pro­ mote the game at the secondary level by organizing skill clinics in the summer months.

The best organization for youth development is found in Japan.

Maeda (1971, p. 66) reports that "the number of volleyball players among junior high school students alone reaches 445,000 and that of the school volleyball teams totaling 6,200."TO According to national coach Yamada (1975), there are several levels of mi ni-volleyball that are played. There is an increase in size and weight of ball, bigger court dimensions and higher nets at each successive le v e l. The most extensive training in the development of a Japanese women's

9 This involves USVBA members coaching in college; AIAW representation to the USVBA; joint organization of clinics and so on.

TOin the phrase "school volleyball teams" Maeda is probably referring to the elementary schools or school prior to the junior high school level. 28 international player occurs at the high school level. Yamada stated that here is where a ll the fundamental techniques and most of the tac­ tics are taught and made automatic.

The f ir s t All-Japan Secondary School Championships for boys and g irls were held in 1933. Presently, the major emphasis is young children's volleyball. To get young children interested, a new unique approach has been developed.

What is the starting point of volleyball? The object is of course small children. And the children may be traced to th e ir mothers. I f their mothers are fond of volleyball and play it enthusiastically, the children will naturally follow s u it. This is the reason why attraction is being directed to the promotion of the so-called "Mama" volleyball teams in Japan. (Maeda, 1971, p. 69)

Probably the world's firs t national games of housewives' volleyball teams were born in 1970 (JVA, 1975).

Another unique feature of volleyball in Japan is the involvement of industry or business firms. "Business companies began to have their own volleyball teams after 1951. Yahata Steel, Nippon Steel K. K. and

Sumitomo Metal had th eir formidable men's teams, and Nichibo, Kanebo and Kurabo companies were famous for th eir strong women's teams" (JVA,

1975). How does this relate to volleyball development?

I f volleyball becomes popular at one firm , the employees are bound to take interest in the game and in turn more junior and senior high school students and college students are encouraged to take part in the game if they aspire to take employment in that firm . (Maeda, 1971, p. 69)

An additional note must be made concerning mass media influence on volleyball.

Recently a survey was conducted on the publicity of volleyball and a total of 1,300 persons including primary school children, junior and senior high school students, college students and 29

working class people were asked i f they had any knowledge of volleyball. Of the 500 primary school children questioned, 96.5% answered, "yes." Asked further how they knew about i t , 85% of the children replied, "through mass media." Of this figure, television accounted for 56.5%, comic books 18% and both television and comic books 11%. The remaining 13.7% of the children learned about the game from their fathers, mothers, brothers and sisters. (Maeda, 1971, p. 70)

Nothing has been reported on the university level volleyball for women. One of the reasons for this is that most women high school players proceed d ire c tly to company teams. In 1971, when the Toyobo women's volleyball team visited Los Angeles, California, Mr. Toshihiko

Okura, a director of the JVA said the following:

There are 20,000 g irls ' high school volleyball teams in Japan and it is the aim of many of those girls to play for one of the winning company teams. (Englert, 1971)

At the present time, volleyball is going to be introduced as a mandatory physical education s k ill in the primary school. In Japan, men and women from 10 to 50 years of age can take part in volleyball games. The volleyball population is nearing the 10 million mark (JVA,

1975).

League Structure

Another important key to the success of an international volley­ ball program is the existence of volleyball leagues within each respective country. By "league" one can presume some form of systema­ tic and organized competition which involves match play among the d ifferent teams belonging to this group.

Almost every country in this study has some type of senior national volleyball league with the exception of the USA, Canada and Peru. All of the European countries have well-organized leagues for volleyball. 30

This is a common occurrence, since a ll the d iffe re n t sports found in these countries compete within a league structure. At the end of the season top teams at one level w ill proceed to the league at the next higher level. Last place teams will drop down to the next lower level.

The USSR has the most elaborate league structure. Since the

Eastern European countries have modeled their entire political and bureaucratic systems after the Soviet Union, it is no wonder that their league structure is quite sim ilar.

The Soviet Union has two top national women's leagues. There are twelve teams in the top "A" division. These teams play a trip le round robin schedule among themselves. This league season extends over a four-month period from January through A p ril. In the f ir s t two months the twelve teams are divided in two groups of six and six and they only play against the teams within their respective group. In the second half of the season there is only one group of twelve. The next lower league is called the " firs t" division and i t also includes twelve teams. Movement up and down between leagues involves two teams in each division. The bottom two teams of "A" drop down while the f ir s t place team of the "firs t" division moves up. To determine the second team which moves up, the second and thrid place teams in the " firs t" division have a three match play-off. The winner moves up as the second team to the "A" league (Akhvlediani, 1975). These two leagues represent the twenty-four top club teams in the entire Soviet Union.

Similar up and down movement occurs between the " firs t" division and the next lower league. This All-Union national league serves as a blueprint for the republic, regional and local leagues. 31

To explain how such an elaborate system of leagues can be estab­ lished, one must focus on the organization of the Soviet sport program.

The first step in the organization is the kollektiv and as far as the average person is concerned this is the focal point of the whole sport system. In 1967 there were 201,876 physical culture kollektivs with 50,528,200 members. (Bennett, Howell and Sim ri, 1975, p. 112)

These kollektivs are athletic organizations which are found in factories, offices, collective and state farms, schools, labor reserve units, the armed forces and the security police (Morton, 1963, p. 19).

A membership fee of under one dollar is charged per year. There are no additional charges for instruction or use of facilities.

Each of the kollektivs belongs to one of the 36 voluntary sport societies, the most popular being Spartak (producer's cooperative), Dynamo (security police), Burevestnik (university students), Locomotiv (transportation workers), and Trud (labor). These societies are based on the work or professional affiliation of the individual and they have branches in all 15 republics. (Bennett, Howell and Simri, 1975, p. 112)

Championships for each society are held at the local, regional, republic and all-union levels. In 1970, there were approximately 44 million Soviet citizens taking part in the sport society sponsored pro­ grams (Goncharov, 1971, p. 18).

A detailed account of the effect that these sport societies had on the establishment of the well structured Soviet sport leagues is reported by Morton (1963, p. 198).

Sport societies were to act as a catalyst in bringing about greater sport achievements through better and more rational organization of sport competition, which would eventually enable the Soviet Union to overtake bourgeois nations in establishing world records. Competitions were conducted on an intrasociety and territorial basis. Each society had its local, regional, republic and All-Union championships for each sport practiced. The selection of all-star sport society teams at all levels was 32

based on these competitions. Territorial competitions were also established between societies and between localities. This varied from sport to sport and from year to year, de­ pending largely upon the yearly sport calendar, which was a complex plan lis tin g the nature of sports competition for the year. Sometimes the meeting was between picked teams of sport societies; sometimes between select teams of c itie s , regions, and republics. This led to the creation of nationwide sport leagues for such popular team sports as soccer, basketball, and hockey. All-Union societies such as Dinamo, Spartak, Lokomotiv, Trud, and other, had teams in every c ity. Some competed in the A League, others in lower leagues. These leagues created new interest and mass appeal...

All Eastern European countries follow a league pattern similar to the Soviet Union. Competition and league structure in Bulgaria can be explained as follows:

Factories in Bulgaria generally have a sports club related to the factory in their particular district. In addition to the club varsity team, the factories also have teams that play in regular competition at their club. In order to enter into national competition a club is required to have both men and women and boys and g irls teams entered into a ll divisions. The divisions are pioneers, young juniors, regular juniors and the varsity team. There are also independent national champion­ ships for the university and high school level teams. In their top club championships, the f ir s t round of competition is in autumn (October through December). January through March is called winter preparation where the teams enter into a specific training program and the second round of national competition is during spring (essentially April through June). (CVA, 1974, p. 25)

In Yugoslavia the league structure is based on sport clubs, but there is no federal or industrial support (Yugoslavian Delegation,

1975).

Leagues are also present in the Western European Countries. West

Germany has no organized leagues in the schools, but has a sophisti­ cated league structure from county to national level. The question­ naire reply reports 200 different leagues comprised of sport clubs. 33

The league season extends from October to February with the play-offs and championships being in March. According to Dai-Hee Park (1975), the leagues can be classified as follows:

TYPE NUMBER OF TEAMS

County - Kreis Klasse 12

D is tric t - Bezirks Klasse 12

State - Landes Klasse (Liga) 12

Sections-Regions - Regional Liga 8

National - Bundes Liga Two 1) Northwest 8 2) South 8

The main financial support for the league comes from the volleyball federation. Some clubs have special contracts with industry. However, this type of arrangement is hard to find because of the obvious problems encountered in trying to maintain the amateur status of the players. The two bottom teams of the Bundes Liga drop down, whereas two regional teams move up.

There are four d ifferen t types of teams that compete in the

Italian leagues. These are the industrial,sport club, university and the m ilitary (only for the men). According to Romano (1975) the women's league structure is as follows:

T1 In 1973, industry began to sponsor club teams as a means of advertising. This has grown into the industrial club league. 34

TYPE NUMBER OF TEAMS

National - "A" 12

National - "B" 3 groups of 10

Regional - "C" 18 groups of about 150

Regional - f ir s t division several hundred

Provincial - second division several hundred

The total number of players is about 40,000. For the "A" and "B" league, the league season lasts from January 1 to May 29. National

Championships are held for both the "A" and "B" leagues. There is movement up and down between leagues after the completion of each season. Three teams from the "A" league move down, while the top team from each "B" group moves up. This league structure is re la tiv e ly new in Italy, and the Italian Volleyball Federation is hoping that it will enhance the caliber of women's volleyball.

European countries such as Switzerland and Spain (which are hardly

known for their volleyball prowess) have well-organized leagues. In

the 1974-75 season Switzerland had a total of 79 women's teams competing

in a national league (Journal Schweizeirischen V olleyball, 1975 and

Miserez and Kessler, 1975). The leagues were structured as follows:

TYPE NUMBER OF TEAMS

1st League 8

2nd League 17 (two groups)

Regional League 35 (three groups)

Juniors 11

Seniors 8______79 teams 35

Spain has two national leagues for women: the 1st female division and the 2nd female division. Both leagues participate in a Cup Tourney for the Championship of Spain. The f ir s t division has eight teams and about 120 players, the second division has 84 teams and about 1,000 players. Sixteen teams compete for the championship; eight teams from the f ir s t division and eight teams from the second division. Teams move up and down in leagues in both Switzerland and Spain.

In South America, only two countries participate internationally in women's volleyball — Brazil and Peru. Peru does not have an orga­ nized league. Teams are affiliated with sport clubs and these club teams compete against one another, but not in any organized league structure (Park, Mon Bok, 1975).

Brazil has leagues which are made up of sport clubs in each of its

23 states. Each state has an "A" league. State Championships for this

league are held annually and a state volleyball federation committee

chooses a representative men and women's team to compete at the annual

National Championship (Nuzman, 1975). These Championships are held for

a span of one week in autumn. An a ll-s ta r team from each one of the

23 states participates in the Championship.

Mexico has one top national league of 15 sport club teams. The

season runs from September to December. There is no movement of teams

up and down.

The Asian countries have excellent league programs. For the most

part, they are sponsored by industry and are very well organized.

South Korea has two types of competition - - one is sponsored by the

•Korean Volleyball Association, the other by the so-called Industry or 36

Business Volleyball Association. This Industry Association holds four league seasons. They are seasonal and therefore are held in spring, summer, fa ll and early winter. The "A" league has 13 teams and the "B" league has several teams (Park, Moo, 1975). Although the Korean Volley­ ball Association does not have organized leagues, it sponsors the following:

1. National Championships;

2. National Tryout Tournament (for National Team selections); and

3. President's Challenge Tournament.

Mr. Moo Park, the former coach of the South Korean women's 1968 Olympic

Team, indicated that there are other leagues (some of them called sepa­ rate associations). These are: college, high school, junior high school, elementary and a mothers' (housewives') league.

The best example of an industry-sponsored league is the top national league in Japan. The teams are sponsored by such known com­ panies as Yashika, Hitachi, Sanyo, Kanebo, Nichibo, Toyobo and Kurabo.

There companies attract the best high school players by methods sim ilar to the recruiting carried out by athletic departments of the American universities (Englert, 1971). The girls are then employed four to eight hours at the company. During the remaining hours they practice and play volleyball under the company banner. These teams have become

"mini" national teams, as each company fights to become the Japanese champion and perhaps to have the honor and opportunity to represent

Japan as the National Team. In both South Korea and Japan, i t has been a common practice in some years to choose the club champion as the national team (a few top g irls from other clubs may be added). Other 37

leagues, especially the school leagues are very well organized in

Japan. There are several hundred thousands of teams playing organized,

league-structured volleyball.

As of yet, there are no organized national or regional leagues in

the USA or Canada. No information was available on league structure

for Cuba. CHAPTER 3

NATIONAL TEAM

Selection Procedures

In all the countries studied, the actual selection of.a national team is the responsibility of one of the following:

1. a special committee which is part of the volleyball federation;

2 . the national coach and his staff; or

3. a committee and the national coach.

The Soviet Union places the selections entirely in the hands of th e ir national coach, Givi Akhvlediani. He may choose anyone he wants at any time. Although the USSR Volleyball Federation may appoint a committee for this purpose, i t carries out its function in name only.

The Soviet national team is an a ll-s ta r team. When asked concerning

the criteria used in his selection procedure, Akhvlediani (1975) stated:

1. Most important is that the girls have natural physical and athletic talent. 2. I do not look favorably at very ta ll players, because they do not seem to be a le rt and a liv e . However, I ideally would like players that have a vertical jump of 75-76 cm. 3. A key factor is using your head. In volleyball one must calculate very quickly. Volleyball is a game which is very hard to learn to play well because of the rapidly changing situations within a relatively small playing area. 4. Players must have culture and intellect.

In addition, there are complete physical testing and psychological

testing procedures which are administered by the different sport

institutes.

Regardless of all the testing, because of Akhvlediani's vast ex­

perience (6 years men's coach, 1958-1964, and now in his 10th year as

women's coach), his own subjective observation and the most important

38 39 factors in selecting a national player.

In Canada, the national coach, Moo Park, has complete control of selections. He in turn is responsible to the CVA women's committee which along with the National Program Committee (technical director and coordinators of both men and women's programs) have complete con­ trol as to the national program (Guerriero, 1975). When Moo Park was added to the Canadian coaching s ta ff in 1974, he evaluated a ll the g irls and made selections. These selections were based on the following:

1. A general information questionnaire which was answered by all prospective players. 2. Physical testing which was adopted from the Japanese tests. 3. Tryout camps - Coach Park spent an entire month traveling to regional camps and selecting girls. Initially he selected 80 g irls from these camps. (Guerriero, 1975)

Although psychological testing was not used as a criterion in the selection process, the Canadian National Team has undergone a unique form of psychological testing.

12 There are nine major physical tests used by the Japanese Volleyball Association. These are: Sargent Jump Test; Triple Hop Test; 20m Dash; 18m Dash (9m sideline to sideline, three consecutive times); Basketball Throw; Harvard Step Test; and a Forward Bending Test for F le x ib ility . (Toyoda, 1971, pp. 1-9) 13 In the spring of 1975, the team was tested with a newly devised test by Dr. Brent Rushall. Dr. Rushall is the Director of the Applied Psychology Laboratory at Dalhousie University, H alifax, Nova Scotia. He developed a Psychological Consultation Service which u tilize s the process of applied behavior analysis and systems analysis. This testing considers several factors in the sports environment. Two of the main factors are: 1. Performer personality as revealed by the 16PF Test (Persona- . lity Factors). A computer analysis of specific sporting be­ haviors is performed and individual reports are supplied which specify procedures which should be followed by the 40

A few years ago the selection procedure in the United States in ­ volved a jo in t e ffo rt of a USVBA appointed committee and the national coach. The committee selected eighteen to thirty players at the

National Championships. These players were then invited to attend a try-out training camp of anywhere from several days to two weeks. At other times, these try-out camps were open to everybody who wanted to be considered.14

Although the committee conferred with the national coach, i t had a great deal of control as to who was selected. The coach's preferences were not always acknowledged. In the last two years, the head coach has had more autonomy in the selection process. A committee is s t i l l appointed, but now the coach has complete control as to what players are chosen. There is no physical testing, skill testing, or psychologi­ cal testing used in the selection process. Now the procedure is to hold a one to three day try-out camp (open or by invitation). At this camp, players are observed performing skills in training (d rill) and game

coach to maximize or change the performer's behavior. 2. Performer anxiety as revealed by the I PAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire. A computer analysis of specific behaviors associated with stressful situations and performance variance is supplied. Reports that specify individual procedures which should be followed by the coach to maximize or modify the per­ former's behavior are furnished. (Rushall, 1972, p. 6) These tests provide extensive information about reactions to dif­ ficulties; social, attitudinal, pre-competition, and competition behavior; rewards and goals, and manifested reactions to the stress of impending competitions (Rushall, CVA, 1975). 14 This was always the case in try-outs for Olympic and Pan American Teams. I t is an United States Olympic Committee (USOC) rule that these try-outs be open to anybody wanting to participate. 41 situations. The coach and his staff subjectively evaluate the participants. To date there have been no extensive medical and/or health tests administered during the selection procedure.

Peru follows a somewhat sim ilar pattern. A committee of the

Peruvian Volleyball Federation watches club and school competitions and makes in itia l selections. The head coach then makes the final selec­ tions. He has complete control over the selection procedure. The junior national team selections are as follows:

The same committee attends many school competitions and in it ia lly chooses 60 players. These are trained for one month and the committee chooses the top 40. The 40 are trained for another month and fin a lly 20 are reselected. These remaining 20 make up the Junior National Team which is a direct feeder to the National Team. (Park, Man Bok, 1975)

Both Mexico and Ita ly have technical committees which share the

responsibility of selections with the head coach.

According to Romano (1975), in Ita ly there are 12 members of a

technical committee which observe both the men and the women in th e ir

league matches. Italy has 18 states which are divided into six volley­

ball zones. Each zonal coach v is its a ll the c itie s along with members

of the technical committee. In early summer of each year, the zonal

coaches and the technical committee make the national selections.

National try-outs are usually held for seven days in June or July.

O riginally there are about 150 players from the "A" and the "B" leagues

that are considered. A final number of sixteen women is selected.

The Italian criteria of selection in descending order of import­

ance are: size and age, technical skills, and theoretical Volleyball

knowledge. There is extensive physical testing, but there are no 42 specific skills tests. Skill is appraised by the subjective evaluation of the coach. Health tests are administered by the federation doctor and medical committee. The national team takes psychological tests after the try-outs. The tests taken are an intelligence test and a personality test - the Rorschach Test.

In Yugoslavia, the main procedure is to choose players from the league. Quality players are observed by a committee. National selec­ tions are made whenever necessary. There is no standard procedure.

Sixteen to twenty-four players are usually chosen. When there is

little time to prepare for international competition, an entire club

team is chosen. One or two additional players are added.

The Yugoslavian Delegation (1975) lis ts the following c rite ria

used in th e ir selection procedures:

1. Generally choose tall players. There is no age discrimination in principle if within the ages of 16 to 25. 2. Physical testing exists. I t involves: Sargent jump; motor ability tests, and physiological testing. 3. S kill tests - they are presently being devised. 4. No theoretical tests are given. 5. Psychological tests are administered by the Physical Culture Institute and are used for the Institute's own research information.

Switzerland has a special selection committee made up of national

coaches and the training director. The national coach does not have a

fin al say as to who is selected, but merely serves as a committee

member. Selections take place prior to international competitions. No

special attributes are looked for other than a good vertical jump. The

national team has never undergone any testing procedures. These are

now being developed by the federation. 43

According to Dai-Hee Park (1975) as West Germany's National Coach, he has at least 80% say as to whom is selected. He proposed players to a committee called Leistung Ausschuss. This committee consists of two women coaches; two men coaches; two vice-presidents of the feder­ ation; and the sportwart (program coordinator). This committee meets every two months. In between meetings, the head coach has complete authority; furthermore, he can change the personnel of the team when­ ever he pleases. This has been collaborated by the federation reply to the questionnaire which stated that the coach has complete control of selections. Very l i t t l e physical and s k ill testing is conducted during the actual try-outs. Usually players are chosen by observing game competition. One minimum requirement is that they play at least at regional league level.

B razil's national team is chosen at the National Championships. A committee of the Brazilian Volleyball Federation and the national coach

chooses the team. In Spain, the team is chosen solely by the training

director and the national coach.

Many differen t selection procedures have been used by both Japan

and South Korea. Presently both countries have tried to stay away from

any type of "a ll-s ta r" concept (selection of players from different

club teams). They choose the championship club team along with its

coach and may add anywhere from two to four outstanding players from

other club teams. Thus, they keep the nucleus of the team which has

competed for a long time intact. The 1975 Japanese National.Team was

the Hitachi Club with the addition of two to three players. The 1975 44

South Korean Team had players from four d ifferent clubs, but most of the team was from the winning club team (Park, In s il, 1975).

A selection committee from the Korean Volleyball Association first selects the players and then the coach. The players are chosen at National Championships and at specially organized National try-out tournaments.. Sometimes the association may choose an entire club team to represent the country. Presently there is a proportional system: 6-8 players from the champion­ ship team; 2-3 from the second place team and so on. The coach is the coach of this championship club of the "A" league. (Park, Moo, 1975)

In summary, several points must be emphasized concerning the national team selection process:

1. Most countries are moving towards a system whereby the national coach can select his own team (or at least have the major share of the

selection responsibility). The key factor is the international ex­

perience of the coach.

2. Some countries have testing procedures by which they test and

re-test players under consideration. Standardized indices and norms

are established making the selection process more objective.

3. For countries such as the Soviet Union, Japan, and South

Korea, more emphasis can be placed on physical attributes and psycho­

logical considerations, since they have such a broad base to choose

from. Furthermore, a ll of the players considered for the national team

have excellent technical skills, for they have started playing volley­

ball at a very early age. Secondly, they have undergone extensive

training on their school or club team. This is not the case in most

Western countries - particularly the United States and Canada. In

these two countries, the prospective national players must be taught

the most elementary volleyball skills. 45

4. The Eastern European countries, except for Bulgaria, 15 have an "a ll-s ta r" concept approach to th eir national team. This is made possible by the excellent league structure that they have. Players on the club teams get excellent training and play in to p -flig h t competi­ tion throughout the club season. The Asian teams lean toward a "team or one unit" concept as opposed to an "a ll-s ta r" concept.

Age, Occupation, Marital Status, and International Experience

Differences in age, occupation, marital status, and international experience are found among the national teams. The following data are based on interviews and on the questionnaire replies. They are calcu­ lated from the respective national team rosters which lis t anywhere from twelve to eighteen players.

The two top world powers, Japan and the USSR, d iffe r greatly. The

Japanese must be unmarried and between the ages of 18 and 22 in order to join the team. Almost a ll of them join club teams immediately a fter graduation from high school. Five or six years is considered the longest span of a woman volleyball player's use to the team (Yamada,

1975). All of the girls are employed by the company which sponsor th e ir club team.

In direct contrast, the 1975 Soviet team has an average age of twenty-six. Fifty percent of the team is married, four of the players are mothers. The 1972 Olympic gold medal team had a few married

15 The Yugoslavian Delegation (1975) repeatedly underlined the fact that the Bulgarian National Team trains and plays as a club team in Sophia. The same players are together for the entire year. 46 players, but none had children. Coach Akhvlediani (1975) stressed that he must substitute younger players for the older women on the team.

Canadian Coach Moo Park (1975) commented that the Soviet team is getting weaker, because of a poor feeder system which would supply younger talen t. In this w riter's opinion, the feeder system is adequate.

Although high school and junior high school competition is not as keen as Japan's, the club teams are very strong. The main problem is that

Coach Akhvlediani goes back to his older players as opposed to trying out newer and younger players. IG The problem is not in the feeder system, but is a matter of coaching philosophy. Older players do not make rookie mistakes. Certainly Akhvlediani at 58 years of age and after nearly 20 years of top international coaching grows more and more impatient with the development phase needed for every international volleyball player.T? Almost all of the Soviet players are physical education teachers or coaches, while the younger players are students.

The 1975 United States team averages 21 years of age. Eighty per­ cent of the USA team members are students; only one player is married.

16 Akhvlediani consistently relies on players such as Ryskal who is in her 30's and who was the best Soviet player in 1968 and on Smoleeva who is in her late 20's and was the top layer in 1970. 17 Most international coaches stress that a player needs somewhere in the vicinity of 150 international matches to be considered a reliable international competitor. Whereas players on the Soviet Union team averaged well over 100 matches (as do players on Japan, Cuba, and South Korea), the 1975 USA players averaged under 40 international matches. Most of the Western European teams averaged around 50 in te r­ national matches per player. 47

West Germany has, an average age of 20 to 21. The players' occupations are again that of students and teachers. Twenty-five per­ cent of the players are married,

Ita ly does not allow its player to be married. The team averages

22 years of age. With the exception of two players, the entire team lis ts its occupation as students. Ita lia n players average a l i t t l e over 50 international matches.

Spain is new to international competition. The team's average age is 21 years. The number of international matches averages a l i t t l e over 20. Most of the players are students; two are married.

The Canadian team averages 22 years of age, but the players aver­ age well over 50 international matches. Since 1973, Canada has been oh an extensive program in preparation for the 1976 Olympics. Players are allowed to be married, but this policy is discouraged. All of the

girls are students.

The Yugoslavian team is very young and its average age is that

of 20 years. This team is rapidly improving internationally.

Mexico also has a young team with two seasoned veterans. Thirty

percent of the team is married. Both teams l i s t the main occupation as

that of students.

The Cuban team averages 21 years of age. The players have a great

deal of international experience comparable to the Eastern European

teams.

As a whole, most national volleyball players are between the ages

of 20 to 23 years. Most countries allow marriage, but a relatively 48 small number of players is married. The majority of players are students or teachers.

National Program

From the onset of the United States' involvement in international women's volleyball (early 1950's), the national program had existed only in the summer months or in the time span of the competition i t ­ s e lf. The "best" players in the country were chosen by a committee.

The team trained anywhere from one week to two months and would then compete internationally. There were many problems such as: the in­

ability to attract all the best players at the same time; lack of

intensified training; administrative inefficiencies of the USVBA; and

the lack of continuity of both players and coaching staffs. At times,

programs were established prior to an international competition and

then abandoned immediately a fter the trip or at the end of the summer

months. There was no ongoing women's program to speak of until 1975.

In February, 1975, the city of Pasadena, Texas, became the National

Training Center for the USA Women's Volleyball Team. This was the

firs t time that any United States amateur team sport trained in one

location for more than a one or two-month period. The Pasadena

Chamber of Commerce agreed to provide practice f a c ilitie s , housing,

one training table meal per day, uniforms, and medical care for a

training squad of twenty-four players. In addition, they paid the

coach's salary and provided him with a free apartment. Part-time jobs

and arrangements for schooling were also promised. 49

Arie Selinger, the former national coach of Israel, was named as the USA National Women's Coach in February, 1975. Open try-outs were held in March and twenty-four players were selected. Twenty of these players decided to relocate to Pasadena, Texas by early March. This training squad practiced a minimum of 6 hours per day until early June.

Then the international competition began.

This was the s ta rt of the USVBA*s commitment to a centralized pro­ gram that would, hopefully, culminate in a medal at the 1975 Pan

American Games and qualify the women for the 1976 Olympics by winning the North, Central American and Carribean (NORCECA) Zone or by winning a fin al qualification tournament in Munich in January, 1976. None of these goals was attained. There are many reasons. For one, there have been many organizational problems with the Pasadena Program. Some of these problems are outlined below:

1. Since this has been the f ir s t attempt at a centralized con­ cept, there have been many administrative difficulties. No one was sure as to who had the fin al say concerning the budget; international competition; how players are phased in and out; who hires and main­ tains additional coaching help and so on. There had been a major com­ munication problem between the USVBA and the Pasadena Chamber of

Commerce. A liaison person was needed from the s tart of the program.

2. Aside from administrative d iffic u ltie s , many of the original

Pasadena commitments did not m aterialize for some time. Training table meals did not begin t i l l late spring. There were problems in finding enough apartments, providing furniture for the existing apartments. 50 finding part-time jobs, and in solving transportation difficulties for the players.

3. There has been a great turnover of players in one year.

Comparing the top twelve national team players: in May, 1975 at the

USVBA Championships; in July, 1975 on the Canadian Tour; and in

January, 1976, at the Munich Olympic Qualifying Tournament there were dramatic personnel changes. There were four personnel changes from

May to July, 1975. By January, 1976 there were seven changes. By

May, 1976 there were only six players (25%) left from the original twenty-four that were chosen in March, 1975. Five players on the

May, 1976 squad were on the top twelve of May, 1975. At the same time, over forty different players were involved in the program since

March, 1975. Now only ten to twelve players remain in Pasadena.

There were two main reasons for these changes: the f ir s t was the already mentioned fact of the administrative and organizational in­

consistencies in the program; and the second was the problem created

by the social and cultural adjustment encountered in a player's relo­

cation to Pasadena.

4. While the team traveled in ternationally, the USVBA provided

anywhere from two to six dollars per diem. This was a modest sum, but

serious financial problems arose when the players could not obtain

part-time jobs while training. Most players had to rely on outside

sources such as: personal savings, family help, and outright donations

from their original communities or from their respective USVBA volley­

ball regions to make ends meet. The living conditions and diets of 51 several players were fa r below any standards for an a th le tic team, le t alone the USA National Team.

During this same period, another team in the United States was training twelve months per year. This was the Adidas Volleyball Club of Orange County, C alifornia. The team was established three years ago and has attracted some of the best young talent in the United

States. At f ir s t , this project was supported by the USVBA as they officially designated this squad as the Junior National Team (the average age of the team in 1974 was about 17 years). When certain

irreconcilable differences arose between the 1974 USA National Team

(particularly the coaching s ta ff) and the USVBA,the Junior Team with the addition of 2-3 players was sent to the 1974 World Championships in

Mexico City. A fter the World Championship, the coaching s ta ff of the

Junior Team f e lt that this program should become the o ffic ia l USA

National Women's Program. Then differences arose between the USVBA

administrators and the Junior National Team (Adidas) coaching s ta ff.

The USVBA took away their Junior National Team status. Presently, the

------In the summer of 1974, the USVBA tried to assemble an a ll-s ta r squad of the best players in the country. After months of bitter disputes about the coaching s ta ff and player selection, in June, 20 players were chosen to the USA team coached by Pat Zartman of C alifornia. However, the team was not a representative team of the best players in the nation. I t consisted mainly of the powerful E Pluribus Unum (EPU) team of Houston, Texas, which was coached by Mary Jo Peppier. Player-coach Peppier, Zartman, Chris McLachlin and another player Marilyn McCreavy made up the USA coaching s ta ff for the team. In July, with the coaching staff at odds with one another, the team left for Japan. The team did not come close to winning a single match. Upon th e ir return serious conflicts arose with the already apprehen­ sive USVBA administrators. Once again another USA national program was phased out. 52

Adidas club is financed by the American National Volleyball Association

(ANVA), a non-profit organization established by the organizers of the

Adidas club. ANVA has challenged the USVBA's authority and legitamacy as the Volleyball Federation of the United States.

The USVBA acknowledges the Pasadena group as the National Team, but is working on a proposal for merging the Adidas and Pasadena groups into one unified national program.

The Pasadena National Team, playing as a club team from Pasadena, won the 1976 USVBA Open Women's Championship by beating the Adidas club in the fin als. The Adidas club v/as the 1975 champion; the Pasadena team finishing a dismal ninth. The Adidas club trained 7 days per week and took an approach which is very sim ilar to the Oriental teams. The

USVBA is well on its way towards adopting a permanent centralized pro­ gram and is now looking towards 1980.

In Canada, the program is also centralized. The team has lived in

Vancouver for the past two years. Of the twelve f ir s t team members

(summer of 1975), eleven attended college, one attended high school.

These players attend school on a federal government grant called Game

Plan 1976. This grant pays for roomand board, aswell as tu itio n .

In addition, the CVA pays a ll the travel expenses. There are 30

players involved in the national program. Fifteen players (three

reserves) are with the national team. The other fifteen are junior

players which are not centralized, but are together only for the sum­

mer (Guerriero, 1975). Except for afew minor changes, the 1976 Cana­

dian Olympic Team w ill be re la tiv e lythe same team that finished

•eleventh in the 1974 World Championship. 53

Very l i t t l e information is available on Cuba. There has been a very low turnover of players since the 1972 Olympics. At least eight players of the 1972 team are on the 1976 Olympic squad. The program is centralized and is fu lly financed by the Cuban govern­ ment.

After the triumph of the Revolution, January 1, 1959, sports in Cuba started to take new directions. The building of new fa c ilitie s a ll over the country; the training of coaches, and most of all the basic principle of considering sports and physical education as one of the people's rights, has made volleyball (as well as all other sports) part of a wide basis of mass participation. (Cuba Voleibol, 1975)

The Bulgarian national team is also experimenting with a centralized concept. A general report on the Bulgarian men's and women's pro­ gram is as follows:

National team players play with their particular volleyball or sport clubs throughout the volleyball season. They w ill train with the national team during the year twice a week and with th eir club four days a week for the entire year. Before the national club championships, they w ill be given exclusively to th eir club two weeks prior to the tournament. Before international competitions, the national team players w ill gather together exclusively for training for three weeks. (CVA, 1974, p. 25)

The Bulgarian women's team plays as one club team in Sophia.

They train six days per week, three hours per day. All the players are students. This is one of the rare full-time 12 month national

programs in Eastern Europe.

In Yugoslavia, training is not a year-round venture. The

national team practiced as a unit once every month in 1975 and practiced

together for 10 days prior to each international competition. Their

longest period of training was 45 days (including the competition

its e lf) for the European Championships in October, 1975. 54

The Soviet team of 1975 was a conglomerate of seven different club teams. The players live in different cities and play on their respec­ tive club teams. For the Canadian Tour in the summer of 1975, the

Soviet team had been together for only two weeks. In the last few years, the Soviet national team has had some problems of getting to­ gether because of the number of married players on the team.

When the team is together, it trains at one of three volleyball training sites in the USSR:

1. Complex associated with the Dynamo Stadium where the national coach Akhvlediani is head trainer;

2. Luchomska near Sochi. There is an area in Southern Ukraine along with Black Sea in Crimea; and

3. The rela tiv ely new Caluga Center in Novogorsk which is in the forests near Moscow. This center was built in 1972. It features a hotel, pool, several gymnasiums, modern athletic training facilities, weight training rooms, receation rooms, and facilities for other sporting events. All these facilities are interconnected to form one complex. There is a television in every room. In addition, there is an intercom in every room connected with the head coach's room

(Akhvlediani, 1975).

The Soviet All-Union Sports Committee pays for room, board, and travel expenses while the team is training. In addition, the National

Team players are paid stipends by the government which range from 100 to 300 rubles per month (approximately 135 to 405 dollars). • The fo l­ lowing c rite ria determine how much money a player receives: 55

1. volleyball skill; 2 . seniority - how long a player has been a member of national team; and 3. involvement in the Communist Party.

The national players receive these payments year round. When they are not playing with the national team or th e ir club team, they are in ­ volved in teaching or coaching (Akhvlediani, 1975).

Akhvlediani also emphatically stated that his players "get any­ thing they want". This writer responded with "anything?". "Well,"

Akhvlediani smilingly replied, "there are many minor problems, but things became much better after we won our second consecutive gold medal in the 1972 Olympics" (Akhvlediani, 1975).

There are only 24 players involved in the national program - a national team and a junior national team. Akhvlediani suggested that he may replace 3 or 4 of the older girls with junior team players. He is the coach of both teams.

At the time of the interview, Akhvlediani stated that in the Olym­ pic year, the national team will try to remain intact all year round.

He said that the club championships which are traditionally held in the spring w ill now be held a fter the Olympics. During the months of

January and February which are trad itio n a lly the most active months of the club season, the national team would compete against a ll-s ta r teams and strong club teams throughout the country. Several international

tournaments were also planned.

Mexico has established a national training site in Mexico City.

The federal government has provided funds for a ll of the Olympic sports.

The national team trains as a unit for four months and at this time

housing and meals are provided at the national training site. During 56 the club season, the players represent differen t club teams in the top national league. Almost all the national players have relocated to

Mexico City. There are thirty players on the national training squad.

There is no organized national junior team.

Peru's team is centrally located in Lima. Occasionally the team trains at other training camps located in other cities. The team mem­ bers liv e in Lima, but do not live together in one central s ite .

Training is eleven months per year with one month vacation. Saturdays and Sundays are o ff. During the Olympic year, the team w ill practice four to five hours per day. The volleyball federation provides a daily per diem and completely ou tfits the team with a ll the necessary equip­ ment for training and competition. The Peruvian government provides each player with a car and allowance for gas mileage. There is an organized junior national program which is also under the supervision of coach Park (Park, Man Bok, 1975).

Peru's neighbor Brazil fields a national team of the all-star variety. The national team is together for less than one month of the year. Each player has a specific training schedule in her own state.

There are 38 players on the national squad which includes the national

team, a national training team (second team), and a junior team (a lot

of these team members also play on the national team). The government

provides housing, meals and medical assistance during the national

training period.

Similarly, the Spanish national team trains together for less

than one month in concentrations of three to seven days. There are 12

members on the national team, 18 on the training team, and 30 on the 57 junior team. During the training concentrations, the players receive free room and board. Those players who miss days on their regular jobs because of training are reimbursed by the federation. All players receive a per diem of seven dollars per day when they are in Spain and fourteen dollars when they are abroad.

The Swiss are trying to improve th e ir program. All the national players are from the "A" league. Six are from the same club team -

Basel. A proposed plan for the 1976 season was to attempt to train to­ gether for ten weekends and for 3-4 days prior to each competition at one of the sportschule in the country. Both the government and the federation sponsor the national team. Each player receives a weekend allowance of 6 to 7 dollars. Players are required to pay some of th eir own expenses. For example, for the 1975 spring tournament, the players paid $180.00 to p a rtia lly cover the expenses. A junior national team exists and has a separate coaching staff (Miserez and Kessler, 1975).

As reported in the Italian questionnaire, the national team plays

as one team in the top Ita lia n league. After the league season, the

national team trains together on and off at a central site for six months from May to October. This training center is located in

Florence and is called Federazone I ta li ana Ginco Calcio (which is the

main headquarters for the Ita lia n national soccer team). A typical

training day involves six hours of training and two hours of theory.

There are four different groups involved in the national program.

A f ir s t team and training squad which can include up to 22 players. A

junior national team of 20 players, and a youth national team for

players under 18 years, of age which consists of 18 players. 58

In addition to room and board, the players are provided with a modest per diem (Romano, 1975). The Ita lia n federation has worked hard to develop a good program.

For the West German team training is not a ll year round. The junior and the national "A" teams are intact for about 80 days of the year. Two training sites are generally used. These are the sport centers in Heidelberg and Hannover. During the year, the national players compete in the Bundes Liga with their respective club teams.

During competition or training camp, the team is completely subsidized by the Ministry of the In terio r. The Bundesausschuss-Zur Forderung Des

Leistungssports (Committee for Promotion of Competitive Sports) pro­ vides money for housing, meals, salary for work days missed, travel ex­ penses to the central site and two dollars per diem when abroad. The national team has twelve players with sixteen on the training squad.

There are twelve players on the junior national team.

In the countries of Japan and South Korea, the national program is very much involved with the club season since the championship club

team w ill usually be chosen as the national team.

According to Coach Yamada (1975), Japan has no organized reserve

training squad or second national team. The 1975 team was the Hitachi

Company team. For the 1976 Olympics, Yamada planned to add as many as

four players from different clubs. This would be done well in advance

of the Olympics so that the team could undergo intensive training for

at least three months. During the year, the players are subsidized by

th e ir respective companies. The companies also provide an additional 59

Stipend for the summer months when the players are competing for the national team. The other major national team expenses are covered by the JVA.

Both the South Koreans and the Japanese spend a minimum of four hours of practice on the volleyball court every day of the year.

Usually volleyball accounts for a 12-hour per day schedule, sevendays a week, fifty-one weeks per year. A total of one week ofvacation time is given to each player (Yamada, 1975). A typical Japanese national team schedule during the Canadian Tour in July, 1975 was as follows:

1. wake up - 5:30 a.m. 2. running; calisthenics and flexibility exercises - 5:00-7:30 a.m. 3. breakfast - 8:00 a.m. 4. morning practice - 9:00 a.m.-12:00 p.m. 5. lunch - 12:30 p.m. 6 . afternoon practice - 1:30-3:30 p.m. 7. sleep - 3:30-4:30 p.m. 8 . dinner - 5:00 p.m. 9. training - 6:30-7:30 p.m. 10. match warm-up - 8:00 p.m. 11. match - 9:00 p.m.

The South Korean national team has had a nucleus of the same 8 to

.9 players for the last four years (Lee, 1975). In the summer of 1975,

three different clubs were represented. The national team practices

together a minimum of four months. During this time, players are

housed in a national a th le tic center. During the club season, the

players work for th eir respective company club teams for 3 hours and

practice a minimum of 3 hours each day (Park, In s il, 1975). The com­

pany pays a salary of 200 dollars per month to each of its players on a

year-round basis. This has often raised the following protest from the

d ifferent company teams, "we are paying while our players train and

compete for the national team" (Park, Moo, 1975). The Korean Volleyball 60

Association does provide additional per diem during international trips and during the training period.

Two d istin ct concepts exist in a ll of the national programs. One is the "centralized one-team" concept and the other is the "all-star conglomerate team" concept. Relative degrees of success have been attained by both these concepts. All of the programs, except for the

United States and Spain, are in some way assisted fin an cially by the respective governments. The Asian teams have a unique situation where the various industrial companies are deeply involved in the volleyball club system.

National Coach and Staff

The main figure of any national team is the head national coach.

Along with the staff, he (she) is the most important part of any well operated national program.

The dean of all the national coaches is Givi Akhvlediani of the

Soviet Union. Akhvlediani has coached the USSR women's team since

1967. His accomplishments are legendary and have made Givi a household name in the Soviet Union. There is no set pattern as to how a coach is selected in the USSR. At times, contracts are signed but usually there is ju st a verbal agreement between coach and fe d e r a tio n .A k h v le d ia n i, because of his accomplishments and popularity, can stay on as long as he likes. Givi confided to this writer that he will retire after

T9 For example, the Soviet men's coach Yuri Chesnokov has had a verbal agreement with the Soviet Federation since 1971 (Akhvlediani, 1975). 61

Montreal - win or los.e. During the year, Akhvlediani works as the head coach for the Dynamo Sports Club in Moscow. He is responsible for a ll the women's teams at the club. This is his full-time job and his annual salary is paid by Dynamo. The Volleyball Federation (which gets its money from the Sport Committee) provides traveling expenses, room, board, and per diem when he is with the national team. The assistant coaches that aid Givi are employed by the Sport Committee.

The national team has an extensive year-round staff. There are several scientists who work on projects such as physical testing, bio­ mechanics and kinesiology. Also included is a psychologist, physio­ therapist and electrocardiagram specialist. Three to four assistant coaches are part of the s ta ff. A d ifferen t one of these coaches is o ffic ia lly appointed as the assistant coach.for every international competition.

In the last 8-10 years we have brought a very s c ie n tific approach to volleyball. Since Munich, there has been even more emphasis on research. One must find out what makes people strong. What helps the jump. What is the most e ffic ie n t movement. What are the best training methods. I f the United States wants to become a world power, you must begin to analyze the game scientifically. For this you need a year round staff of experts. (Akhvlediani, 1975).

There are no female coaches involved in the national program. In the top league competition, 5% of the head coaches are females.

According to Akhvlediani (1975), "women should not be coached by women, because you need an extremely hard, intense and strong coach for women."

In the Soviet Union, coaches must receive a certification from their respective sport federation. There are two types of certifica­ tions for volleyball. The f ir s t is the specialized coach, and the 62 second is the teacher coach (Akhvlediani, 1975).

In Canada, the national coach is chosen by the national training director with CVA committee confirmation. Since 1973 when Canada began preparing for the 1976 Olympic Games, the O'Keefe Foundation has estab­ lished a special fund to pay the salaries of several of the Olympic coaches including the men and women's volleyball coaches. Although the women's coach signed a one-year contract, i t was automatically renewed from year to year until the Montreal Olympics. Coaching the national volleyball team is a full-time job. Moo Park, who is the present coach, is directly responsible to the National Training Director, Val

Keller, who is ultimately responsible to the CVA Board of Directors.

In addition to the head coach, there are three additional national team s ta ff coaches. Two of these are females; one being the head coach of the Junior National Team, June Willms. There are four year round staff members to the national team - a full-time manager and three part time personnel - physical (a th le tic ) tra in e r, medical doctor, and a psychologist.

As for female coaches throughout the country, the Canadian ques­ tionnaire reports 80% of the teams in the city leagues (not to be con­ fused with a national league) have female head coaches.

In 1974 and 1975, the United States chose its national coach by the vote of the USVBA Committee on International A ffairs - Women. The next coach will probably be chosen by the new National Training

Director. The USVBA believes that the national coach should be hired

for a quadrennial, but in the past few years the coach has been re­

leased or has quit after one year or less. Coaching the national team 63 is a fu ll-tim e job for the present coach, Arie Selinger. His salary is paid by the City of Pasadena Chamber of Commerce. Coaches before

Selinger were part-time and were not paid except fo r expenses. Most of them were teachers by profession.

The USA National Coaching Staff is made up of three to four dif­ ferent coaches that have assisted Selinger, as well as the other nation­ al coaches in the past few years. These coaches are part-tim e. Most of them have only been able to be with the team during the summer months and during the international competitions. There are no other year-round national staff members.

The USVBA has had re la tiv ely few female coaches in its open championships in the past ten years. In this time, there have been only two female coaches associated with the national program. Jane

Ward was the Pan American coach in 1971, and Ann Heck was the coach of the 1973 Student University Games team.

L ittle is known as to the details of coach selection in the Asian countries. Most often South Korea and Japan choose the coach of the championship club team. This coach is listed as an employee of the

industry which sponsors the club. In addition to this annual salary,

the volleyball federations pay the coaches' expenses during their in­ volvement with the national team. To date, this w riter has never seen or heard of female coaching at the national or top league levels in

these countries.

According to Elenkoelenkow (CVA, 1974), Bulgarian national

coaches are selected from the top club coaches. The assistant coach 64 of the national team w ill also serve as the supervisor of the club coaches in the entire country. The national staff is very well organized.

During January for approximately twenty days, the national team candidates w ill gather in the mountains near Sophia with two coaches. The major purpose is for a togetherness experi­ ence and for physical training. In addition to the coaches, there is also on s ta ff a masseur, a trainer for taping and caring for injuries, a medical doctor who organizes and super­ vises the training and makes analysis of individual physical fitness and a physiotherapist for minor injury treatment. Medical doctors related to each team are a ll important and exert a major influence over the coach in a ll of the training regiment. Each player will have a special psychological examination and consultation services are provided at all levels. The team doctor will establish and supervise the diet of each player. (CVA, 1974)

This is a typical example of the intricate organization that is found in a ll Eastern European national programs and national staffs.

Yugoslavia is not an example of the Eastern European model. The

Yugoslavian coaches are s tric tly part-time coaches who have a fu ll-tim e job elsewhere. They are given time o ff from th e ir work when they are involved with the national program. There are six ranks in coaching:

1st national; 2nd national; 1st republic; 2nd republic; zonal, and council. National coaches must have a 1st national ranking (Yugoslavian

Delegation, 1975).

In both Bulgaria and Yugoslavia, there are no female coaches at the national level. Hungary is the only national team in the world that has had a female head coach in the last few years.

The countries of West Germany and Switzerland both have females serving as the assistant national coaches. Both these coaches have been former national players and former captains of their national teams. 65

The Swiss head coaching position is not a fu ll-tim e job. The coach receives 50 francs (about 19 dollars) per day, but must pay for some of his (her) travel expenses just as do the members of the national team. Female head coaches make up less than 10% of the coaches in the

Swiss league structure.

On the other hand, West Germany has a fu ll-tim e national coach.

This coach is chosen by the federation for a period of at least one year. The coach is responsible to the head administrator in the federa­ tion (Vorstand) and two special committees Sportausschuf and

Leistungkomission. The Deutcher Sportbund ( DSB - German Sport Commit­ tee) and the government pay the coach's salary. There is only one assistant coach and one medical doctor who are considered year-round national s ta ff. West Germany hired a Korean coach, Dai-Hee Park, several months prior to the 1972 Munich Olympics.

In 1973, Mexico also hired a South Korean coach. His position is fu ll-tim e and he is paid by the Mexican Olympic Committee. The federa­ tion chooses the national coach for a two-year period after which time he can again be re-elected. The coach is responsible directly to the president of the Mexican Volleyball Federation. There are four other coaches on the national s ta ff, none of them females. The manager is the other year-round staff member.

Another former South Korean national coach, Man Bok Park, is the

Peruvian coach. In Peru, the national coach oversees the entire women's program which includes the national and junior national teams. The job is a full-time position. Mr. Park is under a two-year contract and draws his salary from the Federal Sports Association. 66

There are two main assistant coaches - the junior team assistant coach and the national team assistant coach. These are appointed by the volleyball association. However, the head coach has the authority to change these coaches at any time. A team doctor and a team manager travel with the team, and aside from the coaches, are the only year- round staff members. As of yet, there are no scientists, physiothera­ pists or psychologists working with the team. No information on female coaches was found.

Italy, Brazil and Spain are similar in that the coaches are all part-tim e.

Ita ly 's Federal Council of the Volleyball Association elects the head coach for an indefinite period of time. There are three assistant coaches on the s ta ff, one of them a woman. A manager and a doctor are the other year-round s ta ff members. Three head coaches in the top league are women and one out of every three assistant coaches is also a female.

Brazil has two assistant coaches, a manager, a medical doctor, a physical trainer and a psychologist as part of the national staff.

There are no females involved in national coaching. As reported by

Nuzman (1975), the selection and functioning of the national coaching

staff is controlled by a technical committee of the federation. In

the men's program, the committee changes the coaches frequently to give more coaches a chance at international coaching. 20 There are less

20 The reason for this is that the Brazilian men are consistently in the top ten in the world. They are easily the South American champions and thus can afford to experiment with th eir coaching staffs at some of the international meets. 67 changes in the women's team s ta ff, so that through continuity the c a li­ ber of the team w ill increase. The head women's coach is also the junior team coach. He is paid by the Brazilian government.

In Spain, the selection of a national coach is in itia te d by the

Technical Director. He proposes three candidates with top credentials to the Directive Board of the Spanish Volleyball Association, (FEV).

This board chooses one of the three candidates. The coach is directly responsible to the Technical Director. The FEV pays the coach's part- time salary and expenses. There are three assistant coaches, a manager and a doctor on the national staff.

Unfortunately no data are available on the Cuban National

Coaching S taff.

Traveling Squads

For most international competitions., s p ecifically the World Cham­ pionships, the Olympics, and the Pan American Games, there is a set lim it of the number of people allowed to be in the o ffic ia l delegation.

Usually the set number is fifteen. This includes twelve players, two coaches and a manager. At times, additional personnel are permitted such as: a medical doctor; athletic (physical) train e r; masseur; head of the delegation who is usually the representative of the country's federation; interpreter; extra training coaches, and referee

(abitrer).21 Some countries have at times limited their players to

ten and have added some of the additional personnel, while staying within the prescribed lim it of fifte e n .

FI The referee (arbitrer) has become a vital member of the traveling squad. 68

Four the most part, all of the countries in this study stay within a limit of fifteen to eighteen. Almost all have listed twelve players, coach, assistant coach, manager, doctor, head of delegation and referee. It is no coincidence that the top three teams in the world -

Japan, the USSR, and South Korea have very well-organized traveling squads.

The two teams that have most impressed this w irter have been the

Japanese and South Koreans. Both teams are always dressed in w ell- tailored travel o u tfits. In the three days that the South Koreans spent in the USA last summer, they had three different travel uniforms.

Both teams conduct practices in fu ll game uniforms. I t seems that the players have an inexhaustible supply.

For the Canadian Tour in the summer of 1975 the Japanese had eighteen members in th e ir traveling squad. The squad included: twelve players; head coach, Shigeo Yamada, who also served as the head of the delegation; Shigeo Koshiba who was the assistant team leader and interpreter; two assistant coaches, Kazunori and Tanaka; a manager,

Setsuko Maruyama and a referee, Masami Fujimura.

The South Korean team had a squad of sixteen: twelve players;

head coach Tae Hwan Soh; assistant coach Chang Ho Lee; head of dele­

gation, Boong Soo Yoo (Director of General A ffa irs , KVA), and Jae

Chang Lee who served in the dual role of international referee and

public relations.

As opposed to the Asian teams, the 1975 Soviet team did not have

matching travel uniforms. Nevertheless, they had a very well-

organized delegation of eighteen during the Canadian Tour. These 69 included twelve players; head of delegation, Kuznetsov; head coach

Akhvlediani; assistant coach Khokhlov; referee Samedov; interpreter

Kozlov and a masseur.

All three teams have at times traveled with th eir own photo­ graphers and reporters. Every international trip is planned day by day to the last minute.

Other countries such as Canada, the USA, Cuba, and Ita ly have started to organize their travel squads. Canada and Cuba are very well organized and this can be attributed to their extensive international travel as well as to the improvement of the structure of their national programs. The USA and Ita ly have worked hard on outward appearance, but are fa r away from the detailed organization achieved by any one of the above mentioned countries. Japan, South Korea, and the Soviet

Union work hard to have well-organized travel squads and this is a

direct reflection of the quality of their national team programs. CHAPTER 4

ECONOMY

An adequate budget is the backbone of a good international program. Many different expenses are incurred by a national team. One cannot take part in international competition v/ithout traveling. Yet jet-age travel is an expensive commodity. The ever increasing cost of food, clothing, equipment, use of fa c ilitie s and medical care has placed an extreme burden on national team budgets. In addition, coaches and supportive personnel must get paid for th e ir work. The countries which are most affected by the skyrocketing costs are the ones which do not get government support. In this study, only the USA and Spain are in this category.

Most national governments provide direct financial subsidies or support for the sports program in one way or another. One common method is to give money to the various sport federations. (Bennett, Howell and Simri, 1975, p. 238)

Another important source for national team income are the legalized betting pools called toto or lotteria.

This is extremely popular and is used by most of the countries of Western Europe and East Germany. The toto is run by the government in every country except for Great B ritain , where the pool is operated by private companies and the government gets a share. The basis for the betting is usually the English professional football league games, and the Football Association copyrights its schedule and sells i t to other countries. (Bennett, Howell and Simri, 1975, p. 238)

Other sources for national volleyball programs are the volleyball federations. West Germany, Canada, USA, and Spain rely on their federations to differen t degrees. Industry plays an important role as the main economical source for Japan and South Korea.

70 71

The United States relies heavily on the United States Olympic Com­ mittee (USOC). The USOC receives no help whatsoever from the federal

government.

The USVBA is responsible for the selection and training of players for the participation in Olympic and Pan American Games volleyball competition and numerous other volleyball competi­ tions between the USA and foreign teams. This is a tremedously expensive endeavor, the funding for which the USVBA relies upon dues collected from its playing members, revenue provided by other volleyball-related activities, grants from the USOC, and private donations to the United States Volleyball Educational Foundation (USVEF). (USA/USSR Olympic Volleyball Program, 1975, p. 15)

Table 1

Percent of Sources of Funds fo r Women's National Team Budget

Federal Republic Sources Brazil Canada of Germany Ita ly Mexico Spain USA

Volleyball Federation - 20 15 - - 100 25

Government ICO 80 85 - 100 -

Industry ------25

Sport Lottery ■ - -- 10Q22 - - - (toto)

50 Other ------US Olympic Committee

2 2 Romano (1975) reported a breakdown of sources that are on conflict with the Italian questionnaire report in Table 1. They were as follows: National OlympicCommittee 27% Ita lia n Government 27% Lotteria 33% Other 13% 72

Although there is some discrepancy as to the exact percentage that

Italy relies on the lotteria, the following must be stressed:

Ita ly has perhaps the most elaborate and fin est system for football betting, and it produces annually $100,000,000. Unlike most countries, the profits from the pool are con­ trolled by sport groups and are used entirely for sports. (Bennett, Howell and Simri, 1975, p. 238)

The size of the national team budgets varies a great deal.

Although no exact figures can be reported, i t is known that the Soviet

Union, Japan, and South Korea have more than adequate budgets. As

Coach Akhvlediani (1975) stated, "we can get anything we v/ant". The

Soviet men and women have an equal budget. The Japanese and South

Korean women's teams have larger budgets than th e ir respective men's teams (Park, Dai-Hee, 1975). This writer would estimate the budgets of the women's teams in each of these countries to be somewhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000 dollars.

Mexico lis ts its annual women's budget to be between 200,000 and

400,000 dollars. The men and women have equal budgets.

Brazil, Canada, Italy, and the United States list their budgets in the 50,000 to 100,000 dollar range. Romano (1975) in his interview

indicated that the Italian national team budget for 1975 was 100 mil­

lion lire (146,000 dollars). The men received 60% of this budget.

Canada and the United States have equal budgets for men and women.

This was not the case in the USA prior to 1975. The men received two

to three times the amount that the women did. Brazil spends 350,000

to 400,000 dollars annually on the National Championships. This in­

cludes technical arrangements, promotion, and players' travel which is

the biggest expense. 73

Spain, Switzerland, and West Germany report a budget in the range of 10,000 to 50,000 dollars. Spain and West Germany report an equal budget for men and women, while Switzerland's women have a greater budget. The Swiss budget for 1975 was 56,000 Swiss francs (about

21,000 dollars). This was 30% of the total 1975 Swiss Volleyball

Federation budget. Along with the federation, the Swiss government also contributes to the national team budget. Dai-Hee Park (1975) reported that the West Germany budget was 300,000 marks (114,000 dollars). This does not agree with the questionnaire reply which re­ ported the budget to be between 10 and 50 thousand dollars. Park also stated that in the last two years the men have received more funds than the women.

Coach Man Bok Park (1975) of Peru was very reluctant to talk about finances. He repeatedly told this writer that budgets were not his concern. He did state that the Peruvian women's team has received more money than the men's team in the past years, but that the budgets would be equal in 1976.

Yugoslavia did not report an exact figure fo r th eir budget. An interesting point in the interview was how money is raised for sports in Yugoslavia. The people are taxed a certain percentage for ath letic and recreational facilities and for maintaining national sport teams.

The breakdown of the sports receiving this money is as follows: basket­ ball and football receive close to 75% of the money. Team handball is next. The volleyball federation receives .2% of this tax (Yugoslavian

Delegation, 1975). When asked how much the total tax amount of .2% of the total was, the Yugoslavian Delegation refused to comment. 74

As seen in Table 2, the biggest chunk of any national team budget is used to pay for travel expenses. Training facilities are next, but this category varies a good deal more from country to country. A note should be made regarding equipment. Most countries have made arrange­ ments with commercial companies such as Adidas, Puma, and Tiger. These companies stand ready to completely o u tfit the national team from tra ­ vel outfits to training equipment. The countries receive most of this equipment free of charge or at a re la tiv e ly low cost. Donation of ath letic equipment has long been a controversial subject, since i t affects amateur status.

Table 2

Percent of Funds Used fo r Support of National Team

Federal Republic Expenses B razil Canada of Germany Ita ly Hexi CO Spain USA

Travel 50 70 50 40 50 50 50

Training (facilities, 10 10 40 40 30 20 10 housing, meals)

Equipment (uniforms, shoes 15 15 5 - 10 5 5 volleyballs, etc.)

Per Diem Money for Players -- - 15 8 15 15

Medical Costs and Supplies 5 10 - 5 2 - -

Coach's Salary 20 - - - - 10 20

Other - - 5 - - -- 75

Another interesting s ta tis tic is the sources of money for the maintenance of the national leagues. The sport societies, the back­ bones of the leagues in Eastern Europe, rely on several sources.

Morton (1963, p. 208) makes the following observation concerning sport societies in the USSR.

I t is known that sport societies receive an income from member­ ship dues, from gate receipts, from renting out sport fa c ilitie s to other societies, and some cases from producing sport equip­ ment. Trade union societies receive an important allotment from the trade union budget, approximately 20 percent. Rural sport societies, outside of Urozhai, and the construction of sport areas throughout the countryside are financed principally by collective and state farms. Presumably the armed forces and the security police also contribute to the upkeep of their sport societies.

The league structure in Japan and South Korea is to ta lly dependent on the industry sponsors for support. Table 3 (on the following page) shows the sources for the other countries in the study which have a national league structure. 76

Table 3

Percent of Sources of Funds for League

Federal Republic Sources Brazil of Germany Ita ly Mexico Spain

Industry Sponsored - - 80 - -

Government 100 85 - - -

Sports Clubs - - 10 100 70

General Sport Lottery (toto) - - - - -

Gate Receipts of League Matches - -- - -

Volleyball Federation - 15 - - 30

5 M ilita ry Other - - 5 University - -

With the exception of Spain and the United States, a ll the countries in the study are supported in varying degrees by th e ir feder­ al governments. Asian countries are supported by industry. The main expenditure of a national team is travel with training (facilities, housing, and meals) is in second place. CHAPTER 5

INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION

Top caliber World and Olympic Championship teams are not made overnight. They must spend hundreds of hours together as a unit in top international competition. In women's volleyball, the consistent success of the two national teams of the Soviet Union and Japan is unparalleled by any other country in any other women's team sport.

Few countries can ever hope to attain such a height of excellence, yet every country strives to improve in international competition.

In the last quadrennial prior to the 1976 Olympics two countries have traveled extensively. These countries are Cuba and Canada.

Canada's international schedule for 1975 and 1976 was planned at least one year in advance and will include well over 100 days of inter­ national schedule (Olympic Class Women's Volleyball Program, CVA, 1975).

The Canadian women f ir s t started competing internationally in the

Pan American Games in 1959. In the 1967 Pan American Games the team did not win a match. In the 1971 Pan American Games the team finished fifth. After 1972, the international program has been improving rapidly.

In May, 1973, the fu ll national team assembled in Vancouver for a six-month s tin t of arduous training and competition. Six- hour workouts, six days per week, under coach Arthur Willms, paid o ff as the team globe trotted its way to a reputable in te r­ national record. At the North American-Caribbean Zone Championships in Mexico that summer, Canada won 12 and lost 5 to win the silver medal. The victory qualified Canada fo r the World Championships and gave the players the name of the "most fighting team." In August, 1973, the Canadians placed eight at the World Student Games in Moscow. The World Cup in Uruguay in October saw Canada in seventh place. (Olympic Class Women's Volleyball Program, CVA, 1975) 77 Table 4

Canadian Women's International Schedule 1975-76

EVENT PLACE DATE TEAMS INVOLVED

1. Pre-Olympics Montreal June 25-July 1 Bulgaria, Japan, Korea, Canada

2. Training Sherbrooke July 2-15 Japan, Canada

3. Tour Cross Canada July 16 - 27 USSR, Japan, USA, Canada

4. Zone Los Angeles Aug. 1 - 9 Cuba, Mexico, USA, Canada

5. Tournament Varna, Bulgaria Aug. 13-17 USSR, Roumania, Poland Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Canada

6. Training Roumania Aug. 18-Sept. 1 Roumania, Canada

7. Pan Am Games Mexico Oct. 1 - 10 Western Hemisphere

8. Training Tour Cuba Dec. 26-Jan. 5 Cuba, Canada

9. Training Tour USSR January 1976 USSR, Canada

10. Training Tour Canada February Korea, Japan, Canada

11. Training Tour Hungary Apri 1 Canada, Hungary

12. Training Tour Japan May Japan, Canada, Korea

13. 1976 Olympics Montreal July 17-Aug. 1 Canada, Japan, USSR, South Korea, Hungary, East Germany, Cuba, Peru CO 79

Team Canada finished a strong 11th at the World Championships in

1974. The team played some b r illia n t matches against the Eastern

European teams.

The Cuban women have enjoyed a great deal of success interna­ tio n a lly . Since placing 3rd at the Pan American Games in 1967, they have captured the gold medal in 1971 and 1975 without a single defeat.

Cuba finished 8th in the 1970 World Championships and 7th in the 1974

World Championships.

Peru, also a veteran international team, finished in 8th place in the 1974 World Championships. They have placed second in the 1967,

1971 and 1975 Pan American Games. Peru's international program began

10 years ago. In the last three years, they have been rated as one of the top eight teams in the world.

The Mexican women have competed internationally since 1935. They finished 12th in the 1970 World Championships and 10th in 1974. The team has won bronze medals in the 1971 and the 1975 Pan American

Games. In 1975 the team traveled internationally for thirty days.

They plan to do the same in 1976.

The United States f ir s t formed a national team in 1952.

The success of the USA women internationally in volleyball has been minimal. Perhaps the "high watermark" came at the 1967 Pan American Games in Winnipeg. The USA won the gold medal with a perfect record: five victories, no defeats; triumphant in a ll 15 sets. From that point on the path was down. Statistics may be boring, but the USA finished last in the 1968 Olympic Games (0-7 record), sixth in the 1971 Pan American Games, and did not qualify for the competition in the 1972 Olympic Games. (Olympian, 1975, p. 6)

The USA finished 18th in the 1970 World Championships and 12th

at the 1974 Championships. The 1964 Olympic team finished 5th out of 80 six teams. The 1975 Pan American team finished a disappointing 6th out of seven teams. Yet there was a great deal of international success in 1975. The team had its most extensive training ever and had the longest international schedule (50 days) in the history of the program. The following is an excerpt from an article entitled

"Project Pasadena Volleyball" (Olympian, 1975, p. 7):

This summer has been the most active "development period" in the history of women's volleyball in the USA. The squad under the tutelage of Arie Selinger and Taras Liskevych has been working overtime since the national championships conducted by the USVBA in May at Reno. In assessing the accomplishments of this team, team leaders point with pride to the following: •First USA squad to defeat Bulgaria. •First USA squad to win a European tournament. •First USA squad to defeat Mexico three straight sets since the 1967 Pan American Games. •First USA squad to defeat an Asian national squad. In the West German tournament at Heidelberg, the USA won top honors among national teams from Ita ly , West Germany, and Switzerland, with a 5-1 record, and in individual sets 18-9. Additional experience was gained during a Canadian tour in July where a series of games were played against national teams from Canada, the USSR, and Japan.

The USA women's team has no international trips scheduled for the summer of 1976.

B razil's national team began competing in 1951. In 1959 and

1963, they were the Pan American Games gold medalists. The team finished 13th and 15th respectively in the 1970 and 1974 World

Championships. In 1975, the team spent 45 days traveling ally. Twenty-five days are planned for 1976.

The Western European countries have been quite weak international internationally. Of all the Western European countries in this study, only West Germany has participated in the World Championships 81 or the Olympic Games in the last ten years.

Spain started competing internationally in 1960. In 1975, they traveled 16 days internationally. About twice that amount- is planned for 1976.

The Swiss national women's program began in 1962. In 1957, they finished 12th in the European Championships in Turkey. The team's immediate goal was to qualify for the European Championships. Miserez and Kessler (1975) stated that "our system does not permit world caliber play."

In Ita ly , the international program is about ten years old.

Romano (1975) stated that they have never competed in a World or

European Championship, but that they are about 10th ranked in Europe.

The team traveled 30 days internationally in 1975 and w ill do the same in 1976. Italy is challenging Holland for the number one ranking

in Western Europe.

The Federal Republic of Germany rounds out the top three in

Western Europe. The team's f ir s t international meet was in Paris in

1956. In the 1974 World Championships in Mexico City the team

finished 19th. West Germany finished last out of eight teams in the

1972 Olympics. Eighteen days were spent abroad in 1975 and twenty-

four are planned for 1976.

Eastern Europe has been the powerhouse of women's volleyball

since international competition began in the early 50s. Counting 7

World Championships and 3 Olympics, 58% of the top five finishers 82 were Eastern European teams.23 This is an overwhelming s ta tis tic that

underlines the success of the Eastern European teams in international

competition.

Bulgaria has consistently finished in the top ten. The women's

team was 5th in the 1956 Championships.

Without any doubt, Bulgarian volleyball gained prestige through­ out the world. The logical result of this was the designation of our country as host of the world competition for the champion­ ship during 1970, during which the men's sextet took the silver medal and the women's sixth place; one more proof for the high class of our volleyball. (Kolev, 1975, p. 4)

Yugoslavia has a rapidly improving international program.

Nevertheless, they are the weakest of a ll Eastern European teams. I f

compared with the West European teams, Yugoslavia would be ranked

number one.

The Soviet Union has an international record that is second to

none.

Since 1949 when volleyball was introduced as an international sport with World Championship matches, the Soviet Union's men and women's teams have been dominant. Results show that out of twelve World Championships to date, these teams have captured the gold eight times and have place no worse than third but once. In Olympic competition, Soviet teams have always been in the medal standings winning four medals out of a possible six. (Melanson, 1975, p. 9)

The data in Table 5 handily supports this fact.

This includes the 1967 Championships in Tokyo where no Eastern European teams competed. Omitting the 1967 results and tabulating 6 World Championships and 3 Olympics, i t was found that 65% of the top five finishers were Eastern European national teams. 83

Table 5

International Record of USSR's National Women's Team

Olympic Games

Tokyo 1964 2nd Mexico City 1968. 1st Munich 1972 1st

World Championships

Moscow 1952 1st Paris 1956 1st Rio De Janeiro 1960 1st Moscow 1962 2nd Tokyo 1967 did not participate Sophia 1970 1st Mexico City 1974 2nd

The USSR team travels extensively from May through September after the club season is over.

Second to the USSR is the international record of the Japanese women. The results of the main international competitions are found in Table 6.

Table 6

International Record of Japanese National Women's Team

Olympics Games

Tokyo 1964 1st Mexico City 1968 2nd Munich 1972 2nd

World Championships

Rio De Janiero 1960 2nd Moscow 1962 1st Tokyo 1967 1st Sophia 1970 2nd Mexico City 1974 1st 84

South Korea has been regarded as the third top team in the world in the past two years. Perhaps their biggest international victory came in the summer of 1975 when they upset Japan in the finals of the pre-Olympic tournament in Montreal.

The records of the Soviet Union and Japan w ill be hard to match by any country in the years ahead. Since 1968, great strides have been made by Cuba and Peru. Canada has also held its own ground against top world powers since 1964. The other Eastern European countries along with South Korea continue to field excellent national teams. Western Europe has made some improvement, but is s t ill very fa r behind. The United States is capable of being a top ranked team, but with the present structure of the national program it will be very hard to reach this plateau. CHAPTER 6

STYLES OF PLAY

D ifferent aspects of culture, sociology and p o litics have affected the development of volleyball in each country. These factors have shaped and molded the on-court and off-court behavior patterns and training procedures. To some extent, they have also affected playing styles in competition. The primary focus of this chapter will be to discuss the evolution of d ifferent international playing styles.

In order to describe such a development, one must f ir s t look at the inherent nature of the game of volleyball.

Volleyball is a team game played with an in flated ball on a court separated into two areas by a high net. One team hits the ball over the net, trying to make the ball touch the opponents' area. The opponents attempt to prevent this by hittin g the ball up and by volleying back over the net. This must be done without touching the net and without entering the opponents' area. Points are scored when the team receiving the serve fa ils to return the ball in the manner allowed by rules. (USVBA O ffic ia l Guide, 1976, p. 167)

Just about everybody has played volleyball in a school gym class. Needless to say, that level of competition bears little re­ semblance to what two w ell-trained teams can achieve on the volleyball court. The rules and principles are the same, but the way players go about executing fundamentals and tactics is quite d iffe re n t. There is a marked difference between the volleyball which passed the time in the gym class and the fast and furious action of an international match (Organizing Committee of the 1976 Olympic Games - COJO, 1976, p. 4).

85 8 6

The standard volleyball court is 18 meters long and 9 meters wide with a net dividing i t in h alf. The net is 1 meter wide and 9.5 meters long. The top of the net is 2.43 meters above the floor in international men's competition and 2.24 meters in women's competition. On each side of the net at a distance of three meters a line on the court designates the attack zone.24 Each team consists of six players, three in the forward line near the net and three who are positioned near the baseline at the back of the court. A team may also have six substitutes who may be sent into the game to replace the starters at inter­ vals when play is stopped.25 (Organizing Committee of 1976 Olympic Games - COJO, 1975, p. 4)

The six players rotate their positions on the court in a clock­ wise movement following each service change (side-out). The right

front player becomes the next server.

The game is won by the team which scores 15 points f ir s t . I f

the score is tied at 14-14, the winner must have a two point margin. '

Internationally, a match consists of the best 3 out of 5 games. There

is no time limit set on an individual game or the match.

Thus the object of the game is relatively simple. To win a

r a lly , a team must cause the ball to strike in bounds in the opponents'

court. A team may contact the ball three times on its side of the net

during a rally, but no player may touch it twice. Only the serving

team may score i f i t wins the ensuing ra lly a fter the serve. Should

the opponents' return the serve, playing the ball in bounds and win

24 Players may not attack (spike) a ball when they are back court players unless they jump from in back of the 3 meter line. 25 Internationally a total of six substitutions is allowed per game. Please refer to Appendix IX if there is any question as to some of the terminology used in this chapter. 87 the r a lly , they would acquire the serve. No points are scored on this exchange, but the serve switches automatically putting the defensive team on offense and vice versa.

What occurs during a volleyball match featuring top caliber teams is a lightening-quick display of constantly shifting de­ fense and offense. Players receiving the serve pass the ball to teammates who attempt to find an opening in the opposition's defense and blast the ball back at top speed. With three players from both teams leaping like gazelles at the net while trying to smash or block shots, the game provides tremendous excitement. (Organizing Committee of 1976 Olympic Games - COJO, 1976, p. 2)

Players leap, dive, roll, and sprawl to keep the ball in play.

In addition, there have been several factors that have distin­ guished volleyball from other team sports.

1. A team is separated from its opponents by a physical barrier - the net and by a center line. Once the ball is on one side of the net, i t makes no difference who the opponents on the other side of the barrier are. The team with the ball must control i t and execute the various fundamentals concentrating only on th e ir own s k ills .

2. The volleyball half-court area of 81 square meters (approxi­ mately 900 sq. ft) is the smallest team sport playing area. Since there are six players in this half-court, players must learn to per­ form in a limited area. There are intricate movement patterns which must be executed very quickly, yet they must involve the least amount of movement.

3. High level volleyball has an extraordinary fast pace. The ball is attacked above the level of the net with amazing power and speed. There are women who are able to spike the ball over 50 miles 8 8 per hour. At a distance of 4to 5 meters the defense team has a few hundredths of a second to react to such a spike.

4. Since there is no element of time involved, momentum becomes paramount. Often upsets have been staged a fte r a team leading by what seemed in insurmountable lead (13-1 or 14-2) has le t up.

5. Other than the fundamental of serving, each volleyball s k ill

is entirely dependent on the previous skill executed. Each volleyball contact is b u ilt upon the previous contact.

As in any team sport, team cohesiveness is an important factor.

All countries adapt their style to the above points.

But the game of volleyball did not start out this way. It was

basically designed as a recreational a c tiv ity for businessmen. The

sport became highly popular at summer resorts and playgrounds through­

out the United States.

At first, volleyball was a makeshift game with few rules. The number of times the ball could be handled was not limited and the number of players per team followed the whims of the com­ peting teams. (Organizing Committee of the 1976 Olympic Games - COJO, 1976, p. 1)

In this form the game spread throughout North America.

The traditional attitude toward volleyball in the United States has been that i t is a game for young g irls and old men... This is d e fin ite ly not the case in competitive volleyball today. The poorly conditioned athlete will suffer a rapid demise on the field of competition. The days of the unconditioned volleyball player are over. Today's athletes are as fin ely conditioned as you w ill find in any sport. (Coleman, 1970, p. 113)

As v/as stated e a rlie r, the international YMCA movement was in­

strumental in spreading the game throughout the world. But there

was no one set of standard rules adopted un til 1947 when the FIVB 89 was formed. In the early beginning, volleyball was regarded on one hand as a recreational game, and on the other hand as a competitive sport.26

In many of the Asian and European countries, volleyball was in­ troduced to youth groups and schools in its early stages of development.

Lu (1950) claims that this resulted in a competitive rather than a recreational orientation in these countries. Lu quotes a personal letter which she received from J. C. Greiner, YMCA Secretary in

Latvia from 1924 to 1934.

I t is my own judgment that in countries outside the United States, p articu larly in Europe, the nationals of these countries have developed s k ills in playing of the game of volley ball more equal to the American standard of competition than in any other American sport developed in those countries. For instance, in basketball, most teams in Europe could not match in a b ility the American basketball teams. In volley ball, however, the best teams of foreign countries could match the better teams of the United States. More important, however, is that volley ball leads itself to participation on a wide scale and fo r a wide range of ages, therefore making i t a good recreational a c tiv ity . (Lu, 1950, p. 187)

The issue of recreational vs. competitive has had a great influ­ ence on the development of rules in d ifferen t parts of the world. For instance, there were marked differences in the firs t American rules and those of the Far Eastern countries.

The American rule makers seem to have disciplined their game and have been cautious in th e ir rule building to avoid the monopolizing of the game by better players on the team. Rules such as rotation of players during a game, restrictions in

To a certain extent this is still true today. This problem is not only inherent to volleyball, but is experienced by all sports. However, volleyball in the United States is mainly a recreational game. 90

blocking and attacking, changing of positions after the serve and marking of the service areas, etc., are the results, while in the Far Eastern countries, these rules are not adopted. They put the emphasis on opening up the game for the greatest possible development and making it flexible for players of all levels. (Lu, 1950, p. 187)

As an example, the Western countries have always played with a team composed of no more or less than six players. 27 The Far Easter­ ners have had nine on a team until the late 1950s. In the beginning they always played outdoors and the space problem had never been an issue. They decided to have a large number of players on a large court in order to accommodate more on a team.

As a resu lt, the nine player formation does not only prove more economical, but also provides much greater opportunities fo r variations in the game, many of which would not have been possible with only six players. (Lu, 1950, p. 296)

Until the middle 1950s volleyball was played in different environ­ ments. The Orient played i t mostly outdoors. Europe, Central and

South America played i t indoors and outdoors. The United States played almost en tirely indoors.

Since 1896, the "lunchtime businessmen's" game of volleyball has changed dramatically. The first innovation was the hard smash of the ball into the opponents' court, after the ball was set up by a team­ mate above the level of the net. The next notable change was the blocking defense against the spike. In 1933, a club team from

Houston, Texas h it upon this idea by using its three front row players

2 7 This is not to be confused with the occasional outdoor or indoor doubles or trip les matches. Organized national and international competition has always had six players. 91 to form a wall of arms above the level of the net (Canadian Olympic

Organizing Committee 1976 - COJO, 1976, p. 3).

The next change was to introduce the forearm pass of "bump" on serve reception. Until the late 1950s everyone received a serve with an overhand contact. The introduction of the forearm pass in Europe increased the zone of effectiveness of each player.

Even with blocking, the attack was s till the dominant factor in the game. In order to equalize offense and defense, the FIVB passed a rule to allow blockers to reach across the net. At first this drastically reduced offense efficiency, but soon attackers began to vary th eir spiking shots to elude the block and new offense systems were designed.

When describing a team's style, one usually refers to the offense system that is used by the team. Offense systems have undergone a sophisticated development. During a Canadian volleyball c lin ic , Val

Keller (1973) outlined the evolution of offense team patterns.

The first basic offense team pattern was known as the 3-3. This indicated that a team was made up of 3 attack players each with his

"personal" setter. The attack was generally executed at the left sideline (attacker was in position 4 and setter in position 3)28 at the middle of the net (attacker was in position 3 and setter in position 2).

^ 8 Please refer to pages 137 and 138 of Appendix IX. 92

The next major innovation was the 4-2 system (4 attackers and 2 setters). In this system, one of two players would attack. The attackers were in position 4 and position 2, the setter was in posi-^ tion 3. This system developed when some teams realized that they could successfully attack from the right side of the net.

The third evolutionary stage was the multiple offense (at times called 3 hitter attack, 6-0 or 6-2 offense). The setter was one of the back row players; this enabled a ll the front players to be attackers. This .offense is extremely fast paced and is error prone.

The backbone of the multiple offense is the short quick set to one of the three attackers. The only two countries in this study which execute this offense flawlessly are the Japanese and South Koreans.

There are two basic reasons why the Asian teams have developed and relied in this offense system.

1. I t takes countless hours of meticulous practice to perfect the timing involved in spiking the quick set and in performing the play patterns in this offense. Asian culture and lifestyle reflects

this type of dedication. No country in the world can approach the

practice intensity of a Japanese or South Korean national team. In

1964, the Japanese women won the gold medal at the Tokyo Olympics.

The following is a description of a practice session of the champion­

ship Nichibo team:

We endure the hard training and five hours sleep, to win the World Volleyball Championship. When I considered th e ir play in s u ffic ie n t, I made them try over and over again, however, late i t might be, until they could play s u ffic ie n tly and completely—that was my way of training, though the severity of our training often made by-standers shut th e ir eyes. I 93

cried, "Do you think you can defeat the Russian team in such a clumsy manner! 1!" Many times vie practiced until the eastern sky became bright. It was getting late, they could not do what I asked them to do— Even th eir Captain, Miss Kasai, some­ times protested against me. "Coach! Do you think we can do such a thing?" I f I had given into her and softened the hard­ ness of training, all our suffering up to that time, would have come to nothing. I rejected her protest. "Do what is impossible." (Daimatsu, 1974, p. 3)

2. Other offenses are b u ilt upon ta ll and strong outside h itte rs . Since the Asian teams are not as imposing physically as the countries which utilized this strong outside hitters offense, they felt that quickness, better teamwork and deception (all ingredients of a multiple offense) would counteract their physical weaknesses.

The influence of the Asian teams has been widespread. Almost every country in the world has adopted some variation of the quick multiple offense into their offense system, yet no country can approach

the quick set combinations of the Japanese women. Koreans are the

national coaches in Canada, Mexico, Peru and West Germany. All of

these countries have adopted some quick set characteristics.

Another factor which distinquishes the Asian teams is th e ir com­ mitment to total defense. Total defense is playing with the philo­

sophy that no ball with hit the floor at any time. The precision

teamwork of the Japanese and South Koreans is extraordinary.

Our Japanese volleyball established a pattern which is entirely differen t from European patterns. In other words i t is Asian volleyball. It is strategy with our peculiar way of thinking which is maybe impossible for Europeans to understand. In short the game is combatted not one to one but by six players who cover the weak points and multiply the good points of one another. The spirit which underlies the foundation is.that of cooperation, service and s acrifice. (Matsudaire, 1971, p. 2)

Matsudaire (1971) categorizes Eastern European volleyball into

four patterns. 94

1. Power - this is the characteristic symbol of the Slavic people. The USSR, Bulgaria and Poland exemplify this style.

2. Safety First - The East Germans play a error-free-offense system u tiliz in g very high sets to the outside. There are hardly ever quick sets in the middle, but high sets to the ta ll outside players. "Volleyball of DDR is associated with the pride of the ex­ cellent race that abhors to make mistakes" (Matsudaira, 1971, p. 2).

3. Skill - Czechoslovakia has always been known for its skilled performers. Their men's national team does not just play with the awesone power of the Soviets or Poles, but indeed has as many i f not more fundamentally sound players.

4. Emotion - Roumanians play volleyball as th e ir Latin tempera­ ment dictates.

They play volleyball m errily. They express joy and sorrow with their whole body and make noise on the court as i f they were showmen. Their volleyball is characterized by rhythm and tempo. (Matsudaira, 1971, p. 2)

If one were to choose a style for the United States, one of the

characteristics would be power. Some of the USA women are awesome

physically and can be labeled as playing with a power style. In the

last two years the USA national team has tried to use a quick attack

offense sim ilar to the Japanese. Presently, we cannot execute our

basic techniques well enough to be successful with this style.

The Cuban women are the most physically sound team in the world.

Similar to the Soviets, th eir style is one of overpowering their

opponents. However, unlike the Soviets, the Cubans lack thé know­

ledge of the game and coolness under pressure. Some of the Cuban 95 women have the best vertical jumps of any women players that this w riter has seen.

Brazil and Italy are quite similar. Both have a low skill level, but like the Roumanians th e ir Latin temperament can spark them to play exceptionally well. All three countries are very competitive. There are many negative interaction among the teammates during competition.

As mentioned e a rlie r in the chapter, this is not agreeable to the inherent nature of volleyball.

The trend in women's volleyball is to copy the Asian style of quick combinations. This trend w ill continue i f the Japanese and

South Korean teams compete successfully during the 1976 Olympics. CHAPTER 7 . .

FUTURE OF VOLLEYBALL IN THE UNITED STATES

For the past several years the United States Volleyball Associa­ tion has tried to establish as ongoing women's international program.

An " a ll-s ta r conglomerate" team concept was dismissed, because i t was

judged to be non-successful in the last few years. A centralized con­

cept was the only hope for the USA to qualify for the 1976 or perhaps

even the 1980 Olympics.

A centralized concept has been established in Pasadena, Texas.

Although there has been some success in international competition,

this is far from being a stable ongoing program. To insure success

internationally a program must include several of the following

factors:

1. broad base development at a ll ages; 2. some type of league structure; 3. adequate financial support; and 4. well planned schedule of international competition.

In November, 1975, a letter was sent by this writer to certain

members of the USVBA Board of Directors. The text of the le tte r con­

tained several observations and suggestions regarding the future of

the international program in the United States (see Appendix V III).

Some of the suggestions in the le tte r have become a re a lity , such as,

the hiring of a National Training Director and the financing of a trip

to the 1976 Summer Olympics for several USA national s ta ff coaches.

Several key points must be underlined in this chapter concerning

the future of the USA national program.

96 97

1. Funding - This is the most important factor for the future of the program. Without proper funds one may as well not plan a national program. In the United States amateur sports are not supported by the federal government, neither is the United States Olympic Committee.

Therefore, money must be raised through USVBA membership dues, USVBA volleyball equipment sales, and by private donations. A professional fund raiser would be an important addition to the present USVBA administrative structure. In addition, if this administrator has a good public relations approach he/she would also function as a valuable promoter of the sport. Money is needed for additional ad­ ministrator had a good public relations approach he/she would also function as a valuable promoter of the sport. Money is needed for additional administrative personnel; for equipment and training; for international travel; for the training of coaches, and most importantly to launch an advertising and media campaign aimed at the youth of

American to get them interested in volleyball.

The main financial backing for volleyball should come from p r i­ vate industry or from the chambers of commerce of several American c itie s . I f the federal government gets involved in amateur a th le tic s, its main financial burden should be the maintenance of the administra­ tive structure of the USVBA.

2. Development of a Broad Base of Competition - As stated above, we must promote volleyball in the elementary and secondary school levels. With hundreds of thousands of young people participating in volleyb all, choosing future international stars would not be a problem. 98

The best example is basketball. Because of its broad base development and its popularity, the USA has always enjoyed success at the in ter­ national level. The USA will continue to be successful in basketball, because its future Olympians are playing in elementary and high school gyms a ll over the country.

In introducing volleyball in the elementary and secondary schools, the USVBA must make an e ffo rt to help organize and sponsor clinics together with professional physical educators and organiza­ tions such as the American Alliance of Health, Physical Education and

Recreation (AAHPER). The USVBA must take the initiative to organize

such clinics in a unified national effort.

The development of a broad base w ill not only develop future in ­

ternational stars. Volleyball is a game which is suitable for young

children. It is a non-contact sport which is easy to understand.

Volleyball can be learned quite easily and can be practiced as a life

long recreational skill.

One point needs to be stressed. One cannot go into the ele­

mentary or secondary school with just the intention of finding future

international stars. If this approach is followed, it will create a

situation which is sim ilar to the much maligned l i t t l e league base­

ball or football leagues.

A m illion l i t t l e leaguers stand for hours while a crim inally obese "coach" drills the joy of sport out of their souls, makes them self conscious and fe a rfu l, teaches them technique over movement, emphasizes dedication, s acrifice, and obedience in­ stead of accomplishment and fun. (Lipsyte, 1975, p. 281) 99

One should just expose the young child to volleyball. Then in the future there will be a larger pool of international caliber players to choose from.

Another influence on the broad base w ill be the success of the professional volleyball league. Started in 1975, the International

Volleyball Association (IVA) has produced the firs t co-educational professional sport. Four men and two women play volleyball with some different rule innovations such as no rotation and unlimited sub­ stitutions. I f the league (which is centered in Southern California and the Southwest areas) should become popular and i f promoted through the press and media, i t may provide additional exposure to the broad base.

3. League Structure - Leagues should be established at the top levels and proceed downward to the high school level. This w riter be­ lieves that leagues established prior to high school w ill begin to take the fun out of the a c tiv ity (as already mentioned with the

l i t t l e leagues). In the long run an excellent league structure w ill produce enough well-trained international players to afford an "all-

star conglomerate" team concept.

The only league structure exists at the college level. Both the

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Association

of the Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) hold national cham­

pionships which include representative teams of several regional

college leagues throughout the country. I t is this author's conten­

tion that the most organized volleyball is played in the NCAA. The 100

USVBA should continue to support this organization, but should also make an effort to work closely with the AIAW.

After organizing volleyball clinics and after helping to train qualified coaches, the USVBA should appoint its own members who are administrators and teachers in high school programs to help organize high school leagues. These leagues should f ir s t be established at city and state levels.

Leagues must also be established at the regional centers. The regional centers w ill be discussed la te r in the chapter. Only a fter a few years of success at this regional level should a national lea­ gue be attempted. This may never be feasible because of the vast geographic area of the United States. An international league of

Cuba, Mexico, Canada and the United States has been proposed, but again distance would be the main obstacle.

4. International Competition - I t is safe to assume that the

USA national team needs more exposure internationally. Again with the regional concept more international competition may be provided for a greater number of players. All the countries interviewed by the author expressed a desire to v is it and tour the United States.

These tours must be organized and funds must be appropriated.

5. Training of Coaches - This is a priority item. As soon as funds are available, a nucleus of 20 to 30 coaches should be chosen.

They must undergo a ll c ertific atio n procedures which should be estab­

lished by the USVBA. This group of coaches would make up the national

coaching s ta ff. From th eir ranks w ill come the national coaching

staffs for men and women; the regional coaches; coaches who w ill be 101

working to promote volleyball at the elementary and secondary levels;

and coaches who w ill train other coaches. After two or three years,

the c e rtific a tio n process should allow four d ifferent coaching levels.

For example, Level I - elementary or secondary school; Level I I -

college or club team; Level I I I - regional coach; and Level IV -

national coaching s ta ff. C ertification procedures should involve

three aspects:

1. written and oral examinations of techniques and tactics;

2. observation by a panel of experts (coaches at highest levels)

of the coach in training and competitive situations; and

3. coaching experience and accomplishments.

Coaches should have an organized association. This association

should deal with a ll the technical matters involved in teaching and

coaching volleyball. Player selection for teams at all levels should

be the sole responsibility of the coaches.

6. Scientific Research - Without question, the USA needs more

•scientific research in their amateur sports. Not just research that

is aimed at producing a gold medal, but projects designed to in vesti­

gate factors such as fa c ilitie s , equipment, training procedures and

injuries. A thorough analysis of a ll sport s k ills should be under­

taken, so that coaches could be well prepared in teaching s k ills more

effectively and efficiently. At least twenty-five percent of the

coaches should be involved in some research phase. Projects can be

proposed to appropriate departments at different universities.

7. Regional Concept - Only funding and broad base development

are as important as the regional concept. There should be five to 102 to six regional centers established throughout the United States.

These centers should be headquartered in a c ity in one of the following regions: West (Los Angeles); Northwest (S eattle); Southwest (Houston);

Midwest (Chicago); Mideast (Columbus); and east (New York C ity). The promotion of the centralized site such as in Pasadena, Texas or in

Orange County, California w ill not solve the future needs of our national program. Although one national training center may be needed fo r the summer months, i t is false to assume that only a 12-month centralized location will produce success internationally.

I f the goal of the USA is to win an Olympic medal by 1980 or even 1984, the centralized concept would guarantee more likelihood of success. But should winning a medal be the only goal of the USA volleyball program? Certainly not. A group of twelve to twenty-four individuals may work hard for four to eight years. However, what benefit will our future national program receive if the development of our broad base is once again neglected?

To be successful internationally by 1980, our players do not need to practice for six to eight hours per day during the next four years at a centralized location. The only teams that are successful in u tiliz in g this type of approach are the Asian teams. Rigid discipline and extreme sacrifice that is needed for this approach is part of the

Oriental culture. But this approach is not part of the American cul­ ture. Americans are a freedom loving people. At times this may thwart our quest of a gold medal, but i t is a much more sane approach to sport. A vivid example of an attempt at a centralized concept in the USA i f found in this excerpt from Sports Illu s tra te d . 103

In 1970 Ewing Kauffman the imaginative owner of the Kansas City Royals, founded a baseball "academy" for talented young athletes who were not primarily baseball players (SI, Jan. 4, 1971), the idea being that with expert tutelage, constant attention and a great deal of effort, some of these gifted youngsters could be developed into major-leaguers. All told, the Royals staged nearly 500 tryouts at different sites around the country, looked at more than 30,000 kids and sent about 130 of them to the academy in Sarasota, Florida. There the players were clothed, housed and fed, lived a monastic existence (lights out at 10:30) did some classroom work and underwent intensive daily coaching in baseball. After four years, Kauffman decided to end the experiment, and in 1974 the academy as such was closed. In one sense, Kauffman's theory was proved to be correct. Second Baseman Frank White was developed into a major-leaguer, and is now in his fourth season with Kansas City. But the academy cost the Royals more than $2 m illio n , and White is the only one of its graduates to make i t to the big leagues. For a ll his s k ills , he is hardly a Two Million Dollar Man. Nine other players are s t ill in the Royals' farm system; a ll the others are gone. (Sports Illu s tra te d , 1976, p. 16)

Sports should be a diversion maximizing the pleasure of the moment. Unfortunately, this definition is tainted by the lucrative business of collegiage and professional sports in this country.. It is also tainted by the "win at a ll costs" attitude.

In working with the national women's team in the last two years, this writer found that international volleyball becomes a twelve hour per day, full-time job. Yet, there are few financial and social rewards. As a reinforcement, the concept of a future gold medal is often dangled in front of a naive teenager. There is much more to life than the incessant pounding of a volleyball twelve hours per day.

The regional concept draws upon some of the elements of the cen­ tralized concept, yet it affords the players more freedom. It is a concept that is more adapted to our culture. The main elements of the regional concept are as follows: 104

1. Each regional center would have its own training director and two head coaches, one for the men and one for the women.

2. With 3-4 regional centers there would be a large Increase in the number of trained players. Therefore, this adds to the develop­ ment and increase of the broad base.

3. There is the po ssib ility of league play. Organizing a 6-7 club team league in each region is much more feasible than organizing a league nationwide. Each regional league would run from January through A pril. Following this season inter-regional championships and a nationwide club championship should be held in early May.

4. The club teams are necessary ingredients of the regional concept. There would be anywhere from 4 to 8 club teams. For a club team to be sanctioned as part of the regional league i t must meet the standards set by the national regional training directors. As part of the criteria, the club team must have:

a. a sponsor;

b. an approved coach;

c. a playing site for matches (existing elementary, high school,

college, YMCA or city recreational facilities must be

utilized for matches and for practices);

d. organized practice sessions (minimum 2-3 per week); and

e. a junior development team.

A solution for sponsorship may be industry. Large corporations or small businesses could contribute to a general fund pool.or each team could have one sponsor. 105

Assuming that the United States can promote volleyball in the elementary and secondary schools and in the universities, the club teams will provide a needed outlet for players who have finished school or for players who do not attend college. In the United States, amateur sports have suffered immeasurably because there are few organized sport a c tiv itie s for those not attending school.

Each club team would have nine to twelve players on their senior team. The top two or three players from each club team would be chosen to al all-regional team. This team would train under the re­ gional coach (who would be part of the USA coaching s ta ff) two to three times per month. These sessions would be two to three day ses­ sions and would fam ilia rize these top regional players with the na­ tional system. However, the club team and league play aspects cannot be compromised for the top players. The regional a ll-s ta r team would be a natural step to provide a further challenge for the talented player.

5. Chances for international competition are increased. After regional centers are well established international teams touring the

USA can play several teams (regional a ll-s ta r teams or top club teams) as opposed to one national team.

6. A very important element is that there is less uprooting of players and s ta ff. National caliber personnel can stay near their geographic area. They would not have to worry about relocating to some centralized site for the entire 12 months.

The two most important factors in getting the regional concept started are: T. available funds (for regional training director. 106 coach and club sponsorship) and 2. qualified coaches for the club teams.

All the regional programs must be coordinated by the national training director. During the regional club season the national coach would travel to different regions helping regional coaches, giving coaching clin ics, and scouting for personnel. A fter the USVBA season the international phase of the calendar (May to October) year begins - May to October. The national coach w ill assemble the best players from the 3 to 4 regional centers and integrate them into a national team. For a schematic outline of the regional concept see page 135 of Appendix V III.

The f ir s t step that the newly appointed national training direc­

tor must do is to prepare a detailed plan for the next 4 to 8 years.

The USVBA must set up some short-term and some long-term objectives.

These objectives should be set up on phases and levels. I f one phase

of level is not accomplished then one cannot ju st simply move ahead.

The plan must be reevaluated at specific time intervals by a special

committee of administrators, coaches and players.

The main feature of the United States program should be the

emphasis on a normal development of the broad base - not an acceler­

ated program for young children as found in Eastern Europe and the

Asian countries. Although the experts in these countries claim that

the key to a successful international program is a sound program of

children's volleyball, the author feels that because of our cultural

differences this cannot be applied to the United States. The USA 107 program must u tiliz e the existing normal school systems at a ll levels to develop its broad base.

I t is taken for granted that the goal of the USVBA is to promote volleyball as well as to win internationally. If this is the case, some of the above suggestions should be discussed, improved upon and implemented as soon as possible. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In little over eighty years' of existence, volleyball has become one of the most popular sports in the world. I t is a sport which is easily adaptable to all levels of competition and to all age groups.

Women's volleyball is the best known team sport for women

internationally. In some countries, as compared to the men's program, women's volleyball is much more successful internationally and is more widely accepted as a participation and recreation a c tiv ity .

Iro n ic a lly , the United States which invented the game has not had much success internationally. Women's volleyball has been dominated

by the Eastern Europeans for nearly three decades. Japan, South

Korea, Cuba and Peru have made great strides since the early I9 6 0 's.

The main administrative and organizational body of international

volleyball is the International Volleyball Federation (FIVB). It was

organized in 1947 and since then close to 120 countries have become members. A national volleyball federation administers each respective

country in a similar manner by which the FIVB administers these

federations themselves. The Soviet Union and other Eastern European

countries have well organized federations which are part of the

government supported sport structure. This results in the excellent

quality of their programs at all levels. The United States Volleyball

Association has many administrative problems and this has been re­

flected in the poor quality of programs at all levels.

There were three distinct patterns of youth participation found

among the countries: normal school system*, sport clubs, and some type

of specialized sport school. Countries which are successful

108 109 internationally work hard to develop a broad base of participation.

The more elaborate the organization of volleyball for children, the more chance there is of international success. Japan and' the Soviet

Union are prime examples. The only two countries in the study where youth volleyball has not been developed are the United States and

Canada.

Every country in the study has some type of senior national volleyball league with the exception of the USA, Canada and Peru.

League play is an important outlet for a good development system.

Many national players result from this organized system of competition. At the same time leagues are available for a ll levels of competition. The Soviet Union and the other Eastern European countries have the most elaborate league structure. The excellent league com­ petition of the Europeans provides an adequate training ground for international competition. This allows the national players to play on th eir respective club teams during the league season. After the season an all star national team is formed. This is the direct opposite of the centralized teams of Japan, South Korea, Peru, Canada and now the United States. Japan and South Korea have well developed national leagues in which the club teams are sponsored by known com­ mercial companies.

National teams are chosen by some combination of national coach and/or committee of the federation. Each country has different pro­ cedures which are not dependent on whether the team is of the a ll star or centralized concepts. All the countries have or are in the process of developing objective criteria for team selection. The single most n o

important item of player selection is athletic ability and physical stature.

Except for the Soviet Union, the majority of a ll national teams

in this study have a low percentage of-married players. Most

countries allow players to marry, but a relatively small number of

players are not single. Most national players list their occupation

as that of students. South Korea and Japan are notable exceptions in

that the players are workers for their respective company sponsors.

Most national players are between the ages of 20 to 23. The Soviet

Union was the oldest national team with an average age of 26.

Yugoslavia was the youngest averaging ju s t under 20 years.

In the last two years, the United States has attempted a cen­

tralized concept. Players live and train at one location throughout

the year. Two distinct concepts exist in all of the national

programs. One is like the USA program which is the "centralized one

team" concept and the other is the "a ll star conglomerate team"

concept. Success is attained by both as is evidenced by the programs

of the Asian and the Eastern European teams.

All of the national programs, except for the United States and

Spain, are in some way assisted financially by their respective

governments. The Asian teams have a unique situation where the various

industrial companies are deeply involved in the volleyball club

system. Usually the championship club becomes the national team.

The main figure of any national team is the national coach. Along

with the staff he (she) is the most important part of a well operated ni national program. The USSR has the largest year round s ta ff which also includes scientists, medical doctors and psychologists.

All the countries except for Hungary, had a male head coach.

West Germany and Switzerland have females serving as the assistant national coaches. Few women are head coaches in the top leagues.

A trend of many countries has been to go out and recruit foreign coaches. At the time of the study there were four South Korean coaches (three of whom were former South Korean national coaches) in

Canada, Mexico, Peru and West Germany. In a ll the countries the national coaches are selected by the Training Director and/or by a committee of the federation.

.The outward appearance of the traveling squad is a good indicator of the degree of organization in the national program.

Every good international program must have a large budget.

Government support, legalized betting pools - toto, industry and the federation itself are the main financial sources for the national

programs. Budgets vary from over 1/2 m illion dollars per year in

Japan or South Korea to the ten to f if t y thousand do llar range of the

Western European countries.

Travel is the main budget expenditure with training (facilities,

housing and meals) in second place.

The amount of international competition was one of the deter­

mining factors of success. Championship teams travel extensively and

their players are veterans of at least 100 international matches.

Cuba and Canada have traveled extensively in the quadrennial prior to 112 the 1976 Olympics. The USA had enjoyed its best international season

in 1975, yet they were far from being an international power. The consistent success of the two national teams of the Soviet Union and

Japan is unparalleled.

Each country has its own distinctive volleyball style. Two

styles are most representative. The quick offense attack and constant movement of the Japanese and Koreans and the deliberate movement pat­

terns and the attacking power of the East Europeans. Merely copying

a style w ill not guarantee success, because style is to some extent

affected by culture.

International success is prim arily dependent on two factors - an

adequate budget for volleyball at a ll levels and a well organized

base. League structure and international competition are also directly

correlated with successful programs. The United States must develop

several regional centers which would include the four factors men­

tioned above. In addition the USA must design its future national

programs to be of an a ll star type rather than the year round cen­

tralized program. The latter is culturally unacceptable.

There have been two major limitations to this study. The first is

the poor response to the questionnaires. Of the twenty-eight countries

receiving the questionnaire only seven replied. The major powers such

as Japan, USSR, South Korea and Cuba fa ile d to respond a fter several

reminders were sent to both the federations and to the head of delega­

tion or head coaches. In addition, the FIVB failed to respond to three

inquiries concerning materials for the study. 113

The second lim itation has been the low amount and poor quality of information on women's international volleyball programs available in sources outside of the interviews and questionnaires. Information that was available was very often not documented. There were many data conflicts found in these sources.

A minor lim itation was the interviewing process. Some of the coaches, training directors and heads of delegation were hesitant to speak with a member of the USA coaching s ta ff. Although this w riter stressed the scholarly intent of the interviews, many people answered in a way they thought would be most receptive to the position on the

USA coaching staff that this interviewer represented. The most reluc­ tant answers were encountered in the area of budgeting and finances.

Obviously the ideal situation of interviewing a ll twenty-eight countries and receiving all twenty-eight questionnaires from the same countries would have been quite appropriate for this study.

Further studies of this nature should attempt to use one form of data collection (interview or questionnaires), but should strive to in­ clude more countries. An evaluative study on the present USA national program would be very beneficial. A detailed analysis of social and cultural differences and their effects among the various countries would also be beneficial.

F inally, other than Chapter 7, no attempt has been made to solve problems encountered in the various programs. In order to develop the

international game on the soundest foundations, a ll the programs and

problems described in this study should be carefully investigated and

scientifically tested by future researches. 114

Appendix I

SPORT PARTICIPATION

Study Conducted on Behalf of International Olympic Committee - 1970 (CVA, 1975, p. 1.3)

Sport Millions of Players Number of Federations

Basketball 65 127

Volleyball 65 110

Football 25.8 135

Shooting 25.5 94

Athletics 19.5 143

Swimming 10.5 98 115

Appendix II

RESULTS OF THE WOMEN'S WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS, OLYMPICS AND PAN AMERICAN GAMES

Olympics

Tokyo - 1954 Mexico - 1968 Munich - 1972

1. Japan 1. USSR 1. USSR 2. USSR 2. Japan 2. Japan 3. Poland 3. Poland 3. D.P.R. of Korea 4. Romania 4. Peru 4. South Korea 5. USA 5. South Korea 5. Hungary 6. Korea 6. Czechslovakia 6. Cuba 7. Mexico 7. Czechoslovakia 8. USA 8. Fed. Republic of Germany

Pan American Games

Mexico City - 1955 Chicago - 1959 Sao Paulo - 1963

1. Mexico 1. Brazil 1. Brazil 2. USA 2. USA 2. USA 3. Brazil 3. Peru 3. Mexico

Winnipeg - 1967 Cali - 1971 Mexico City - 1975

1. USA 1. Cuba 1. Cuba 2. Peru 2. Peru 2. Peru 3. Cuba 3. Mexico 3. Mexico

World Championships

Moscow - 1952 Paris - 1956 Rio De Janeiro - 1960

1. USSR 1. USSR 1. USSR 2. Czechoslovakia 2. Rumania 2. Japan 3. Poland 3. Czechoslovakia 3. Czechslovakia 4. Rumania 4. Bulgaria 4. Brazil 5. France 5. GDR 5. Poland 6. Hungary 6. Republic of China 6. USA 7. Netherlands 7. D.P.R. of Korea 7. Peru a. USA 8. Argentina 9. Netherlands 9. Uruguay 10. Brazi 1 10. GFR 11. France 12. Belgium 13. Israel 14. Austria ■ 15. GFR 16. Luxembourg 116

Appendix I I (continued)

Moscow - 1962 Tokyo - 1967

1. Japan 1. Japan 2. USSR 2. USA 3. Poland 3. South Korea 4. Rumania 4. Peru 5. Czechoslovakia 6. Bulgaria 7. GDR 8. Brazil 9. Republic of China 10. D.P.R. of Korea 11. Hungary 12. Netherlands

Sophia - 1970 Mexico - 1974

1. USSR 1. Japan 2. Japan 2. USSR 3. D.P.R. of Korea 3. South Korea 4. Hungary 4. GDR 5. Czechoslovakia 5. Rumania 6. Bulgaria 6. Hungary 7. Rumania 7. Cuba 8. Cuba 8. Peru 9. Poland 10. Mexico 11. Canada 12. USA 13. Bulgaria 14. Republic of China 117

Appendix III

COUNTRIES SELECTED FOR STUDY

RESULTS OF DATA INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION

QUESTION­ WORLD NAIRES PERSONAL ADDITIONAL OLYMPICS CHAMPIONSHIPS QUESTIONNAIRES SENT OUT RETURNED INTERVIEW DATA 64 60 72 76 70 74

Western Europe Belgium England Federal Rep. o f Germany X X 8 19 I t a ly XX Spain Switzerland X X Eastern Europe B ulgaria X (b rie f) X 6 13 Czechoslovakia 6 7 5 17 G *D «R. X 4 Hungary 5 X 4 6 Poland 3 3 9 Rumania 4 7 5 U.S.S.R. X X 2 1 . 1 X 1 2 Yugoslavia X Near East Is ra e l T u n isia Asia Dem. Peo. Rep. Korea 3 3 suspend Dapan X X 1 2 2 X 2 1 People's Republic of China 14 Republic of China X Republic of Korea X X 6 5 4 X 3 A u s tra lia A u s tra lia North America Canada XX X X 11 USA XX X 5 8 12 Central America Cuba X 6 X 8 7 Mexico X X 7 10 South America B ra z il X X 15 Peru X 4 X 8 118

Appendix IV

QUESTIONNAIRE

Country: ______;______Date:

Name: ______Address;

Title or Position

ALL OF THE QUESTIONS REFER TO YOUR WOMEN'S PROGRAM UNLESS SPECIFICALLY STATED OTHERWISE.

I. LEVELS OF VOLLEYBALL

1. What is the youngest age at which organized playing begins?

2. Is there a secondary school league (age 12-17)? YES NO

I f yes, how many leagues ____; teams ____; total participants

3. Is there a university league (ages 17-21)? YES NO

I f yes, how many leagues ____; teams ____; total participants

4. Is there a sport club league for youth? YES NO

I f yes, how many leagues ____; teams ____; total participants

5. Are there any other organized leagues for youth?

6. Senior (adult) league competition (women).

A. How many leagues are there? Describe them b rie fly (what is the nature of leagues and teams - are they industrial, sport club, military):

B. League levels (women). 1. how many teams in top (best league? ______2. how many players in top league? 3. what month does this league season begin? ____ end? ____

4. what other league levels are there?

5. do teams move up and down from top league to second best? YES NO how and how many? page 2 119

C. What % of the financial support for the league comes from the following sources:

1. industry sponsored % 2. government ~% 3. sport clubs 4. general sport lo ttery (Toto) 5. gate receipts of league matches other (please specify) 6 . ______7. ______% 8 .

D. How many female head coaches are there in the top league?

female assistant coaches?

I I . NATIONAL TEAM (WOMEN)

1. Do national team members play in the top league? YES NO

I f yes, do they play on the same team in the league? YES NO

2. Does national team live and train together in one location?

A. for one full year B. 8-10 months 6 - 8 months D. 4 - 6 months "E. 2 - 4 months "F. one month or less What alternative other than living and training in one location do you have? Please specify ______

How is the national team selected?

______A. s tric tly by head coach ______B. by head coach and his coaching s ta ff JC. by volleyball committee chosen by your federation J). by head coach and volleyball committee of federation "E. other - please specify ______

4. Please write a very b rief month-by-month description of what your national team did in 1975.

3AN FEB MAR APR MAY • OUN

3U L AUG SEP OCT NOVDEC page 3 . ■ 120

5. How many players are involved In the national program?

A. f ir s t team B. training team C. junior team D. other - please specify

6. Are players allowed to be married? YES NO

I f yes, what % of the national players are married?

7. What does your volleyball federation or your government provide for the national players?

______A. Housing

B. Meals

C. Money per day (salary)

_D. Other things - please specify

8. National Coach

A. Who chooses the national coach?

B. For how long is he chosen?

0. Who in the federation is the coach responsible to?

D. Is this a fu ll time job? YES NO

E. I f NO, what else does the coach do besides coach and train the national team?

F. Is the national coaching job a salaried (paid) position? YES NO

G. I f YES, who pays the coach's salary? ______

H. How many other coaches are there on the national •coaching staff? ______

I . What other year round s ta ff members are there working with the national team? (Please X your answer/answers) page 4 121

1. manager 2. physical trainer

_3. medical doctor ______4. psychologist

5. scientist - please specify ______

_6. specialist - please specify

J. When the national team travels, what is the traveling number of the entire delegation? (please lis t numbers - how many?)

___1. players ___2. coaches ___3. managers

___4. representatives ___5. medical ___6. physical doctor trainer

___7. referee ___8. interpreter ___9. other (arb itre) please specify

K. For how long has your present national coach had the position? (years - months) ______

L. How many female coaches work with the national team? ___

9. Budget

A. What is the annual budget (money per year) of your women's program? (please X the choice closest to your budget, amount is listed in US Dollars)

1. less than $10,000 2. $10,000 - $50,000 "3. $50,000 - $100,000 “4. $100,000 - $200,000 "5. $200,000 - $400,000 "6. over $400,000

B. Please li s t the % form where this money comes from.

1. volleyball federation % 2. government % 3. industry % 4. sport lottery (toto) other - please specify % 5. % 6. % 7. % page 5 122

C. What is the money used for? (please l i s t %)

1. travel % 2. training (fa c ilitie s , housing, meals) ______% 3. equipment (uniforms, shoes volleyballs, etc.) % 4. money per day for players (salary) ______% 5. medical costs and supplies ______-______% 6 . %

10. Specific information about national women's team of your country.

A. name of person in your volleyball federation responsible for women's national program: ______

t it l e : ______address:

telephone:*

B. name of head women's coach:

address: ______telephone:

C. name of assistant coach:

address: ______telephone:

D. Information on present players on national team:

WHAT YEAR NUMBER DID PLAYER OF INTER­ AGE BECOME MEMBER NATIONAL NAME (DATE OF BIRTH) OF TEAM MATCHES OCCUPATION

1. 2 . 3. 4. 5. 6 . 7. 8 . 9. 10. page 6 123

WHAT YEAR NUMBER DID PLAYER OF INTER­ AGE BECOME MEMBER NATIONAL NAME (DATE OF BIRTH) OF TEAM MATCHES OCCUPATION

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

I l l INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION

1. In what year did your country first form national teams?

Men ______Women ______

2. In what year did your country s ta rt competing internationally?

Men ______Women______

3. How many days per year did and w ill your team travel internationally?

Men 1975 1976 Women 1975 1976

4. What v/as your highest finish at the World Championships?

Men 1966 ______1970 1974 ______

Women 1966 ______1970 1974 ______

IV. MISCELLANEOUS

1. What year was your country's volleyball federation established? ______

2. When did the federation join the FIVB? ______

3. How many members did you have registered in your federation in 1975? (please lis t the approximate number)

A. players - • B. coaches ______C. referees (arbitres) ______D. administrators E. TOTAL NUMBER page 7 124

4. How many active volleyball players do you have in your country playing organized volleyball? (please list approximate number)

Men Women

5. Are the budgets for both the men and women's teams equal? YES NO (NATIONAL TEAMS) I f NO, who gets more and approximately how much more?

6. What do you feel is most needed to improve the caliber of volleyball at the international level in your country? 125

Appendix V

COVER LETTER

April 2, 1976

Deutscher Sportverband Volleyball Stokowerstrassee 118 1055 Berlin G.D.R. (East Germany)

Dear Sirs:

I am a doctorate student in physical education at The Ohio State University. For my dissertation (doctorate study), I am comparing volleyball programs in different countries. My study deals specifically with the women's volleyball programs.

Enclosed is a questionnaire in English. Would you please be kind enough to f i l l i t out and to send i t back to me in the enclosed envelope.

Also included is a copy of the USA questionnaire. Please use this as a reference as to format when fillin g out your country's question­ naire. The USA questionnaire is yours to keep.

Thank you for your time, I hope that I will have the pleasure of meeting you sometime in the near future.

Most sincerely.

Taras N. Liskevych The Ohio State University

TNL/ml Enclosure 126

Appendix VI

VALUE OF FOREIGN CURRENCY

To Convert the Foreign Currency to USA Dollars, Multiply by the Given Conversion Factor

Currency Conversion Factor

German Mark .382729

Swiss Franc .3827

Italian Lira .00146

Soviet Ruble 1.35

Mexican Peso .0806

Japanese Yen .00328

Yugoslavian Dinar .0005

The above information was obtained from the in­ ternational department of the Huntington National Bank in Columbus, Ohio, and was the value of the currency on December 31, 1975,

Thus one German mark would equal $0.38, ten German marks would equal $3.83. 127

Appendix U II

3 0 METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS

Approximate Conversions to Metric Measures

Symbol When you know Multiply by To f i n d S ym b o l

i n . i n c h e s 2 , 5 centimeters cm. f t . f e e t 30 centimeters cm. y d . y a r d s 0 . 9 m e t e r s m. m i. m i l e s 1 . 6 kilometers km. oz. ounces 28 g ra m s 9 * l b . p o u n d s 0 , 4 5 k il o g r a m s k g . q t . q u a r t s 0 . 9 5 l i t e r s 1 . g a lo g a l l o n s 3 . 8 l i t e r s 1 . a c r e s 0 . 4 hectares ha.

Approximate Conversions from Metric Measures

Symbol When you know Multiply by To f i n d S y m b o l

cm. centimeters 0 . 4 i n c h e s i n . m. m e te r s 3 . 3 f e e t f t . . m. m e t e r s 1 . 1 y a r d s y d . kmo kilometers 0.62 miles m i . g . grams 0,035 ounces oz. kgo kilograms 2.2 pounds l b . 1 . l i t e r s 1 , 0 6 q u a r t s q t . 1 . l i t e r s 0 . 2 6 gallons gal. ha. hectares 2 , 5 a c r e s

3 0 Bennett, Howell and Simpi, 1975, p. 265 128

Appendix V III

LETTER TO USVBA BOARD OF DIRECTORS

TO: B ill Baird - Women's Training Director, Chairman of Regional Commission, and Secretary of USVBA

Doug Beal - USVBA Board Member, Player Men's National Team

Leonard Gibson - Treasurer USVBA and Chairman Committee on International Affairs

Jeep McDonald - Chairman Women's Olympic Committee

A1 Monaco - Executive Director

Wil Peck - President

Don Shondell - Vice President in Charge of International Affairs

CONCERNING: The Future of Our International Programs

Gentlemen:

Preceding the evaluative meeting of the national programs next weekend in Denver, I would lik e to jo t down some constructive ideas concerning our future programs. My reference point is the women's program, with which I have been involved for the last two years.

As was discussed in the USVBA winter meetings of the past two years, the goal of the USVBA is "to win internationally". I know that we all w ill agree on one point— that the only way to be successful in in te r­ national competition is to have a well designed and planned program. Our programs can take one of two directions. The f ir s t is a central­ ized concept, as we presently have in Pasadena. The second alterna­ tive is the regional concept, which would involve 3-5 regional centers, attracting the best players in each region.

A centralized concept involves a training squad in one central locale, which practices together year round. Players would be expected to commit themselves for at least one fu ll year. The squad would include anywhere from 12 to 19 players. This "centralized" concept is one with which countries such as Japan, Cuba, Peru, and some European countries have reaped success. There is no question that this is the ONLY type of "CRASH" program that could qualify us for the 1976 Olympics (and perhaps even 1980). Board of Directors 129 Page Two

Our national programs should only be centralized if the locale (training center) affords very favorable conditions. These conditions should include: for the players--career opportunities (school or jo b), housing, adequate practice fa c ilitie s , per diem, etc. In addition, the site needs fu ll-tim e coach and coaching s ta ff, fu ll-tim e adminis­ trato r (who would serve as a liaison between USVBA and the s ite ), some groundwork for public relations, etc. We cannot afford to radically change the lif e styles of a ll our national team personnel (this in­ cludes players, coaches, managers, and administrators).

The 1975 USA women's team has had the opportunity of a centralized concept for over half a year. Yet again we have failed to produce an international winner. I am not naive to believe that six or seven months is an adequate period for such a task, yet this team has not been more successful than any of our teams in the past few years (especially in the NORCECA tournament or in the PAN AMS).

Two major reasons stand out foremost in my mind. The f ir s t is that our women's national coaches fa ll into a "PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAP". This "trap" involves thinking that because the USA has some of its best female athletes playing volleyball, than our country should automati­ cally be an international volleyball power. This phenomenon becomes foremost in every coach's mind, and as a resu lt, sound organization, good well-rounded training and a rational approach become second on the lis t . Secondly, we have done l i t t l e (except Erbe's program) to develop our talent at an early age or to develop an ongoing feeder system for the national team.

So the easiest result is to " file away" a program and s ta rt anew, and thus we never take a step forv/ard without taking one backward.

Although we are at the embryo stage in developing a sound international program, we need to set up enough guidelines and contingencies to insure an ongoing, productive international program. The following are some points that must be considered:

1. Training (Technical) Director

A permanent position (one person for both men and women) preferably full-time or part-time with a good salary should be created. This person would be responsible to the Board of Directors. He or she would oversee both national programs. Both coaches would be directly responsible to this person. The work of planning trip s , competitions, and the majority of planning should be taken out of the hands of the coaches and made the responsibility of this "technical director". Let our coaches ju st coach. I t would also be expedient for this person to serve as the chairman or member of our International Selections and the Olympic Committee. Board of Directors 130 Page Three

2. Detailed Program

We must now develop a detailed program for the next quadrennial which would include the 1980 Olympics, 1978 World Games, World Cup, World University Games, Junior Championships, international tournaments, etc. Again, we must approach our programs as an on­ going 4-5 year venture, and not a one-shot "fly-by-night" operation.

3. Coaches

A. National coaches for both men and women and a supporting coaching s ta ff of an additional 2-3 per program should be named 1976-1980. We must have continuity for the programs to survive.

B. We must send these national coaches to observe world class tournaments, even when our teams are not in attendance. Tournaments such as the Olympics in Montreal, perhaps even the qualifying tournaments in Munich and Rome would be key tournaments in the next year.

C. We need Coaches Organization. We need a general coaches organization for a ll coaches in the USVBA. Secondly, we need a high level braintrust of 15-30 coaches (such as was attempted in the Kansas City Symposium two years ago). This latter type of organization needs to get together to exchange ideas, innovations, training procedures, etc. Such things as coaching c e rtific a tio n and.coaching levels should be set up.

D. Provisions should be made to send USA coaches to attend International C lin ics. Let us develop our own American coaches, and not be constantly preoccupied with finding foreign personnel.

E. As we had for the first time last year in Kansas City, a blue-ribbon committee should be established for the task of choosing national coaches and coaching staffs. Guidelines, job descriptions, and screening procedures should be established.

4. Fund Raising

As we a ll re a lize , a ll that is being discussed here is for naught, if proper funds are not available. We need a professional fund raiser, who could perhaps also serve as a public relations man. A major key to the success of the USVBA is to get more and more paid administrators, to supplement our only paid position—that of the Executive Director. It is an obvious weakness in our organiza­ tion, yet we need to get funds to pay such professionals. Board of Directors 131 Page Four

5. S cientific Research

Studies of other countries should be undertaken. These studies must be of a twofold nature: 1) studies of techniques, training procedures, s k ill development, practices and game situations, etc. utilizing sound biomechanical, physiological, and other pure science procedures, and 2) studies of national programs, adminis­ tration and organization, methods of competition, player and coach selections, etc. utilizing socilogical, psychological, and administrative procedures. These should be undertaken to set up our standards for the future.

This last year, I have begun a detailed study of the development and organization of international women's volleyball programs. To date, I have had the opportunity to interview in detail members of thirteen countries including the USSR, Japan, South Korea, Cuba, etc. This has been an enormously beneficial learning experience for me, and I hope to publish the study as a part of the PhD requirements.

Yet, such a study could only be valuable i f i t would be analyzed in lig h t of certain conditions and values in our own country, specifically things such as:

• available funds • public relations and promotion • administrative direction and channels • the outlook on amateur and Olympic sports in the USA • professional sports (volleyball and others) and their influence on amateur athletics • values and leisure activities of Americans • athletic potential • facilities • training of qualified coaches

The following is a sampling of some of the questions that we need to try to answer:

• Is a centralized concept the only road for us to choose to be successful internationally?

• Do we need to practice 6 hours per day 7 days per week, or can we practice 2 hours per day 3 days per week?

• What type of supporting staff does a national program need-- coaches, managers, administrators, PR men, trainers, MD's, PhD's, phychologists, etc.? Board of Directors 132 Page Five

• Can we integrate career opportunities with playing inter­ national volleyball? Is it feasible for American players and coaches to do both and win internationally?

• Should we employ a fu ll-tim e coach?

• How much say should the players have in any of the above points?

Gentlemen, as you can see the questions are endless. We must never­ theless begin to answer some of them. Although this is an enormous task, we must s tart looking at our programs through research and expertise. We must look at the past accomplishments and failures of the men's and women's programs in a constructive fashion. Let us use these to begin to set our guidelines.

6. Leagues

With the exception of Canada, all the countries that I have inter­ viewed this summer have some type of league set-up. The league season lasts anywhere from 4 to 6 months. Teams are in constant flux of moving up and down between A and B leagues. We can clearly see the benefit of a well-organized league where teams could com­ pete in some type of match play.

We must begin to broaden our base of talent by trying to establish regional or zonal leagues. League play is a must.

7. International Competition

Regardless of how well our teams can be trained or organized, we need the rigors of international competition to become successful at that level. There is no substitute for playing experience at this level.

A. We must continue to travel internationally.

B. Top international teams must be invited to visit our country. Nationwide or regional tours--such as with the Soviet and Polish men's teams--must be continued. Foreign women's teams such as the USSR, Japan, and Eastern European teams have should much interest in touring the States. We can capitalize on the proximity of the 1976 Olympics to attract some of the top quality teams to tour prior or a fte r the Olympics.

C. We must begin to host international tournaments. The NORCECA games were a beginning. This can be done in conjunction with touring teams.

D. A much broader scope of our players should get international experience, especially in the period of 1976-78. This w ill continue in my discussion of the "Regional Concept". Board of Directors 133 Page Six .

8. Regional Concept

I feel that the key for a successful international program lies in a sound organization of regional centers, because:

• with 3-4 regions, we are increasing the number of trained players (developing our base)

• league play becomes more feasible

• less uprooting of staff and players

• if centers become strong, international teams can play 3-4 teams instead of only one national team

Therefore, it is my belief that our primary goal should be to establish 3-4 regional (zonal) centers in the next two years. Hopefully, each center would have a training director and two head coaches for the men and women. Furthermore, each region would try to establish 3-5 club teams with th e ir individual coaches. A league can then be established. Each league season would run January through A p ril, followed by a USVBA club championship tournament in early May.

Meanwhile a regional team would be chosen with,the idea of practicing as a unit as many times as possible (at least one fu ll weekend per month) during the league season. The regional coach would head such a program. This regional team would, stay intact through May and would have a USVBA regional championship in early June or late May— from where national selections could be made. The regional program would continue through the summer (perhaps minus the national players, who would also train) and compete inter-regionally and internationally. So the international program would be June-October. November and December would be o ff months.

For a team to be included in the regional league,it must meet standards set by the national training director and the regional training director. Some of which would include:

• sponsor •qualified coach •playing site for matches •most important - a junior development team

Thus a junior program can be built in conjunction with the senior program—each club team would have to develop a club junior team.

Junior teams can also follow a sim ilar format for USVBA championships and for national junior team selections. Board of Directors 134 Page Seven

Inter-regional (sentor and junior) club or "regional" team tournaments could also be an added addition during one or two weekends in the future when the concept gets o ff the ground.

Obviously, the most important factors are:

• available funds (for regional coach, training director, club sponsorship, etc.)

• qualified coaches

Next, the programs must be tied together by the national training director. The national coach's job would be two-fold: 1) during club and regional season traveling to different regions, helping coaches, developing younger players, scounting personnel, and 2) to coach the national team during the international competition season. Obviously the closer one gets to the World Games in 1978 and to the Olympics in 1980, the more time would be spent with the national team, the more centralized the concept (refer to the Schmetic Outline of Regional Concept on the following page).

I am not so bold as to suggest that here is the in fa llib le , ready-made scheme for success; i t is nevertheless some "concrete" food for thought.

Good luck in your meetings.

Sincerely,

Taras Liskevych Former Assistant Coach USA Women's Team Head Coach Ohio State University

Enclosure TNL/clg

November, 1975 Columbus, Ohio 135

SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF REGIONAL CONCEPT

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR USVBA ------BOARD OF DIRECTORS _v_ NAT. TRAINING (TECHNICAL) DIRECTOR /\ /\

(includes National MEN'S NATIONAL WOMEN'S NATIONAL Ounior Team and S t a f f ) COACH and STAFF COACH and STAFF

REGIONAL TRAINING DIRECTORS

(includes Dunior MEN'S REGIONAL WOMEN'S REGIONAL Regional Team COACH an d STAFF COACH and STAFF and S t a f f )

\/ REGIONAL LEAGUE CLUB TEAMS AND COACHES (includes Senior and Junior Teams) 136

APPENDIX IX

3 1 GLOSSARY OF VOLLEYBALL TERMS

ATTACK n. the offense. V. l) any method used to return the ball across the net in an attempt to score. 2) the act of jumping into the air to hit the ball from above the level of the net into the opponent's court.

BACKCOURT The area between the line 3 meters from the net back to the end line.

BLOCK A play by one or more front line players who attempt to intercept the ball just before or as it crosses the net. It can stop, obstruct, or decrease the intensity of the opponent's attack.

DEFENSE The action by a team when the ball is controlled by its opponents. Defense is prim arily a matter of team tactics. However, there are certain individual techniques which attempt to convert the defense to the offense. These include the block, the dig, the dive, and the ro ll.

FOREARM PASS A ball played off the forearms in an underhand manner. (UNDERHAND The forearms, held away from the body, w ill act as a PASS, BUMP) surface from which the pass can be made. It is used to play served balls, hard-driven spikes, and any loose balls dropping near the floor. Usually this pass is the first contact by a team within its own court.

FOUR-TWO (4-2) The most common offense in the United States. It consists OFFENSE of a line-up of four spikers and two setters. The setter is one of the front-line players who normally rotates into the middle front position after the serve.

FRONT COURT The area from the net back to the line 3 meters from the n e t .

^^All definitions are from A Pictorial Analysis of Power Volleyball by Dames Coleman and Taras N. Liskevych. 137

MULTIPLE An offensive system in which all three front court OFFENSE (6-0 players are expected to attack and a back row player is OFFENSE or three used as the setter. A three spiker offense in which hitter attack) the ball is set by a back-row player.

OFFENSE The techniques and tactics by the team controlling the ball. It includes reception of the serve (bump or forearm pass), setting and attacking (spiking) the ball, The serve is also an offense action.

OFFENSIVE Many times this term is defined in terms of the number SYSTEM of spikers and setters used. In common definition, the firs t number refers to the number of spikers and the second refers to the number of setters. For example; 1) 4-2 - A system using 4 spikers and 2 setters (see TWO HITTER ATTACK) 2) 3-3 - Three spikers and three setters (the common system of the 1930's, 40's, and early 50's. 3) 6-6 - a) two-hitter attack— MF front is always the setter— standard physical education (gym) class procedure. An offense system of the simplest nature; b) three-hitter attack (multiple offense)— 6 spikers, 5 setters (back-row), 4) 5-1 - Five spikers and one setter (sometimes called the International 4-2— where the setter is in the RF position). 5) 6-0 - This term has commonly been used to indicate a m ultiple offense (see MULTIPLE OFFENSE), in reality according to the above definition, it should be called a 6-2; six spikers and two setters. 6) 6-3 - Multiple offense— six spikers and three setters. This system avoids the complications found in bringing the setter in from the le ft back p o s i t i o n .

OVERHAND PASS A ball played from in front of the face usually with the fingertips of both hands. The hands must be in such a position that the passer is able to see the back of his hands (sometimes it is called the FACE-PASS).

POINT A point is awarded to the serving team only when the receiving team commits a foul. The receiving team cannot earn a point.

RALLY (VOLLEY) The chain of events while the ball is in play. The rally begins with the service and ends when the ball is dead (unless there is a question of equilibrium following the dead ball). 138

RANGE OF MOTION That par.t of the playing area in which the player has (ZONE OF high probability of making a successful play. EFFECTIVENESS)

ROTATION The clockwise movement of players on the court after a side-out has occurred and the opponents have lost the s e r v e .

SERVE The technique of putting the ball in play by striking it with any part of the hand or arm over the net and into the opponent's court, Often a team's most effective offense weapon.

SERVING ORDER Starting from the first server, they are: Right Back (RB), POSITIONS (FLOOR Right Front (RF), Middle Front (MF), Left Front (LF), POSITIONS) Left Back (LB), Middle Back (MB).

NET LINE LF MF RF 4 3 2

10 FT. LINE

5 6 1 LB MB RB BACKLINE

The numbers are the International Numbering System.

SET.VARIATIONS 1 SET ( q u i c k s e t ) - A low set, usually in the center of the net that travels nearly straight up and is quickly hit by the spiker who is already in the air. It is hit just above the net as it leaves the setter's hands. Ideally, it is set in such a manner that a spiker attacks the ball while it is ascending.

SIDE-OUT Side-out shall be declared and the ball given to the opponents to serve when the serving team commits a foul. Points are not scored on a side-out.

SPIKE 1) A forceful method of returning the ball across the net. Usually the third contact by a team within its own court. 2) The act of jumping in the air and hitting a set ball from above the level of the net. 139

SUBSTITUTION The act of one player entering the game to replace another player.

SWITCH An intentional strategic interchange of positions on the court. It can take place only after the ball is contacted by the server.

TEAM A group of six players on one half of the court.

TEAM PATTERN The coordinated pattern of a team either on offense or on defense.

TRANSITION The movement of a team as it changes from one team pattern to another. Normally the term is applied as a team changes from offense to defense or from defense to o f f e n s e . 140

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS

Bennett, Bruce L ., Howell, Maxwell L ., & Simri, U rie l. Comparative Physical Education and Sport. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1975.

Coleman, James E ., & Liskevych, Taras N. A P ictorial Analysis of Power V olleyball. Hollywood: Creative Sports Books, 1974. .

Hart, M. Maria. Sport in the Socio-Cultural Process. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown, 1972.

Flath, Arnold, (Ed.). Athletics in America. Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University Press, 1972.

Lipsyte, Robert. SportsWorld An American Dreamland. New York: Quadrangle, 1975.

Morton, Henry W. Soviet Sport: Mirror of Soviet Society. New York: C o llie r Books, 1963.

Peck, Wilbur. V olleyball. New York: C o llier, 1970.

Sage, George H. (Ed.). Sport and American Society. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1974.

Siedentop, Daryl. Physical Education - Introductory Analysis. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown,'1976.

S tru tt, Joseph. The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, published 1801 (2nd. ed. revised by J. Charles Cox) London: Methuen, 1903.

Thigpen, Janet. Power V olleyball. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown, 1967.

Van Dalen, Deobold B ., & Bennett, Bruce L. A World History of Physical Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1971.

Vendien, C. Lynn, & Nixon, John E. The World Today in Health Physical Education and Recreation. Englewood C liffs , New Jersey: Prentice- H all, 1968.

Welch, J. Edmund. (Ed.). How To Play and Teach V o lle yb a ll. New York: Association Press, 1969.

Yiannakis, Andrew, McIntyre, Thomas D., Melnick, Merrill J., & Hart, Dale P. Sport Sociology. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall-Hunt, 1976. 141

B. ARTICLES

Anthony, Don. Volleyball. In Lord Killariin and John Radda (Eds.), The Olympic Games. New York: C ollier Books, 1976, 128-130.

Canadian Volleyball Association. Bulgarian Volleyball. CVA-Technical Journal Vol. 1 No. 2, A pril, 1974, 24-25.

Coleman, Jim. The Price of Excellence. In Wilbur Peck, Volleyball, New York: Macmillan, 1970, 112-114.

Daimatsu, Hirobumi. Make Possible What Seems Impossible. Follow Me, CVA Technical Journal Vol. 1 No. 2, A p ril, 1974, 3-4.

Englert, Alice. Pictorial Review. International Volleyball Review, 1972, Vol. XXIX No. 115, 9-12.

. P ictorial Review. International Volleyball Review, 1971, Vol. XXVIII No. 113, 51.

FIVB Bulletin O ffic ie l, 1975, 67, 28-32.

Friermood, Harold T. Olympic Volleyball. USVBA Volleyball Guide - 1971 Don Shondell, ed. Berne, Indiana: USVBA Printer, 133-137.

Goncharov, B. Health-and Records Too. Sport in the USSR, No. 7 (1971), 14-15.

Greenberg, Peter. Volleyball with Spike and Malice. In Min S. Yee and Donald K. Wright (Eds.), The Sports Book. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975, 130-131.

Kolev, K ir il. Volleyball in Bulgaria. CVA-Technical Journal Vol. 2 No. 1, A p ril, 1975, 4-5.

Maeda, Yutaka. This is how Japan's Volleyball was Brought Up. Textbook for Volleyball Coaches Vol. 2: Training Theory for Volley­ ball in Japan Toyoda, Hiroshi (Ed.). Scarborough, Ontario: C.V.A. Publications, 1971, 66-70.

Melanson, Keith. Volleyball: Soviet Union and Canada. CVA Volleyball Technical Journal Vol. 2, No. 2 , 1975, 9-11.

Matsudaira, Yasutaka. Volleyball in the World. Textbook for Volley­ ball Coaches Vol. 1: Training Theory for Volleyball in Japan. Toyoda, Hiroshi (Ed.). Scarborough, Ontario: CVA Publications, 1971, 1-3. 142

Myers, Leslie. More Filing for Dollars. womenSports Vol. 3, No. 2, Feb., 1976, 62-63.

Rindfleisch, Bev. 1975 Scholarship Guide-Filing for Dollars, women- Sports Vol. 2, No. 10. Oct., 1975, 26-27, 54-57.

Riordan, James. Soviet Sport and Soviet Foreign Policy. Supplementary issue to the 40th Volume. Journal of Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, September, T974, 42-60.

Sports Boarding Schools in the USSR. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, May, 1975, 7-8.

Rushall, Brent S., Psychological Testing for Volleyball Players. CVA Technical Journal No. 2, Vol. 2, November, 1975, 13-17.

Shneidman, N. Soviet Sport Schools: An Organizational Model for Canadian Youth Athletics? Journal of Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXIX, March-April, 1973, 32-35.

Sports Illu s tra te d , Vol. 44, No. 21, Scorecard. May 24, 1976, 16.

Toyoda, Hiroshi. Application of Scientific Principles to Training. Textbook for Volleyball Coaches, Vol. 2: Training Theory for Vollsy- ïïâll in Japan. Toyoda, Hiroshi (Ed.). Scarborough, Ontario: CVA Publications, 1971, 1-23.

Wirszyllo, Romuald. Volley Ball in Soviet Russia. International Volleyball Review, 1948, January, 19.

Zheleznyak, Y.D. Organization and Methods of Selection of Children for Occupation with Volleyball in the States Schools of Sport for Young People. FIVB Bulletin, March, Vol. 49-50, 1970, 15-26.

C. MONOGRAPHS, MANUALS, PROGRAMS, REPORTS, SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS

Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women, AIAW Handbook- Directory, 1975-1976. Washington: AAHPER Publications, 1975, 126- 176: Canadian Volleyball Association. International Volleyball Federation Coaches Manual. Vanier, Ontario: Canadian Volleyball Association, 19751

Cuba Voleibol, printed program prepared by Cuban Delegation for NORCECA Championships, August, 1975. 143

Emery, Curtis R. The Historical Aspects of the Pan American Games. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (Atlantic City, New Jersey, 1975).

Japanese Volleyball Association, A Comprehensive Study of the Develop­ ment of Volleyball Games, 1975.

Johnson, W illiam, ed. Physical Education Around the World - Monographs # 1-6. Indianapolis: Phi Epsilon Kappa Fraternity, 1966-1972.

Journal Schweizeirischen Volleyball-Verbandes, Nr. 5, May, 1975, 14.

National Federation of State High School Associations. Volleyball Rule Book. Fagan, Clifford B., ed., Elgin, Illinois: National Federation of State High School Associations, 1976.

Olympian, Vol. 2, No. 3 , October, 1975, 6-7.

Olympic Class Women's Volleyball Program. Canadian Volleyball Association, 1975.

Rushall, Brent S. A Psychological Consul t ation Service for Sporting Environments. A paper presented"at the APHPERA Conference at Acadia University (Wolfville, Nova Scotia, November 17-18, 1972).

Toyoda, Hiroshi, ed. Textbook for Volleyball Coaches, Vol. 1, 2: Training Theory for Volleyball in Japan. Scarborough, Ontario: CVA Publications, 1971.

USA/USSR Olympic Volleyball Program, United States Volleyball Association, 1975.

USVBA - 1976 Annual O ffic ia l Volleyball Rules and Reference Guide - No. 56, Marvin D. Veronee, ed. Berne, Indiana: USVBA P rinter.

D. PERSONAL INTERVIEWS

Akhvlediani, Givi. Soviet National Coach, July 20, 1975. Vancouver.

Dmitrov, Mitka. Bulgarian National Coach, June 16, 1975. Belgrade, Yugoslavia.

Gueriero, Enzo. National Women's Team Coordinator of Canada and Mr. Harish Dalpatram, Coach of B.C. Olympic No. 2 ranked team in Canada, July 25, 1975. Vancouver. 144

Lee, Chang Ho. Assistant Coach, South Korea, July 2, 1975. Pasadena, Texas.

Nuzman, Carlos Arthur. President Brazilian Volleyball Federation, October 23, 1975. Mexico City.

Park, Dai-Hee. West German National Coach, June 23-29, 1975. Hannover, West Germany.

Park, In s il. South Korea player, July 3, 1975. Pasadena, Texas.

Park, Man Bok. Peruvian National Coach, October 16, 1975. Mexico City.

Park, Moo. Former National Coach of South Korea and USA, present Coach Canadian National Team, October 23, 1975. Mexico City.

Romano Maurizio. Assistant Coach Ita lia n National Team, June 1 and June 3, 1975. Rome and Florence, Ita ly .

Simri, Uriel. Professor Wingate Institute of Isreal, June 23, 1976. Columbus, Ohio.

Yamada, Shigeo. Japanese National Coach, July 26, 1975. Vancouver.

Yugoslavian Delegation - A lija Taraku - Training Director of Women's Program, Zvonko Sheper - National Coach and Dragoliub Miloshevich - Tournament Director - Belgrade, June 14, 1975.

E. DISSERTATIONS AND UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPTS

Emery, Curtis R. The History of the Pan-American Games. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, 1964.

K eller, Val. Multiple Offense. Unpublished manuscript, York University C lin ic, 1973.

Lu, Hui-Ching. An Analysis of Volleyball in Various Regions of the World. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Teachers College - Columbia University, 1950.

N eville, B ill. The Psychological and Physical Pre paration for Inter- national Style Competitive Volleyball. Unpublished manuscript, 1974.

Organizing Committee of the 1976 Olympic Games - COJO. History of V olleyball. Unpublished manuscript, 1976.