A BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
N.N. OSIK
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A Brief History of Arunachal Pradesh A Brief History of Arunachal ·pradesh (From Earliest Times to 1823 A.D.)
~ki!NCE Ull Dr. N.N. OSIK CALL No. ~t AeCESSioN.No~········ -- -.... ~
OMSONS PUBLICATIONS T-7, RAJOURI GARDEN, NEW DELHI-110027. FIRST EDITION : 1996
ISBN : 81-7117-152-4
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Published by R. KUMAR OMSONS PUBLICATIONS T -7, Rajouri Garden New Delhi-110 027.
Laser Composed by : ENEN GRAFIKS CB-178, Ring Road, Naraina Now Delhi-110 028. Preface
"A tribe or a nation without history of its own have no identity''. This saying had been continuously striking in my mind since schooling days. I started collecting the history and myths of the Adis from my grand-father, late Akep Osik who was a great oral historian. I wrote a collection of the Adi myths in Assamese, TANI TARO HADHU when I was a mere student of Class-V standard and let Shri S.N. Talukdar, Headmaster go through the manuscript. Then I handed over the saD:le .manuscript to Shri Talom Rukbo, the then special officer who wrote a note to the then Addl. D.C. Pasighat to forward the manuscript to the DIPR NEFA Administration, Shillong in 1971 for publishing in book form. Though I was optimistic, my book, TAN! TARO HADHU was murdered and buried in the DIPR Office and as such, I published the English translation of my myths in Arunachal News/Review under various captions during my collegiate days. I attempted for the second to get my book, History of Arunachal Pradesh (From the earliest times to 1824) published through government and wanted forewords in 1988 without result. In this state of momentum, I happened to meet Mr. Ramesh Kumar in Western Book Depot, Guwahati in 1991 and half-heartedly showed the manuscript of my third book, British Relation With The Adis (1824-1947). He had been so nice and had gone through the manuscript in a wink and expressed his readiness to publish my book. True to the words of R. Kumar and to my extreme joy, Omsons Publications, New Delhi published my book and 'British Relations With The Adis (1824-1947)' appeared in 1992 which has become my first ever published book. After the publication of 'British Relations with the Adis (1824-1947)' I underestimated the importance of my book but to my utmost satisfaction, the book is gaining popularity in Arunachal Pradesh specially in East Siang district and even it has arrested the appreciation of the Secretary, U.S. Library of Congress who wrote to me personally. Since my virgin dreams of publishing book through Government of Arunachal Pradesh have been raped. I once again met Mr. Ramesh Kumar on 8-10-94 expressing my willingness to publish History of Arunachal Pradesh (From the earliest times to 1824) by the same publishers, Omsons Publications, New Delhi. The enthusiasm and happiness of Mr. Ramosh Kumar had no limit when he told me that the History of Arunachal Pradesh is a subject in Arunachal University, without any systematic study materials and he directed his younger brother," Mr. S. Kumar to stop other works and to devote to the publishing of History of Arunachal Pradesh (From the earliest times to 1824) in the best interest of the student communities of Arunachal Pradesh. Completion ofthe book would have been delayed due to my heavy loads of administrative burden if my brothers like Mr. Odang Osik and Torik Osik who are studying in J.N. College, Pasighat did not put much pressure on me for their notes on history of Arunachal Pradesh. My wife, Mrs. Ponung Osik had been a constant source of inspiration to me who always tried to keep me happy and in good humour so that I make writing mood. I did not encounter disturbances from my sons Mr. Gangkin Osik, Kadum Osik and first daughter, Miss. Mumtak (Pcbika Osik) a~ they arc staying in the missionary boarding schools. But my last daughter Miss Pinti Osik gave me much haraH:;ment who used to sit beside me snatching my pen and talking a lot whenever I was on writi~g table. Dr. Tamo Mibang, Reader and Head, Department of History, Arunachal University gave me much ·encouragement by providing a photostat copy of his article "Migration of the Adis" as he is aware of the fact that the only history book on Arunachal Pradesh is a small book, by L.N. Chakravarty, Director (Retired) of Research Department, Arunachal Pradesh namely, Early History of Arunachal Pradesh, but the book does not provide any study materials on the ancient and mediPv~l part of the history of Arunachal Pradesh. Miss Miti Yirang, LDC of my Office have typed out the rough manuscript. Shri Toni Ratan, Chief Librarian, Shri Tarak Mize, District librarian and Shri Jotom Borang, District Librarian gave a1e moral boost as they assured me to purchase the bulk of my book for libraries in the state.
Dr. N.N. Osik APCS (I) Sub-Divisional Officer, Ruksin.
Acknowledgment
I acknowledge my sincere gratefulness to Shri Teb0m Bam (Commissioner), Prof. M.L. Bose, Sri S.C. Debnath (CO), Taram Darang, Jingkun Yirang, Taring Nyigang, B.L. Dey for the moral encouragement that I received from them.
Contents
Preface Acknowledgment I. INTRODUCTION 1 THE LAND - GEOGRAPHY AND ITS INFLUENCE - CLIMATE- FLORA- FAUNA- THE PEOPLE :Their Language and the Race; Their Original Home; Their Migration- RELIGION AND CULTURE : Art and Crafts; Festivals; Dances - SOCIAL ORGANISATION - POLITICAL ORGANISATION - ECONOMY : Agriculture; Trade; Industry; Fairs. II. ANCIENT PERIOD 15 EXTENT OF ANCIENT ARUNACHAL PRADESH SOURCES OF ANCIENT HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH : Stone Evidence; Archaeological Evidence; Literary Evidence- MATI I INTRODUCTION HE ersewhile North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) which attained the status of an Union Territory on T January 20, 1972 and was renamed Arunachal Pradesh achieved full-fledged Statehood on February 20, 1987 amidst much rejoicing. Its capital, Itanagar is located in Papum Pare district which was once a seat of historical importance and Ita Fort in Itanagar testify it. THE LAND Arunachal Pradesh, Tho land of rising sun situated in the north eastern part of India is nearly 84,000 sq.km in area and has a long international border with Bhutan to the west (160 K.M) China to the north and north-east (1,030 KM) and Burma (Myanmar) to the east (1440 KM). It also stretches from snow-capped mountains in the north to the plains of Brahmaputra valley (Assam) in the south. Arunachal Pradesh is the largest state, areawise, in the north-east states of India, even larger than Assam which is the most populous. It is a land of lush green forest, deep river valleys and beautiful plateaus. The land is mostly mountanious with Himalayan ranges along the northern borders criss-crossed with mountain ranges running north south. These divide the state into five river valleys namely, the Kameng, the Subansiri, the Siang, the Lohit and the Tirap. All these rivers are fed by snows from the Himalayas and countless rivers and rivulets. The other 2 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH important rivers are, Namjangchu, Tawangchu, Papum, Pare, Siyom, Simang, Tsering, Yamne, Sisar, and Dibang. The mightiest of these rivers is Siang, called Tsang-po in Tibet (China), which becomes Brahmaputra after it is joined by the Dibang and the Lohit in the plains of Assam. GEOGRAPHY AND ITS INFLUENCE Arunachal Pradesh is full of high mountains and dense forests which have prevented the intermingling and inter-communication between the tribes living in different river valleys of the state. Isolation imposed by geography has led over twenty six major tribes with several dialects to live and flourish with their distinct identities and culture which find expression in faith, belief, song, dance and dress. Amidst the highly rugged terrain, there are green forests and plateaus. The Apatani plateau in Lower Subansiri district is the most beautiful one. Tawang is also becoming a tourist attraction with its scenic beauties. If the road communication of Arunachal Pradesh is properly developed and tourism department had taken proper care, Arunachal Pradesh can become the second Switzerland of the world. Arunachal Pradesh is also richly endowed with natural resources such as, dolomite, graphite, lime stone, marble, coal, oil, natural gases and hydro-electric potentialities. If the sleeping giant of natural resources of Arunachal Pradesh is awaken, properly explored and put into use it will certainly speedy the face of rapid development and economic prosperity of the state. CLIMATE 'I'he climate varies from hot and humid in the foot hills with heavy rainfall. It becomes progre~sively cold as one moves northward to higher altitude. FLORA Trees of great size, plentiful climbers and abundance of cane and bamboo make Arunachal Pradesh evergreen. INTRODUCTION 3 Tropical rain forests are to be found in the foot hills and the hills in the east on the border with Myanmar. Northern most border is covered with alphine forests. In lower altitudes the common trees of economic interest are the holok (Terminalia Myriocarp), borpat (Ailanthus grandis), walnut (Juglan Razia), nahor (Mesua Ferrea), hulong (Dipterocarpus macrocarpus), gondhsori (Cinnamomum Cecicodaphne) etc. In the higher altitudes oak (Quercus) and chestnut (Castanopsis) grow abundantly. FAUNA The wild life of Arunachal Pradesh is equally rich and varied. Elephants and tigers are abundantly found in the foot hill areas. The leopards and jungle cats are quite common in the territory. The white brown gibbon in Tirap and Lohit districts while red pandas and musk deer in the higher altitude are found. The mithun (Bos Frontails) a semi-domesticated animal which costs from Rs. 8000/- (Rupees eight thousand) toRs. 12,000/- (Rupees twelve thousand) only is the most precious possession of the people of Arunachal Pradesh. This animal has religious significance and intimate relation with the socio-economic life of the people. Traditionally, Tho mithun is a unit of wealth and allowed to move freely in the jungle till it is brought home either for meat on festival occasions and marriage or for sale or barter. Other animals found in Arunachal Pradesh are wild boar, monkey, langur, civet, wild goat, Himalayan black bear, bat, squirrel, porcupine and barking deer. There are inmumberable species of birds, butterflies and reptiles, and Arunachal Pradesh as a whole is a rich hunting ground for naturalist. Amongst the birds are the green magpie, treepie, greytit and sultantit, parrot-bill, various laughing thrush, babbler, sipia, siva, rosefinch, green and imperial pheasant, bulbul, cuckoo, shrike, minivet, forktail, redstart, flycatcher, warbler, munia, finches, martin, swallow, wagtail, pippit, flower peeker, sunbird, pitla, broad-bill, wood-pecker, barbet, bee-eater, parakeet, t.rogon, oak, hawk, eagle, dove, pigeon, jungle fowl, 4 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH pattridge, snipe, sand-piper and duck. Arunachal Pradesh is also the happy home of the great Indian Hornbill with an extra-ordinately large beak. The white winged wood duck, a rare endangered species, has been sheltered in Namdapha National Park. Reptiles include various species of lizards and snakes. Snakes vary from harmless species to d(;ndly vipers. Amongst the poisonous varieties are the cobr:1, King cobra, pit viper and krait. THE PEOPLE Arunachal Pradesh is the home of 26 major tribr;:; such as the Monpas, Mijis, Akas, Sherdukpcns, Sulungs, Bagnis, Nishis, Apatanis, Hill Miris, 'l'agins, Adis, Membas, Khambas, Mishings, Idus, Mijus, Taraons, Khamtis, Singphos, Lisus, 'fangsas, Nocktcs, Wanehus and Shyams. The population of Arunachal Pradm;h is 8.65 lakhs according to Census, 1991 and is scattered owr 12 towns and 3649 villages. Most of these tribes ethnically belong to same stock tracing their descent from a common ancestor "Abo Tani" and a same mother "Pedong Nanc/" (i) Their Language and the Race : Linguistically, Arunachalese are the Tibeto-Burman speakers of upper Assam group. Racially, they belong to the 'l'ibeto-ChinesP family of Mongoloid Origin. 1 (ii) Their Original Home : Original home of the Tibeto-ChinPse races is the north-western China between the upper courses of the Yang-tse and of the IIoang-ho rivPr And from that point successive waves of immigrants cntC'red north east India.2 The early waves entPn~J Arunachal Pradesh or north east India in about 2000 B.C. (iii) 1'heir Migration: The Arunachalese might haw first migrated from their cradle land on the courses cd· the Yang-tse and Hoang-ho towards the headwatprs L·f the lrrawady and of the Chin Wind.3 Here, the Aka:-:. Shyams, Tangsas, Noktes and the Wanchus might haw followed the course of Tirap river and entered Arunaehal Pradesh, for the Akas claim their original home to Assam and trace their ancestry to Ban Raja of Sonitpur (Tezpurl. 1 INTRODUCTICN 5 The Tangsas regard a hill called Masoi Sinrapum, which is supposed to be somewhere in the east beyond Burma (Myanmar)5 as their original home. Then they migrated to various places where they live at present, crossing over difficult hills and valleys. As such, Myanmar is the original home of the Tangsas, Nocktes, Wanchus, Shyams and the Akas. The other tribes followed Lohit and one of the tributaries of Salween and Irrawady towards Rima. Here, the Taraons, Mijus, Digarus, and the Idus commonly known as the Mishimis must have followed the course of Lohit and Dibang rivers and spread over to the present habitats. The Idus claim their ancestry from Rukma one of the five sons of King Bhismak of Vidarbha (modern Roing area ofDibangvalley) while the ancestry ofDigarus, Taraons, Mijus etc. is ascribed to prince Shisu Pal of Sedi (modern Tezu area). The remaining cognant tribes pushed on from Rima ::md followed the course a river which the Adis remember as Nyalum Siang which is Zayul, one of the tributaries 11f Lohit river. Here thPy stayed for some tim£>. This is the region where the DOKPUN (y£>11ow bPads) and PONGKU (blue and green beads) so highly prized by the Adis are reported to have manufactured in plenty.6 After Sojourn in Zayul valley they started on a track along the Chindruk river. The river led them to the high pass called Dasingla in China or Dajing Ego in Adi. They crossc>d it and came upon Po river which the Adis call ~nmgong Siang. This is a large tributary of the Tsang-po (Siang) which flows through the area known to the Adis as the country of the Taros. The Taro country may be taken the area around Showa monastery in North Eastern Tibet (China) where Tsang-po river girdles the Namche Barwa range.7 Here, Tani (ancestor of Tani group) and Taro (ancestor of the Taros in China) lived together for some time. The Adis call the Taros "The brothers" they descended from a common mother named Pedong Nane. In course of time, Nibo (Tani) and Robo fTaro) came into 6 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH conflict on issue of division of wealth and treasure. The Taros are no other than the Tibetans. The Adi legend transmitted through Solung Aabang (an elaborate narration on history and evolution of mankind) tells us that Tani though physically weak was intelligent and clever. He also possessed magic power with which he could change himself into any form and could remain invisible. On the other hand, Robo Posa though physically tough and strong was a fool and dull-headed. The same Aabang narrates that Tani with his clever tricks, won over Robo in the struggle and became master of tho treasure, wealth and the cultivable land of the world. The Aabang further tells us that Robo Pasa, the fool succeeded in long run in stealing the magic power from Nibo, became invisible and started harassing Tani. Eventually, tho descendants of Tani viz. Adis, Apat.anis, Bagnis, Idus, Khawas (Buguns), Mijis, Mishings, Monpas, Nishis, Sherdukpens and the Tagins had to leave Po valley or Kham Province of China to avoid the oppression of the Taros (the Tibetans). Accordingly, the Buguns, Mijis, Monpas, Sherduk pens and the Sulungs followed the course ofKameng river and the Tawangchu rivers and came over to present habitats. The Monpas are said lo have first migrated Lo Bhutan and then to Tawang and Upper Siang. The Apatanis, Bagnis, Hill Miris, Nishis and tho Tagins followed the course of Subansiri river and started frequenting over the present habitats. The Adis and Mishings followed the course of Siang river and occupied Siang valley. The Mishings ultimately left Siang valley in preference to the plains of Assam to avoid the Adi brothers. Dr. Tamo Mibang, a Reader in Arunachal University in his article "Migration of the Adis" published in Arunachal Review (July 1991-April 1992 issue) has furnished two probable causes of the migration of Adis. He says that the consolidation of Tibetan power under the Yarlung dynasty and secondly, the introduction of INTRODUC'l10N 7 Buddhism as state religion in seventh century A.D. caused uprising in the Central Tibet during the early part of 7th century A.D. Further, King Shrong-Tsan Gampo annexed Myang territory by means of conquest which is remembered by the Adis as Mihum-Miyang land and these two events hastened the movements of the Adis towards the southern direction.8 Verrier Elwin also has furnished one probable reason for the migration of the tribes. He reports that when the Mongol leader Chengis Khan's descendant Godam, who was Governor of Kansu region of China, invaded Tibet in 1239 A.D. looting and killing everything before him, some trilws of the Kham region of Tibet descended on the southern slopes of the Himalayan ranges.9 Since the emigration of the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh has already taken place in succession in early period of history, the versions of Dr. Tamo Mibang and VPrrier Elwin are tenable and applicable to the later emi!,'Tanls only. The latest emigrants into Arunachal Pradesh are the Khamtis and Singphos. The Khamtis began to migrate to Arunachal Pradesh from Khamli-long or Bor Khamti in the east of present Lohit district, and to the north of Burma (Myanmar), somewhere in the eighteenth century A.D. 10 The Singphos followed them from north Burma (ii) Festivals : The festivals are in essential part of the socio-cultural life of the people. The festivals having connection with agriculture and celebrated with ritualistic gaiety either to thank God for the providence or to pray for bumper harvest. Some of the important festivals are Mopin and Solung of the Adis, Lossar of Monpas and Sherdukpens, Boori Boot of Hill Miris, Dree of Apatanis, Si-Donyi ofTagins, Nyolwm ofNishis, Reh ofidu Mishimis etc. Animal sacrifice is a common ritual in most festivals. (iii) Dance:-; : Dances forms a vital element in the zest and joy of living of the tribals. They vary from highly stylished religious dance dramas of the Buddhists to the material steps and colourful performances of the Nocktes and Wanchus. Among the Adis, dance and evolved almost into an art form mainly for entertainment and recreation. The 'Ponung' dance of Adis is performed by teams of young girls in perfect rhythmic union. Similar group dances in colourful costumes are performed by the Nishis and Tagins of Lower Subansiri and Upper Subansiri districts. SOCIAL ORGANISATION The tribes of Arunachal Pradesh have some common social features. The social organisation among them without any exception is patrilineal. The oldest male member is regarded as the guardian of the family. The marriage is usually negotiated and the groom has to pay a bride-price to the guardian of his wife. The members of the tribe marry within it, but members of a clan outside it. The polygamy is permitted but monogamy is the usual practice. The polyandry is restricted to only some Adi tribes and Monpa tribes and this is practically dying out. The women, in general, enjoy a good deal of respect in the society. The slavery existed till the British period. But the condition of the slaves was not so bad. Only the marriage between a slave and a free man was looked upon with disfavour. There is no casteism and racialism in any tribal community though social grades existed. Every tribe has club houses or dormitories where youths are trained in civic duties. The tribal disputes aro resolved in the meetings of the village elders. The youths 10 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH used to sleep in the dormitories in the night. The tribal dormitories served some other useful purposes as well. If the village was in danger. and the youths were required to be mobilised to face the emergency, then the youths from the dormitories could be given instructions quickly. In Tirap and Siang districts, separate dormitories for girls existed. These dormitories served as meeting places for youths to select their marriage partners. These were the dormitories where the young girls were given training in songs and dances by the elder girls. The position of women in Arunachal Pradesh is respectable but not very high. The system of polygamy, particularly among the Nishi and Mishimi tribes has lowered their position, and sometimes wives are forsaken without being divorced. In spite of laxity in sex relationship, prostitution is practically unknown in Arunachal Pradesh. Ordinarily, the women lead a busy life, helping the menfolk in all walks of life. They wake up early in the morning and prepare meals for the family. Taking their morning meal, they proceed to the fields carrying their midday meal and drinks. They work in the fields and return home in the evening. Again, they cook the meal for the night. Women take part in folk dance and the entertainment of the guests is their privilege. POLITICAL ORGANISATION The people of Arunachal Pradesh have highly ordered and organised system of functioning in their villages. Each tribe or clan or vi !I age has its own head styled as Gam or Gaonbura. All matters relating to the community as a whole are decided at the village level. But the management of the internal affairs of the village or clan and its neighbours is vested in the village council which consists of the elders of the village. In such a village council, all members have equal powers and each such council is independent of all external influences. The most conspicuous of these village councils is the traditional village panchayat body of an Adi village locally known as Kebang. Its members, known as Kebang Abus, are chosen for their experience, ability and capacity to iNTRODUCTION 11 present and decide cases according to the traditional customs and conventions of the tribe. The Kebang controls the entire village activities and punishes those who deviate from the right path. In settling disputes the view points of both the parties are taken into account after a careful hearing. Inter~village disputes are settled in the meetings of inter-village council known as Banggos. All the villages are divided into several groups for the purpose such as Bogong Banggo, Legong Banggo, Yapsing Banggo, Yabak Banggo etc. which we may call Block Council. The Banggos are composed of all the Gams of member villages and such other membe"S as have distinguished themselves in kebang meetings and a secretary known as Banggo Seketeri. Money collected in Banggos as fines are spent for the welfare of the village under the Banggo. The inter-Banggo disputes are settled in the meeting of the institution known as Bogum Bohang (District Council) which is temporarily created for a particular case with mC:'mhers of all the Banggos and some distinguished persons who do not have any interest in the dispute and are impartial. Thus, Adi kebang looks after the administration of justice in the society by settling all matters of dispute. Similar such self governing institutions t'!xist among other tribes. They are variously called as Jong among the Sherdukpens, Mel among the Akas, Bullang among the Apatanis and so on. ECONOMY (i) Agriculture : Jhum cultivation known as 'slash and burn' is the traditional cultivation of the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh. Wet-rice cultivation and the terrace cultivation are also prevalent among some tribes. The :\1onpas, Khambas and the Membas practice terrace cult ivntion. The wet-rice cultivation is popular among the :\dis, Apatanis, Khamtis, Singphos, Nocktes and the Tangsas. The Monpas, Membas and the Khambas plough thf'ir fields with yak or mithun and the tribes practicing wPt-rice cultivation employ cattle for ploughing their fields like tlw people of the plains. 12 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH All tribes grow paddy, maize, millet and vegetable of different varieties. The most popular and widely grown vegetable is gram which is grown in abundance all over the hills and is a common item of food of many people. The Aids and Mishimis grow tobacco, cotton; and some barley is also raised in some places. The Wanchus and Nocktes grow tapioca and cotton. The domestic animals are pig, cow and mithun. The Monpas, Membas and the Khambas keep horse and very fond of them. But th0 mithun is, by far the most important and valuable domestic animal and usually the yardstick of wealth of the rich. There are three kinds of ownerships of land - personal land, clan land and village land. The land which is held in individual ownership and is inherited through the father is personal land. The land which is utilised by different villages of a particular clan for burial or grazing purposes is clan land and the land on the fringe>s of villages where there are forests providing the villagers with fire-wood, canes, roots, herbs and also for hunting or fishing is the village land or community land. The Apatanis and Monpas who are scarsml of lnnd and practice permanent or terrace cultivation have strong attachment to personal lands. The individual's status in society is determined by his possession of land. The trilws who practice jhuming hold the agricultural land in common and village council allocates to each individual family a plot of land for its use in each clearing. Th<~ family enjoys private property till it moves away for a fresh site. (ii) Tracie : Almost all the tribes grow and produce all that are necessary for them and yet barter trade IS quite familiar. The Mishimis and Khamtis arc inveterate traders. The Akas and Monpas carry on extensive trade and act as middlemen for their neighbours. The Adis trade with their brethen living behind them. What the tribes do not produce and require to produce from outside is salt. A small quantity of clothes, utrnsils and agricultural implements and some ornamentRI h<·ad" INTRODUCTION 13 were other items that they purchased at the fairs. They also sale or purchase gold, yaktails, wool and woollen blankets, ponny, sheep, musk, ginger, mishimiteeta, wax, honey, chillies, spices, madder, walnuts, rock salt and onmges. Rubber and elephant tusk wore at one time objects of a prosperous and lucrative trade. But the introduction of synthetic rubber and indiscriminated tapping of rubber trees brought rubber traffic to an end, and the government's policy of wild life preservation had stopped elephant catching. (iii) Industry : The industry existed in small scale among the tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh. The cottage industry to produce the house hold requirements existed among all tribes. marketable surplus of cottage industry products consisted of wooden-musks and utensils, carpet and tribal dresses. In addition there were a little handmade paper from the Monpa tribe. The cotton blanket of artistic design call GADO (jim), the coats from the Mishimis and at one Lime artistic jewelry inlaid with stones from the Khamtis wore in {,'Teat demand. The Nishis produced fine hats from rnne and bamboo hut they did not have a market. 'l'h~ Adis manufactured enrlhf.'rn pots known as KEDE PEKlr\G, dans and amulets. (iv) Fairs : Inside the hills there were practically no daily or weekly bazars or hats where the tribal prwple could sell their products and purchase their requirements. Tho people went from house to house to sell or purchas(~ things. Durmg the medieval period the tribes of upper regions had barter trade with the Tibetans to great extent. The tribes inhabiting the foot hill areas had trade relations with the Ahoms. With the articles purchased from the Tibet and Assam, the trihal people made exchanges and the trade flourishPd. During the Ahom times Rangdoi market at the confluence of Siang, Dibang and Lohit rivers was famous where the tribal people used to come down for barter. Such similar market at Cdalguri or Doimarn in the Darang district of Assam \vas famous. In the latter penod, some trading shops W('re set up by t radosnwn who, with official licpnse, wt>nt for business BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH inside the inner line. In the foothills, outside the inner line, there were some weekly marts where people from outside the hills went from lime to time for marketing purposes. But the best time and occasion for purchase among the tribal community were the fairs that were regularly held among the foothills either inside the inner line, as was the case with the Sadiya fair, or outside the inner line as at Udalguri or Doimara. It was at these fairs that the British Government also paid the posa or stipend payable to the tribes who with the money thus obtained or purchased their requirements from the fairs. Hero at these fairs again the tribal people sold their surplus products and purchased their annuul requirements. Refereuces 1. Grierson, G.A., Linguistic Survey of India, Vol-!, Part-I, P.41. 2. Gri<'rson, G.A., lhid 3 Grierson, G.A., Ibid. 4. Gait, E., A History uf Assam, P.17. 5 Dutta, Dr. P.C., The Tangsas, p.2. 6. Bhattacharyo?e, T.K., Adz Migratwn (Published in RESARUN, 1975), p.4l. 7. Bhattacharje>e, T K., Ibid. 8. Mibang, Dr. T., Migration of the Aclzs I published in Arunachal Review in .July, 1991 -April, 1992. 9. Elwin, V., North Ea.ot Front1rr, P.4 10. (iugoi, L, The Thai Khamtis, p.XIV. 11 Qtlul<>d from B"~'''• M L, British Policy in thr NEFA, p.17. ... . ' II ANCIENT PERIOD EXTENT OF ANCIENT ARUNACHAL PRADESH RUNACHAL PRADESH remained an unknown hilly n•brions of ancient China in the north, ancient A PragjyoLishpur of Kamrupa (Assam) in the south, an<'ic·nl l\lyanmar in the east and ancient Bhutan in the !';!!'(. 1\.dik:l Purnna c.lcscrihcs Upper Lohit valley as l'r.tl>hu Kutar and reft•rs Lo Sunabsiri valley as Prabhu :.Iount.dn. The early Assamcse Literature 'Rukmini I Lmm' id<·ntifit•s Dibang vallC'y as Vic.larbha and Bhismak i\a;.;-ar (l{oing arPa) as its CapiLal. 1 Sedi (Lower Lohit vallt·yl 11ourishcd as a contemporary kingdom ofVidarbha and it capital located at 'l'ezu.2 Kumar Haran describes Sunitpur as the kingdom of Banraja of ancient fame and its capital was modern Tezpur.:{ Arunaehal Pradesh is al:-:o kn:l\\ n .1s Saumar in ancient times. l\1egasthenus in ln:-: f.ll'•"liS 'Indika' re>fers to Arunachal Pradesh. Pliny 1l:-:t t't•nt ury AD) calls Arunachal Pradesh, Serica (Upper .\"sam • anJ refPrs to Arnue (Akasl and Abadi (Adi ). 1 Pt()l••my, in his geob'Taphy, refl'rs to Aminakai (Apatani) and S"ri,·a tUpper Assam or Arunarhal Pradesh).5 Tlw historian P.C. Choudhury includes Arunachal Pradt•sh in tlw ancient kingdom of Kmnrupa. According ID him .tnt'iPnt Kunrupa ineludod nhulan, Tibet, hilly :tl·•· ·" "f .\ssam. some portion of BPngal, Tripura and 16 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH Mymonsingh etc.6 However, Arunachal Pradesh necessarily did not include in the ancient Kamrupa nevertheless the Arunachal Pradesh formed one of the main con1ponents of the original inhabitants of Kamrupa empire. This evident from the fact of existence of independent and powerful Arunachalese kingdom like Vidarbha, Chudi and Sonitpur. The Yogini '!'antra also excludes Arunachal Pradesh from the Kampum empire. According to it, Kamrupa included tho whole of tt1e Brahmaputra valley, Bhutan, Rangpur district (Bangladesh), Coach Behar and probably Garo Hill8 (Meghalaya).7 Under above aq,ruments we can rrnsonably surmise that lhe anci1mt Arunachal Pradesh was probably either a friendly country of Kamrupa or acknowledged thP supremacy of ancient Kamrupa for, the Kiratas and Chins (Arunachalesel aided king Bhagadatta of Kamrupa in the Mahabharata war which we will discuss later on. Thus, The territo1·y of ancient Arunachal Pradesh apparently extended upto Pemako vallPy (China! in tlw north, Brahmaputra river in the south, Myanmar in the east and Bhutan in the west. SOURCES OF ANCIENT HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH The anci0nt history of Arunachal Pradesh is shroud1·d in mystery. There is scanty of information throwing light on the history of Arunachal Pradesh. The dirt of hbtorical materials has been a vexed problem for thr hist c11·ians b) reconstruct the ancient history of Arunachal Pradt:~h. There> are some limited sources which throw a dun light on the ancient history of Arunachal Pradesh I ,Pt u,-, discuss them one by one. 1. Stone Evidence StonC>s bearing foot marks of man, animal and bird, stone axes and oLher artifacts found in Arunachal PraJ.~c.h carry historiC'al significance for study. ANCIENT PERIOD 17 2. Archaeological Evidence Archaeological excavations and the historical remains at Bhismak Nagar in Dibang valley, Malinithan in West Siang valley, Ita fort in Papum Pare valley and Bhalukpong in West Kameng valley of Arunachal Pradesh supply historical documents for re-constructing the history of ancient Arunachal Pradesh. 3. Literary Evidence (i) Puranas : The Puranic legends tell us about the story of Prahalada and his tyrannical father, King Hiranakyahipur who was probably the ruler of Subansiri valley. It also tells us about Daksha, the king of Upper Lohit valley and father of Parvati who was married to Lord Shiva. We cannot accept the Puranic legends as historical materials but their significance also cannot be discarded either. (ii) Epics :The epic, Ramayana refers to the material condiLions of the people of Arunachal Pradesh. Mahabharata tell us about the participation of Kirata and the Chin soldiers apparently the Arunachalese in the battle of Kurushetra under the banner of king Bhagadatta of Kamrupa (Assam). Thus, Mahabharata epic connects Arunachal Pradesh with ancient India. (iii) Rukmini Haran : Rukmini Haran is a popular legend in Assam which tell us that Lord Krishna of Dhwaraka (Gujarat) abducted Rukmini, the most beautiful princess of Vidarbha (Dibang valley) and sister ofRukma on the day of her wedding ceremony with prince Shisupal of Chedi (Tezu area). Lord Krishna then married Rukmini according to Gandharva custom admist the much rejoicing and on the way back to Dhwaraka rested at Malinithan. Lord Shiva and Parvati received Lord Krishna and Rukmini with garland of choicest flowers. Here, Lord Krishna addressed Parvati as Malini (mistress of the flowers) and the place came to known as Malinithan. (iv) Kumar Haran :The legend, Kumar Haran tell us that Usha, the most beautiful daughter of Banraja of 18 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL Pt~AllESH Sonitpur abducted Aniruddha, the grandson of Lord Krishna with the help of her friend, Chitralekha and they married according to Gandharva custom without the knowledge of Bdnraja. Aggrievnted Banraja arrest t-d Aniruddha and kept the prince in confinement whil:h resulted in fierce fighting between Banraja and Lord Krishna. Many soldiers were killed in the battle and the human blood flowed like a river and the place came to known as Tezpur (City of blood). Since, the progeny of the Akas of West Kameng district is attributed to Banraja, the legend of Kumar Haran is important in linking the history of ancient Sonitpur with ancient India. (v) Records of Foreign Writers : Megasthenus in his hook 'Indikn' refers to tho material condition of Arunachal Pradesh. Pliny (First century A.D.) refPrs to Arnulae (Akas) and Abadi (Adi) and describes the economic prosperity of Serica (Upper Assam that is Arunachal Pradesh). Ptolemy mentioned Aminakai (Apatani) and his geography describes physical condition of Serica. The works of British writers of early British period serve as the pivotal sources of information to re-construct the history of ancient, medieval and modern period of Arunachal Pradesh. MATERIAL CONDITION OF ANCIENT ARUNACHAL PRADESH Mnhnbhnrata states that Arunachal Pradesh differed much in ils material condition, for some Arunachalese were civilized and open to friendly intercourse and others were cruel and clad in skins, lived on fruit and roots. Ramnyana dc>scribes the inhabitants of Arunachal Pradesh as Kiratas wearing thick top-knots. The Adi tradition says that in the remote part of history, agriculture was unknown to men and hnd to use stones as tools and weapons and lived on LINI (a saltish rock), fruits, and roots (sweet potatoes). The men wore animal skins and women put a course skirt made of 'l'AMI (grass fibre). These indicate that the Arunachalege inhabitating interior regions were uncivilized. On the ANCIENT PERIOD 19 other hand, the Arunachalese living in the plains were civilized and founded powerful kingdoms. The existence of such kingdoms like Vidarbha, Chedi and Sonitpur testify it. Tani Monkey War The first war ever recorded in the memory of the> Adis is Tani's (Ancestor of Tani group of AP) war with the monkeys. Cause of the War : It was Ninur, one of the kins of 'rani who manufactured metallic plates, vessels, swords, daos, knifes and the arrow heads. The monkeys used to help Ninur in his smithy wvrks and in return obtained arrow heads from Ninur. One day, Ninur was brutally ki lied by some unknown murderers. Tani was roaming about to find out the killer. One day, Tani happened to see a shooting competition organised by the monkeys. One of the monkey's arrow got the target and the victor exclaimed with joy saying. "The arrow got its mark as tile like arrow got Ninur and killed him." Tani's anger grew no limit and he declared war against the monkeys. The monkeys attacked Tani with the bow and arrows and killed many of his kith and kins. Tani was utterly helpless since he had to fight against the powerful monkey forces with swords and daos only. As such, Tani submitted and pleaded the monkeys to end the war to which the monkeys gave a positive response. Downfall of the Monkeys : The monkeys were all powerful and incessantly harassed the men by attacking with the bows and arrows. The men were weaker and had to adopt some tricks to deal with the monkeys. So, the men sent a peace delegation and offered the monkeys a treaty of permanent peace and tranquillity. The Monkeys accepted the offer of friendship and to ratify the treaty agreed upon, the men proposed for a fishing expedition of both parties to a rive;. Accordingly, the men engaged t l10mselves in blocking and diverting the course of the rivPr with leaf, earth and sand and requested the monkeys to catch the fishes. The river soon dried up and the fishes 20 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH started fluttering and jumping for water. The monkeys who could not fathom the sinister plot of men, were overwhelmed with joy and jumped to catch the fishes. The monkeys were merrily catching fishes singing and dancing when the men released the water. The mighty current of the river carried off the monkeys and all were drowned except a female monkey. The female monkey went searching for husband for many days without any result. One day, she laid on the ground and offered prayer to God to provide her with a husband. The God responded to her prayer and a Tok (Bamboo specicies) leaf fell into her vagina and made friction. She conceived and gave birth to a male baby. Out of their union, the generation of the monkeys continued. This legend although cannot be taken into historical evidence testifies the truth of the Ramayana epic which in Kishkindya Parva describes that Ramachandra, the prince of Ayodhya fought with Ravana, the king of Shri Lanka and rescued his wife, Sita with the help of monkey soldiers whose king was Sugriva and the commander was Hanuman. The Tani monkey war must had took place during the Ramayana period. Nibo Robo War The second war fought by the ancestors ofTani group is known as Nibo-Robo war which is still fresh in the minds of the Adis. Causes : Tanis found Pemako valley which is known to the Adis as Engo Takar, the land of plenty and prosperity more congenial to their habits for it resembled in climate, flora and fauna their original home in tho Salween-Mekong basin. Here they remained for a long time, probably about 200 years. Here they brought paddy and other food grains from Kine Nane, the Goddess of grains who Jived in SUTKING KEDENG (under world) probably Assam and started jhum cultivation. They also brought the mithun from Dadi Bote, the God of animals and took to domestication of the animals. They also ANCIENT PERIOD 21 celebrated Solung and other festivals to propitiate Kine Nane (Goddess of grains) and Dadi Bote (God of animals) for bumper harvest and more domestic animals heralding the religious life of the people. Solung Aabang (a narration relating to history and creation) which they enlarged and altered received its final form here. New stories and myths were also composed. Karduk and Karpung the brother and sister were the original composers of song and dance. In short, it was a period of prosperity, contentment and literary activities. Here Tani lived with his elder brother, Robo (ancestor of the Taros or Tibetans) as they were born to same parent, Yidum Bote (father) and Pedong Nane (mother). In course of time, population grew rapidly and shortage of property was experienced leading to the conflict between Tani and Taro on issue of division of land and the property which ultimately culminated into open warfares. 1. Archery Contest : Two sons of Yidum Bote and Pedong Nane, namely Pedong Doro (Robo or Taro) and Doni (Nibo or Tani) engaged in an archery contest for the ownership of AREM (metallic plates and vessels). The condition was that the one, who's arrows get stuck to the plates would own them. Robo, the elder brother, as he was robust and strong, was proud of his strength and sure of his capacity to get the plates, pierced in and the arrows get stucked on. He pulled the bow and shot the arrow flew with enormous speed. Many have gone straight through the plates piercing. Many have broken the plates into pieces and many have slipped off with a small piece of the plates but none stucked to the plates. Robo yelled with anger and repeatedly shot at the plates with the same relative results. Nibo, weak and fragile compared to his elder brother then took some adhesive substance (gum) and put on the tip of the every arrow and shot at the plates with great care. Astonishingly, to the great dissatisfaction of Robo, every arrow Nibo shot got stuck up on the plates. As per condition Nibo won the plates and his descendants still own them. 22 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 2. Contest over the Possession of Land : Robo and Nibo entered into agreement that they should send the representatives to stake the claim for each of them. As per the terms of condition, Robo selected PEKU PENGAR bird, crow and the horn bill who could fly in great speed and to please them supplied lots of rice, meat and drink. On the other hand, Nibo selected PENGUM bird and who could not fly and provided a small quantity of grain as ration. While the representatives ofRobo were busy in eating and drinking, while the representatives of Nibo quickly finished their morning breakfasts and reserved all the cultivable and good lands. As such, the PEKU PENGAH. bird, crow and the horn bill who lately started, resrrved the uncullivable rocky u~rrain and mountains for Robo. 'I'he anger of Robo reached its climax when he came to know about what had happened. !Ie lost his temper and spited upon PEKU PENGAR and that is why the crest ofPEKU PENGAR bird has become white till today. 'I'hen, Robo with a char-coaled firewood hit the horn bill at its beak and that is the reason why the beak of horn bill is black ribboned one. He also poured powder of char coal all over the body of crow and so the bird (crow) became black. As a result of the contest, Nibo became the owner of cultivable land, the plains. On the other, the Tibetans, the descendants of Robo still occupy the uncultivable mountanious lands. 3. Contest over the Possession of Mithun : Nibo and Robo both agreed that they should plant one seedling each. The condition was that when the plant would grow up, they should make a rope out of it and tie the mithun. The one who ties mithun first could own the animal. Robo planted a cane seedling while Nibo planted a bamboo. To the great dismay ofRobo, Nibo's bamboo plant grew faster and the !atter made a rope and tied the mithun. That is why the descendants of Nibo are still possessing t.he mithun. 4. Course of Nibo-Robo War : In other contest too, Robo lost every times and therefore, he declared war ANCIENT PERIOD 23 against Nibo for final survival. In the war, all the evil spirits and animals sided Robo. Since Nibo was all alone in the war, Yidum Bote and Pedong Nane took pity on their son and requested Doying Bote (God of upper-world) to help poor Nibo. Then, Gumin Soyin (God of house-hold) came forward and volunteered himself to assist Nibo. Gumin Soyin was guarding the house of Nibo and Doying Bote employed the pig and fowl to guard the entrance of Nibo's house. Doying Bote also constantly gave advice to Nibo and explained to him about the strategies of the war. Then, Nibo's position was secure and safe. As a result, Robo and his allied forces could not attack Nibo and thus, Nibo-Robo war came to an end. Result: As a result of the Nibo-Robo war, Tani who was all alone had to leave the country and migrate southwards to avoid the •raros (Tibetans). Mahabharata War 'rhe great war of Mahabharata according to the famous historian Alexander Cuningham, took place in 1424 B.C. Most of the historians accept this year as the probable one. According to the epic, the Kauravas and Pandavas quarreled for the empire of India and they met in the field of Kurukshetra (near Delhi) for their final struggle. Bhagadatta, the king ofPragjyotisha (Assam) assisted the Kaura princes in the war along with his Kirata and Chin soldiers. The Mahabharata, specially in the chapter Maha Parva is full of praises for the heroic and daring deeds of Bhagadatta and his Kirata and Chin soldiers. It says that "The Kiratas, with hair done in pointed top-knot, pleasant to look upon, shining like gold, able to move underwater, terrible, veritable tigermen so are they found." The Kirata is the generic term applied to the dwellers of trans-Himalayas (north east India), Chin is the allies or kinsmen of Kiratas who were of Mongoloid extraction. The Adis of East Siang display the nearest resemblance to the Chins. The Kiratas mentioned in the Mahabharata BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH are the tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh and others of north east regions. The Apatanis, Bagnis and the Nishis still keep the same hair style till today as mentioned in the Mahabharata epic. ANCIENT ARUNACHAL KINGDOMS In the ancient period, Arunachal Pradesh was divided into petty states but prosperous and powerful. 1. Prabhu Pahar : In the legendary period, one Hiranakyahipur is said to have ruled Prabhu Pahar (God of mountain). It is believed that Subansiri hills of Arunachal Pradesh is the Prabhu Pahar kingdom of the legend. ' Iliranakyahipur was a very powerful king and even the king of Heaven, Indra was afraid of him. Being intoxicated with his prowess he became irreligious and tyrannical and ordered his subjects to worship him as god. But his son, Prahalada who was an ardent worshiper of Vishnu told his father that he (Hiranakyahipur) was not above the god and pleaded his father to worship Vishnu. The king was furious and attempted to kill his son several times but Vishnu saved His disciple in every time. At last, Vishnu took incarnation and killed the tyrannical king, Hiranakyahipur. 2. Prabhu Kuthar : Somewhere in the vicinity of Walong in Lohit district was the Prabhu Kuthar (God of axe) mentioned in the Kalika Purana. The legend has it that Daksha was the king of Prabhu Kuthar and he was very powerful. He had a daughter named Sati who married Lord Shiva against the wishes of her father. Once, Daksha performed a great sacrifice and invited all the gods, sages and his daughters except his eldest daughter, Sati and son-in-law, Shiva. However, Sati came to learn about the performance of the sacrifice through Narada. She further learnt from Narada that all her sisters with their husbands had gone to their father. Sati was very much eager to see his parents as well as his sisters. She proposed her husband, Lord Shiva for paying a visit to Prabhu Kuthar. But, Shiva who knew that they would not be well ANCIENT PERIOD 25 received by Daksha, told his wife Sati that they should not undertake the visit univited. At last, Sati took permission from her husband and journeyed to Prabhu Kuthar univited. True to Shiva's prediction, Sati found that her father was not happy at her arrival. Further she found that no necessary arrangement was made for the reception of Shiva although great care was taken to assign places of honour to all other gods. When she asked her father why Shiva was so much neglected by him, Daksha without making secret of his displeasure publicly abused Shiva. Then Sati, being ashamed of being the daughter of such ungrateful father like Daksha, took her seat on the ground, closed her eyes, meditated on Shiva and ended her life. Shiva, came to know about his wife and overcome by grief, destroyed Daksja's sacrifice. Then he wandered hither and thither in frantic sorrow carrying her dead body on his head. Brahma and other gods grew alarmed and approached Vishnu to put a slop to Shiva's penance and save the world from destruction. At first Vishnu requested Shiva to part with the dead body of Sati. At his refusal to do so, Vishnu cut the corpse of Sati (Parvati) to pieces with his discuss. The. head of Suti fell somewhere near Akashi Ganga. The tradition, identifies a waterfall, 5 km north west of Likabali in West Siang district as Akashi Ganga where the devotees come for a holy dip. 3. Vidarbha: In the Bhagavat Purana it is narrated that there was a king named Bhismak, who ruled in Vidarbha, which, according to the local tradition, is the country around Sadiya. According to ordinary Puranic accounts Vidarbha corresponds to the modern Berar, but this is not tenable. Bhismak's capital was called Kundina, a name which still survives in the Kundil river at Sadiya. About 35 km from Sadiya there are ruins of an extensive fort stated to be the remains of Bhismak's capital known as Bhismak Nagar. The walls of the protected are of no great height but they are well preserved. In the same locality there are four large tanks and the dilapidated -~ I I J I '. lc 1 r :. r' .. \ ~ ·r c.-~:_ "' •...... 26 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH brick foundations of what must have been, originally extensive buildings. Bhismak had five sons and a daughter named Rukmini. Krishna having heard of her paragon beauty was anxious to marry her, but her father had arranged to give her to another prince Sisu Pal. The prince of Chedi whose fort may still be seen a few kilometers the east of the one attributed to Bhismak. Rukmini secr£>tly sent news to Krishna and, on the day fh:ed for her marriage, the latter suddenly appeared and carried her off in his chariot. lie was pursued by the princes, who had come to witness the wedding, but Krishna defeated them and captured Rukma, the brother of Rukmini. On Rukmini's request, Krishna released Rukma but a as a token of punishmcmt he shaved Rukmu's head. Even today, the Idus obsC'rve this practice and claim their descent from Bhismak. The Chutiyas uf Assam also claim their descent, from Bhismak. H is not impossible l-hat they also descended from one of the five som~ of Bhismak. 4. Chedi : Sisu Pal was the prince of Chedi. It was adjacent to Vidarbha and extended upto the banks of Lohit river. Sisu Pal became a sworn enemy of Krishna of Dwaraka (Guj11rat) and was slain by him. The Digarus arc said to be LhP descendants of prince Sisu Pal. 5. Sonitpur : The first ruler of Sonitpur (modern 'l'ezpur) was Hnli. He had numerous sons, of whom Ban, the eldest succeeded him. Ban, had many sons and a daughter, Ushn by name. Usha was very beautiful and alLrncted the a I LPntion of Aniruddha, Krishna's grandson, who entered the heavily guarded caslle whPrc Usha was slaying and married her according to the Gandharva ceremony. He was seen and captured, after a valiant resistance, but was rescued by Krishna, who fought Ban in a great battle, which is said to have been fought on the site of what is now known as the Tezpur Bill. Banraja.'s is said to have been on the site now occupied by the Tezpur Court House. Numerous carved stones and frescoes are still to be seen in an old silted-up tank which is ascribed to his time, and another ~ank in ANCIENT PERIOD 27 the same neighbourhood still bears the name of Kumbhana, his prime minister. His grandson, Bhaluka made his capital at Bhalukpong, not far from Balipara at the foot of the Aka hills, where the remains of old fortifications are still visible. The Akas claim this prince as their progenitor. 6. Pragjyotisha : The Kalika Purana describes the inhabitants of Pragjyotisha or Kamrupa as the Kiratas with shaven heads and yellow skinned. The Kishkindya Kanda of Ramayana describes the people of Kamrupa as wearing thick top-knot. The Adis of East Siang, ldus of Dibang valley, Nokte-Tangsa-Wanchos of Tirap and the Nagas of Nagaland shave their heads till today and are yellow skinned. The Bangnis, Sulungs, Nishis, Apatanis and the Hill-Miris wear thick top-knot (called PODUM) evpn today. Most probably, the Arunachalese, Nagas, Bodos and the Garos formed the ancient population of Pragjyotisha. The earliest mentioned king of Pragjyotisha was Mahiranga Danah who was succcoded in turn, in direct line, by Hatak Asur, Snmber Asur and Ralna Asur. No dc·tails are given regarding these rulers but the appellations 'Danab' suggest that they were non-Aryans. These kings were succeeded by a ehief, called Ghatakasura (or Ghataka Kirat) who is described as the ruler of the Kiralas. Probably, he belonged to the same dynasty to which Hataka, Sambara and Ratna belonged. Ghataka was overthrown and slain by the fan10us N arakasura. Karakasura was the most powerful and prominent kmg of ancient Pragjyotisha. His name is associated with numerous legends. According to Kalika Purana, Naraka was born of the Mother Earth (Bhumi) by Vishnu, in his boar incarnation and was brought up by king Janaka of Videha (North Bihar). He became well-versed in the vedas and a devotee of great God Vishnu. He slew Ghataka, the king ofPragjyotisha with the help ofVishnu and occupied the throne. Naraka made Pragjyotishpur (modern Guwahati) his capital. There is a hill near Guwahati which is still known as the Narakasur hill. His kingdom 2H BRll!:J<' Hl::i'l'OH.Y 01'' AlW.NA~HAL .PH.ADESH extended from the river Karatoya in the west to the Dikrang in the east. Naraka settled the people of Aryan race in his kingdom after driving out the Mongolian Kiratas from the land. N arakasura was pious and was greatly favoured by Vishnu who taught him to worship the Goddess Kamakhya. Naraka was at first respectful to the Aryan gods and goddesses and protected the Aryans properly. But subsequently he became irreligious and asked Goddess Kamakhya to marry him. He came under the influence of Ban Asur, king of Sonitpur (modern Tezpur) and became proud. He ill-treated the Aryan settlers of Pragjyotisha and incurred displeasure of both Kamakhya and Vishnu. He was eventually slain by Vishnu in his boar incarnation who installed Bhagadatta, the eldest son of Naraka's four sons on the throne of Pragjyotisha. 7. Kalila Kingdom : A highly civilized Kalita Kingdom in the vicinity of Rima in Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh is said to have existed. The tradition says that once Parasurama swore to annihilate the Khyatrias. In order to save themselves from the persecution and extirpatation of Parasurama some Khyatrias fled to far north east and established a Kalita Kingdom. Amongst the followers of Sankardeva (16th century o\.D.), the great Vaishnavite reformers of Assam, there was a renowned person named Gopala Ata. In a prose biography of Sankardevn, the native place and genealogy of the Ala's family i~:~ inJicnlod as follows - The Ata's place of origin was in the country of the Kalitas (Kalita Dnsa). He belonged to Kala Ka!ita's family in the village of Ct:h-Kham-hat-ji-nai. Kala's son was Vasudeva. His son was Ilaridevu. His son was Sankarsana. His son was Naradova. His son was Kamadeva. Kamadeva's mother died and his father married again in the house of Hari Barkalita, a girl named Satya. Ata was one month old in his mother's womb, when his father died. Kamadeva performed the lt~st rites of his father and then demanded from his step-mother four hundred rupees of his father that had been in her safe keeping which she refused.The ANCIENT PERIOD 29 king's officers were also invited to the Panchayat where the demand was made. The mother seeing no alternative but to pay, fled the country through the high hills and big forests, through the settlements of the Abors, the Miris, the Carimati-Miris, and at the end of the fifteen day she reached Acama land"9 (The Kingdom of the Ahoms). The child in the mother's womb was born in 1514 A.D. during the reign of the Ahom king Cuhung Mung (1497-1539 A.D.). ARUNACHAL ON THE END OF ANCIENT PERIOD Ptolemy refers to the Aminakai (Apatani) and his geography states that Serica (Upper Assam) is bounded by on the east and the north by unknown hilly regions where canes are used for bridges.10 Interestingly, there are wonderful cane bridges in Arunachal Pradesh even today as vital means of communication. This reference indicates that the Arunachalese left the plains of Assam and retired to the hills. Causes of the Flight 1. We may recall that Naraka drove out the Mongolian Kiratas from Pragjyotisha and settled the people of Aryan race in the country. 2. Rukmini Harana also indicates that the Idus left the plains of Ancient Vidarbha in preference to the hills. According to the tradition, Krishna carried off Rukmini in his chariot and Rukma, the brother of Rukmini was furious. He chased Krishna and vowed not to return to the capital without Rukmini. But Rukma was defeated and his life was spared only at the entreaty of Rukmini. True to his words, Rukma along with followers took refugee in the northern hills (Dibang Valley). 3. The Adi tradition says that the tribes retired to the hills due to occurrence of epidemic and unfortunate incidents in the plains. 30 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 4. According to Yogini Tantra, once Yama lodged a complaint with Brahma saying that all those who lived in Kamrupa went to heaven because of the sacredness of the place and nobody went to his realm. Brahma, in turn, carried this complaint to Vishnu and together they met Siva. Siva agreed to look into the matter and ordered his consort, goddess, Ugra Tara and her hosts to drive away all the people of Kamrupa. In course of the drive, they laid hands on the sage, Vahistha who was meditating on Siva on the Sandhyacala. Vahistha grew furious and pronounced curse on Ugra Tara and her associates in these words. "0 you women, since you being a Varna (woman) are expelling me also, you will henceforth be worshipped according to Vamacara (left handed rites). Your hosts roming about like Mleccas will henceforth be degraded to the rank of Mleccas. Sinc::J Siva himself is anxious to see me off, he will henceforth receive only the worship of the Mleccas." Being always covered over with ashes and till advent of Vishnu all the Saivite scriptures (agamas) will be rarities. The curse had the immediate effect, Vedic rites were given up completely. Worship of gods and goddesses including Siva was conducted according to Vamar.ara rites. Animals ware slaughtered both at the alters of Siva and Ugra Tara temples. This was perhaps the beginning of the practice of animism amongst the tribal people of north east. DESCEND OF BRAHMAPUTRA The Brahma felt the need of a sacred river flowing through Kamrupa touching all Tantra 'Pithas' so that anybody taking bath in the river would get the benefit of all the sacred shrines. According to the legend, a river child was born from the womb of Amogha, the beautiful wife of the sage. Santanu who lived on the bank of Lohit Sarovar. The child is said to be the son of Brahma. The place where the child was placed after his birth became the source of the river and came to be known as the ANCIENT PERIOD 31 Brahma Kund (lake). The river which began to flow afterwards came to be known as the Brahmaputra or the Lohit-the Red river. Brahma Kund is in the mountains of Tibet and in the north west of Mount Kailash. But, according to the learned pandits of Assam, Brahma Kund or the sources of Brahmaputra river lies in the range of mountains beyond Nara country to the north east of Assam. Probably they refer to Lohit Sarovar where according to the legend, Parasurama brought the water of Brahma Kund. According to Sitaram Johri, Lohit Sarovar was evidently connected to Brahma Kund in former times by the river Tsang-po. But, the topographical upheavals caused by geological convulsions must have blocked the course of Tsang-po to Lohit Sarovar to the east and diverted to its main stream, the Siang, making the Tsang-po and Siang the same river.ll Manas Sarovar (Manas Lake) which is the source of Tsang-po or Siang river is the Brahma Kund of the legend. Reference 1. Gait, E., A History of Assam, P.15 2. Gait, Ibid 3. Gait, Ibid, p.17. 4. Acharyya, N.N., North East As Viewed By Foreigners (1985), p.l. 5. Acharyya, Ibid 6. Choudhury, P.C., History of Civilization of Assam, p.44. 7. Acharyya, Op. cit., p.l 8. Kakati, B.K, The Mother Goddess Kamakhya (Gauhati 1948), p.8. 9. Kakati, Ibid, p.57. 10. Choudhury, S. Dutta, The Ahoms and the Northern Tribes of NEFA (Published in NEFA Information, January 1970), p.l9. 11. Johri, Sitaram, Where India Bhutan-Burma Meet, p.l9. III MEDIEVAL PERIOD SOURCES OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY HERE is no shortage of historical source material since the advent of the famous Ahom to Assam. The T main sources of information to reconstruct the history of medieval Arunachal Pradesh are mentioned below :. 1. Ahom Chronicles : The Ahoms who ruled Assam for long six hundred years were in the habit of recording important events of contemporary time. Besides the kings, the Ahom priests and nobles were also accustomed to maintain records of their time. The records or chronicles known as 'Buranjis' in Assamese like the "Tungkhungia Buranji" and "Purani Asom Buranji" are the main source of information to reconstruct the history of medieval Arunachal Pradesh. 2. Muslim Chronicles : The Muslims, who repeatedly invaded Assam during the medieval period left accounts which also reveal important information about the then Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Muhamad Kazim, in the days of Aurangzeb wrote, "The Duflehs are entirely independent of the Assam Raja, and plunder the country contiguous to their mountains". The Muslim Chronicles like "Tabakat-i-Nasiri", "Baharistan-Ghaibi" and "Fathiyah-i-Ibriah" can throw some light on the history of medieval Arunachal Pradesh. 3. Historical Relics : The historical relics excavated at Malinithan in West Siang district and monuments at MEDIEVAL PERIOD 33 Ita fort in Papum Pare district throw some light on the history of medieval Arunachal Pradesh. 4. Local Tradition : The local tradition like AABANG (verbal history) of the Adis handed down from generations to the next by the mouth is one of the important sources of information for reconstructing the history of medieval Arunachal Pradesh. 5. British Records :The early British writers like E.T. Dalton, Hamilton, Alexander Mackenzie, Sir Edward A. Gait also left their reports which are valuable sources of information for writing the history of medieval Arunachal Pradesh. Establishment of the Ahom rule in Assam marks the beginning of the medieval history of Arunachal Pradesh. In 1215 A.D. Sukapha, the founder of the Ahom dynasty, left his ancestral place Maulung (Upper Burma) after a quarrel with his brother. He was joined by his most faithful followers consisting of two fellowers called Bargohain and Buragohain, eight nobles, and nine thousand men and children mostly adults. AHOM-WANCHO WARS (1215-1228) The Ahom hordes came over the Patkai through Pangsau Pass.1 Their steady advance was desperately opposed by the Wanchos and for thirteen years they had to wander about the rugged hilly country of Patkai making occasional raids on the villages of Tirap.2 In 1228 A.D., they were able to force their way and arrived in Khamjang (the country of Shyams in Tirap). From Khamjang they crossed a river called Khamnamjang in rafts and came to the Nongnyang lake. Here some tribes of Tirap attempted to resist their further advance. But Sukapha was able to defeat them and perpetrated frightful atrocities on those whom he captured. He had many of them killed and roasted and compelled their relatives to eat their flesh. This ghastly barbary created such widespread terror that the other tribes of Tirap or the neighbourhood 34 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH hastened to make their submission. Leaving one of his nobles to rule the conquered country, Sukapha proceeded to Dangkorong, Khamhangpung and Namrup.3 Malinithan Malinithan, a place of great sanctity, is situated in the lower region of West Siang district adjoining Assam. It is only one kilometer east of Likabali, the headquarters of administrative Sub-Division. It was W.H. Calvert, Assistant Political Officer, Pasighat who in the early twenties of 20th century A.D. visited Malinithan and found a 'Sadhu' or sage staying there. According to the local people, Calvert was guilty of damaging some of the valuable images lying there. In 1968, the Research Department of Arunachal Pradesh the then NEFA, assigned L.N. Chakravarty, the then Deputy Director of Research (History) to undertake excavation at Malinithan. In 1970, he dug and unearihened over one hundred images of various deities, gods and goddesses of Hindu pantheon. Yaksas in dancing postures, figurines, sculptured, panels animals, motifs of bull, lion, elephant etc. In 1971, L.N. Chakravarty dug out images of Indra seated on an elephant (Airavata), Kartikeya on a peacock and four motifs each of a lion on two elephants. In the next year, he came across two interesting finds of granite stone - one in white granite, representing lord Surya standing on a chariot drawn by seven horses driven by and Aruna and Usha standing between two legs ofSurya; and the second one of Ganapati is of blueish granite. As in the casC' of Inc.Jra seatt"ld on Airavata and Kartikeya on a peacock. A temple complex is believed to have existed at Malinithan, which enshrined various deities of whom the stone images of Durga, Ganesha, a statue resembling Sarnswati with a beena, a magnificent bull-Nandi, the vehicle of Shiva and Kartikeya as mentioned earlier. The galaxy of images of which Durgn is the most prominent in appearance, and mythology of Shiva-Parvati associated MEDIEVAL PERIOD 35 'Pitha' (secret place) suggest that the presiding deity of Malinithan was Goddess Durga. L.N. Chakravarty, Director of Research (rtd.) place the approximate date of ruins of Malinithan as of the 13th and 14th century A.D. If his date is correct, we can attribute the ruins of Malinithan to the Baro Bhuyas (twelve chiefs) who were feudatory kings ofKamata (Cooch Behar) kingdom and were ruling the country north of Brahmaputra and east of Chutiya kingdom at that time. But, without the support of historical evidence we cannot accept the Baro Bhuyas as the builders of Malinithan temple during the 13th to 14th century A.D. Ita Fort Ita fort at ltanagar is an archaeological monument representing a forgotten chapter in the history of Arunachal Pradesh. The fort is a monumental brick-work in ruins. We do not know who and when this fort was built. Y.A. Raikar, the Deputy Director (History) of Research, Arunachal Pradesh, is of the opinion that the fort could be built between 1335 and 1450 A.D. during the periods of ~:1uslim invasions on Assam from west and Ahom inroads on Assam from the east and it could be identified with Mayapur of a local King Ramachandra alias Mayamatta and his son Arimatta. 4 Lei us examine critically the historicity of Raikar's opinion as to whether we can attribute Ita fort to Ramachandra and Arimatta. 1. The fort at Hila (Ita) was built by a refuge king from Assam. He lived there with his beautiful queen. In course of time she became pregnant but was ashamed of it for some reasons. Hence she went down to the plains and gave birth to a son who was named Arimatta. Later, once the child happened to find a miraculous long hair in the waters of Brahmaputra. The m0ther told him that it belong to his ancestors &nd warned him against going to the north. But as the son grPw 36 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH up, became a powerful king and led an expedition in the north. He conquered the Ita fort, defeated its king, and shot with him arrows but failed to kill him. At this, the captive told that he could be killed only by a finger pierced through his heart. Arimatta did that accordingly. The dying chief then revealed that latter must be his own son. Seized by grief, Arimatta did everything possible for atonement of this sin, and finally ended his life (Nishi version recorded by D.N. Das, Journal of the Assam Research Society, Vol. viii, No, 2, 1941). 2. King Ramachandra, also called Mayamatta, of the Jit.ari dynasty ruled from Ratnapur in Majuli. This kingdom was extended from Majuli to Bhalukpung. Due to the pressure of Ahoms, he fled into the hills and built Mayapur, a second capital and stayed there. It is also described that Mayamatta gave away his beautiful queen Mahishi, to one Kachari prince, who was his guest. She was pregnant at that time and was brought to place of the Kachari prince, where she delivered a son, who was named ArimaLta (Gohain Barua as per 'Assam Buranji'). 3. A Kshatriya named Dharma Pal, came from the west and founded a kingdom. He made his capital in the West Gauhati. He was succeeded in turn by Padma Narayan, Chandra Narayan and others, ending with Ramachandra, whose capital was at Ratnapur in the Majuli. Ramachandra had a beautiful wife who was raped by the Brahmaputra river and gave birth to a son named Arimatta. This prince founded a kingdom further west and defeated many other chiefs. At last he came into conflict with Ramachandra and killed him, not knowing till afterwards of his relationship with him. It is not certain where Arimatta ruled, but most of the accounts place his kingdom in Lower Assam. His capital is said to have been at the Baidyagarh near Betna in MEDIEVAL PERIOD 37 Kamrup, where a high embankment forming a square each side, which is about four miles long, is still in existence (Edward Gait, 'A History of Assam', pp.l7-18). 4. Arimatta or Gajangka (1335-1385) A.D. was perhaps the son of Tamradhwaj, the son and successor of Dharma Narayan. He killed Indra Narayan and seized the throne of Kamata. Arimatta was a very powerful king and put down the Bhuyan chiefs who rose in rebellion. Probably he shifted the capital to B~idyagarh in the eastern part of his kingdom in the modern district of Kamrup to maintain effective control over the Bhuyans. The ruins of the extensive fortress city of Baidyagarh near Rangia (Kamrup) can be found even today. Shortly after the usurpation of the throne of Kamata, Arimatta is said to have been attacked by Fingua, a nephew of Indra Narayan. The ruins of a fortress about ten miles from Baidyagarh are associated with the name of Fingua. But in the battle Fingun was killed by Arimatta. After this encounter with Fingua, Arimatta, is said to have invaded the kingdom of a chief named Ramachandra, who ruled in the modern district of Darrang (N.N. Acharyya, 'A Brief History of Assam, p. 56). The varying accounts about Ramachandra and Arimatta are confusing and it is useless to make an attempt to reconcile them. It is equally not tendable to accept Ramachandra as the builder of Ita fort. Sir Edward Gait, in his 'A History of Assam' has mentioned that Ikhtiyar-Uddin Yuzback Tughril Khan invaded Kamrupa and for a time he was successful. He celebrated his conquest by erecting a mosque, but when the rains set in and the country was flooded, his man were reduced to great straits, and large number died. The king of Kamrupa returned from the hills and attacked them. The Sultan was killed and his army defeated and only a few succeeded in their escape to Bengal.5 Glazier 38 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH identified the king of Kamrupa during the Muhammedan invasions (1206-1257) as Prithu who constructed extensive fortifications in the present Jalpaiguri area.6 It is not improbable that Prithu or his successor fled to Subansiri hills before invading Tugril Khan and built Ita fort with the consent of the Nishis. But we cannot say definitely whether the said fugitive king of Assam was Prithu who fled before the Muhammedan in 13th Century A.D. or Ramachandra who fled before Arimatta in 14th century A.D. or a Bhuyan Chief who fled before the Ahoms. This much is certain that no king of Assam could establish permanent capital at Itanagar and rule over the Nishi. Muhammed Kazim in the days of Aurangzeb wrote "The Daflas are entirely independent of Assam Raja, and whenever they find an opportunity plunder the country contiguous to their hills."7 The Nishis must have provided asylum to that fugitive king in their hills. This is only an indication of cordial relationship that existed between the Arunachalese and the Assamese since remote times. FIRST AHOM TANGSA WAR (1487) In 1487, the Tangsa raided the Ahom territory. It is said that the Ahom king Susenpha led an expedition in-person attacked and routed the Tangsa but lost one hundred and forty Ahoms in the battle. But according to another account, the Tangsas routed the Ahoms and Susenpha fled from the battle field. The Banrukia Gohain then took tho command of the Ahom forces and defeated the Tangsas.8 SECOND AHOM-TANGSA WAR (1488) In 1488, Subenpha (1488-1493) who succeeded Susenpha sent a fresh expedition against the Tangsas. At first, the Tangsas were not only victorious but beheaded the Ahom general. But in the second expedition sent by the Ahoms the Tangsas were severely defeated and the Ahoms captured a large booty. In spite of their defeat the Tangsas refused to sign any treaties with the Ahoms. MEDIEVAL PERIOD 39 AHOM QUEEN AT BANPARA (1493-1539) The most interesting incident recorded in the Ahom Buranji during the reign of Supimpha (1493-1497) is the banishment of his own wife. According to the story, Karangpha the Wancho Khunbaw (Wancho ·chieD of Banpara had close friendship with king Supimpha. One day, Karangpha came to pay his tribute to king Supimpha. J ncidcntally, one of Supimpha's wife (from the Chamua class -- a class of people below the nobility but above the rank of labourer) happened to see the Wancho Chief of Banpara from inside the palace and when the king went inside the queen praised the beauty of the Wancho Chief in the presence of the king. The latter was so incensed at this that he gave her to the Khunbaw (ChieD, who took her to Banpara village in Tirap. She was pregnant al that time and subsequently gave birth to a son in the house of the Khunbaw, named Senlung. Later on, Suhungmung (1497-1539) who succeeded Supimpha happened to see Senlung and was struck by his high-breed appearance. Learning that his mother was already pregnant before Supimpha sent her away, he took him into favour, brought him to the Ahom court and created the new post ofBarpatra Gohain for him, which was equal to those of the Bar Gohain and the Bura Gohain. Then Suhungmung named him Kancheng Barpatra. This incident serves as an example of intimate friendship with the Ahom king that was established by the Banpara Wanchos.9 FIRST SHYAM REBELLION (1504) The Shyams of Khamjang (formerly called Aitonias) were considered vassals to the Ah"oms since the time of Sukapha. In 1504, they rebelled and Suhungmung sent an expedition against them under the Bar Gohain. The rebels submitted after a hard fight and made peace by offering a daughter of their chief to Suhungmung, four elephants and also agreed to pay annual homage to the king with offerings of large gongs, amber and dahs.10 4V ts.I:U.t;l'' .H.ISTOKY u.l'· JUtU~.II.L=.HAL PRADESH SECOND SHYAM REBELLION (1535-36) In 1535 the Shyams of Khamjang challenged the Ahoms. This time, they were aided by the Noctes of Tablung and Namsang (of Jaipur). Suklen, the son of the Ahom king was entrusted with the task of suppressing the uprisings. The people of Khamjang soon submitted and paid a fine of one hundred mithun (bison), which were presented to the king . But, the Noctes fought with gallantry and defeated the Ahom troops, who retreated with the loss of four guns. In 1536, however the Noctes made peace with the Ahoms and returned the guns.u MONPA-BHUTANESE WAR (1643-1647) The Bhutanese (The Drukpa sect of Buddhist) and Monpa (The Gelungpa sect of Bhuddhist) involved in struggle for religious supremacy in 1643. This sectarian struggle between the Drukpas and Gelungpas forced Mera Lama, the religious governor of Dalai Lama in Bhutan to abandon his monastery namely, Galdan Tselling Gonpa, in the village of Mera in eastern Bhutan. He came to Tsasum (Tawang) and constructed Sanglamphe Gonpa his residence. There he planned for a Gelungpa monastery. At that time, there was Karmapa temple at Tawang called the Gangardung Gonpa and its centre was located in Tibet. There was also the Thechpa Gonpa and Nyingmapa Gonpa at Tawang established by a Lama, Thechpa Rimpoche, who came from the Mindollin monastery in Tibet. The Karmapa and Nyingmapa Lamas contl"ived to foil the plan of Mera Lama. The people of Tawang also were then under the influence of these two sects. Therefore, Mera Lama could not achieve much in his venture. Ultimately, he went to Lhasa, the capital of Tibet disappointed and reported the state of affairs to the fifth Dalai Lama his failure and causes and prayr.d for his help. Thereupon, The fifth Dalai Lama sent Gusri Khan and Sonam Ghospel, the chief attendant of the fifth Dalni MEDIEVAL PERIOD 41 Lama and chief administrator to investigate the situation. The Mongol troops led by Gusri Khan invaded Bhutan in 1644 and defeated the Bhutanese forces. In 1646, Tibet and Bhutan arrived at a peace agreement restoring the peace and maintaining the status quo as existed prior to the outbreak of hostility. The Monpas refer the Mongols as Sokpo and say that Sokpo Jomkhar was the commander of the Mongol forces. Sokpo Jomkhar also helped the Gelungpas in their local struggle of supremacy against the Nyingmapas and Karmapas. In that campaign, he destroyed the oldest temples of Tawang which belong to the Nyingmapas such as, Urgyeling, Sangeling and Tsorgeling. Sokpo JomkhRr of the legendary fame much have been Gusri Khan, the Mongol Commander. But hostility again broke out as the Drukpas of Bhutan invaded Tawang more than once and tried in vain to capture this area. The Mongol-Tibetan troops came down again to assist the Monpa forces in 1647 and repulsed the Drukpas. Thus, the Monpa-Bhutanese relations came to an end. Results 1. The Drukpas of Bhutan thenceforth gave up the idea of attacking Tawang monastery and ambition to gain control over the areas. 2. The Drukpa-Gelungpa hostility came to an end. 3. The Monpas came under the Tibetan protection and lost their own hegemony. 4. The Tibetan authorities established the right to collect taxes from the Monpa areas as a token of over lordship. 5. The Monpas were subjected to entertain the Tibetan officers with girls and drinks whenever they visited to the much against the wishes of the Monpas. ~ 'l'hP MonnHs came under the Tibetan influence. 42 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 7. The original Monpa faith in numerous gods and evil spirits came to be discarded since they are to follow and practice the Mahayana form of Buddhism. 8. The Gelungpa sect of Buddhism established its superiority over the other sects. GOHAIN KAMAL ALI (1546) The kingdom of Kooch Behar became very powerful under Nara Narayana 1..1540-84). King Nara Narayana wanted to expand his kingdom and started a career of conquest. In 1546, Nara Narayana sent his brother, Chilaraya to Assam as the head of a considerable force to invade the country. The Koch armies marched along the northern bank of the Brahmaputra river. The Ahom opposed the Koch advance but were defeated. Kara Narayana then ordered Gohain Kamal, one of his brothers to construct a road from Kooch Behar to Parsukund (Parsuram Kund). Gohain Kamal worked day and night and completed his task within one year. The traces of Gohain Kamal Ali are still visible along the foot of the hills of Arunachal Pradesh which stretch upto Dibang river. The Gohain Kamal Ali is known to the Arunachalese as Rajghar Ali. SECOND AHOM-WANCHO WAR (1549) In 1549, the Wanchos of Banpara appealed to the Ahom king for military help against the Banchangias (the Wanchos of present Wannu village). Suklenmung received the appeal favourably and dispatched an expedition against the 13anchangias. The Banchangias were defeated and their Chief was made prisoner. A number of buffaloes and mithun (bison) and other booty fell into the handtl of the Ahoms. 1:i THIRD SHYAM REBELLION (1555) In 1555, an expedition was sent by the Ahoms against the Aitonia, Papuk and Khamteng (probably Shyam villages). They fled and a large booty fell into the hands of the Ahoms. 14 MEDIEVAL PERIOD 43 NISHI SUBMISSION TO THE KOCHES (1562) In 1562, the Koches invaded the northern bank of the Brahmaputra river for the second time. The Bhuyans, Bhutiyas and the Nishis said to have submitted when the Koch navy under their admirals Bhaktemal and Tepu sailed up the Brahmaputra. The land forces under General Bhimbal were accompanied by King Nara Narayana and his wife. 15 FOURTH SHYAM REBELLION (1562) The Shyams never made their full submission. In 1573, they once again rose into rebellion. Sukampha invaded Aitonia and large booty fell into his hands. 16 MISHING FLIGHT TO ASSAM Towards the end of 1Gth century A.D., the Minyongs and the Padams attacked the 'l'ayu-Taye Mishings (the Nishings of Rio) and Danga-Noroh Mishings (the Mishings of Damroh) for some treacheries committed by them (the Mishings). In the engagements, the Mishings were defeated and put to flight. They f1pd and took refugee in Assam. Consequently, the other Mishings also left the hills for the plains of Assam lo avoid the warlike Adis. Unfortunately, many of the Adi slaves joined the large scale Mishing emigration to liberate themselves. This compelled the Adis to pursue the fugitives and demand the dues realizable by thmn (the Adis). The Adi slaves and the peace loving Mishings fearing torture and finding Assam valley very fertile for cultivation declined to return to the hills. They rather volunteered to pay their dues annually in kind, viz. salt, utensils and other articles as it was not possible for them to pay the entire dues in one installment. The Adis considering the alternative arrangement advantageous to them returned to the hills. Accordingly the Adis annually descended from the hills and peaceably collected their compensation in kind (viz. salt, cloth, pig iron and utensils) from the indebted section of the Mishings. 44 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH ARUNACHALESE RAID ON THE FOOTHILLS At that time, the other tribes like the Akas, Bangnis, Nishis and the Hill-Miris were committing seasonal raids on the Assamese villages of foothill areas to procure salt cloth and rice. Simultaneously, the Noctes, Shyams, Tangsa and the Wanchos also were not giving up to rebel against the Ahom authorities reclaiming the foot hill areas and refusing to pay tribe. AHOM ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE TRIBAL RAIDS The Arunachalese raids in the Ahom territories caused great concern to the Ahom authorities. The Ahom at first tired to repulse the Arunachalese and took up arms against them. But this attempt proved futile; though equipped only with primitive arms like bows and arrows and Arunachalese had the advantage of the wilderness of the terrain of the hills. Often the Ahoms ignored this disadvantage and marched on the northern hills. In spite of their superior forces and weapons they had to sustain heavy causalities and even defeat. In 1615, when reprisals were attempted after a raid perpetrated by the Miris (Hills-Miris) and the Daflas (Nishis), the Ahom forces were obliged to best a retreat.17 INTRODUCTION OF POSA SYSTEM Pratap Singha (1603-41) was the first Ahom king to realise these disadvantages and adopt certain positive measures to normalise the Ahorn-tribal relations. Pratap Singha realised LhaL it was the necessity which induced the tribal people to carry on raids on the plain lands. They lived in isolation and lacked in self-sufficiency. Their terrain was rugged and unfertile. They were deprived of many necessities of life that were enjoyed by the plains people, like rice and cotton. The hill people used to descend by the numerous passes known as Duars and trade with the people dwelling in the foothill region. These regions were very fertile and produced abundance of rice, cotton and other staples coveted by the neighbouring hill people. MEDIEVAL PERIOD 45 The hill people coveted those regions and the whole brunt of tribal ferocity fell upon the inhabitants of those regions. 18 To remove the economic distress of the tribal people Pratap Singha introduced scheme called Posa system. The Posa is a kind of payment or bribe that was made by the inhabitants of the foothill areas or Duars to buy off the tribal raids on them. The Ahom Government selected a number of villages of the foothills and ordered them to give certain commodities like rice, salt, cotton etc. to a particular tribes. The tribe receiving such goods or Posa refrained from raiding the plains people. The inhabitants of the plains who paid Posa were exempted from other taxation by the government. SYSTEM OF THE DISPOSAL OF POSA Under the system the Bhutiyas (Sherdukpens), Akas, Bangnis, Nishis and hill-Miris were given the right to levy tribute on certain villages along the foot of their hills. This tribute (or Posa) was in kind, viz. salt, cloth, cotton and cattle. The Bangnis and the Nishis were given a number of paiks (tribute paying settlements) in the Duar areas. These settlements were called Daf1a Bahatias. The Bahatias consisted of deported Assamese criminals. They paid nominal taxes to the Ahom Government but were compelled to furnish the Bangnis and the Nishis with such necessaries as cloth, cattle and salt. In course of time, the Bahatias imbibed the habits and manners of the Nishi masters and were assimilated into the tribal society. 19 · PRATAP SINGHA CONCILIATES THE ADIS King Pratap Singha did not grant Posa to the Adis but recognised the annual collection of dues or compensation from certain Mishing settlements known as HANJA LANAM (Posa collection). Further, the Ahom Government exempted these Mishing settlements from payment of taxes to please the Adis. Besides, Pratap 46 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH Singha gave some beels (Marshes) to the Adis to get fishes from them. Some fishermen called Bihias were employed to catch fishes for the Adis.20 The marshes (fishing waters) allotted to the Adis are still to be seen in Chapakhowa areas of Sadiya sub-division. Ahom Pukhuri .and Padum 2~·hhuri in Chapakhowa (Assam) and Jia (Arunachal Pradesh) areas are such heels allotted to the Adis in the Ahom times.21 CONCILIATION WITH THE TRIBES OF TIRAP To conciliate with the people of Tirap Pratap Singha granted some 'Khats' or plains land to the chief for .cultivation. These estates, known as 'Naga Khats' were placed under the charge of some Assamese agents called the 'Naga Katakis'. In return for the grant of these cultivable lands, the tribal chiefs of Tirap of each Duar or pass were obliged to pay tribute to the Ahom king in the shape of mithun, elephant tusk, goat's hair, cane slips coloured in red and various other articles produced in the passes.22 AHOM-ARUNACHALESE COMMERCIAL INTERCOURSE Pratap Singha not only introduced the Posa system for the economic upliftment of the tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh but also provided trading facilities to them. The Arunachalese descended through various passes or Duars and traded with the Assamese. Rongdoi (below the confluence of Siang, Dibang and Lohit river), Chounn (southern confine of Darrang) are the famous trading and meeting places for the hills and the plains people during the Ahom times. Chouna Bazar and Ccrgunshur Bazar attracted not only the Assam Arunachalese traders but also attracted the Tibetan merchants as well. The merchants from Lhasa annually visited Chouna and Geegunshur which took them two months to reach the places. The distance between Chouna and Geegunshur was only four miles. The merchants from Lhasa brought down MEDIEVAL PERIOD considerable quantity of rock salt for sale to the Assamcso merchants at Geegunshur, to which place the latter brought rice, which was imported into Tibet from Assam in large quantities. The Assamese merchants also brought Tussa cloth, a kind of coarse silk cloth, iron and lac manufactured in Assam and other skins buffalo horns, pearls and corals, first imported from Bengal. The imports from Tibet in the shape of woolens, gold dust, salt, horses, cowries, and chinese silks, were especially noticeable.23 This annual fair also served the Ahom Government as an effective weapon for use against the tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh. Whenever any tribal raid occurred or when there was a raid committed by the Arunachalese, the Ahoms used to retaliate by blocking the Duars and preventing them from carrying trade. This economic boycott used to prove fruitful. Thus, by depriving their necessities the Ahoms were able to make the tribal people submit. FIRST AHOM-NISHI WAR (1446-47) After the dead of Pratap Singha, the Nishis were incessantly harassing and raiding the plains people of the Ahom territory. In June 1646, the Ahom King, Sutyingpha, therefore, sent an expedition against the Nishis under his three ministers, the Bura Gohain, Bar Gohain and Bar Patra Gohain. The Ahom force ascended the Dikrang river and completely devasted the Nishi villages at first. But the Nishis with their poisonous arrows could easily drive away the Ahoms. The Ahoms were severely beaten and a large number of Ahom soldiers lost their lives. Sutyingpha (nick namPd Nariya Raja or Sick King) was enraged at this and decided to punish his ministers for incompetence. They were immediately dismissed from the posts and later on were disgraced in the royal court by compelling them to wear women's attire.24 In the next year (January 1647), a second expedition was dispatched and this time, the Nishis were aided by the Hill-Miris. The combined force ventured to fight a pitched battle but were defeated. The Ahoms marched 48 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH through their country, destroying the villages and granaries, and looting cattle to the number about a thousand. These operation resulted in the submission of the Nishis.25 KHAMTENGIA EXPEDITION (1647) Simultaneously, the Khamtengias or the Shyams of Tirap raided the Ahom territory of 1647. An expedition was sent against them which was very successful. The Khamtengias were defeated and their chief came over to the Ahom capital with lots of presents and offered his submission to the Ahom king.26 NISHIS CONGRATULATE JAYADHWAJ SINGHA (1648) Sutamla, the eldest son of Sutyingpha ascended the throne in 1648. He was thoroughly Hinduised and performed all brahmanical rites and rituals at the time of his accession and assumed the Hindu name Jayadhwaj Singha. On this occasion, the Nishis, the Kachari King and the Muhanmedan Governor at Gauhati sent messagc>s of congratulation and presents.27 NISHIS ASSIST THE AHOM KING (1650) In 1650, the Lakma Nagas of Nagaland committed a raid on the Ahom territory and accordingly an expedition was dispatched. The Lakmas were pu_t to flight and a village was burnt. But fresh raids were perpetrated and four years later a second expedition was found necessary. The Lakmas, armed with spears, made un-expected attack and harassed the Ahom soldiers. But a detachment of Nishi archers that accompanied the Ahom force defeated the Lakmas and drove away. A stockade was then taken and many of the Lakmas were defeated and killed. Eventually, the Lakma chief came in and made his submission. He agreed to pay tribute to the Ahom King and in return a hill was given to him. The possession of this hill had previously been in dispute.28 MEDIEVAL PERLOD FIRST AHOM-MISHING WAR (1655) In 1655, the Mishings raided the Ahom territory and killed two Ahom subjects. Jayadhwaj Singha sent an expedition against the Mishings. The Mishings were severely defeated and their villages gutted down. A large number of Mishings surrendered and agreed to pay an annual tribute of bison, horses, tortoise, swords and yellow beads.29 BANCHANYIA EXPEDITION (1665) In 1665, the chief of Banpara appealed t.o Chakradhwaj Singha for his help against the Banchangias. The appeal was accepted and an expedition was sent. The B.hangias made stubborn resistance, but in the end they were driven off. They fell back as soon as the Ahom troops were withdrawn and a fresh expedition was dispatched. The Banchangias submitted only after their-bouses and granaries were burnt down.30 HILL-MIRI RAID (1665) About the same time the Hill-Miris raided the Ahom territory. The destroyed a small Ahom force t.hat was sent agai:tst them. A large force was then dispatched and although the Hill-Miris were aided by the Nishis and Deori Chutiyas this time dispersed without giving battle. Their vmages were attacked and the persons found in them were taken captive.31 ADIS IN THE BATTLE OF SARAIGHAT (1670) The Adis claim that they fought at Guwahati Linglwk (Guwahati rock) against the Bongals (the Muhammadans) in assistance to Lachit Barphukan and defeated the enemies. Most probably, the Adis waged war against the Muhammadans in the famous battle of Saraighat (1670). The Muhammedan record makes mention of the presence of rakshasas or demons in the wars. The rakshasas or demons referred to in the Muslim chronicle were presumably the Adis whose u~sophisticated and \ fancy war dresses displayed demonic appearance. 50 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH A mention is also made that the Ahom armies came out at midnight from the thick woods, lofty hills and forts and fell upon the enemies which the Muhammadan general, Ram Singha described as "thieves -affairs" and to which Lachit Phukan replied that the "lions alone fought at midnight"32 This reference bears the characteristic of the guerrilla warfare of the Adis. Bhawananda Buragohain in his Sadiyar Buranji has mentioned that a force consisting of the Adis, Idus and the Mishings under Sadiya-Khowa Gohain (the Ahom Governor of Sadiya) fought against the Muhammadans at Gargaon and Gauhati.33 SECOND AHOM-NISHI WAR (1672) In 1672, the Nishis under the leadership of Bar Gam, Radha Gam, 'I'ani Gam and Bakura Gam attacked Gagaldubi village, killed three Ahom subjects and carried off forty persons including women and children. The cause of the raid was the long delay in the delivery of the stipulated Posa due from the Bahatias. King Udayditya Singha then proposed to dispatch an expedition against the Nishis. Atan Buragohain the Ahom prime minister knew very well that the expedition against the Nishis was bound to end to failure as they lived in inaccessible villages situated in the midst of dense forests and steep rr.ountains. He also knew that the Nishis were experts in device of rolling down boulders from the hill-tops so as to fall on the opponents marching along the narrow jungle path below. Atan Buragohain therefore, dissuaded King Udayditya from dispatching an expedition against the Nishis and said. "There are instances in the past failure of our Dafla expeditions. The Dafla raiders can be captured only if an elephant can enter into a rat hole. Their suppression can be effected only by diplomacy." The king ignored the advice and dispatched Ghorakonwar Barua against the Nishis as the head of a considerable force. In May, 1672, the Barbarua crossed the Subansiri river and halted at Rangamati from where he shifted his camp to Dulungmukh. Two Assamese MEDlEYAL PERIOD 51 commanders Tua and Tita were dispatched to bring the Nishis to submission. The attempt failed and Tua and Tita were imprisoned for the failure. Then the rains set in, and the Barbarua was compelled to suspend the 1perations. This was considered by the king as the CO'rvardice of the Barbarua. The king sent a message threatening to kill the Barbarua if he returned to the capital without subduing the Nishis. He asked the Barbarua to wear the skirt of a woman in the event his furthe!.' inaction. Having heard the message the Barbarua came from Dulungmukh to Barchetia and then to Gangamukh. Then he sent a number of detachment under Khaga Hazarika, Kharagom, Chutiya-Kari Barua and Chungi Barua who proceeded by different routes against the Nishis. After they made some advance they were attacked by the Nishis who had concealed themselves in the neighbouring jungles. The Ahom soldiers were seized with panic and they dispersed down the slops of the mountains. The Nishis pursued them and massacred a large number of them. Two commanders Khaga Hazarika and Kharagom were also among the slains.:H The king attributed the disaster to neglect and mismanagement of the Barbarua and ordered Chaudang Barua Papang to bring Ghorakonwar Barua and keep him as a prisoner. The king further held the Barbarua responsible for the heavy loss of war materials and men and ordered him to be executed. However, King Udayditya had to withdraw his order and spare the life of Ghora konwar at the request of his (king's) mother and wives.a5 AHOM-MISHIMI WAR (1675) In 1675, the Mishimis' of Sadiya killed some of the Ahom high priests. Sadiya Khowa-Gohain was unable to defeat the Mishimis and the sought the Ahom king,s intervention in the matter. Hence, the King Ramadhwaj Singha sent an expedition against the Mishimis. The Mishimis were scvl~rely punished and they agreed to pay 3 tribute to the Ahom king. G 52 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH SECOND AHOM-MISHING WAR (1683) The Mishings of Sadiya raided the residence of Sadiya Khowa-Gohain and after looting and murdering the Gohain and his family, set it ablaze. Several Assamese villages were also attacked by the Mishings. Gadadhar Singha took firm action against the Mishings. He sent a force against them and severely defeated. The Mishings agreed to pay annual tribute and a revised Posa was fixed on the Mishings. As future precautionary measure against the Mishing raids Gadadhar Singha constructed a rampart along the Dihing river encircling the Assamese villages.37 SECOND AHOM-WANCHO WAR (1685) The Wanchos of Namsang raided the Ahom territory and Gadadhar Singha sent an expedition against the perpetrators. Many of them including their chief were captured and beheaded.38 THIRD AHOM-NISHI WAR (1717) In 1717, the Nishis raided the Assamese villages and created havoc for the inhabitants. An expedition was therefore, sent against them. To counter future Nishi raids an embankment was constructed along the foot of the Nishi hills. AHOM-BANGNI SCARE WAR {1758} In 1780, the Bangnis who had never been subdued by the Ahoms committed several raids near Giladhari in Darrang. As a punishment, Rajeswar Singha erected fort along the foot hills and prevented the Bangnis from entering the plains. This created uneasiness amongst the Bangnis as it acted as an economic boycott to them. The Bangnis sustained mainly by trade with the plains people ami now they were prevented from doing so. The blockade proved effective, and a deputation of the Bangni came down rrom the hills and handed over the Assamesc captives and brought presents for Rajeshwar Singha. But Rajeshwar Singha was not please with them and ordered to arrest the Bangni Peace Deputation. At this, the MEDIEVAL PERIOD 53 Bangnis retaliated by capturing thirty five Assamese and two cannons. Rajeshwar Singha soon realised the futility of trying to bring the Bangnis to their knees. He therefore, resorted to conciliatory measures. At first there was exchange of captives. Then an agreement was made whereby the Bangnis were permitted to collect annual Posa (which consisted of a Pura of paddy and three hundred twenty cowries), and in return, the Bangnis refrained from any further aggression.39 ADI ASSIST BURAGOHAIN (1786-88) It is said that in about 1786-88, no less than 17000 (about 20,000 to 30,000) Adis came down and helped Purananda Buragohain in repelling the Muamorias who were devasting Assam.40 KHAMTIS OCCUPY SADIYA (1790) The long drawn out Muttock Rebellion (1780-94) created a general chaos and confusion in Assam. Taking advantage of the situation the Khamtis under a Bura Raja and Deka Raja appeared at Sadiya in 1790.41 They drove away the Ahom Governor, Sadiya Khowa-Gohain anrl reduced the Assamese population to slavery. ADI-KHAMTI WAR (1790) Being embolden by their recent success, the KhamUs led marauding expedition across the northern bank of Brahmaputra and took thousands of Mishing into captivity. 'lbe Mishings who· owed allegiance to the Adis appealed to the latters for help.42 As a result the Adis attacked the Khamti invaders with bows and arrows. The Khamtis could not stand against the shower of deadly and poisonous Adi arrows and fled from the battle fields sustaining heavy causalities. The Khamtis, aided by the Singhos renewed the war but they were defeated for the second time. The Adis pursued them upto LOTONG ADI (LoLhao Hill) and LOPA BARING (Bamboo grooved Lopa) and the Khamtis lost their hold of Sadiya.43 54 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH KHAMTIS REOCCUPY SADIYA (1794) The Ahoms were not, however able to retain their hold of Sadiya for long. In 1794, this place was taken by the Khamtis. The Khamtis reduced the local Assamese to slavery and their chief (Bura Raja) arrogated to himself the Ahom title of Sadiya Khowa-Gohain.'14 AHOM-BANGNI WAR (1795) In 1795, a mixed body of Bangnis and Muamarias raised the standard of revolt on the north bank of Brahmaputra river. They crossed the river to Silghat, but at this place Purananda Buragohain and his newly raised army of regulars met them and defeated them. Many of them were killed and others were drowned while trying to get into their boats. Many also were captured and beheaded, and their heads were stuck upon stakes as an warning to others.45 AHOM-SINGHPO WAR (1798) In 1793, the Singhpos attacked the Ahom territory but they were defeated and put to flight.46 ADI-KHAMTIS INVADE ASSAM (1800) In 1799, the Bura Raja sent a Khamti delegation to Siang to tell the Adis that he (Bura Raja) determines to invade Assam ~nd wrest the country with the help of the Adis. He also promised equal distribution of the spoils (equal division of the fertile lands of Assam) and permanent friendship with them. The Adis were overconfident of the success and agreed to attack AssamY Accordingly, the combined Adi-Khamti force invaded Assam in 1800 and proceeded as far as the outskirts of Rangpur, the then Ahom capital. Here, the table of war turned against the invading force. The Adi-Khamtis were severely defeated, many of them were killed including Bura Raja and many Khamtis were taken prisoners. The prisoners were taken to Rangpur and settled on the Desoi river north of Jorhat and some at Titabor.48 After their defeat, the Khamtis lost Sadiya and could regain it only MEDIEVAL PERIOD 55 after the final collapse of the Ahom power during the reign of Chandra Kanta. ADI-MISHING-AHOM WAR (1806) Surya Kumar Bhuyan, in his "I\mgkhungia Buranji' has mentioned that in 1806, Captain Na-Phukan, the Commander-in-Chief of the entire Ahom force procured the submission of the Adi-Mishings.49 Most probably, the Adis made an attempt to avenge their defeat at Rangpur and wrest Upper-Assam from the Ahoms. ADI-BURMESE WAR (1823) The flight of Badan Chandra to Burma and consequent Burmese invasion of Assam brought entire Brahmaputra valley under the Burmese rule (1821-25). The last attempt to repulse the Burmese was made by I-Iao Sagar Bara of North Lakhimpur with his Baskatia soldiers.50 In pursuit of Hao Sagar Bara, the Burmese crossed the Brahmaputra river and overran whole of North Lakhimpur area unleasing a reign of terror. The Burmese even plundered the Mishing populated areas and advanced as far as Lalli in Pasighat area. The Mishings appealed to the Adis for help and consequently the Adi-Burmese war broke out in about 1823. The Adis severely beaten the Burmese at Murkong Salek and pursued them upto N aharkatia. The Burmese retreated further and the A dis ransacked the Burmese camp at Naharkatia. Inside the camp they happened to notice a large variety of chilli in a basket and brought the seed to Siang. This variety of chilli is called MAN MIRSI (Burmese chilli). References 1. Choudhury, S. Dutta, Gazetteer of India: Arunachal Pradesh Tirap District (Shillong, 1980) p.26). 2. Gait, E., History of Assam (1967 reprint), p.78. 3. Gait, Ibid, P.79. 4. Raikar, Y.A., Ita Fort, p.26. 5. Gait, op. cit., p.38. 56 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 6. Barua, K.L., Early History of Kamrupa, P.227. 7. Asiatic Researches, Vol. II. 8. Gait, op. cit., P.86. 9. Devi, L., Ahom-Tribal Relations (Gauhati, 1968), 31-2. 10. Gait, op. cit., p.87. 11. Gait, Ibid, P.97. 12. Sharma, N., Darang Rajbangshawali (Assamese), P.12. 13. Gait, op. cit, p.100. 14. Gait, Ibid, p.101. 15. Acharyya, N.N., A Brief History of Assam, P.123. 16. Gait, op. cit, P.l04. 17. Gait, Ibid, P.122. 18. Acharyya, op. cit., P.219. 19. Bhuyan, S.K., Studies in the History of Assam, P.51. 20. Devi, op. cit., P.158. 21. Buragohain, B., Sadiya Buranji (Assamese), P.39. 22. Choudhury, op. cit., P.29. 23. Mackenzie, A., North East Frontier of India, P.15. 24. Gait, op. cit., P.126. 25. Gait, Ibid. 26. Acharyya, op. cit., P.137. 27. Gait, op. cit., P.217. 28. Gait, Ibid. 29. Gait, Ibid. 30. Gait, Ibid, P.156. 31. Gait, Ibid. 32. Bhuyan, S.K., Alon Buragohain and His Times, p. 71. 33. Buragohain, op. cit., P.37. 34. Bhuyan, op. cit., P.80. 35. Bhuyan, Ibid, P.82. 36. Acharyya, op. cit., p.156. 37. Acharyya, Ibid, p.162. 38. Gait, op. cit., p.173. 39. Gait, Ibid, P.l91. 57 40. Robinson, W. Descriptive Account of Assam, P.363. 41. Gait, op. cit., P.205. 42. Gait, Ibid, P.226. 43. Osik, N.N., Glimpses of the Military History of the Adis (Arunachal Review, May-September 1985, p.24) 44. Gait, op. cit., p.220. 45. Gait, Ibid, P.225. 46. Gait, Ibid, P.226. 47. Osik, op. cit. 48. Gait, op. cit. 49. Bhuyan S.K., Tungkhungia Buranji, P.l92. 50. Bhuyan, Ibid. IV SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS OF MEDIEVAL ARUNACHAL PRADESH ARLY British explorers collected a good number of ethnographical reports on the various tribes of E Arunachal Pradesh which serve as the artery of information throwing light on the social, political, economic and religious condition of the medieval Arunachal Pradesh. Although the ethnographical reports of the British explorers are mostly of the 19th century A.D., there was hardly any radical social change in the tribal society of Arunachal Pradesh upto the reporting period. Besides, since we do not have any other source materials giving informat.ion about the social condition of medieval Arunachal Pradesh we must accept that the material condition that was prevalent during the medieval p0riod conLinucd to be the same till the 19th century A.D. Ethnographical reports submitted by the British explot·crs such as R Wilcox, W. Robinson, E.T. Dalton, J. Bull0r, T.T. Cooper, W. Griffith, R.G. Woodthorpe, C.R. Macgregor and C.II. Hesselmeyer have been simplified and reproduced here for the study. THE AKAS OF KAMENG VALLEY The Akas were well-made and strongly built people. They were daring and defiance in appearance. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 59 Their House : The Aka house was very substantially constructed. It was built on pillers which were 5 to 7 feet above the ground. It was boarded and comfortably walled with carefully planned planks. The roof was· thatched with a kind of broad leaf, and on account of the strong winds, mats were firmly, but neatly, fastened all over it. The size of Aka house varied with the size of the family. Their Costume : The Akas wore a kind of toga (loose fitting cloth) made of rough Assamese silk. Thoy wore leggings (covering the legs). These were tied at lhe knee and folded round the leg, giving them the appearance of trousers. Their head-covering consisted of cane heads like those worn by the Nishis. They wore ear-rings and beads. The women wore decently clad, generally in endi silk clothes. They wore necklaces of beads. The wives of chiefs wore an egg-shaped valuable silver cases obtained from Bhutan. Their Arms: The principal weapon of the Akas was a long sword. The bow and arrows constituted, however, the most effective weapon of the Akas. Some of the arrows had iron barbs usually poisoned with aconite. Their Marriage : 'l'he Akas could marry as many wives as their means allowed. The Aka marriage was contracted one. The parents or relatives selected the future wife of a boy. On the wedding day the services of the Dcori or priest were called for. They killed a number of mithuns, cows, goats and fowls on the occasion and offered feast. They invited hundreds of guests to the marriage feast. The festivity \e.g., the eating and drinking) lasted at least for five days and nights uninterruptedly. The nuptials having thus been initiated by the Dcori by placing the bride and the bridegroom beneath the canopy. A piece of cloth was then spread over them. The Deori than winded another piece of cloth round both, thereby indicating their union. After this ceremony was over, they were declared to be man and wife. Their Agriculture The Akas were good agriculturists. They didnot import grain from Assam but suhsist.P.d on the fruits of their own labour. They hoed the 60 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH ground and beat the surface fine. Then they pierced holes with a pointed stick, and dropped three or four grains of rice in each hole. Besides the common kinds of rice they cultivated a kind of grain called DAFLA DHAN (Nishi paddy), resembling millet. They also grew vegetables and pulses of various kinds. Their Animal Husbandry : The Akas kept large flocks of mithuns, cows and goats. They ate their flesh but never touched the milk. They bred pigs and reared fowls and pigeons in great number but geese and ducks were forbidden to them by the gods. Their Burial : The Akas did not burn the dead body but buried. A grave was dug four or five feet deep and the body reverently deposited therein. Then a share of all valuable, was placed by the side of dead, including his spear, bow and arrows. Next a platform was raised over the body to keep the earth from falling upon it and finally the grave was filled in and over it a stockade of bamboos and sticks erected and a piece of cloth was spread out over the whole. Their Religion : The Akas were not devoid of religious ideas. They feared the high mountains and the roaring torrents of the deep glen. They also believed in gods. Their gods included FUXO (the gods of war) and SATU (the god of house and field). THE NISHIS OF SUBANSIRI VALLEY The Nishis were short and well-formed men of considerable muscular development. They had large broad faces, square foreheads, high cheek bones, flat noses and large mouths with protruding underlips. Many Nishis tattooed but it was not obligatory. They generally tattooed a cross on the upper lips. Their House : The Nishi houses were sometimes from 40 to 60 feet long. They were built on chang. As many as 150 people often lived in one house. Their Costume : The Nishis wore wicked-work helmet with a plume of magpie feathers. But some of the 1 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 61 chiefs wore a cylinder of thin silver round their heads. A cloth was worn crossways in front round the waist and between the legs. Many wore a number of cane rings round the waist, arms and legs as a protection ag8 .1st sword cuts. A knapsack of wicker-work was worn on the back and small basket slung on the left side. The ordinary dress of the Nishis consisted of a short sleeveless shirt of thick cotton. Over this was thrown a mantle of cotton cloth fastened abuut the throat and shoulders by means of pins made of bamboo. The can; were always ornamented with knobs generally made of some shell but sometimes of horn and amber. The women were generally wrapped in a shapeless mantle of plain cotton cloth, with its upper part tucked in tightly over the breasts and enveloping the body from the armpits. Another cloth was also thrown over the shoulders. They wore bead necklaces in profusion. the ears were loaded with huge brass or silver rings and lobes so stretched with the weight of great metal knobs that they usually reached down to the shoulders. Heavy bracelets of metals were also worn on the wrists. Their Arms : 'l'he Nishi arms consisted of a long sword slung by means of a cane across the shoulders. They wore a dagger in girdle and a bow and arrow. Their Marriage : The Nishi mnrriag\~ was contracted one. One could purchase as many wives as he could afford. Their Government : Each Nishi village was independent to the extent of local self-government. But in certain localities a number of villages acknowledged the leadership of one chief or Gam. Their Agriculture : Tobacco, red pepper, maize, dhal, yam, pumkin, poppy, sesamum and paddy were their chief crops. Their Trade : Manjit formed a considerable article of the trade of the Nishis. It grew in great abundance on their hills and was said to be of very superior qunlity. 62 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH Their Religion : The Nishi ideas of religion was exceedingly crude. They acknowledged the existence of one Supreme Creator and Ruler of the world.. But they never worshipped Him. Their religious rites consisted almost in the propitiation of the spirits whom they believed to had inhabited their hills. The spirits were propitiated by offerings and sacrifices. Their worship consisted of invocation of protection for the people, their crops and domestic animals. They considered sacrifices more worthy than offerings. Hogs and. fowls were the animals most frequently sacrificed. Libations of fermented. liquor and feast always accompanied their sacrifices. The office of the priesthood was never hereditary. Whoever chooses to qualify himself could become a priest. The priests were also the exo~cists. They pretended to have the knowledge of divination and when called in cases of sickness, they consulted auspies or many different kinds. They did it especially by breaking of eggs and the examination of the entrails of young chickens. They had three great gods namely, SURUK (the great god) SA:\1 (the god of woods and jungles) and SILIK (the god of waters in heaven and earth). THE MIRIS OF SIANG-SUBANSIRI VALLEY Tribes populating eastern Lower Subansiri and southern West Siang district were commonly known as the Miris, namely Anka Miris (Apatanis). Tarbatia and Panibatia Miris (lli\1-Miris) Ghasi Miris (Tagins) and Ghyghasi Miris (Gallongs). The Gallongs were small and square built muscular men. They had deep eyes, square jaws, Oat noses and large mouths. The Tagins resembled the Gallongs, but were inferior in muscular development. The Ilill-Miris were much superior to the Gallongs and the Tagins in muscular development. Many of them were finP. tall men of great muscular power. Their eyes were more obliquely set, and features were not so rough. The Apatanis were still greater improvement on the tribes mentioned but were much disfigured by tattooing their faces. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 50 Their Houses : The houses of the Gallongs, Tagins, Apatanis and the Hill-Miris were built on chang and thatched with leaves. The houses were divided into recognised partitions by the triangular trays slung from the roofs over the earthen fire places. Their Costumes : The Gallongs and the Tagins were very meenly clad. Their whole costumes consisted of a loin cloth and a sleeveless flannel coat. Both these tribes were their hair cut square. The Hill-Miris dressed much the same as the Nishis. They gathered their hair to the front of the forehead and made a busy knot of it. A bodkin was placed through tho knot. They were a loin cloth which was sustained by a girdle of cane. On their shoulders they wore a knapsack of a square form made of cane covered by a kind of short cavalry cloak made from palm tree fiber. They wore a cane helmet resembling the Nishi helmet but they added a piece of tiger or bear skin as a cover with the tail attached. The Apatanis differed little in costume from the Hill-Miris. Instead of Loin they wore a kind of kilt made from rhea fiber. Their Arms : Their arms were long straight dhaos and bows and arrows. Their Cultivation : With the exception of the Apatanis, there was little or no cultivation. Even the people living in the foot hills were dependent on the plains for food during the medieval period. Their crops of Indian-corn, sweet potatoes and rice were not sufficient for their own consumption. The northern people exchanged cotton cloth and manjit for food, while the southerners did a small trade in tobacco. Their staple article of food was dried meat, but their supply of mithuns and goats was limited. So, they traded with plains for cattle which they obtained for manjit. The Apatanis terraced their land and cultivated wet rice. Their Government '!'hey had no setUe government. Each village was so small and so far separated from others that it was impossible for them to 64 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH have one system of laws. They adopted no measures for the defence of their houses and fields or for the safety of the community. Their Manners and Customs: Polygamy was usual and polyandry was sometimes practised amongst them. The women were faithful, industrious and cheerful wives. They had a peculiar manner of burying their dead. They equipped the corpse as if for a journey and it was placed in the grave with a supply of food, cooking utensils, etc. In their custom they resembled the Nishis. Their Religion: They believed in a Supreme Being and in certain good or bad spirits. THE ADIS OF SIANG VALLEY rrhe Adis had strongly marked Mongolian features. Their complexions were of a light olive colour. The average height appeared to be 5 to 7 feet. The Adi women, in features and complexions resembled the Chinese. Their Houses : Each Adi man lived in a house of his own with his wife and children. When a young man took a wife the whole community assisted him in building his house. The houses were built on machang or raised platforms about 4 feet above the ground. The walls were made of rough hewn timber. The roofs were made of grass (thatch) or more commonly of dried leaves of wild plantain. The houses were generally about 40 feet by 20 feet. In the centre of the village was 'MOSUP' or the residence of the boys and young men. This building was also used as a place of assembly. It was generally about 200 feet long and contained 16 or 17 fire places. Their Costumes : The Adi men wore a loin cloth made of the 'UDAL' tree. It was tied round the loins and hanged down behind in loose strips about fifteen inches long, like a white busy tail. Their full dress consisted of coloured coats without sleeves, Tibetan cloaks and cotton jackets. On state occasions they wore helmets of a strong skull-cap of cane. It was adorned with pieces of bear skin, yak tails dyed red, boar's tusks and above all, the huge beak of the buceros. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 65 The dress of the Adi women ordinarily consisted of two cotton cloths tinted blue and red, manufactured by themselves. One round the loins formed a petticoat which was retained in its position by a girdle of cane-work. The other was folded round the bosom. Their necks were profusely decorated with strings of beads reaching to the waist. The lobes of the ears were enormously distened for decorative purposes. Round the ankles, broad bands of cane-work dyed blue were tightly laced called LEKKENG. All young females, till they become mothers wore a row of round embossed plates of bell-metal called BEYOP which served as an undergarment. The hair of both males and females was cropped. It was done by lifting it on the blade of a knife and chopping it with a stick all round. Both sexes resorted to the tattooing. The men wore a cross on the forehead while the women wore a small cross in the hollow of the upper lip immediately under the nose. Their Arms : The Adi arms consisted of bows, poisonous arrows, long spears and long straight cutting swords. Their Marriage : Marriages were sometimes arranged by the parents. But more frequently the young people settled these affairs for themselves. The ceremony was ratified by feast called MINYAM. But it was customary for the lover to present his mistress and her parents with such delicacies as mice and squirrels. The Adis, viewed with abhorrence the idea of their girls marrying out of their own clan. Their Government : The notables of a village met daily in the MOSUP for the discussion of business and they issued orders by public cries as to the work of the community for the following day. There was no power vested in the notables to take the life of a citizen, but they could put a slave to death. They could impose fine and imprison the guilty persons. To guard against surprise attack of the village the notables d'irected a certain number of married men to sleep in the MOSUP daily in rotation. 66 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH This guard, and the young men were ready to turn out a moments notice in case of an alarm of fire or an enemy. Their Agriculture: The Adis cultivated rice, cotton, tobacco, maize, ginger, red-pepper, sugarcane, a great variety of edible roots (called ENGIN TAR!) and pumpkins, and opium. Their agricultural implements included long straight swords or daos, crooked bamboos to scrape the earth, and pointed sticks to make holes, into which they dexterously shot the seed. Their Burial : There was a burial-ground at one of the entrances to the village. Over the graves were constructed miniature houses called AGO, in which every morning a fire was lighted and fresh food was placed. This mourning continued for one year. Their Religion : The Adi religion consisted in a belief in Sylvan deities. They had no medicine for sick. They believed that every disease was caused by a spirit and a sacrifice to that spirit was the only treatment. They also believed in one Supreme Being and in a future state. They had no regular priesthood but there were some soothsayers who occupy the same position of the priests. The soothsayers had the knowledge of omens and how to observe them. The examined the entrails of birds (chicks) and of a pig's liver and could tell the spirits responsible for a particular disease and prescribe sacrifice as remedy. THE IDUS OF DIBANG VALLEY In features, the Idus were of a coarse Mongolian type. They were flat and broad faced, wide and round nostriled and small and obligue eyed. The J du women were comparatively taller and finer creatures than the men. The girls were good looking and their colour varied from dark brown to the fairness equally that of an European brunette. Their House : The Idu villages contained from 10 to 30 houses. The houses were lightly framed, long and narrow about 60 feet by 12. One side was a narrow passage SOC!AL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 67 from end to end. The remainder was divided into small apartments. Each compartment was given to one family. The walls were decorated with animal skulls. Their Costume : The Idu men wore a kind of jacket and a cane helmet ornamented with bear's skin. A dao was also suspended over the shoulder and a bow carried in the hand. A pouch of money skin was also suspended over the shoulder by a belt. This contained tobacco, pipe and flint. The women also wore jackets and there jackets were embroidered. Their Arms : Their favourite weapons were straight Tibetan swords, daggers, bows and cross-bows. They had neatly made shields of buffalo hide, attached to which, inside, was quiver full of finally made poisoned 'Punjis'. Their Marriage : The Idus can marry as many wives as they could. More wives indicated the richness of an Idu man. Their Trade : The Idus were trading people. They traded with Tibet. Their Burial : They buried their dead in the forest away from the village. A place was cleared in the forest in which the grave was made, and the remains of the deceased and his arms and clothes were placed in it. Then they danced over it. Their Religion : The Idus were devoid of religious ideas. THE DIGARU -MISHIMIS OF LOHIT VALLEY The Digaru-Mishimis were a short study race of fair complexioned. In feature, they exhibited a softened phase of the Mongolian type. But some possessed Aryan feature with higher nose and longer nostrils. Their House : The houses were built on raised platform constructed of bamboos and were over 100 feet long by 12 feet in width. They were thatched and divided into compartments. Each compartment contained a fire place, over which hanged a tray for smoking the meat. The walls were ornamented with the skulls of animals. 68 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH Their Costume : The dress of a Mishimi man consisted of a coat reaching from the neck to the knee and a strip of cloth bound round the loins and passing between the legs and fastened in front. The head dress was sometimes a wicker helmet. The women wore a coloured cloth fastened loosely round the waist, which reached to the knees. A very scanty bodice without entirely covering the breasts ·was worn. They wore a profusion of beads, of common glass and some of porcelain. On their heads they wore bandeau of very thin silver plate. Both men and women wore the hair long, turned up and all round and gathered in a knot on the brow secured by a bodkin. Their Arms : Their arms were a long straight Tibetan sword, several knives, daggers and a very neat light spear. Their Marriage : The Mishimis were extensive polygamists. A man could marry as many wives as he could purchase. After death, his wives became the property of his heir with the exception of mother of the heir. Their Agriculture : The Mishimis were trading people and attended less to cultivation. But they were rich in animal husbandry. They had large herds of CHA (mithun). Besides, they purchased cattle every year from Assam. They did not use them for agricultural purposes or for their milk. But on great occasion it was slaughtered and eaten, and also th,_ey were allowed to roam in the forest as they pleased. But they were fed with salt by their master, and when the owner called them they knew his voice and responded. Their Trade : The chief sources of wealth to the Mishimis were the poisonous root 'Aconintum ferox' an the valuable medicinal plant MISHIMI TEETA or 'Captis teeta' which grew in their hills at high elevations. With these and a few articles of hardware and woolen goods obtained from Tibet, they carried on extensive trade with the people of Assam and the neighbouring hill tribes. Everything that a Mishimi trader carried was purchasable. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 69 Their Burial : When a notable person died, animals were slain, and skulls were arranged round the tomb. Under the shed built over the grave, raw and cooked flesh with grain and the share of the dead such as, arms, clothes and implements were placed. The dead body of a poor was burned without much cere1nony or thrown into the river. Theh• Religion : The religion of the Mishimis was confined to the propitiation of demons whenever illness or misfortune visited them. On those occasions, the spring of a plant was placed at the door to intimate to strangers that the house was, for the time being under taboo. They appeared to had no notion of Supreme and benevolent deity. They worshipped 'MUDIDAORAH' as the god of destruction and, 'DAMIPAON' as the god of wealth and disease. THE KHAMTIS OF LOHIT VALLEY The Khamtis were of a slighlly more Mongolian type than the pure Shans. They were of darken and coarser featured. Their House : The residence of a chief and his family was two large houses of strong timber with raised floors and thatched roofs. They were contiguous to each other and a trough of wood was fixed under the junction of the two roofs to carry off water. The interior was divided into chambers. The roof of the houses came down so low that externally there was no appearance of wall. The common people had similar houses. but single instead of double roof. Their Costume : The Khamti men wore a white muslin turban. The under garment was of colored cotton. The upper classes wore a coloured silk scarf round the waist in addition, and a long sleeved jacket. The chief ornaments were cylindrical shaped pieces of bright amber inserted in the lobes of the ears, and coral and other necklaces. 70 .o11.1~l'· .HH:HU!1.I vr .rt..n.ul~P.v.HAL PRADESH Their Arms : The Khamti weapons consisted of the dao hanging in its sheath, the defensive round shield of buffalo hide and muskets. Their Arts : The priests in their houses of relaxation amused themselves by carving in wood, bone or ivory at which they were very expert. In making ivory handle of weapons they evinced great skill, taste, and fecundity of invention. They carved in high relief twisted snakes, dragons and other monsters with a credible unity and gracefulness of design. It was customary for the chief also to employ themselves in useful and ornamental arts. They worked in gold, silver and iron, forged their own weapons and made jewellery for their wives. They also manufactured embossed shields of buffalo or rhinoceros hide. The women were skilled in embroidery. They made bags for their husbands and for sale. Their Religion : The Khamtis were pure Buddhists. They had two great religious festivals in the year, e.,g., one to celebrate the birth while the other to mourn the death of Gautama Buddha. THE SINGHPOS OF TIRAP VALLEY The Singhpos were above the middle bight and strongly built. They had obliquely set eyes and eyebrows, wide mouths, heavy jawbones and high cheek bones. Their complexion was olive brown. Their House : The Singhpos house has very long and narrow built upon machang, about 3 feet high, with the roof reaching down the machang. The house was divided into family portions. The partition was marked by a door in the side of the house and a fire-place in the centre. Their Costume: The men tied their hair in a large knot on the crown of the head. They wore a jacket of coloured cotton, the chequered undergarment of the same material or of silk. The respectable chiefs assumed the Shan or Burmese style of dress. They occasionally wore SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 71 short smart jackets of Chinese velvet, with gilt or amber buttons. They also wrapped themselves in plaids of thick cotton. Their Arms : The dhao, spear, cross-bow, and very occasionally an old musket were the usual arms seen among the tribes. Their Marriage : Polygamy prevailed amongst the Singhpos. The girl was bought with a price and a feast completed the ceremony. But women were so scare among the tribes that it was extremely difficult for a Singhpo to find a wife. They frequently remained unmarried or had to marry their slaves. Their Right of Inheritance : The property of the father was divided between the eldest and youngest son. The eldest son took the title and the youngest the personal and movable property. The other sons had to provide for themselves. Their Government : The Singhpos had no common government. They did not acknowledged a chief of lhe tribe. Every villager had separate interests of its own. The chief called SANBWAS of village were recognised. They however, had little real power. Their Religion : They had no settle form of religion or worship. But they believed in the efficacy of the sacrifice of animals to certain spirits - good and bad. THE PEOPLE OF TIRAP VALLEY They had distinctive tattoo marks on the face, legs, and arms. Their object was to make themselves as terrifying in appearance as possible. The Namsangias and Borduarias did not tattoo the face but covered their bodies, shoulders and thighs with markings. Their House : The houses of the chiefs were of the big size about 250 feet to 300 feet in length. The houses of the common people were much smaller. The houses of the chiefs were decorated with various trophies of chase and memorials of feasts. The skulls of both human and animal were hung on the walls. '["L, BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNAvtlAL r.l:l.iUJ~l::>H Their Costume : The costume of the tribes differed considerably from absolute nakedness to the long sheet of Assamese cloth worn by the wealthy people. But the general attire was a square piece of cloth slung round the waist. The chief dressed like Assamese when they visited plains but at home they wore national dress. The national dress of a chief or warrior was very fantastic but ve~' picturesque. They wore singular coronals made of pieces cut out of large shells, and on the crown of the head a little periwinkle shaped basket work cap, with peacock's feathers and goats hair dyed scarlet. Necklaces, bracelets, armlets of beads, shells, brass, and cane work, were worn in profusion. The woman's costume consisted of necklaces and an apron, or some times without apron. Their Arms : The arms were a gleamir1g pole-axe with a short black handle decorated with a tuft of goat's hair dyed red, a broad headed barbed spear the shaft of which was covered with coloured hair like a brush and a shield of buffalo hide from 4 to 5 feet long. Their Marriage : The marriages were contracted comparatively late in life. There was a price on the young girl and the youth being unable to pay often served the father-in-law like Jacob for his wife. They confinod themselves to one wife and had to work hard. The women participated with their husbands in all festivities and social amusements. Their Cultivation : The hills were fertile and were formerly well cultivated producing rice, yams, ginger and capsicums. Their Religion : Their religion was species of devil-worship. They did not believe in a Supreme Being. Their dead bodies were buried by the Deoris. The burial service was simple. The corpse was wrapped in leave and put on a chang and allowed to decay there. After the decomposition, the skull was taken away and brought into the village of the dead-house. Some of the tribes placed effigies of the dead near the grave painted, tattooed and rl rr-> <:c:Prl I i k P. li fp Glossary Aabang A rhapsody narrating creation, evolution and history of mnnldn<.l. Abor Adi Abu FatherNillage elder Anka-Miri Apatani Banggo Inter Village Council Beyop Embossed plate worn by girls. Bogum Bokang District Council na 1. Acharyya, N.N. : A Brief History of Assam 2. : North East as Viewed by ForiPgrwrn. 3. Arunachal Review (May-September, 1985) Arunachal Pradesh Govt. Publication. 4. (July 1991-April 1992) ______5. Asiatic Researches Vol.-ll. 6. Baruah, K.L. Early History of Kamarupa. 7. Bhuyan, S.K. Aton Buragohain and His Times, Gauhati, 1957. 8. Studies in the IIistory of Assam. 9. Tungkhungiu l3uranji, Gnuhuti, 1968. 10. Bose, M.L. British Policy in NEFA, Now Delhi, 1979. 11. Buragohain, Sadiyar Buranji (Assamese) Gauhati, Bhawananda 1983. 12. Choudhury, P.C. History of Civilization of Assam, Gauhati, 1959. 13. __, S. Duttn (Ed) Gazetter of India (Arunachal Tirap District), Shillong. 14. Dalton, E.T Ethnology of Bengal, Calcutta, 1872. 15. Das, Nirmola The Dragon Country, 1973. 16. Datta, P.C. The Tangsas. 17 Devi, L. Ahom Tribal Relations, Gauhati, 1968 18. Elwin, V. North East India in 19th Century, Bombay, 1959. 19. Gait, E. A History of Assam, Calcutta, Reprint 1967. ?.0. Gogoi, L. The Thai Khamtis. 76 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACEAL PRADESH 21. Grierson, G.A. Linguistic Survey of India, Vol-I. 22. Johri, Sitaram Where India, China and Burma Meet, Calcutta, 1962. 23. Kakoti, B.K. The Mother Goddess Kamakya. 24. Mackenzie, A. History of Relations of the Govt. with the Hill Tribes of the North-East Frontier of Bengal, Calcutta, 1884. 25. Mehra, G.N. Bhutan : Land of the Peaceful Dragon, 1974. 26. Michell, J.F. The North East Frontier of India Reprint, Delhi, 1973 27. NEFA information, 1970 (Govt. Publication). 28. Osik, N.N. British Relations with the Adis, New Delhi, 1992. 29. Raikar, Y.A. Ita Fort. 30. Resarun, 1975 (Arunachal Pradesh Govt. Publication) 31. Richarson, H.E. A History of Tibet, Kew York 1962. 32. Robinson, W. Descriptive Account of A.;;;sam, Reprint, New Delhi, 1975. 33. Sarkar, Niranjan : Buddhism Among the Monpas and Sherdukpens, Shillong, 1980. 34. Sharma, N. Darrang Rajbangshawali (Assamcse). Index A .. imatta, 37 Kebang, 10 Assam Buranji, 36 King Ran.achandru, 3G, 30 Badan Chandra, 55 Kiratas, 18 Barter, 13 Lachit Barphukan, 49 Barter trade, 12 ·Lakma Nagas, 48 Bhagadatta, 23 Land of rising sun, 1 Bhagavat Purana, ~.) Lohit Sarovar, 30 Bhaluka, 27 Mahabharata, 17, 18, 23 Bhismak, 26 Mahabharata war, 16 Bhuddhism, 7 Megasthenus, 18 Block council, 11 Mera Lama, 1. 40 Brahma Kund, 31 Mutt.ock Rebellion, 53 British explorers, 58 Nara Narayana, 42 Bura R:;Ua, 54 Narakasura, 27 Chakradhwaj Singha1 49 Ownershipll of land1 1~ Chilaraya, 42 Parasurama, 28 Cottage industry, 13 Polygamy, 64 Dony1 Polo, 8 Posa system, 45, 46 Fairs, 13, 14 Pratap Singha, 1, 44, 45, 47 Gadadhar Singha, 52 R:;Ueswar Singha, 52 Gaonbura, 10 Ramachandra, 38 Goddess Kamakhya, 28 Ramadhwa.ij Singha, 51 Gusri Khan, 41 Ramayana, 17, 18, 20 Hiranakyahipur, 24 Robo, 21 Indian Hornbill, 4 Robo Posa, 6 Jayadhwaj, 49 Sankardeva, 28 Jhum cultivation, 11 Sati, 24 Kalika Purana, 15, 24, 27 Shifting cultivation, 8 78 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH Slavery, 9 Tani, 5, 6, 21, 23 Social organisation, 9 Taro, 5 Stone Evidence, 16 Terrace cultivation, 8 Subenpha, i>S Tezpur Bill, 26 Suhungmung, 39 Tribal dormitories, 10 Sukapha, 34 Udayditya Singha, 50 Supimpha, 39 Verrier Elwin, 7 Surya Kumar Bhuyan, 5t. Village council, 10 Susenpha, 38 White brown gibbon, 3 Sutamla, 48 Wild life, 3 Sutyingpha, 47 Yogini Tantra, 16, 30 Switzerland, 2 Zayul valley, 5 The Tribal Women B.C. Bhuyan Political Development In North East india vol II B.C. Bhuyan Trends of British Annexation of N.E. India B.B. Kumar Modernization In Naga Society B.B. Kumar Folk-lore & Folklore Motifs B.B. Kumar Higher Education in North East India B.B. Kumar Man & Enviornment In North East India D. Medhi Women of Assam Renu Debi History and Culture of the ADIS T. Nyori Why China Should Quit Tibet J.S. Bright GLOBAL HUMAN HERITAGE • Foundations of Heritage Ed. R.P.Dubey • Classical Heritage Ed. R.P. Dubey • Medieval Heritage Ed. R.P.Dubey • Modern Heritage Ed. R.P.Dubey • Ancient Heritage Ed. R.P.Dubey Gandhian Approach to Rural Development K.S. Bharati Financial Administration K.N. Bhaisya Librarianship and Inform at ion Technology Buragohain Assam Vaisnavaism T.C. Rastogi District Administration In Arunachal Pradesh Das & Manpong Changing Perspective on Creativity Sajida Zaidi Arunachal Pradesh (Land and People) R. Gopalakrishanan Behavioural Science in Management Narayan & (Mrs.) Sharma Continuity And Change in the Hills of Assam B.K. Gohain Demographic Profile of North East India Autonomy Movements in Assam : Documents P.S. Datta Introduction to Literary Research H.W. Stein Modernization in Hills of North East MS. Sangma Studies in Literature and Society Small Industries Development in Northeast India D.D. Mali Theatre Art and Life R. Kharkrang Hu111an Rights N. Sanajoaba Fragments of Manipurl Culture N. Singh New Horizons of Northeast Baveja North East as I see it P.S. Datta OMSONS PUBLICATIONS