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Copyright by Christopher Leon Johnson 2012 The Dissertation Committee for Christopher Leon Johnson Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: The Spirit That Protects the Youth: Maroonage, African-Centered Education, and the Case of Kamali Academy in New Orleans, Louisiana Committee: Christen Smith, Supervisor Maria Franklin Kwasi Konadu Leonard Moore João H. Costa Vargas The Spirit That Protects the Youth: Maroonage, African-Centered Education, and the Case of Kamali Academy in New Orleans, Louisiana by Christopher Leon Johnson, B.A., M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August 2012 Dedication To Monah Tarpeh, James Howard Johnson, and all whom they represent. Acknowledgements I did not miss a single day of school over the course of my entire primary and secondary education. Twelve years of perfect attendance. Neither sore throat nor steady cough would keep me from maintaining my record. Were I suffering from such ailments, I would have to stay in school, miserable, until 12 o’clock when I would receive credit for a full day, all because my parents said so. At the time, I could not understand why they were so persistent. What were they trying to prove? It wasn’t until sometime in undergrad that I came to see that they were merely building a foundation, preparing me to embark on a journey that has taken 22 years to complete. I must begin by acknowledging my parents, Turner and Mona Johnson, who have pointed me in this direction and provided me with the love and encouragement to keep going. My brother Jeff has been a constant source of wisdom and humor. He has taught me that, together, these traits can accomplish anything. Precious, Nanny, Grandma, Aunty Ann, Greg, Kenrick, Darrin, and Nakai have always offered me a steady reminder: I’m not just in this for myself. Tracee Thomas, my sister and life coach, continues to be my Máti. I can never fear tomorrow knowing we are on the same team. Omiladé Adédiran, Sadé Jones, and Jules Narcisse always knew what to say to keep me focused. Jason Garrett, Fahtema Lewis, Adjoa Boateng, Vanessa Charles, and the Nangila family got me started on this road of questions over ten years ago. Together, we’ve been trying v to answer them ever since. Tafari Melisizwe and Aza Shukura are two colleagues whose diligence has kept me on track. Thank you. The good Dr. Samori Camara has been one of my closest friends since we met in Austin five years ago. In the time since, he has shown me the true meaning of dedication. Like a good teacher, he has drawn out of me what was always there. I have been honored to witness the realization of his dream and assist where I could. It has only served to catapult me in the pursuit of my own. I must thank the students and families of Kamali Academy. The students have taught me much more over the past two years than I could ever teach them. It has been such an honor to partake in their growth-process over this time. Seeing teeth fall out and hearing voices deepen has proven a greater joy than I could have imagined. Through them, I’ve learned a new form of love. Knowing people believe in you is a truly motivational knowledge. I am grateful that the parents have committed to the educational well-being of their children. I am even more grateful that they entrusted me with that task. In this dissertation, I discuss how, historically, Black communities in the United States have sacrificed and pooled their resources to educate individuals who then assumed the responsibility of returning that education to their communities. My experiences have proven this to be true and, while beyond the scope of this study, it extends to Black people across the world. During struggles and difficulties over the course of this process, it was my mentor and friend, Dr. Mark Bolden, who reminded me vi of all of the people I’ve encountered throughout the globe over the course of my studies who helped me get to this point. There are several people in New Orleans who have made my time in the city one of the most productive periods of my life. Brother Baakir Tyehimba has encouraged me to find my voice, allowed me to make mistakes, and never judged me for it. Chris Williams is another brother who supported me in my various ventures. Mama Jennifer, Mama Vera, and the Community Book Center have been continuous sources of love. Thank you. Kendra Harris and Ashanti George-Paulin never failed to give me much food for thought. Mama Nilima Mwendo’s advice was always right on time. Last, I would like to acknowledge Aiji Daste, a friend beyond words. Drs. David Scott, Farah Griffin, Steven Gregory, Manning Marable, Robin Kelley, and the people of the Institute for Research in African-American Studies at Columbia University facilitated my pursuit of scholarship. Sharon Harris was a friend and advisor in all things academic and life-related. Dr. Russell Rickford’s friendship, support, and encouragement meant more to me than perhaps he will ever know. Zaheer Ali’s blunt honesty gave me the motivation to take my work as seriously as it was. Gabe Feldman, my true friend, saw me through what at the time were life-altering ordeals, but have in retrospect turned out to be mere growing pains. The Warriors, Talibah Newman and Simone Gaines, have kept me true to the aspirations we articulated way back in the early days. Sekou Cox and Marcel Joseph are two friends who continue to support my endeavors, consistently checking in to ensure I’m still working in the direction of my potential. vii The Brooklyn chapter of the Malcolm X Grassroots Movement taught me the meaning of praxis, conducting research that was informed by experience and relevant to people’s lives. Through the organization, I met some of my closest friends, Sala Cyril and Austin Green. Over the years, they have challenged me to be true to my word and myself. Pablo Herrerra offered me shelter from the Havana sun, providing a roof and a bed while I experienced my first taste of international research. Dr. Nana, Kwadwo, Kweku, Kwabena, and Maame Adwoa Opoku-Agyemang accepted me into their family and showed me the importance of telling our own stories on our own terms. The Kum family introduced me to Ghanaian life. I have the deepest gratitude for the people of Cape Coast, Kommenda, and Kormantse, to all of those who have shared their stories with me. Elienai, Toninho, Sula, Lara, Lucas, and Jonas welcomed me into their home and lives. Gabriel Swahili, Tiara Plácido, Sueide Kintê, and Juliana Marta made Salvador da Bahia into a home away from home. When I met Tata Mutá Imê, I was a 21 year-old study abroad student stumbling around a foreign city. Over the past 6 years, he has helped me grow into a man certain of my direction and aware of my life’s purpose. My gratitude is profound. My graduate school experience was made easier with the support of the people at the John L. Warfield Center for African and African-American Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. From the day I arrived on campus, Dr. Edmund Gordon, Joni Jones/Omi Oshun Olomo, and Stephanie Lang did all that they could to ensure that my transition to graduate school was seamless. I must express particular gratitude to Dr. viii Gordon. As a teacher, he continually challenged me in ways that forced me to find the exact words to articulate my thoughts and ideas, even if those ideas weren’t always the most popular. Rolee Rios, Chris Kirk, and Adriana Dingman, and the Anthropology Department at the University of Texas have gone beyond the call of duty in assisting me. I would like to acknowledge and thank my committee for their insight, support and encouragement. Drs. Christen Smtih, João Costa-Vargas, Maria Franklin, Leonard Moore. I am particularly indebted to Dr. Kwasi Konadu, my fifth committee member. His patience and attention to my work gave me the confidence and courage to ask tougher questions and engage deeper analyses. Finally, I must thank Grace Sanders. No words can express how grateful I am for her presence throughout this dissertation writing process. She has seen me through the dead ends and the breakthroughs, always taking time to discuss ideas, read chapters, or allow me to vent, even if it meant putting her own work on hold. Thank you. In retracing 22 years of academic and life pursuits, I am certain to have overlooked some names. For this, I apologize. I must point out, however, that the heart does not forget what the mind does. Thank you all. ix The Spirit That Protects the Youth: Maroonage, African-Centered Education, and the Case of Kamali Academy in New Orleans, Louisiana Publication No._____________ Christopher Leon Johnson, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2012 Supervisor: Christen Smith This dissertation is an ethnographic analysis of the ways in which disenfranchised Black communities mobilize cultural legacies of maroonage to empower themselves through the establishment of independent educational institutions. Using Kamali Academy, an African-centered, systematic home school in New Orleans, Louisiana, as a case study and ethnographic site, I examine two primary questions: What does the relationship between maroonage, as a political-cultural praxis, and independent Black educational institutions tell us about the construction of autonomous Black communities in the United States? Specifically, what does Kamali Academy teach us about these communities’ viability as interventions into a failing educational system that marginalizes Black students and families in New Orleans? Building on existing scholarship, I highlight maroonage as a method of community construction within a dominant socio-political structure.
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