Woman’s Sexuality : A Portrayal from Ancient Indian Literature

by Surabhi D. Sheth

In a patriarchal society, woman is there has been a great deal of sexuality is adored for fertility but her deemed as subservient to man. This, preoccupation about the generalised physical characteristics that make her however, does not mean that the image of woman as the ‘other’ sexually attractive to men are often male-female relationship is always verging on obsession, in the literature looked upon as a threat to man’s self- antagonistic. On the contrary, a of this patriarchal society. The control and autonomy. For example, patriarchal social order seeks to construction of such an image is an umpteen number of gods, sages ensure a semblance of harmony in probably a means by which the and kings have been described in this relationship through making the patriarchal man tries to overcome his our ancient literature as unwilling woman’s status in society appear fears about his gender identity and victims of a woman with ‘irresistible’ ‘naturally’ inferior toman’s. A woman autonomy. The split within the physical charms. A frequent outcome indeed earns ‘respect’ and psyche of a patriarchal man which is that these ‘victims’ place a curse ‘admiration’ in such a society by prompts him to fear as well as worship performing her assigned roles as a the woman is projected in the * / have not followed any chronological wife, a mother or a daughter. Her role portrayal of woman in our ancient se•quence, per se. Dating of texts is anathema for scholars, a difference of two in procreation, her innate ability for literature and law.* In a curious way, three centuries is an admissible range for nurturance and the physical it seems to me, such a portrayal ‘accuracy for some texts. Instead, I have attraction she holds for man, mirrors patriarchal man’s own split- chosen a broad canvas of litera•ture covering roughly the period between the however, make it difficult to contain image of his gender identity. In this 6th century B.C. and the 4th century AD. these roles in a simple relationship image woman’s sexuality and (which includes reference to epic-Puranic of dominance and subjugation. fecundity remain irreconciled. Her texts, Jain texts, classical kavyas) and also These qualities imbue her with forbearance and capacity for reference to some Vedic texts to illustrate the growth of what I view as an ideology immense inner strength which nurturance are idealised but her offender in ancient India. For ancient India, provokes in man contradictory sexual powers are feared. A woman this is one of the important ways to know feelings of security and an acute is respected, for example, as a , a Indian traditions.Ina text one can discover both statements of ideal as well as sense of anxiety about his own Savitri or an Anasuya (satis, indications of practices of the time. In this power and identity. As detached symbolising devoted wives) but is con•text, the ideal, even the spiritual ideal from her assigned roles, woman qua feared as a , an or a of marital life, a woman’s divine status woman is therefore both feared and (nymphs, symbolising etcetra, is under•mined by the continuous and relentless expecta•tion that the woman worshipped. It is not surprising that free, unattached women). Her must beget a male child.

14 MANUSHI on the women who aroused indications in the/Wg Veda, them. Much is made of which suggest a close woman’ s supposed relationship between the wife fickleness and of the eldest brother and his unpredictability, as well as her other brothers. There was a supposed implacable clear rule that the eldest determination about getting brother must marry first and what she wants. Her strength that if the younger brother and resilience are countered married before the elder one by emphasising her physical it was considered a sin. In the fragility and sexual Rig Veda (x.18-7-8) it is vulnerability. She is supposed sug•gested that at a time to perpetually need the when the bereaved wife is protection of a man in her sitting near the dead body of roles as daughter, wife and her husband she should be mother. It is not surprising that urged by the deceased an unmarried adult woman or husband’s younger brother a widow has remained an (devr) to get up, put her hand enigma for our legists. A brief in his, and ask her to join the scanning of our ancient world of the living by literature, when done from becoming his wife. (Cf. Av. x- this perspective, throws 301-2). In the marriage hymn interesting light on the of the/? ig Veda the gods are problem of the gender identity particularly urged to make the of a woman in the patriarchal wife loving and dear to the society, especially as it is devr. It seems that this special expressed in the depiction of status of the younger brother woman’s sexuality. The vis-a-vis the wife of the elder evolution of this image, it brother indicated in the Rig Shiv , from Khiching Museum seems, is inextricably linked Veda was used to fa•cilitate with the growth of a patriarchal the practice ofniyoga in The girl child in the age of the society. thelaterperiod.Myoga was the Rig Veda was allowed to choose her There is a marked differ•ence in ceremonial sexual intercourse with own husband when she was a fully attitude towards woman’s sexuality one of the kinsmen of the husband, grown up mature woman. Girls and from the to the for achieving the son for the family. boys were allowed to mingle freely Dharmasastras. The Vedic texts The use of the terms pita (generic at a festival called Samana with a regarded sexual union as aprime term for father) andjanila pita view to find a spouse of their own model of creation and creativ•ity. (biological fa•ther) also suggests the choice. However, after her marriage Prajapati split himself into two, not recognition of a sociological a woman became the bride of the for the purpose of prajanana fatherhood as distinct from family. The conjugal aspect of the (procreation) only, but also because biological. marital rela•tionship remained he could not experience joy in being With growing insistence on male subdued in the sub•sequent period. alone “ekaki na ramate sa progeny, woman became a variable Apastamba Dharma Sutra states dvitiyamaicchat” (Brhadaranyaka entity whose own lineage was an that a bride is given not to an Upanishad4.3) that is, erasable line. She (rather her body) individual but to a ‘family of onealonedoes not enjoy, he desired served as a vehicle for the continuity broth•ers’. Manu laid down that in for a second. Thus, in the Vedic of the male lineage. The very idea of the Kalyug ‘one must not give away period, woman’s sexuality was historical memory and continuity a girl to a family’, implying thereby associated not only with fertility but thus be came confined to the male that the practice was in vogue in an also with an idea of companionship. lineage. The idea of ancestry became earlier age. There are certain other

NUMBER 71 15 singularly paternal; the memories the most auspicious for the birth of the past, the rituals and of a prodigy. The sage expressed invoca•tions of the past, and the his desire for an immediate union. oblations of fered to ancestors to The girl was embarassed at the nurture one’s heritage, all began prospect due to the foul smell to centre around the male lineage. emanating from her body but the The three rnas (debts) which one sage turned the foul odour into owed for one’s existence as fragrance. Then, the fishermaid humans were all to the male felt shy of copulating in the open, figures, namely, pitrs, rsis and whereupon the sage cre•ated a devas. Only a son could offer screen of smoke. The result was obla•tions to ancestors and the birth of the most illustrious thereby save them from suffering genius . Matsyagandha, in the hell calledpuf. A sonless however, did not feel guilty about father lived a cursed existence having premarital sex. Nor was and went to hell upon his death. she, unlike , overawed by The fecundity of woman the in•terest expressed in her by naturally became a big a sage. She instead stipulated ob•session. It began to be viewed some condi•tions before she as a source for obtaining sons, a agreed to fulfill the sage’s desire. ksetra whose fertility had to be She is completely composed and maintained and exploited. cool headed and strikes a bargain Perpetuation of males became the with the sage, obtaining many purpose of woman’s body. Thus, boons including getting him to in the , King , permanently free her from the who was prevented by a curse foul odour emanating from her from consorting with his wives, body. She does not feel any need Kunti by Badrinarayan asked his wife Kunti to procreate to unburden herself of this affair sons by summoning gods. In order a woman be•ing confined to one to anyone before her mar-riage. She, to con•vince her, Pandu cited an husband for life has in fact, is so confident that she recalls ancient practice : “I shall now tell beenestablishedbut lately.” (Mbh. this child of hers (who turned out to thee the practice of old, indicated by Adi 113). This peroration of Pandu, be a great ascetic) only when she illustri•ous sages fully acquainted should not be mistaken as bestowing needs him. At a later point in her life with every rule of morality. Women freedom on his wife in matters of sex. she occupied the illus•trious in the olden days, were not immured, Rather it is an argument to make her position of a rajamata. within their houses, nor were they accept his demand to continue his Never•theless, she had no qualms dependent on their husbands and lineage through this other route. about making public her relationship kins. They went about freely Two generations earlier Kunti’s with Vyasa, her son. This premarital enjoying themselves. They did not grandmother-in-law (Kunti’s mother- ad•venture did not adversely affect confine themselves to their in-law is , Ambalika’s her marriage. When king Santanu felt husbands and yet they were not mother-in-law is - at•tracted towards her, she again put considered sinful, for that was the Matsyagandha) Satyawati, however, forward another condition, sanctioned custom of the age. This had faced no such problem. When evaluat•ing her own favourable practice, sanctioned by the sage Parasara saw this fishermaid bargaining position to full advantage, precedent is applauded by great Rsis. Matsyagandha (one smelling of fish) asking Santanu to agree to give the This cus•tom is even now regarded sporting in water, through his occult throne to a son born to her, though with re•spect among the northern power, he realised that the girl was in Santanu already had a very able, well- Kurus. In•deed, that custom, so her rtu ‘the most appropriate time to trained, fully groomed son by his first lenient for women, has the sanction beget a child* and that the marriage with . of antiquity. The present practice of conjunction of heavenly stars was In the Mahabharata, there

16 MANUSHI areclear statements indicating a governing the transmission of stage in the development of property from generation to society in which marriage had genera•tion required that little to do with restricting the patrimony be fixed. Besides sexual freedom of women. But providing heirs for property, the this ancient usage permitting religious purpose of saving greater freedom and ances•tors from hell by independence to women in performing sraddhas (oblations sexual matters was later altered to ancestors) increased the by the sage Svetaketu. His importance of sons in family. mother was led to the Wives giving birth to sons bed•chamber by a became crucial to the successful guest in full view of Svetaketu repayment of the pitrrna (debt and his father. Svetaketu to ancestors). The ascetic considered the act as an insult Jaratkaru who met his forefathers to his mother. The father tried to hang•ing upside down in a cave calm him down by saying “this for want of pindas is the eternal law— just as the (offerings)and languishing cows do, so do the creatures, without getting lib•erated each in its class.” (Mbh, Adv. because of the celibacy of 113). But Svetaketu finding Jaratkaru is a telling example of a unacceptable for humans the belief in the demands exerted by law valid for animals, one’s ancestors upon one’s promulgated aj* new law “from procreatiye life. The dreadful this day on, if a| woman is proved possibility of their total demise faithless to her husband it shall convinces the celibate to take a be considered a sin equal to by Badrinarayan wife. aborticide.” (Mbh, Adi. 113). The writers of Dharam- Aborticide was one of the lesser sins, and ekpatitva for woman (that is one sastras viewed the female sexual an upapataka; the punishment for man in the entire life of a woman), powers with even greater trepidation. this sin was in the form of the very epitome of patriarchy, was Even the institution of marriage was Prayascitta, that is, ex•piation which not yet universally established. not in itself considered sufficient to consisted of per•forming a vrata It was towards the end of the contain women. Several other called Prajapatya. Thus, in the period described in the injunctions were made and a special period that the Mahabharata Mahabharata that the institution of code of sexual behaviour for a married depicts there was a great deal of marriage began to be viewed in terms woman was prescribed, different confusion about sexual norms in and of sexual faithfulnessof the wife to from that for a married “• man. While out of marriage. Various practices her husband, and not vice versa. married women were singularly tied were prevalent (polyandry, Thus standards of socially to this dharmasastric code, men polygyny, levirate, etc) acceptable conduct altered. The could avail themselves of different simultaneously. At the same time, the model of male dominance got kinds of behaviour code’s as trend towards patriarchisation of sex perfected. It ac•companied the almost described in the Kamasastra. norms and of various forms of total transformation of the forest and The tv/opurusarthas, dharma mar•riage was evident; traces of nomadic life of the ancients to a and kama, almost acquire two matriar•chy in polyandry were settled life of agriculture. The family different lives of their own, one in removed, po•lygyny was accepted became the unit of property based the Dharmasastra and the other in simultaneously as a legitimate economy. Men became the leaders the Kamasastra. Vatsyayana, the practice, niyoga was permitted for and patriarchs, formulating laws author of the Kamasutra, for lineage continuity. S till, the norm of governing the modes of conductof example, deals with the life of a bahu-patnitva (many wives) for man that social organisation. Rules Nagaraka and his mistress and

NUMBER 71 17 legitimises a wide vari•ety of carnal obedience embodied inpativrata, necessity of producing sons, was pleasures including : prostitution, total devotion to one man, was later outlawed by the lawmakers in adultery, group sex, ho•mosexuality, however stretched by making her favour of a strictly monogamous biting and making nail marks on a agree to submit to another man at her marital ideal for a woman. woman’s body to increase sexual husband’s instance, merely as a duty Thus viewed, the issueof pleasure and the use of aphrodisiacs. without any emotional involvement woman’s right to decide on matters Woman here equals man in her in the act. Both niyoga and use where her own body is at stake, capacity for sexual pleasure. The the analogy of a woman as a ksetra reflected today in the debate on Kamasutra even advises a man how owned by her husband. “A man might contraception or other methods of to court a wife, how to win her lay claim to his ksetra by having it birth control, artificial in•semination confidence and to introduce her to tilled andfertilisedby another or in legislation about abortion and love. The woman in the Kamasutra kinsman after his death or he might the controversy on am-niocentesis, and the woman in Dharmasastra burn the field and make it unusable.” is an old problem in the patriarchal appear as two different beings, but (Sutherland, 1990). The controversial society. Niyoga was one way to both are constructed for the single practice of niyoga, tolerated and exercise man’s right to control the purpose of sustaining man’s freedom encouraged for the compelling use of woman’s body. A similar and dominance. Juxtaposing attitude towards woman’s these two types of texts body is also reflected in reveals a third inner text the several stories regarding mind of a patriarchal male. birth, some of which are The concern for effective extraordi•nary in character, and lawful means to reading like present day determine one’s rightful science-fiction. (PrakashN. progeny, especially one’s Desai, 1989). In the story of sons, undermined over time the birth of the sons of the the woman’s right over her blind king Dhrtarastra and body, so much so that her Gandhari, for example, their sexuality began to be embryonic development perceived more and more in takes place in pots not unlike instrumental terms and the incubators; similarly, we idea of her spiritual being got have the story of the birth of confined primarily to her where the embryo marital status. The widely was re•moved from the womb known but nevertheless of Devaki and implanted in controversial practice of the womb of Vasudeva’s niyoga is one such instance. other wifeRohini. Hence Niyoga is defined as the Balarama is also called appointment of a wife or Sankarsana (one who was widow to procreate a son on dragged). Similarly the birth behalf of her husband from of Mahavira in Jain intercourse with an mythology provides an appointed male. (Kane, interesting ex•ample of 1974). Obedience to her embryo exchange. In order husband’s request to submit to give a halo to the origin of to niyoga in order to give him Mahavira, the em•bryo in the heirs came in conflict womb of a poor Brahmin withthegrowingexpectation woman was trans•ferred to a of wifely devotion and woman of Ksatriya caste. All monogamous sexual relations such sto•ries sound familiar with him. The standard of An Amorous Couple from Khajuraho Temples in today’s patriarchal society

18 MANUSHI in which ‘ovum donation’ and Morality in married life in the symbolises man’s fears about im•plantation of a fertilised ovum are Indian tradi•tion ideally consists of woman’s sexuality. The viewed as prob•lematic situations for conjugal fidelity. But here too, it is represent unattached wom•anhood. deter•mining a woman’ s right over the woman who is expected to be The services of the apsaras like her body. The ancient smrtis de•voted, faithful and loyal to the Urvashi, Rambha, Tilottama, prescribe specific days for the birth hus•band, not only during her marital and other’s were utilised to disturb of girls as well as boys in an attempt life but also in the premarital stage, the concentration of ascetics trying to find a to prevent the birth of girls. in consideration of a prospective to destabilise ’s stronghold on Amniocentesis today has made the husband and after her husband *s the divine domain through their difference only in the technology death, as a widow. There are no such spiritual powers. A runs used, not in society’s attitude constraints for man especially after away from Menaka leaving her towards female births. his wife’s death. Without inviting any pregnant, though earlier he had Men saw a woman as potentially censure he can happily marry again, resisted the ‘on•slaught’ of another a fertile ground, a receiver and con- sometimes even showing unseemly , Rambha and re•duced her to server of man’s seed. This was one hurry by arranging the second a stone by the power of his ascetic reason why early marriage of girls marriage while the mortal remains of merit. An interesting story is of was prescribed to make full use of the first wife are being consigned to Urvashi. Significantly, she was born her fertility span. Inability to arrange fire. This second marriage is not of Narayana’s thigh. She is the marriage of a girl before her first regarded as a matter of lack of love worshipped for success in love menstrual period came to be or disloyalty to the first wife. affairs, though she herself was regarded as a sin. A daughter so The treatment of nymphs rejected by when she fell in neglected was allowed to marry (apsaras) in Indian mythology love with him. (She how•ever did not ac•cording to her choice three curse Arjuna to be a stone but months after her cursed him to become a menstruation. This pe•riod woman!) With the deities was extended to three years Mitra and who fell for by Manu. The menstruation her charm, the story gets even of an unmarried daughter was curiouser. On merely see•ing seen as a kind of abor•tion or Urvashi, they could not hold a wasted oppor•tunity and their virya (se•men) from the father was held which were born the sages responsible for it; he incurred and . For the sin of destroying an this lapse they held her embryo at each menses of an re•sponsible and cursed her to un•married daughter. While a live on earth. Another nymph childless wife felt a sense of Tilottama was made to suffer tremendous in•security about in one way or other through a her womanhood, a widow curse. In the view of the without sons was viewed as legists, a woman’s body is a useless and inauspicious considered as polluting and object un•worthy of any demeaning for man. The meaning•ful place in the lawgivers thus provide an family. Detached from her end•less list of do’s and procreational role, the don’ts to men to guard them woman aroused deep seated against a woman’s physi•cal fear in man about her charms; as if a woman’s sexuality. It was to overcome sexuality was a problem in such fear that the patriarchal itself, whereas, in fact, the man probably sought control problem was man’s own over woman’s body. ob•session about his sexual An Apsara from Belur Temple

NUMBER 71 19 autonomy. as episodic and situational, The picture one gets from not an inner force needing the Puranic literature is of a resolution within some man awaiting his fate as a prey longterm relationship. As the of woman’s physical charms emphasis of cultivation of and lacking any kind of inner harsh ascetic practises grew control. At the same time, the and renun•ciation of all image of woman which is worldly desires be•gan to be projected is of a seductress considered as the only means trapping the man as if against of achieving higher spiri•tual his will. The moral derived goals, man’s fear of woman’s from the story thus often sexuality became even more remains ex•traneous to the pro•nounced. She was now story. It is probably for this viewed as a major distracting reason that greater emphasis influence, even an intrinsic is placed on external controls evil. The worldly pleasures in these stories as well as in and indulgence of the senses codes of sexual behaviour were all associated with devised by the legists. woman. Spirituality became a Internalised controls were legitimate pur•suit for man; considered too difficult to woman was an obstacle, a A monk avoids the lures of women. From a cultivate given the kind of fetter which tied man to the manuscript of the Uttaradhyayana Sutra attitude the Puranic man be- world. Man’s emancipation created on ’s order by and dancing and their main function became depen•dent on his ability to from finest por•tions of was to lure the sages away from their tear this fetter. The mechanistic view every kind of grain (hence her name). aus•terities. They were fond of dice, of sex evi•dent in some ancient texts She is pro•jected as an ultimate bringing luck to those whom they is also another aspect of the same symbol of man’s vulnerability to favoured, and could change their attitude. Not only iorzbrahmacharin woman’s physical charms. shape according to their (celibate) was sex a taboo, hindering Vishvakarma’s creation turned out to requirements and convenience. his efforts to achieve higher goals. be sexu•ally so powerful that to In the event of a clash between Even for the householder in most continue to gaze at her from all spiritual power and physical power religious texts sexual pleasure was directions when she walked around which the writers of were not particularly valued as joy in them even the lord gave fond of depicting in the form of a high itself. It was acceptable only as a duty himself three more heads and Indra drama between powerful ascetics and for procreation. A Vanaprastha ac•quired a thousands eyes. The seductive women, the spiritual force could treat his wife with equanimity sage Sharadvata was born when the in man always won out, not by as the passions of both husband and vital seed of the sage Dadhyanca fell transcending sexual desire (most wife were expected to have cooled in the river on seeing the often sage and women engage in down. As for the sannyasin, nymph Alumbusa. It is not an some sexual behaviour) but by attraction to women was supposed irrelevant element in the story that afterward destroying the object of to become inconsequential. The all these nymphs had emerged from such desire, that is the woman. She emphasis was on the renunciation of the ocean of milk when it was was often burnt to ashes, turned into all worldly attachments. Thus woman churned for nectar. Like the poison a stone or trayed towards woman’s was considered as a threat and obtained from the ocean, they were sexuality. Hence woman is blamed for challenge throughout life. not accepted as wives by gods or causing sexual desire in man by what This preoccupation in our demons. Unacceptable as wives they has been described as her ‘overtures’ literature with overcoming sexual became acceptable to all as in many such stories. Men are desire has pro•duced, paradoxically, Sumadatmajas, that is, daughters of advised to avoid situa•tions where an opposite effect. We come across pleasure. They were beautiful and these overtures might occur. Sexual long, detailed and microscopic well versed in fine arts like singing desire in man, it seems, was viewed descriptions of woman’s body which

20 MANUSHI are in marked contrast to a young women, who are able complete absence of similar to lead a man astray, description of man’s body. whether he be learned or And in real life, this resulted not.” (Mahabharata, in a woman’s almost total Anush-asana Parva 48. 37- ex•clusion from the public 38). Brhatparashara says sphere and a confinement that the passion of a woman within the domestic sphere. is eightfold to that of a man. This led to the confirmation (Kane, P.V. 1974). of procre•ation as the be-all In this almost unanimous and end-all of woman’s though undeserved censure existence. She was described of woman, the lone voice of as jaya, one who gives birth Varahamihira (6th century — jananat jaya. This idea A.D.) protested the injustice was further stretched by inherent in these Manu when he described the accusations and made a jaya as one whose womb her spirited defence of women. husband en•tered through his He states that since both semen and by means of which men and women are equally he was reborn to her as son. prone to committing This ensured continuity, mistakes in life, there is no rather immortality, to man. reason why women should The ideal of marriage as be singledoutfor all presented in these texts condemnations. Also, the involved mutuality, but it delicate, urbane, sensitivity remained unrecognisable in of the classical poets like practice. According to the (Raghavamsha, Dharmasastras, the purpose VIII. 66), and Bhavabhuti of marriage is threefold : (Malati Madhava, VI), dharmasampatti (acquiring Ardhanarisvara form of Shiva, from Pali, recognised the rightful place religious merit), praja Gwalior Museum of woman as a companion to (progeny) and , man, a co-sharer of pleasure (fulfillment of sensuous pleasures). human species. The Mahabharata and pain arising in the arduous but In this ideal, men and women were (Anushasana Parva 38. 12 & 19), for exciting course of life. In today’s complementary to one another, and example, states that “woman India, for this image of a woman as a lifelong companions. The man was possesses the combined qualities of Mend and companion of man, to considered incomplete without a the edge of prevail over the other dark image woman and vice versa. This ideal is a razor, poison, snake and fire.” which occupies a large space in our symbolised in the divinity of It further adds that, “she is really tradition, the patriarchal man will have ardhanarisvara, where the divinity uncontrol•lable in her passions and to overcome his own fears about his itself is conceived as half-male, half- remains within limits only because gender identity and autonomy. female. Nevertheless even this she is watched by servants in the Despite pressures of a patriarchal conception of completeness and house.” Manu states that “women society, which restricted woman’s complementarity of man and woman are lascivious, fickle minded, devoid sexual freedom, there are instances collapsed when the woman failed to of love and tend to dislike their in ancient Indian literatureof women beget sons. If she failed, the man was hus•bands and resort to other men, whoresisted unwanted sex. free to seek ‘completeness’ in another whether handsome or ugly, simply Pradweshi, wife of sage woman. because he is a man.” (Manusmriti Dirghatamas, decided to teach a The fear of woman’s sexuality IX. 14. 15) “It is in the nature of a lesson to her husband when he turned woman into a sort of woman to tempt men, therefore the attempted to manipulate her. The phan•tom— the other, almost a non- wise do not act heedlessly with story, in the Mahabharata, is as

NUMBER 71 21 follows: The sage night the two little lambs Dirghatamas who was born dear to Urvashi and when blind had married a vivacious Urvashi cried for help, young woman called rushed without Pradweshi. As the sage was putting on his clothes and at un•able to support the family the same instant the Pradweshi took to caused a flash entertaining people as a of lightning in which Urvashi means of subsis•tence. When saw Pururavas in a naked Pradweshi’s behaviour condi•tion. All the pleadings created a scandal in the of Pururavas failed to village, she decided to stop convince her to change her and asked her husband to decision. (Shatapatha took after the family. The Brahmana XI. 5.1). husband, instead of managed to get protecting his wife, insulted killed at the hands her by saying that she of when he tried to should either see that her molest her. Though earlier, extra marital relations bring when she was abducted by profit, or she should restrict , husband of her sex relations only and ’s sister ex•clusively to her husband. Dussala, the When Pradweshi found that desisted from killing him out her husband had no sense of of consideration for responsibility towards her Dussala. But her spirited and their children, but only comment at that time is wanted to control her, she noteworthy: “If you care to decided to punish the do what is agreeable to me, unworthy, selfish, old, blind you must slay that mean, Dirghatamas and with the despicable wretch, that help of her children, threw him stupid, sinful, infamous chief in the river Ganga. of the Saindhava clan. The Jabala provides an foe who forcibly carries example of touching away a married woman Draupadi by Badrinarayan simplicity against prevalent should never be spared.” norms of society. The story in thyself ‘Satyakama, the son of (Mahabharata). Chandogya Upanisad is oft-quoted Jabala.’ “ The strength of the society With the systematisation of social for its charming innocence. of her times lies in the fact that neither codes in the Dharmasastras, the Satyakama, a small child, went to a Satyakama nor his mother were foundations of a patriarchal society Brahmin teacher to study under him. looked down upon due to his were firmly laid in India. While it is Before enrolling him as his student, uncertain paternity. The teacher true that this model of patriarchy has the teacher naturally asked him about declared Satyakama to be a Brahmin always been contested by some his family name. Satyakama went to for me virtue of his adherence to truth groups at the level of local practice, his mother to get the necessary and accepted him as his pupil. The it has remained a predominant information. She very simply said, nymph Urvashi is another example principle of Indian social “When I got there, I was attending of an as•sertive woman who before organisation. on many guests and had no marrying the king Paruravas made a In such a society, the life of a opportunity to find out your contract with him that if ever she saw woman from her birth to her death is paternity, hence lknow not of what him naked, she would leave him. The determined by norms and rules made go frayouare, Jabala is my name and Gandharvas who wanted to get by men. Her birth is resented, prayers Satyakama thine. Say therefore of Urvashi back, contrived to steal at are said to prevent her birth, rites are

22 MANUSHI performed for her to beget only sons, provisions are made for the husband to remarry if the wife gives birth to only daughters. As a daughter, she is considered an ‘outsider’ in the family of her birth, to be given away to another family. The ulti•mate responsibily of parents is limited to giving her away in marriage at the proper time. Beyond her socialisation as a permanent, non-adult ward to remain in the custody of father as a daughter, of husband Shiva as Bhiksatana, the beggar, wearing skulls, seducing the wives of the sages, Pahari as a wife, of sons as a painting, Basohli style mother or of kins as a childless widow, rarely was much traditional religious literature, the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, Prachya attention paid to equip her to live by patriarchal system evolved over Bharati Prakashan, Varanasi, 1965. herself, for herself. In marriage, she centuries has created durable Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira. can succeed only by her service and patterns of attitudes and behaviour Chandogya Upanishad, Prachya Bharati Prakashan, Varanasi, 1965. obedience to elders and devotion to which make for the widespread Contributions to Ihdian Sociology, Vol her husband. Develop•ment of her practice of treating woman as 24, No. 1 Gail Hinich Sutherland, personality as an adult is stunted for property. Also engendered are le•gal January-June 1990. fear of her being indepen•dent and social disabilities for women of Health and Medicine in the Hindu minded. Giving birth to a male child various strata and in different stages Tradition, Prakash N. Desai, Crossroad, brings her some respect, but losing of the life cycle. As a result those New York 1989. History of Dharamashaslra, Vol. TJ, Part her husband without having borne few oft-cited traditional examples, 2, P.V. Kane, Bhandarkar Oriental him sons makes her subsequent life de•scribing humane relationships Research Institute, Poona, 1974. inauspicious and meaningless. In be•tween men and women can only Hymns ofRgveda edited by by Max brief, her entire life is constantly be viewed as exceptions proving the Muller, Kashi Series, 167. monitored from the viewpoint of her rule. Much has been written on this Kamasutra of Vatsyayana, utility for the male world. issue during the recent wave of Chowkhamba, Sanskrit Series, 1982. This is not to undermine the filial feminism, but little attention is paid MahabHarata, edited by S.D. Satavalekar, Svadhyaya Mandal, Pardi, emotion and care felt by individual to how an evolving ideology of the 1968. parents for daughters, love felt by Hindu family resulted in such a Malatimadhava by Bhavabhuti, edited husband for wife and respect by stringent patriarchy in India. r by M.R. Kale, Delhi, Motilal chil•dren for their mother. We indeed Benarsidas, 1983. have several instances of loving Bibliography Mann Smrti, Chowkhamba Sanskrit fathers of daughters like , Apastamba Dharma Sutra, edited by Series, Varanasi, 1979. loving husbands like and Umeshchandra Pandeya, Raghuvamsha of Kalidas, edited by Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Varanasi, C.R. Devadhar, Delhi. devoted sons like the Pandavas. The 1969. Salaptha Brahmana, edited by A. Weber, point to be noted, however, is that , edited by S.P. Pandit, Hindi translation edited by despite such counter examples in the Varanasi, Krishnadas Academy, 1989. Satyaprakash Saras wati, Delhi, 1988.

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