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Michael E. Smith | 414 pages | 01 Feb 2012 | John Wiley and Sons Ltd | 9781405194976 | English | Chicester, United Kingdom Top 10 Things to Know About the Aztecs and Their Empire

Archeological evidence shows that jade, obsidian, feathers, and shells reached the capital through established trade routes. Rulers and nobles enjoyed wearing these more exotic goods and having them fashioned into expressive headdresses and jewelry. The capital of was divided into four even sections called campans. All of these sections were interlaced together with a series of canals that allowed for easy transportation throughout the islets of Lake Texcoco. Commoner housing was usually built of reeds or wood, while noble houses and religious sites were constructed from stone. Agriculture played a large part in the economy and society of the Aztecs. They used dams to implement irrigation techniques in the valleys. They also implemented a raised bed gardening technique by layering mud and plant vegetation in the lake in order to create moist gardens. These raised beds were called chinampas. These extremely fertile beds could harvest seven different crops each year. Some of the most essential crops in Aztec agriculture included:. Most farming occurred outside of the busy heart of Tenochtitlan. However, each family generally had a garden where they could grow maize, fruits, herbs, and medicinal plants on a smaller scale. The Aztec religion focused on death, rebirth, and the renewal of the sun. The Aztecs practiced ritual sacrifice, ball games, and bloodletting in order to renew the sun each day. The Aztec religious cosmology included the physical earth plane, where humans lived, the underworld or land of the dead , and the realm of the sky. Due to the flexible imperial political structure, a large pantheon of gods was incorporated into the larger cultural religious traditions. The Aztecs also worshipped deities that were central to older Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Olmecs. Some of the most central deities that the Aztecs paid homage to included:. Huitzilopochtli as depicted in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis: This depiction of the war and sun god shows him in all of his warrior and ritual garb. Veneration of Huitzilopochtli, the personification of the sun and of war, was central to the religious, social, and political practices of the Mexica people. Huitzilopochtli attained this central position after the founding of Tenochtitlan and the formation of the Mexica city-state society in the 14th century. According to myth, Huitzilopochtli directed the wanderers to found a city on the site where they would see an eagle devouring a snake perched on a fruit-bearing nopal cactus. This legendary vision is pictured on the coat of arms of Mexico. The game was played with a ball of solid rubber, called an olli. The players hit the ball with their hips, knees, and elbows, and had to pass the ball through a stone ring to automatically win. The practice of the ballgame carried religious and mythological meanings and also served as sport. Many times players of the game were captured during the famous Aztec flower wars with neighboring rivals. Losers of the game were often ritually sacrificed as an homage to the gods. While was practiced throughout , the Aztecs, if their own accounts are to be believed, brought this practice to an unprecedented level. For example, for the reconsecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in , the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed 80, prisoners over the course of four days, reportedly by Ahuitzotl, the Great Speaker himself. This number, however, is not universally accepted. Accounts by the Tlaxcaltecas, the primary enemy of the Aztecs at the time of the Spanish Conquest, show that at least some of them considered it an honor to be sacrificed. In one legend, the warrior Tlahuicole was freed by the Aztecs but eventually returned of his own volition to die in ritual sacrifice. Tlaxcala also practiced the human sacrifice of captured Aztec citizens. Everyone was affected by human sacrifice, and it should be considered in the context of the religious cosmology of the Aztec people. It was considered necessary in order for the world to continue and be reborn each new day. Death and ritual blood sacrifice ensured the sun would rise again and crops would continue to grow. Not only were captives and warriors sacrificed, but nobles would often practice ritual bloodletting during certain sacred days of the year. Every level of Aztec society was affected by the belief in the human responsibility to pay homage to the gods, and anyone could serve as a sacrificial offering. A noble priest class played an integral role in the religious worship and sacrifices of Aztec society. They were responsible for collecting tributes and ensuring there were enough goods for sacrificial ceremonies. They also trained young men to impersonate various deities for an entire year before being sacrificed on a specific day. These priests were respected by all of society and were also responsible for practicing ritual bloodletting on themselves at regular intervals. Priests could come from the noble or common classes, but they would receive their training at different schools and perform different functions. Aztec pyramid of St. Cecilia Acatitlan: This pyramid is typical of Aztec religious architecture. Priests would have stood on the platform at the top to perform religious duties and sacrifices. Priests performed rituals from special temples and religious houses. The temples were generally huge pyramidal structures that were covered over with a new surface every fifty-two years, meaning some pyramids were gigantic in scale. These feats of architectural display were the sites of large sacrificial offerings and festivals, where Spanish reports said blood would run down the steps of the pyramids. The priests often performed smaller daily rituals in small, dark temple houses where incense and images of important gods were displayed. Aztec sun calendar: This calendar shows the eighteen months circling around a representation of the sun. The Aztecs based their calendar on the sun and utilized a day religious calendar. It was split into eighteen twenty-day months, and each month had its own religious, and often agricultural, theme. For example, the late winter month Altcahualo fell between February 14 and March 5 and represented a time of sowing crops and fertility. The month Toxcatl occurred in May and was a time of drought in the central valley. The Aztecs saw this month as a time of renewal, and it involved a large festival where a young man that had been impersonating the god Tezcatlipoca for a full year would be sacrificed. The Aztec empire was defeated by an alliance between the Spanish and the Confederacy of Tlaxcala. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was one of the most significant events in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. The fall of the Aztec empire was the key event in the formation of the Spanish overseas empire, with New Spain, which later became Mexico, a major component. In their advance, the allies were tricked and ambushed several times by the people they encountered. Capturing the indigenous ruler was standard operating procedure for Spaniards in their expansion in the Caribbean, so capturing Moctezuma had considerable precedent. Alvarado allowed a significant Aztec feast to be celebrated in Tenochtitlan, and in the pattern of the earlier massacre in Cholula closed off the square and massacred the celebrating Aztec noblemen. The Alvarado massacre at the Main Temple of Tenochtitlan precipitated rebellion by the population of the city. When the captured emperor Moctezuma II, now seen as a mere puppet of the invading Spaniards, attempted to calm the outraged populace, he was killed by a projectile. The Spanish, Tlaxcalans, and reinforcements returned a year later, on August 13, , to a civilization that had been wiped out by famine and smallpox. This made it easier to conquer the remaining Aztecs. To reward Spaniards who participated in the conquest of what is now contemporary Mexico, the Spanish crown authorized grants of native labor in particular indigenous communities via the encomienda. The indigenous were not slaves, chattel bought and sold or removed from their home community, but the system was one of forced labor. The Spanish conquerors in Mexico during the early colonial era lived off the labor of the indigenous. Nevertheless, Aztec culture survives today. Modern-day is built on the site of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. There are still 1. Privacy Policy. Skip to main content. Civilizations in the Americas. Search for:. A five-year dig under old buildings near Mexico City's Aztec ruins has so far found a total of skulls. They are believed to date to between and The sacrificed skulls, found about 3. Such racks, known as "tzompantli," were where the Aztecs displayed the severed heads of sacrificed victims on wooden poles pushed through the sides of the skull. Paintings and written descriptions from the early colonial period showed descriptions of such racks. But institute archaeologists said the Mexico City discovery was different. Part of the platform where the heads were displayed was made of rows of skulls mortared together roughly in a circle, around a seemingly empty space in the middle. All the skulls were arranged to look inward toward the center of the circle, but experts don't know what was at the center. Skulls may have displayed on racks while fresh, and once the flesh had rotted off, they may have been mortared together. The dig has been carried out underneath a series of buildings, some of which are considered historically valuable. Periodic excavations carried out since suggested a ceremonial site was located near the site. Explore further. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed without permission. More from Earth Sciences. Your feedback will go directly to Science X editors. Thank you for taking your time to send in your valued opinion to Science X editors. You can be assured our editors closely monitor every feedback sent and will take appropriate actions. Your opinions are important to us. We do not guarantee individual replies due to extremely high volume of correspondence. E-mail the story Mexican experts find more skulls on Aztec 'trophy rack' Your friend's email Your email I would like to subscribe to Science X Newsletter. Learn more Your name Note Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties. More information Privacy policy. This site uses cookies to assist with navigation, analyse your use of our services, and provide content from third parties. By using our site, you acknowledge that you have read and understand our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use. This document is subject to copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study or research, no part may be reproduced without the written permission. The content is provided for information purposes only. Righting a wrong, nuclear physicists improve precision of neutrino studies 46 minutes ago. Dec 11, Dec 12, Aztec skull tower: Archaeologists unearth new sections in Mexico City

The swamp-surrounded island on which the Aztecs took refuge was so uninviting that none of the powers in the Valley of Mexico had claimed it. It was not long before the Aztecs used their strategic position to advantage by aiding the Tepanec in a war of expansion against the , the Chichimec, and other neighbouring peoples. Under a succession of ambitious kings in the 15th century, the Aztecs established a dominion that eventually stretched over most of present-day Mexico. The almost incredible story of a small wandering tribe that was able to build an empire in one century from the beginning of the 14th century to the beginning of the 15th can be largely explained by three main factors: Aztec religion, the economy of the Valley of Mexico, and Aztec sociopolitical organization. Aztec religion centred around the fierce sun god Huitzilopochtli. After battling his way across the sky each day, he returned to the bosom of the earth, his mother Coatlicue , where he renewed his strength in order to take up the fight against darkness. For them war was therefore a religious obligation that provided prisoners who could be sacrificed to the sun god. See also pre-Columbian civilizations: Aztec religion. Rich soil from the bottom of a lake was piled up to form ridges between rows of ditches or canals. With the mild climate and ample water for irrigation, the chinampas yielded multiple harvests each year. The high productivity of the systems resulted in a heavy density of population in the Valley of Mexico and the development of large urban centres. In the early 16th century the population of the valley may have fluctuated around 2,,, with some cities approaching or exceeding , Because of this enormous concentration of population and economic resources, the Valley of Mexico became the key to power in the central part of the country. From very early times, another factor contributed to the strategic importance of the Valley of Mexico: a system of lakes Texcoco, Chalco, Xochimilco , Xaltoca, and Zumpango that were connected naturally and by means of artificial canals. Extensive water transportation on the lakes compensated for the lack of the wheel and of domesticated pack animals and, in no small measure, furthered the early economic and political unification of the valley. She or he will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to him or her, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource. If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media. Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service. Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives. For thousands of years, this area was populated by groups such as the Olmec, Zapotec, Maya, Toltec, and Aztec peoples. Cultural traits that define the region include the domestication of maize, beans, avocado, and vanilla, and a common architectural style. Learn more about the rich cultures and lives of these early civilizations. Mexico City is founded on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. If you could go back in time, what would you see? Each country had different motivations for colonization and expectations about the potential benefits. Join our community of educators and receive the latest information on National Geographic's resources for you and your students. Skip to content. Image Pyramid of the Sun The Teotihuacan pyramids are some of the largest of their kind in the Americas. Photograph by f9photos. Twitter Facebook Pinterest Google Classroom. Encyclopedic Entry Vocabulary. Spanish explorer or conqueror of Latin America in the 16th century. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed without permission. More from Earth Sciences. Your feedback will go directly to Science X editors. Thank you for taking your time to send in your valued opinion to Science X editors. You can be assured our editors closely monitor every feedback sent and will take appropriate actions. Your opinions are important to us. We do not guarantee individual replies due to extremely high volume of correspondence. E-mail the story Mexican experts find more skulls on Aztec 'trophy rack' Your friend's email Your email I would like to subscribe to Science X Newsletter. Learn more Your name Note Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties. More information Privacy policy. This site uses cookies to assist with navigation, analyse your use of our services, and provide content from third parties. By using our site, you acknowledge that you have read and understand our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use. This document is subject to copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study or research, no part may be reproduced without the written permission. The content is provided for information purposes only. Righting a wrong, nuclear physicists improve precision of neutrino studies 46 minutes ago. Dec 11, Dec 12, Do equations for groundwater flow refer to water density? Aztec | Facts, Location, & Culture | Britannica

It says here that he would be better served by sticking around another year, putting together big numbers and dozens of highlights over a full season and really making an impression for NFL scouts to consider. They were timed perfect. Right as the receiver turned his head, the ball was there. Wilson completed short screen passes, medium-range balls over the middle and aired it out on occasion to keep the Aztecs honest. He also managed the clock well, taking BYU from its own 32 to the SDSU 33 in just more than a minute to position the Cougars for a yard field goal that provided a halftime lead. There were practice observers, this one included, who believed the 6-foot-4 wide receiver had the best hands of anyone to appear on the Mesa in nearly a decade. Kothe showed toughness, too, like the time he dislocated a finger in practice, disappeared for a few minutes to have it popped back into place and taped up and was back on the field moments later. Running down the right sideline, Kothe cut left in the end zone, then broke back to the ball for a diving catch in front of BYU defensive back Troy Warner. He had only seven catches for yards in eight games. Hawaii gets bowl berth ahead of Aztecs. Aztecs will keep ears open for potential bowl opportunity. San Diego State a long shot to extend school-record, year bowl streak, but will entertain possibility through late in week. Aztecs give No. Two turnovers costly for San Diego State in nonconference loss to Cougars. Spartans , enjoying best start since , will play perennial power Boise State in first MW title game appearance. Sports Columnists. Column: Could Aztecs basketball run the regular-season table? Odds stacked against No. Aztecs smother Sun Devils, earn big road victory over Pac team. Aztecs without 3 players for Arizona State game. Aztecs wins over BYU in Provo are few two and far between and Contrast in styles as No. Real Estate. About Us. Community papers. From guacamole to chocolate, chilli and avocado: there are countless words in the English language which derive from the Aztec. The local economy was single-handled driven by bartering. Colossal markets throughout the kingdom would attract tens of thousands of people. Much like the Maya, the Aztecs were also immensely advanced. Their artistic, architectural and philosophical achievements were impressive. Plus, as many of you might know, the Aztecs invented chocolate. Reason alone to worship this incredible ancient culture, you say? We agree! The Huitzilopochtli — a mesoamerican deity. Photo credit: shutterstock. Renowned for being bloodthirsty warriors and for their penchant for mass human sacrifice, the Aztecs are estimated to have sacrificed 20, people a year, and more than four times that when a particularly revered temple, especially any dedicated to Huitzilopochtli , was built. Ullamaliztli, the famous Aztec ball game. Photo credit: wikimedia. Now, you and I may think it preposterous that warriors who skinned hapless men for a living appreciate the finer things in life, like arts and sports. But to the Aztecs, one had absolutely nothing to do with the other. Sacrifices were deemed an essential part of their evolution. Appeasing the gods was something which guaranteed a more prosperous future, whereas playing sports and indulging in arts of all types — from carving to painting and even poetry — was a way to develop comradery and appreciation of skills. The Aztec empire. Photo credit: mrburnett. The high productivity gained by those methods made for a rich and populous state. The Aztec state was a despotism in which the military arm played a dominant role. Valour in war was, in fact, the surest path to advancement in Aztec society, which was caste- and class-divided but nonetheless vertically fluid. The priestly and bureaucratic classes were involved in the administration of the empire, while at the bottom of society were classes of serfs, indentured servants, and outright slaves. Aztec religion was syncretistic, absorbing elements from many other Mesoamerican cultures. At base, it shared many of the cosmological beliefs of earlier peoples, notably the Maya , such as that the present earth was the last in a series of creations and that it occupied a position between systems of 13 heavens and 9 underworlds. Closely entwined with Aztec religion was the calendar, on which the elaborate round of rituals and ceremonies that occupied the priests was based. The Aztec calendar was the one common to much of Mesoamerica, and it comprised a solar year of days and a sacred year of days; the two yearly cycles running in parallel produced a larger cycle of 52 years. The Aztec empire was still expanding, and its society still evolving, when its progress was halted in by the appearance of Spanish explorers. Print Cite. Facebook Twitter. Give Feedback External Websites. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article requires login. External Websites.

Aztecs - Wikipedia In theory, a military career and access to higher military orders, such as the Orders of the Eagle and Jaguar, were open to anyone who distinguished himself in battle. However, in reality, these high ranks were often reached only by nobles. War actions included battles against neighboring groups, flowery wars—battles conducted specifically to capture enemy combatants as sacrificial victims—and coronation wars. The types of armaments used in battles included both offensive and defensive weapons, such as spears, atlatls , swords, and clubs known as , as well as shields, armor, and helmets. The term used by the Aztec to define the idea of a deity or supernatural power was teotl , a word which is often part of a god's name. The Aztecs divided their gods into three groups which supervised different aspects of the world: the sky and celestial beings, the rain and agriculture, and war and sacrifices. They used a calendrical system that tracked their festivals and predicted their futures. The Mexica had skilled artisans, artists, and architects. When the Spanish arrived, they were astonished by the Aztec architectural accomplishments. Administrative and religious buildings were brightly colored and decorated with stone sculptures. Aztec art is best known for its monumental stone sculptures, some of which are of impressive size. Other arts in which the Aztec excelled are feather and textile works, pottery, wooden sculptural art, and obsidian and other lapidary works. Metallurgy, by contrast, was in its infancy among the Mexica when the Europeans arrived. However, metal products were imported through trade and conquest. Metallurgy in Mesoamerica likely arrived from South America and societies in western Mexico, such as the Tarascans, who mastered metallurgical techniques before the Aztecs did. The Aztec empire ended shortly after the arrival of the Spanish. The conquest of Mexico and the subjugation of the Aztecs, although completed in few years, was a complicated process that involved many actors. When Hernan Cortes reached Mexico in , he and his soldiers found important allies among the local communities subjugated by the Aztecs, such as the Tlaxcallans , who saw in the newcomers a way to free themselves from the Aztecs. Under Spanish rule entire communities were forced to abandon their homes, and new villages were created and controlled by Spanish nobility. Although local leaders were formally left in place, they had no real power. Christianization of central Mexico proceeded as elsewhere throughout the Inquisition , through the destruction of pre-Hispanic temples, idols, and books by Spanish friars. Fortunately, some of the religious orders collected a few of the Aztec books called codices and interviewed the Aztec people, documenting in the process of the destruction an incredible amount of information about Aztec culture, practices, and beliefs. This article was edited and updated by K. Kris Hirst. Share Flipboard Email. Nicoletta Maestri. Archaeology Expert. Nicoletta Maestri holds a Ph. Updated November 28, The attorney and Trump ally said the president needed a "perfect storm" of courts, governors, and state election officials to aid his cause. It also renews concerns about ship safety in the Red Sea, a crucial transit zone for global shipping and energy supplies that largely had avoided the chaos of regional tensions involving the U. A father-of-two who had to "beg" to get an MRI scan because of the coronavirus crisis has died of cancer, his family have revealed. Sherwin Hall, 27, from Leeds, West Yorkshire, went to hospital on March 23 suffering from leg pain but despite repeated visits he was only given a course of antibiotics for a misdiagnosis of prostatitis. After "begging for a scan" and 13 hospital visits in four weeks, Mr Hall was finally given an MRI on May 26 which revealed a 14cm malignant tumour in his pelvis and 30 small tumours on his lungs. I have lost the love of my life. He would want me to do everything I can to prevent other families suffering as we have. The Catch Up With Cancer campaign was launched by the parents of Macclesfield beautician Kelly Smith who died after her treatment for bowel cancer was stopped because of the pandemic. TV presenter Victoria Derbyshire said in the film: "I'm Victoria Derbyshire and all I want for Christmas is for people who've noticed changes in their body or noticed unexplained symptoms to go to the doctor's please. An international study has suggested that for every four-week delay in treatment there is a 6 per cent to 13 per cent reduction in survival which could lead to the death of tens of thousands of cancer patients who could have survived under normal circumstances. A Department of Health and Social Care spokeswoman said: "Cancer diagnosis and treatment has remained a priority throughout the pandemic and we urge people to come forward if they have symptoms. The United States expects to have immunized million people with the coronavirus vaccine by the end of March, the chief adviser for the U. The first vaccine was authorized for emergency use by U. Operation Warp Speed chief adviser Dr. Moncef Slaoui said in an interview with Fox News Sunday. International pressure is mounting after a Chinese Bloomberg journalist was detained by Beijing. President Trump told Fox News' Brian Kilmeade on Saturday, in a clip broadcast Sunday, that no judges have had "the courage" to allow his lawyers and allies to argue his baseless claims that the election was "stolen," specifically criticizing the U. Supreme Court for declining to "go into the evidence" on his cases because of "little technicalities, like a thing called standing. In his reply brief, plaintiff 'asks that the Rule of Law be followed. It's when Ludwig notes that "on the morning of the hearing, the parties reached agreement on a stipulated set of facts," meaning "there was no actual disagreement between the Trump team and Wisconsin officials about the pertinent facts of the case. Despite having the opportunity of a hearing before a Trump appointee who was willing to give the campaign ample opportunity to prove its case, the campaign said, 'Never mind. In Wisconsin, as in Pennsylvania and Michigan, "every time a court offers him an opportunity to establish by proof what he is promoting by Twitter, Team Trump folds. More stories from theweek. The man first caught a glimpse of Marie Kamara as she ran with her friends past his house near the village primary school. Intervention is only sometimes effective at preventing the marriages, even where they are illegal. In the hands of Pierre Yovanovitch, the Paris apartment that iconic designer Jean-Michel Frank once called home gets a spectacular new lease on lifeOriginally Appeared on Architectural Digest. The accord between the two countries does not appear to be linked to the US-backed Abraham accords, in which four Arab countries have agreed to normalise relations with the Jewish state since August. Mr Netanyahu added that Israel was in contact with more countries to normalise relations. Bhutan is a relatively isolated country and only maintains diplomatic relations with around 53 countries, which does not include the US, UK or France, who only maintain informal contact via India. With a population of around , people, the Kingdom of Bhutan is wedged between neighbouring giants, China and India. They have long relied on the latter for guidance on foreign and defence policy. The joint statement on the deal said the key areas of cooperation would include economic, technological and agricultural development. A gunman shouting "Kill me! John the Divine just after an outdoor choir performance there on Sunday, and was himself shot dead by police, according to police and a Reuters photographer at the scene. No one else was struck by gunfire thanks to quick action by three officers on the scene who confronted the suspect, New York City Police Commissioner Dermot Shea told reporters following the late-afternoon violence on Manhattan's Upper West Side. The shooting occurred outside the landmark cathedral for the Episcopal Diocese of New York, located at Amsterdam Avenue and West th Street, about 15 minutes after the conclusion of an outdoor choir performance on the church steps attended by about people. The Trump administration has made expanding religious liberty a point of emphasis over the last few years, and some conservatives think embracing that aspect of the Trump presidency could help President-elect Joe Biden make inroads with evangelical voters, Politico reports. Some members of Biden's team are wary of President Trump's focus on religious freedom, which has led to measures to protect vulnerable minority sects overseas or criticize adversaries who clamp down on them like China. The skeptics, Politico notes, don't disagree that religious liberty is an essential cause, but they do suspect it was one Trump was utilizing to undermine other civil liberties, such as women's and LBGTQ rights. In short, there's a possibility Biden could be pushed to find ways to subtly scale back some of the current administration's agenda. Prominent conservatives, on the other hand, think Biden, who has made it clear he wants to reach out to Trump voters, should actually build on the infrastructure left by Trump. Richard Land, the president of the Southern Evangelical Seminary, told Politico that doing so "would lessen evangelicals' opposition" to Biden, and "make them feel more supportive of him. Read more at Politico. California Gov. Gavin Newsom has had a rough year.

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