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Three Language Games in the Gulf of Guinea

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Three Language Games in the Gulf of Guinea Vol. 15 (2021), pp. 219–238 http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/ldc http://hdl.handle.net/10125/24974 Revised Version Received: 3 Feb 2021 Playing with Language: Three Language Games in the Gulf of Guinea Ana Lívia Agostinho Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina Gabriel Antunes de Araujo University of Macau; Universidade de São Paulo We present a description and an analysis of three related language games in Africa’s Gulf of Guinea: Fa d’Ambô’s Fa do Vesu, Lung’Ie’s Faa di Vesu, and São Tomé and Príncipe Portuguese’s P-language. We show how these language games can be used to investigate the linguistic features of their main languages and as learning resources for second language learners. First, we defend the common origin of these language games and that they emerged from contact with Portuguese set- tlers’ Língua do Pê’s varieties. Second, we discuss phonological issues, such as syllable structure, focusing on the loci of onglides, offglides, syllabic nasals, and word prosody. Finally, we discuss how these ludlings can help speakers, learn- ers, and linguists perceive phonological properties as well as the contribution of describing and analyzing language games for language documentation. 1. Introduction1 The aim of this text is to present a description and an analysis of three related language games in two African endangered Portuguese-based creoles, Fa d’Ambô (FA) and Lung’Ie (LI), and São Tomé and Príncipe’s Portuguese (PSTP). We will show how these language games can be used to investigate linguistic features and as learning resources. Among the languages of the Gulf of Guinea, there are four Portuguese-lexified creoles with a shared origin: Santome or Forro (ISO code639- 3: 2007 cri), Angolar (aoa), Lung’Ie or Principense (pre), and Fa d’Ambô (fab).2 The first three languages are spoken in the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, where they have national status (Agostinho 2015, 2016; Bandeira et al. 2019; Ferraz 1979; Gunther 1973; Lorenzino 1998; Maurer 1995; Schuchardt 1888; Zamora 2010). Fa d’Ambô is spoken on the islands of Annobón and Bioko in the Republic of Equatorial Guinea (Zamora 2010). These four vernaculars emerged in the 16th 1We are grateful to Stuart Davis, Michael Becker, and Larry M. Hyman for the discussions of the data presented in this paper. We also thank two anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions. Ana Lívia Agostinho thanks São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP; grant 2011/06107-6), Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq; grant 200519/2019-0), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Linguística from Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, and University of Macau. Gabriel Antunes de Araujo thanks the University of Macau (grant SRG-2019-00153-FAH), Universidade de São Paulo, and CNPq (grant 310463/2016-5). 2Codes for the representation of names of languages – Part 3: Alpha-3 code for comprehensive coverage of languages. See https://www.iso.org/standard/39534.html. Licensed under Creative Commons E-ISSN 1934-5275 Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International Playing with Language: Three Language Games in the Gulf of Guinea 220 century and are the result of contact between the Portuguese settlers and African slaves, speakers of Benue-Congo languages. Currently, the four languages, though related, are unintelligible to each other. Furthermore, Portuguese has been the official language of São Tomé and Príncipe since 1975 and is presently spoken by more than 98% of the population (Araujo 2020). Fa d’Ambô is a regional language, widely spoken in Annobón, despite Spanish being the official language of Equatorial Guinea. During fieldwork in the Gulf of Guinea,3 three language games were identified: one in Portuguese, one in FA, and one in LI, all related to the Portuguese Língua do Pê (P-language). Therefore, we will discuss these three ludlings. According to Laycock (1972: 61), “A ludling is […] the result of a transformation or series of transformations acting regularly on an ordinary language text, with the intent of altering the form but not the content of the original message, for purposes of conceal- ment or comic effect”. Bagemihl (1988) argued that language games are alternate languages that exist alongside natural languages, manipulating their natural struc- ture. Davis (1993: 1980) also posited that “these fairly widespread language play phenomena alter the phonological forms of words to disguise what they are”. Ad- ditionally, Bagemihl (1995) characterized ludlings as linguistic systems that utilize various forms of non-concatenative (and occasionally concatenative) morphological manipulation. Thus, a ludling shares almost all of its linguistic domains with its host language except for the morphologic domain, for which it has an alternate. Language games are a “fairly widespread language play phenomenon” (Camp- bell 2020; Davis 1993). They are semantically empty, which means that a string of language games shares the same meaning as their equivalent in the regular language. Additionally, Bagemihl (1995: 697) stated that language games are quantitatively but not qualitatively different from natural language processes. Language games may be used as evidence for phonological concepts such as the syllable and the position of elements within the syllable (Araujo & Agostinho 2014; Botne & Davis 2000; Camp- bell 2020; Davis 1993; Davis & Hammond 1995; Vaux 2011). Furthermore, Sherzer (1970: 253) noted that “a linguist operating with a sociolinguistic perspective is con- cerned with many uses of language, including such phenomena as linguistic play and linguistic games”. According to him,“these phenomena are of interest not only to the anthropologist studying the place of speaking in a culture but also to the linguist in- terested in linguistic structures” (Sherzer 1970: 253). Simultaneously,Yu (2007: 206) states that “[m]ore research on ludlings in general is in fact needed” while questioning how “diphthongs and long vowels [are] treated in iterative infixing ludling”. We also provide an analysis of the anchor points targeted by the games, which further shows that the set of anchor points within this type of ludling is restricted (Vaux 2011). However, the LI game shows two different anchor points that can be targeted simul- taneously. Therefore, this paper contributes to the field of language games, specifically concerning the phonology of infixing ludlings. 3All data on FA used in this paper was collected by Ana Lívia Agostinho and Alfredo Christofoletti in Annobón Island in 2012. The data from LI and PSTP were collected by Ana Lívia Agostinho in 2014 and 2016 during field trips in Príncipe and São Tomé. Language Documentation & Conservation Vol. 15, 2021 Playing with Language: Three Language Games in the Gulf of Guinea 221 The two most common types of language games, as pointed out by Botne and Davis (2000), are the transposition of phonological constituents (usually syllables) and the addition of phonemes at one or more locations within the word. In this paper, we will concentrate on this second type, such as the one found in Portuguese, which features language games with templatic morphology, called Língua dos Pês (Ps- language) in Portugal and Língua do Pê (P-language) in Brazil. In this game, a [-pV] syllable is inserted after or before a syllable, while the stress falls on each non-ludling syllable (see §2 for details). As Portuguese is the lexifier language of FA and LI, the language games found in these languages are related through their shared linguistic features and history. This paper is organized as follows. In §2, we present evidence that shows for the first time that there is a related P-language in PSTP that is different fromthose varieties found in Portugal or Brazil. In §3, we analyze the language games in LI and FA. Following, in §4, we discuss some phonological issues in LI and FA for which language games made resolution possible. §5 highlights the possibilities of using lan- guage games as pedagogical tools and instruments for improving linguistic analysis and language acquisition. In §6, we present some final remarks. 2. Língua do Pê in São Tomé and Príncipe Portuguese There are related language games in European and Brazilian Portuguese that are played by children and are usu- ally learned from other children or from their family. Adults only seem to speak them with children, so language games can be seen as an instance of “age grading” (Cham- bers 2003). Bagemihl (1995) argues that ludlings have a “small speaker population, and uncertain acquisitional process”. Simultaneously, ludlings can have a wide range of functions, such as language disguise and mere language play (Frazier & Kirch- ner 2011). In Portugal, a ludling called Língua dos Pês (Ps-language) inserts a [-pV] ludling syllable after each syllable, while the stress falls on each non-ludling syllable. In Brazil, in turn, there are three varieties of Língua do Pê (P-language), as described by Abaurre (1979) and Guimarães and Nevins (2009),⁴ one of which is also found in Portugal: (1) Base Língua do Pê, Variety 1 Brazil⁵ Gloss xxxxxx a. si.ˈda.de si.pi.da.pa.de.ˈpe ‘city’ b. fe.ˈlis fe.pe.lis.ˈpis ‘happy’ Base Língua do Pê, Variety 2 Brazil Gloss a. si.ˈda.de pe.si.pe.da.pe.ˈde ‘city’ b. fe.ˈlis pe.fe.pe.ˈlis ‘happy’ Base Língua do Pê, Variety 3 Brazil Gloss a. si.ˈda.de si.pi.da.pa.de.ˈpe ‘city’ b. fe.ˈlis fe.pe.li.ˈpis ‘happy’ ⁴We adapted the data provided by the authors to the IPA. ⁵This variety is also found in Portugal. Language Documentation & Conservation Vol. 15, 2021 Playing with Language: Three Language Games in the Gulf of Guinea 222 In short, variety 1 inserts a harmonic syllable beginning with a bilabial unvoiced consonant and a copied rhyme [-pV(C)] after each syllable and stresses each ludling syllable.
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