A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick Permanent WRAP URL: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/87497 Copyright and reuse: This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. For more information, please contact the WRAP Team at: [email protected] warwick.ac.uk/lib-publications Coming Down the Mountain A History of Land Use Change in Kilimanjaro, ca. 1920 to 2000s Maxmillian Julius Chuhila BAEd (Hons.), University of Dar es Salaam (2008) MA History, University of Dar es Salaam (2013) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Warwick Department of History October 2016 Preliminary Information TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ........................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ iv DECLARATION ....................................................................................................... vii ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. viii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................... ix DEDICATION ............................................................................................................ xi Chapter One ............................................................................................................... 1 Introduction: Environmental History and African History ................................... 1 1.1 The Argument ................................................................................................................ 2 1.2 Situating the Study ......................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 21 1.4 Approaching African History: Methodological Opportunities and Challenges .......... 28 1.5 Structure of the Thesis ................................................................................................. 34 Chapter Two ............................................................................................................. 39 Kilimanjaro: The Land and People of Chaggaland .............................................. 39 2.1 Geography of Kilimanjaro ........................................................................................... 39 2.2 People and Settlement on Kilimanjaro Slopes ............................................................. 45 2.3 Kihamba vs Shamba, Traditional Land Tenure: Differences and Similarities ............ 51 2.4 Socio-economic and Political History of Kilimanjaro ................................................. 62 2.5 A Decade of Rapid Political Development and Reforms, 1950 – 1960. ..................... 67 2.6 Dynamics in the Chagga Society: A Snapshot ............................................................ 77 2.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 80 Chapter Three .......................................................................................................... 82 Kihamba - Ancestral Land: The Social, Cultural and Economic Motives for Land Use Change in Kilimanjaro, Northeastern Tanzania. ................................ 82 3.1 Kihamba: Origin and Development, Late Precolonial Period to 1930s ...................... 85 3.2 Kihamba as an Economic Space, 1920s to 1930s ........................................................ 91 3.3 The Politics of Peasant Coffee Farming in Kilimanjaro ............................................ 101 3.4 Coffee Cultivation, Land Claims and Missionaries in Kilimanjaro .......................... 108 3.5 Trading Centres and Expansion for Settlements ....................................................... 113 3.6 Kihamba as a Social Space ........................................................................................ 118 3.7 Livestock, Witchcraft and the Inhabitation of Kihamba ........................................... 122 3.8 Conservation or Intensification? Kihamba and the Politics of Land Use .................. 129 3.9 Kihamba in Relation to other forms of Conservation ................................................ 134 3.10 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 138 Chapter Four .......................................................................................................... 140 Peasant and Settler Production Vs. the Land Crisis in Kilimanjaro, 1920 – 1960 .................................................................................................................................. 140 i Preliminary Information 4.1 Land Alienation and Resettlements in Kilimanjaro, 1920 – 1930 ............................. 142 4.2 African Settlement, Resettlements and Colonial Productions, 1930 – 1950s ........... 152 4.3 Peasant Production and the Labour Question in Kilimanjaro, 1930 to 1950 ............ 173 4.4 Arusha – Moshi Land Commission and the Challenge of Implementation, 1950 to 1960 ................................................................................................................................. 186 4.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 195 Chapter Five ........................................................................................................... 200 Negotiating Pastoral and Arable Land Uses: Trans Border Experiences ........ 200 5.1 Highland Pastoral and Agricultural Land uses .......................................................... 201 5.2 The Lowland Reconsidered ....................................................................................... 215 5.3 Cattle Theft ................................................................................................................ 222 5.4 Defining the Landscape: Pastoral Inter-border Resource Use ................................... 229 5.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 243 Chapter Six ............................................................................................................. 245 Expanding Frontiers, Creating Homes: Mobility to the Lowlands of Kilimanjaro, 1950s to 2000s .................................................................................. 245 6.1 The Expansion ........................................................................................................... 246 6.2 When the Highland and Lowland Socio-Landscapes Meet, 1950 to 1970 ................ 259 6.3 The Boma la Ng’ombe Case, 1950s Onwards ........................................................... 266 6.4 The Case of the Former Settlers Farms in West Kilimanjaro, 1970 to 2000s ........... 273 6.5 Continuities and Change on the Lowlands ................................................................ 276 6.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 280 Chapter Seven ......................................................................................................... 281 Down the Mountain: Mobility and its Influence on Land Use Change on the Lowlands of Kilimanjaro, 1970 to 2000s .............................................................. 281 7.1 Resettlement of the Chagga People in Other Areas of Tanzania 1960s – 1970s ...... 283 7.2 Land Use Change in Kilimanjaro: Evidence from Maps and Landsat Images, 1970 to 2000s ................................................................................................................................ 290 7.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 298 Chapter Eight ......................................................................................................... 301 Conclusion: Peasant, Settlers, Mobility and Land Use, 1920s – 2000s .............. 301 8.1 Government Policies and Land Use .......................................................................... 302 8.2 Expanding Frontiers: Settlement and Productions .................................................... 307 8.3 Down the Mountain: Environment, Society and Production ..................................... 310 8.4 In Brief ....................................................................................................................... 312 Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 314 ii Preliminary Information LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES List of Figures Figure 1: Map showing the study area ....................................................................... 45 Figure 2: Chagga Hut in 1929 near Marangu .......................................................................... 58 Figure 3: Drainage System in Kilimanjaro .............................................................................. 62 Figure 4: Sketch map