Kvinderne Fra Lublin

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Kvinderne Fra Lublin Kvinderne fra Lublin BEVOGTNINGSPERSONALET I MAJDANEK AF CLAUS BUNDGÅRD CHRISTENSEN I 1975-81 stod tidligere personale fra koncentrations- og udryddelses- lejren Lublin anklaget ved retten i Düsseldorf.1 Blandt de tiltalte var seks, som havde det til fælles, at de havde fungeret som såkaldte Auf- seherinnen, hvilket var betegnelsen for lejrenes kvindelige bevogt- ningspersonale.2 Koncentrationslejren Lublin er bedst kendt under sit uofficielle navn Majdanek. Denne artikel handler om de kvinder, der fungerede som vagter her.3 Hovedparten af lejrens arkiv var tilintetgjort, da Majdanek i juli 1944 blev befriet af den Røde Hær, men rømningen var foregået så kaotisk, at en del af arkivet ikke var brændt, sandsynligvis fordi ilden ikke fæn- gede (flere af akterne bærer spor af ild, som formodentlig stammer fra et forgæves forsøg på at destruere dem). Under alle omstændigheder lykkedes det at redde noget materiale, som blev bragt til statsarkivet i Moskva, hvor det også befinder sig i dag.4 Hovedparten af dette arkiv 1 I forbindelse med denne artikel takker jeg lektor Therkel Stræde for gode råd og kri- tik, ligesom jeg takker ph.d. Niels Bo Poulsen for at have gjort mig opmærksom på Maj- danek-arkivets eksistens og for hans assistance i forbindelse med mit arkivbesøg i Rusland. 2 I det følgende anvendes betegnelsen bevogtningspersonale eller vagter. 3 Navnet Majdanek stammer fra det polske Majdan Tatarski, som er betegnelsen for et område i Lublin. Allerede under krigen var Majdanek en udbredt betegnelse, men nav- net optræder ikke i materialet fra lejrens arkiv. Her anvendtes udelukkende de forskel- lige officielle betegnelser som Kriegsgefangenenlager der Waffen SS in Lublin (KGL Lublin) og Konzentrationslager der Waffen-SS Lublin (KL Lublin). 4 Arkivet befinder sig i Moskva i den Russiske føderations statsarkiv, Gosudarstvennyj Arkhiv Rossijskoj Federatsii (GARF). Herudover er der anvendt enkelte akter fra Majda- nek, der befinder sig i Landesarchiv Nordrhein-Westfalen/Hauptstaatsarchiv Düsseldorf (LNWHD). Det omfattende retssagsmateriale, som befinder sig i LNWHD, er ikke som helhed inddraget i denne undersøgelse. Jeg har i stedet gjort brug af samtidige reporta- ger fra retssagen (se nedenfor). 552 Claus Bundgård Christensen består af personalakter om alt fra højtstående SS-officerer til det meni- ge vagtmandskab. Omkring 300 dokumenter omhandler det kvindelige vagtpersonale, og det er primært materiale herfra, der danner grund- laget for denne undersøgelse. Arkiver fra koncentrations- og udryddel- seslejrene er i mange tilfælde kun fragmentarisk bevaret grundet ger- ningsmændenes ønske om at slette deres spor. Det gælder også mate- riale vedrørende bevogtningspersonalet. Eksempelvis begrænser mate- rialet om vagter fra den største kvindekoncentrationslejr, Ravensbrück, sig til nogle ganske få dokumenter.5 Derfor har den hidtidige forskning måtte baseres på et meget sparsomt materiale fra lejrenes eksistensperi- ode, hvorfor der overvejende er anvendt akter fra efterkrigstidens rets- sager samt udsagn fra tidligere fanger. Majdanek-arkivet er enestående, fordi det sandsynligvis er det bedst bevarede arkiv vedrørende en gruppe af lejrpersonale, som vi ved meget lidt om, og fordi det tillader os et indblik i disse kvinders hver- dag, forholdet til fangerne samt den administrative praksis og forvalt- ning, de var en del af. Herudover er de kvindelige vagter fra Lublin ikke tidligere behandlet i forskningen, hverken i forhold til Majdaneks histo- rie eller gerningsmandsforskningen generelt. Kvinder som gerningsmænd Kvinders rolle i det nationalsocialistiske Tyskland har været et proble- matisk emne, da især den første generation af feministiske historikere gennem fortiden overvejende var interesseret i at finde en positiv iden- titet for kvinder. Derfor blev det forhold, at kvinder i mange tilfælde var dybt involveret i Det Tredje Riges forbrydelser, i vid udstrækning igno- reret. I 1970’ernes og 1980’ernes forskning blev kvinderne hyppigt fremstillet som ofre eller passive tilskuere til mændenes forbrydelser. Regimet blev fremstillet som et patriarkat, der udgrænsede og eksklu- derede kvinderne fra aktive roller både på det politiske plan, men også i forhold til overgreb på Det Tredje Riges påståede fjender. I mere eks- treme fremstillinger blev kvinder ligefrem opfattet som særligt mod- standsdygtige over for nazismen eller bærere af en speciel antifascistisk kultur.6 5 Om kildesituationen se Gudrun Schwarz: »’...möchte ich nochmals um meine Ein- berufung als SS-Aufseherin bitten’. Wärterinnen in den nationalsozialistischen Konzen- trationslagern.« I: Barbara Distel (Hg.): Frauen im Holocaust. Memmingen 2001, s. 331. 6 For en diskussion af feministisk historie og forskning i gerningsmænd, se eksempel- vis Vandana Joshi: Gender and Power in the Third Reich: Female Denouncers and the Gestapo (1933-45). New York 2003. Kvinderne fra Lublin 553 I denne forskning er der ikke levnet megen plads til bevogtningsper- sonalet, da fremstillingerne mere eller mindre fratog kvinderne det handlerum, som er karakteristisk for gerningsmænd. Et brud med den- ne tendens kom med den amerikanske historiker Claudia Koonz’ værk Mothers in the Fatherland fra 1986, der i langt højere grad end tidligere fokuserede på kvindernes mobilisering, deres andel i forbrydelser og aktive rolle i nationalsocialistiske organisationer. Selv om lejrvagterne ikke behandles indgående, nævnes der eksempler på deres overgreb, bl.a. illustreret gennem den berygtede Hildegard Lächert fra Majda- nek, som var en af de anklagede ved retten i Düsseldorf.7 Mens feministiske historikere således kun i meget begrænset omfang har beskæftiget sig med det kvindelige personale i lejrsystemet, er situ- ationen i nogen grad den samme, når blikket vendes mod gernings- mandsforskningen generelt. Denne er især en historie om mænd.8 Interessen for det kvindelige lejrpersonale var før 1990 nærmest fra- værende. Omtalen af vagterne var især at finde i erindringer fra tidlige- re fanger samt i pressens dækning af efterkrigstidens retssager. Sagen mod Irma Grese fra Bergen-Belsen er typisk i denne sammenhæng. Grese blev i 1945 dømt til døden af en britisk domstol og fik i samtiden en intensiv presseomtale i både tyske og internationale medier.9 Majdanek-processen i Düsseldorf vakte også betydelig opsigt og resulte- rede i flere journalistiske fremstillinger om sagen, men udløste ikke nogen forskning om bevogtningspersonalet.10 Historikernes manglen- 7 Claudia Koonz: Mothers of the Fatherland. London 1986, s. 404. Koonz’ bog affødte den såkaldte Historikerrinnenstreit i Tyskland om kvindernes medansvar og andel i regimets forbrydelser. Debatten formede sig især mellem Koonz og den tyske historiker Gisela Bock, som primært anskuede kvinder som ofre. Se også Gisela Bock: Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialismus: Studien zur Rassenpolitik und Frauenpolitik. Opladen 1986. 8 For en diskussion og præsentation af forskningen i gerningsmænd, se Gerhard Paul (Hg.): Die Täter der Shoah. Fanatische Nationalsozialisten oder ganz normale Deutsche? Göttin- gen 2002, s. 33 ff. For en overordnet præsentation på dansk se, Therkel Stræde: »Rudolf Höss: massemorder af politisk overbevisning«. I: Rudolf Höss: Kommandant i Auschwitz. Gylling 2004. Se også Torben Jørgensen: Stiftelsen: Bødlerne fra Aktion Reinhardt. Køben- havn 2003, s. 32 ff. 9 Martina Ehlert: »’Umerziehung zur Demokratie’ – Der erste Bergen-Belsen Prozess in Zeitungsberichten«. I: Claus Füllberg Stolberg (Hg.): Frauen in Konzentrationslagern: Bergen-Belsen, Ravensbrück. Bremen 1994, s. 256 f. Grese er uden sammenligning den bedst kendte af de kvindelige vagter og danner sammen med Buchenwald-kommandan- tens kone, Ilse Koch, sågar grundlaget for B-filmen Ilse: The She-Wolf of the SS (1974), som producenterne præsenterede som et portræt af: »The insatiable nazi death camp guard whose sexual appetites are matched only by her lust for brutality«. Her citeret efter Dani- el Patrick Brown: The Beautiful Beast. Ventura 2004, s. 5. 10 Se Heiner Lichtenstein: Majdanek – Reportage eines Prozesses. Frankfurt am Main 1979 og Ingrid Müller-Münch: Die Frauen von Majdanek: Vom zerstörten Leben der Opfer und der Mörderinnen. Hamburg 1981. For en analyse af sagens behandling i de tyske medier, se 554 Claus Bundgård Christensen de interesse havde flere årsager. At kun få kilder er bevaret, har spillet en rolle, men også det forhold, at kvinder udgjorde et forholdsvist be- grænset antal af det samlede personale, har haft betydning. Det skøn- nes, at det kvindelige bevogtningspersonale kun talte omkring 10% af mandskabet i koncentrationslejrene.11 Hertil kommer den overordnede situation, at forskningen har udvist liden interesse for de lavt rangeren- de gerningsmænd; fokus samlede sig især om topfolkene, bureaukra- terne og beslutningstagere på mellemlederplanet. Denne situation ændrede sig i nogen grad med Christopher Brownings studie af mand- skabet i Reservepolitibataljon 101, hvis medlemmer var involveret i mas- sakrer og deportationer til dødslejre. Studiet fremkaldte en øget inter- esse for de gerningsmænd, som udførte overgrebene, men trods en forøget fokus på lavt rangerende mandskab er undersøgelser af det menige lejrpersonale stadig sparsomme. Det gælder også de kvindelige vagter, som kun er behandlet i en lille håndfuld artikler. Vigtigt er et temanummer om »Täterinnen« i Werkstatt Geschichte fra 1995, med to artikler om vagterne. Irmtraud Heike bidrager med en biografi af en ledende opsynskvinde og forsøger herved at belyse det kvindelige per- sonales
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