CHAPTER-IV A CASE STUDY OF THE EASTERN SECTOR [McMOHAN LINE BORDER AREA] CHAPTER - IV

A CASE STUDY OF THE EASTERN SECTOR [McMOHAN LINE BORDER AREA]

4 1 INTRODUCTION:

As it is observed during political negotiations that China had refused to accept "McMohan Line" as a legal boundary line between and China in the eastern sector as proposed by India to settle boundary dispute sector-wise. On the contrary, Chinese claimed about 94,700 square kilometers of Indian territory including the Kameng frontier division and three-fourth of the Lohit division of the eastern sector () V An attempt is made here to study the McMohan Line border area into more details in terms of historical association of the area and its linkages. In this chapter an attempt is made to assess the claim and counter claim which has been made during "negotiations" by India and China, in the eastern sector, respectively. It is also assessed the rationality of these claims made by the contending parties. The complex nature of India's northern border cannot be understood unless it is studied with the "time" and "space dimensions" in relations to human habitations and political dominance of the powers in the disputed areas. Time dimension is the historical account of dominant powers in this region, where as space dimension is the geographical extent of ethnic groups and political control over particular border areas, which are dealt here in detail.

4 2 GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH:

Although, a general geographical description of Arunachal Pradesh international border has been done in the second chapter of this thesis, a more detailed account about geographical extent of Arunachal Pradesh border (McMohan Line) has been carried out here, in this chapter. Arunachal Pradesh situated in the north-east of India is neariy 84,000 square, kilometers in area and has a long international border with China (1030 kms) and Myanamar (Burma) 440 kms). It stretches from the snow capped mountains in the north to the plains of the Brahmaputra valley in the south.^

The northern Himalaya belt stretches from the eastern frontier of to where it joins the Patkoi Hills. This territory has international importance due to the western tri-junction PHOTOGRAP NO.

An Altitude Area Convered By Dense Forest (Roin<3 - Debaniy Valley District) Research Scholar M.L.Sali Observinc^- Gooi-jraphical Realities Of The Eastern Sector During Field Trip.

PHOTOGRAPH NO.2

Rocky Altitude Covered By Snow (Tawan

From Bhutan the Himalayan border runs along the northern parts of Arunachal Pradesh, The total length of this eastern border of India is 1140 kms and it runs from the eastern limits of Bhutan to a point near the Talu pass at the tri-junction of India, China and Burma. The boundary has been established along the Himalayan crest of the northern watershed of the Brahmaputra except where the Lohit, Dihang, Subansiri and Nyamjang rivers break through that watershed. The orJy variance from the watershed principal is near Migytun and the two Tibetan pilgrim places of Tastokaro and Tsari Sarps. It is surrounded by Bhutan in the west and China (Tibet) in the south - east.^

The area consists of sub-mountain and mountain belts presenting a series of ranges, sloping to the plains of Assam and forming buttresses to the east-west Himalayan ranges which in turn form the buttresses to the Tibetan Plateau. This mountainous region which gradually slopes down from its northern crest forming a watershed with Tibet, to merge with the Brahmaputra valley in the south is about 100 miles wide. The valley which is 50 miles wide is considered the most fertile and productive area of India.

The area presents a remarkable topographical variety; there are thick, subtropical undergrowth jungles near the foothills with hills fiirther north presenting every possible type of mountain scenery. About 15000 square, miles of the total area is estimated to be under forests. Arunachal Pradesh is widely known for lush green forests which occupy 62%of the total geographical area of the state.

This region covers the dense forests, rocky and snow-covered regions at high altitudes."* (please see photographs no. 1 & 2). The Arunachal Pradesh-Tibet (India-China) border have almost a chain of mountain peaks, whose height is near about 2350-9700 metres high. In such mountain ranges there are very narrow passes. Such types of passes do not allow large scale movement. The passes indirectly affect the movement of the combat forces. The rest of the passes run over high peaks and can allow a passage of just 2 or 3 men at a time.^

The climate and seasonal climate of Arunachal Pradesh is different from other Indian states. This region receives the heaviest rainfall in India - the average rainfall being 3750 to 5000 mm. The pre-monsoon shower being towards the end of March, the monsoon properly lasts from May to the end of September. Winter rains are a regular feature of this region. Snowfall is'experienced in most of the region. The range of average minimum temperature is between 0° C and 2° C in the south and goes down below freezing point (-7 °C) in the north. The summer season which starts from early May is short and is moderated by frequent showers.^ The boundary line between Arunachal Pradesh and Tibet is called "McMohan Line". Arunachal Pradesh has four political Divisions for administration purpose, viz Kameng, Subansiri, Siang, Lohit and Tirap.^ A detail discussion of geographical extent in each political division is as follows.

4.2.1 Kameng Frontier Division:- In this sector the height of the mountain peaks shows a great variation ranging from 1829 to 6400 metres. The highest peak is Kangte (7090 metres) in the district. The Dhola-Thagla area is a cup-shaped, elevated, hollow surrounded by impressive mountain ranges or ridges on all sides. The Thagla ridge extends to the east of the to embody the Bum La. The Thagla ridge is separated from another ridge in the south by the Namka Chu, a small rivulet about 16 miles long. The Nyamjang Chu is the chief river of the sector. The frontier from Chutangmo is near about 2 miles away in the north. About 1000 yards to the south of the Indo-Tibetan (China) boundary there is a footpath on the right bank of the Nyamjang Chu which climbs to the Khinzemane grazing ground.^

Starting from foothills the road goes up to nearly 9500 ft. high via Bompula and Chaku to a place named Eagle's Nest, with thick jungles, steep climbs and extremely difficuh terrain. Then the road slides down slightly to climb up to cross the next range through Bomdi La. Bomdi La is approximately 100 kms from foothills at a height of about 9500 ft. From Bomdi La the ground slopes down towards Dirang Dzong which is at a height of about 5500 ft. Dirang Dzong is an important village on the route where the tracts from North Lungthang- Sangti meet. The Dirang river flows by the side of Dirang Dzong.^ Further area is covered with thick jungles which start disappearing as the climb towards Senge- Sela starts, Sela at a height of about 14000 ft. and the name of the pass. The climate of this sector excepting the Nyamjang valley is damp and cool in summer and freezing cold in winter. The sector receives snowfall in winter though there is no snow below 6000 ft. ^^

4.2.2. Subansiri Frontier Division:-Like Siang Subansiri Frontier Division is named after the river which drains its eastern and northern parts. In the east and the west, the Great Himalayan Range separates it from Siang and Kameng. In the south there is no range, a narrow belt of Tarai merges into the northern plains of Assam. The frontier area adjacent to Tsari which is called as a . The prominent villages of the Longju sector are Migyitung (in Tibet), Tamadan, Longju Roi and Maja. On account of its accessibility towards the international border no landing ground has been built in the area though Maja village has a dropping zone. The other area of importance is the Subansiri valley. The villages in this valley are Lung(in Tibet), Asaflia, , Lengbeng and Limeking (in India). Longju is in the center of the region and can be reached from Limeking, Daporijo and Machuka by footpaths passing through dense forests. At some places there are ladder climbs, and indigenous suspension bridges make the journey very difficult. The Subansiri rises in Tibet and enters India at an altitude of 9000 ft. This Subansiri has formed a narrow and deep valley between two mountains. The sparse population of the small villages comprises the handsome Hill Miris. Like the Tagins they also live on forest produce. In some a little cultivation is also done. ^ ^

4.2.3 Siang Frontier Division:- Siang Frontier Division is the biggest unit of the Administration of Arunachal Pradesh. The well known Siang river flows through it. It is bounded in the north by the Great Himalayan Range and by two mountainous barriers in the east and west. The southern part is a plain. The important towns and villages in this sector are , Manigona, Tadadege, and Gelling. The Great Himalayan Ranges separate the area from Tibet. The important passes in this sector are Dom La, Tunga La, Shoka La, Lamdo La and Lusha La. And the "main rivers of the region are the Brahmaputra and the Syom.

The northern part of Siang is very mountainous. Its altitude ranges from 12000 ft. to 18000 ft. The area is crossed by more than a dozen mountain spurs jutting out of the Himalayan Range from the north-west to the south-east. Each spur separates the water of two rivers flowing parallel to it; further these rivers are joined by tributaries flowing from the south­ west to the north-east and the north-east to the south-west. This criss-crossing of the watershed has made traveling from one valley to another impracticable. The snow line runs at a height of 15000 ft. ,hence the crests of practically all local watersheds remain covered with perennial snow. There is no mountain barrier in the south high enough to stop the monsoon from entering the tract. This region receives 30" mean annual rainfall. In winter the region receives about 15" rainfall and in summer the region is cool and damp. In winter it is damp and cold. 12

4.2.4 Lohit and Tirap Frontier Division;- This sector is bounded by the Himalayan ranges in the north and east. The range is the watershed between the Lat Ti Chu in Tibet and Di Chu in India. From the Diphu La its extends to the south-west and then south-east a mountain wall which separates the Lohit Frontier Division from Burma, which is called the Patkoi Range.

116 (please see sketch No. 3)The prominent rivers of the area are the Lohit, Di Chu, Sat Ti Chu and the Chu. The Lohit (the Tsayul Chu of Tibet) river enters India at 4500 ft. The main tributary of the Lohit is the Di Chu; it rises from a point four miles to the north of Diphu La. It flows between two mountain ranges for about 50 miles, then joins the Lohit river. To the south of the Di Chu is the Sat Ti Chu. These two rivers are separated by the Ndap range which has a height of 10,000 to 12,000 ft. The Sat Ti Chu rises from the mountain range forming the Indo- Burmese boundary and joins the Lohit below Dong village. The third river, i.e. "the Chu" which rises from the mountain range along the crest of which runs the Indo-Tibetan Boundary. It joins the Lohit below Kibithoo.

The overall terrain is difficult and this area is sparsely populated. There are footpaths which are used by the local Mishmis and the Bhotias only.The Mishmis have constructed rope bridges [called tune in Kumaoni] across the rivers. In the western part of this sector is another mountain range which separates the Miju Mishmis from the Idu Mishis residing in its east and west respectively. In the south the border is covered by unidentified mountain ranges. ^^

In this sector the alignment crosses the Krawnaon river at approximately 97° 01 e : 28° 19 N runs on the opposite bank along the ridge separating the waters of the Latte and Dichu basin and proceeds along the crest of the ridge to the mountain range at peak 15283 ft. (approximately) which is the tri-junction of the boundaries of India, Burma and China. It then crosses the Lohit river a few miles south of Rima and joins the tri-junction of the India Burma and China Boundaries under the Diphu pass. ^"^

Regarding Tirap, an area of Tirap is covered by dense forests, deep valleys and high mountains. The main tribes are Wanchos Noctes, Tangsas, Singphos, Lishus, Chakmas and Tibetans. In Tirap sector, the economy of the tribals is based on agriculture and forestry. The area of Tirap provides easy access to the Kachin area of Burma and is frequently used by rebels for their movement to the plains of Assam. ^ ^

4 3 HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES:

From the east of Bhutan up to the Talu pass, the northern border of India encompasses the territory of Arunachal Pradesh. In the past this territory had always been controlled by Indians. The are regarded as the northern frontier of India since the ancient period. Mythology, archaeology and literature supports this boundary alignment. Arunachal finds mention in the literature of the Kalika Purana and the Mahabharata. The widely scattered

117 PHOTOGRAPH NO.3

Ita Fort : At Siyht Itanacjar : Capital Of Arunachal Pradesh)

PHOTOGRAPH NO.4

Research Scholar M.L.Sali Observiny An Area Of During Field Trip. archaeological remains at different places in Arunachal which bear testimony to its rich cultural heritage. The ruins so far brought to light the Bhismaknagar Palace in , Ita Fort in the foothills of and Noksa Parbat in the foothills of . Besides these, there are other sites of importance such as Parasuram Kund, Mudfort and Shivling in and Bahlukpong in west Kameng, Tamresuari in Dibang valley district.... etc.

4.3.1 Ita Fort:- The Ita Fort falls within , the new capital of Arunachal Pradesh. This monument of Itanagar representing a forgotten chapter in the history of north-east India (Please see Photograph no 3 and 4). The present status of this fort is just monumental brickwork in ruins. It was built by people who had visualised the strategic importance of this spot some 600 years ago and utilized it for political purposes. It may have been built between 1350 A.D. to 1450 A.D. during the period of Muslim invasions on Assam from the west and Ahom Inroads from the east. The fort could be identified with Mayapur of a local king Ramchandra alias Mayamatta and his son Arimatta. Some historians identify it be of Ahom origin. Whatever may be the fact about its builders, it cannot be denied that the fort was built by Indians. In Nov. 1994 during my field trip to Arunachal Pradesh, I observed that the Ita Fort was irregularly shaped and was fortified by natural ridges and brick ramparts (please see photograph no 3). The destruction caused to it is immense due to number of reasons like earthquakes, heavy rainfalls, abundance of forests and bamboo groves in particular. And hence it was very difficuU for me to identify its original structure. ^ ^

4.3.2 Parasuram Kund:- Parashuram Kund in the lower reaches of the Lohit river is situated at a distance of 25 kms to the north-east of , the district Headquarters of Lohit. This is legendary place where sage Parashuram washed away his sins. Every year on the day of Makar Sankranti a big fair is held here and people from far and near visit the place to have a holy dip in the Kund.^'

4.3.3 Bhismaknagar:- Bhismaknagar at present is a part of Dibang Valley district, which is assumed as a sacred heritage of the Idu Mishmis. Bhismaknagar was once a stronghold of the Chutiyas in between 12th to 16th century. Excavation has thrown light on the past glory and indicates the high standard of civilization which prevailed around Bhismaknagar. Bhismaknagar stands for what is best in the tribal and Aryan way of life. Today Bhismaknagar has become a renaissance of the determination of a sturdy race to revive its traditional culture while accepting

118 PHOTOGRAPH NO.5

Malinithan : A Look Source : Directorate Of Public Relations & Information : Government Of Arunachal Pradesh, Itana9ar. everything that is progressive. The fortress at Bhismaknagar is situated 24 kms east of and is built on a flat piece of land jutting out towards the south from the northern hills. ^ ^

4.3.4 :- Malinithan in east is situated in a hillock of 21 metres height through which anyone can overlook the plains and the Brahmaputra. Among the sculptures from Malinithan five pieces need to be focussed on - on , on Peacock, on Chariot, and Ganesh with mouse and the huge Bull. These images are made of granite. According to the local legend associated with the place, Lord carried away the daughter of king Bhismaka i.e. on the eve of her marriage with Shishupal. gave a warm welcome to Krishna and Rukmini with garlands, and therefore Parvati acquired the name Malini and the place came to called Malinithan ^^ (please see photograph no 5)

The niins of Naksa Parvat speaks about the inhabitation of the area by a group of highly skilled people. In the lower part of Dibang valley there are a number of artificial ponds and roads. The west Kameng and Tawang are fiall of Mahayana monasteries, chortens and other structures belonging to the 17th and 18th centuries. The chorten at Gorcham in Zimithang circles is one of the largest Buddhist monasteries in Asia. The stupa at Vijaynagar in was excavated in 1971 A.D.^O

The archaeological weahh of Arunachal was not as opulent as in some other parts of the country. However there are enough evidences to speak about the rich cultural heritage of this territory. The above historical and archaeological evidences show that this remote region was not as isolated from the rest of the country as it is generally believed to have been.

The references to the Himalayas continue down the centuries and show that the inhabitants of India had a first hand knowledge of this region. In Mahabharata it is mentioned that all the rulers of India took part in the war. The unity of this whole Himalayan region is showed by the statement in the Sabhaparva of the Mahabharata, that Arjuna, on one of his campaigns, returned from Pragjyotisha(Assam) to Uluka (in Northern Punjab) through the inner, outer and adjacent belts of the Himalayas. In fact, Pragjyotisha was a name transplanted from eastern Punjab to Assam. Arjun is also stated to have defeated the people living around Lake Manasarovar. The Himalayas became a symbol of steadfastness and dignity.Bhagavad

119 Gita, describing the perfection of the Almighty, states that of immovable things he is the Himalaya-

"sthavaranam Himalaya"

The Ramayana, probably of about the same time as the Mahabharata compares the steadfastness of Rama to the Himalayas-

"sthairyena himavaniva"

It also says that king Amurtaraja founded the city of Pragjyotisha, and his grandson Vishwamitra practiced tapas upon the banks of the Kausiki, flowing through the Himalayas in the north-west part of Pragjyotisha region.21

It has been proved that Buddha and Mahavira belonged to the Himalayan tribes. The empire of Chandragupta Maurya, at the end of 4th Century B.C. comprised the whole of India, north of the Narbada as well as Afghanistan. Kautilya's Arthashastra refers to the worship of mountains and looks on the Himalayas as divine mountains. Inscriptions have been found near Kalsi, in the northern part of Dehradun district and at Lalitapatan in the Nepal valley. Further evidence of the inclusion of the Himalayan terrain in Ashoka's empire is provided by Rock edict XIII, which refers to the Nabhapaties of Nabhaka , probably identical with Na-pei-hra referred to by the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien early in the 5th Century A.D. as being located near Kapilavastu.

The next development in military history of India was the arrival of the Kushans as rulers in north-west India in the first century A.D. They belonged to the Yueach- Chi tribe of nomads in Central Asia. But they were neither Tibetans nor Chinese. Afterwards they came under Hindu and Buddhist influence. One of the later ruler was called Vasudeva, which is a Hindu name. Kadphises first came in contact with Central and west Asia and was defeated by the Chinese, but his successor Kanishka avenged this defeat. At its height, the Kushan Empire included the central Provinces of Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan and extended to the borders of Parthia and Parsia. Samudragupta totally subdued the princes in the northern plains and the boundary of his empire ran along the Himalayas, On his coins appear the figure of the Goddess Haimavati. Kamraupa(Assam), Nepal and Kartiputra (Kumaon and Garhwal) are said to have been tributary kingdoms situated on the frontiers of his dominions.

120 The Gupta empire was finally destroyed by the Hun invaders fi-om Central Asia, but their power was in turn broken by Yashodharman, King of Malwa, in about 530 AD. The Mandasor Pillar inscription says that his authority was acknowledged over the vast area bounded by the Himalayas in the north , the Mahendra mountains in the South, the Brahmaputra in the east and the ocean in the west. Hieun Tsang wrote that:-

"in (Assam), the chief ruler was a Hindu named Bhaskaravarmanwho claimed to be a Kshatriya."

That this kingdom was a large one which included most of what is now Arunachal Pradesh is established from evidence derived from various sources. Ptolemy, the Egyptian Geographer who wrote in the 2nd Century A.D. describing "India beyond the Ganges" refers to the Dobassa mountains which are the eastern extremity of the Himalayas. In the Kalika Purana it is said that the Kamakhya temple [situated near what is now Guwahati]- (please see photograph no. 6) was in the center of Kamarupa, and it is added in the Vishnupurana that the kingdom extended around this temple in all directions for 100 yojanas or about 450 miles. Even after allowing for exaggeration, this would include the whole of present Assam, east Bengal and even Bhutan. This is borne out by Hieun Tsang who estimated the territory of Kamarupa as being li or an area having a circumference of 1667 miles.22

Tibetan and Chinese influences, in fact, never gained a permanent footing on the Indian side of the Himalayas throughout the centuries of Hindu rule in India. The Himalayan region often changed hands but it was almost always between Indian rulers. History shows that India was invaded from the north-west, from north only once, and that too for a very short period of time part of this territory came under Tibetan sway.

4 4 ETHNIC EXTENT:

4.4.1 Origin and Migration:- Regarding origin and migration of the people of Arunachal Pradesh no written records are available yet. But the people narrate their origin on the basis of myths prevalent among them. For example the Idu Mishmis believe that they are descendants of the god Nyu-Onjaru and his consort Ladu who hailed from the plains. The fact is that none of the tribal groups identify their present habitations as the place of their origin. Similariy the tribes to the north of Brahmaputra valley point towards the north for their migration while those in the south say that they have migrated either from upper Burma or from Hu-Kong valley across the Patkoi hills. SR. Name of District 2_ Exsiting Tribal Population No. 1) Tawang Monpa 2) West Kameng Monpa, Miji, Khawa, Aka, Sherdukpen 3) East Kameng Sulung Bangni 4) Lower Subansiri & 5) Papum Pare Nishi Apatani 6) Upper Subansiri Hillmiri, Tagin 7) West Siang Khamba, Adi-Bori, Memba, Adi-Gallong, Adi-Minyong 8) East Siang Mishing, Adi-Gallong, Adi-Padam, Adi-Minyong 9) Dibang Valley Idu Mishmi 10) Lohit Digaru - Mishmi, Khamti, Miju - Mishmi, Singpho 11) Changlang Singpho, Lisu, Tangsas 12) Tirap Nocte's, Wanchos

Sketch No. 16 :- Shows The Districtwise Tribal Distribution of Papulation In The Eastern Sector (Arunachal Pradesh)

Source :- Sketch Prepared With The Available Informations At State Musium Library, Government of Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar (Arunachal Pradesh) PHOTOGRAPH NO.6

Research Scholar M.L.Sali With Priest Of Kamakhya Temple (Constructed During AncUntPeriod). Still Exists At Gauhati (Capital Of Assam) VJhich Supportinc, Historical Fact). The does not throw any light on the possibility of migration from the plains to the hills. Then, they have definitely migrated from across the border both in the south and the north. Dr Suniti Chaterjee in his account "The Indo-Mongoloid mentioned that:-

when the migration of the Indo-Mongoloids took place towards South-east Asia, a branch of the great human mass entered the hills of Arunachal Pradesh from Burma^^.It means that the Paleo-Mongoloid connections of the ethnic groups spread over the north-eastern and sub-Himalayan regions which also includes the present Arunachal Pradesh.

The people of Arunachal Pradesh belong to Mongoloid Race and may be distinctly divided into 4 main groups- Nagas, Daffas, Aboras and Bhotias. The population of Arunachal Pradesh is 864,558 according to 1991 census and is scattered over 12 towns and 3,257 villages. There are 26 major tribes and a number of sub-tribes inhabiting the area.24 Most of these communities are ethnically similar, having originated from a common original stock. But geographical isolations from each other has brought among them certain distinctive characters in language, dress and customs. A detail of Arunachal Pradesh Tribes are as follows, [please see sketch no. 16]

1] Monapa:-The Monapa are simple gentle and courteous people, settled in Tawang and and belong to Bhotia g:i)up of the Indo-Mongoloid stock. They have migrated from Bhutan and Tibet to India. Agriculture is the basic means of livelihood and they mainly grow Potato, Maize, Millet and Barley. They are friendly and posses a rich heritage. They are Buddhist by religion and follow the Mahayana sect which centers around the Tawang Monastery. They perform colorful mask dances and pantomimes. Buddhist temples are locally called Gampas. The women are expert in carpet weaving and the men in wood carving and painting. During my halt at Tawang which was a part of my field trip to Arunachal Pradesh, I found that they are very candid and cooperative and voluntarily joined the national mainstream of India (please see photograph no. 7 - Research scholar Mr. M.L Sali with a sophisticated Monpa family)

2] Miji:-The Mijis are also a small tribe, settled in west Kameng district. Agriculture is the mainstay of life they practice both wet and dry method of cultivation. They believe in the existence of a number of deities and spirits, although they have come under the influence of Buddhism. As per their tradition they sere originally settlers in the plains of Assam. They are also called as Dhammai.

122 PHOTOGRAPH NO.7

Research Scholar M.L.Sali With Monapa Family Durin<-, Field Trip. (Tawany - Arunachal Pradesh) 3] Khawa:- The Khawas are settled as agriculturists and inhabiting the west Kameng district. Agriculture is the mainstay of life and they practice both dry and wet cultivation. They believe in the existence of a number of deities and spirits. They perform a number of rites and ceremonies for their welfare. By nature the Khawas are gentle, affectionate and hospitable people. They are also called Bugun.

4] Aka:- Akas are settled in west Kameng district. Agriculture is their mainstay of life. They are keen traders and trade mainly in cloth, blankets, swords etc. They figured ft-equently in old historical records.lt is believed that they were related with the Ahom kings. They believe in the existence of a number of deities and spirits although they have come, to, some extent under the extent under both Hindu and Buddhist influence, They have a custom of painting their face with black marks. They are also called Hruso.

5] Sherdukpen:- The Sherdukpen is one of the small tribes of Arunachal Pradesh and inhabiting west Kameng district. Agriculture is the mainstay of life . They practice both shifting and permanent cultivation. They are also keen traders. They have adopted Buddhism of the Mahayana sect, but their religion is an interesting blend of Buddhism and magico-religious beliefs. They belong to the Bhotia group of Indo-Mongoloid stock. The Bhotias migrated from Bhutan and Tibet to India. The women are skillful weavers and the men are keen carpenters. Some are expert in Smithy work also.

6] Sulung:-They are also inhabitants of east Kameng district. They are essentially trappers, hunters and food gatherers, but of late, they have taken up cultivation. Their dress and costumes are simple and religion is a form of the primitive spirit culture'. They believe in the existence of a number of spirits and deities. The Sulungs are considered to be one of the oldest tribes of Arunachal Pradesh.

7] Bangni:- Bangnis are inhabitants of the east Kameng district. Agriculture is the basic means of livelihood. They practice mainly jhum cultivation. Permanent cultivation has been adapted by those residing in the foothills. They believe in the existence of a high god and a number of deities and spirits whom they propitiate for appeasement,

8] Nishi:- The largest group of this tribe inhabits the major part of Subansisri district. Agriculture is their mainstay of life and they practice both shifting and permanent type of cultivation. They believe in the existence of a high God and a number of smaller deities and spirits. They also believe that after death the spirit travels to the village of the ancestors. Nishi

123 men wear their hair long and tie it in a knot just above the forehead, Polygamy is most common among them.

9] Apatani:- The Apatani are settled as agriculturists and inhabit the valley around , the headquarters of lower Subansiri district. Agriculture is the mainstay of life. They practice permanent type of cultivation. Paddy-cum-fish culture is a speciality of Apatanis. They believe in the existence of a high God and a number of smaller deities and spirits. The men tie the hair in top knots above the forehead and tattoo their faces. Wearing of circular nose plugs is the most characteristic aspect of ornamentation of the women. The women are expert at weaving and weave intrinsic patterns in their textiles. Unlike other tribes of Arunachal Pradesh their economy is stable.

10] Hillmirii-The Hillmiri tribe exists in and can be divided into 3 groups- Tarbotia, Sarakdwar and Panibotia. Agriculture is the mainstay of life and they practice both dry and permanent methods of cultivation. They believe in the existence of a high God and a number of smaller deities and spirits. They had intimate contact with plains of Assam from long past. The men tie the hair in knots above the forehead. The women earlier wore an attractive crinoline of cane rings which serve the purpose of a blouse. The women are expert in weaving and the men in cane and bamboo crafts.

11] Tagin:- They are mainly inhabitants of upper Subansiri district. Agriculture is their mainstay of life and they practice mainly dry method of cultivation. They build their houses with stone, wear woolen clothes and live largely on the milk of sheep. They believe in the existence of a high God and a host of smaller deities and spirits. Although influenced by Tibetan culture, their religious beliefs and practices may be called animistic. Tagin society is divided into distinct classes. Hunting of game is a speciality of the Tagin men. Polygamy is customary among them.

12] Khamba:- Khambas inhabit the northern part of . They are culturally similar to the Monpas. Agriculture is their mainstay of life. They practice dry method of cultivation and grow mainly maize and millet which are their staple food. They are Buddhist by religion and follow the Mahayana sect. They have colorful dances and pantomimes. The men are expert in mask making and painting.

13] Adi (Bori):- Adi Bori inhabits the west Siang district. Agriculture is their mainstay of life. They also practice inter-village trade. They follow Donyi-Polo religion and believe in the

124 existence of a number of deities and spirits. The men are expert in cane and bamboo crafts, and the women in weaving.

14] Membat-Membas inhabiting the west Siang district. In terms of cuhure they are similar to Monpas and Khambas. Agriculture is their mainstay of life and they practice dry cultivation. They grow mainly millet, maize, barley and cotton. Maize and millet are their stable food. They are Buddhist by religion and follow the Mahayana sect, and belong to the Bhotia group of the Indo-Mongoloid Stock who had once migrated from Bhutan and Tibet to India. They perform colorful dances and pantomimes. Polyandry is prevalent among them. The men are expert in mask making and painting.

15] Adi(Gallong): -Adi Gallong inhabits the east and west Siang district. Agriculture is their main occupation. They also perform inter-village trade.They are democratic by nature and have a unique sense of history. They follow the Donyi-Polo religion and believe in the existence of a number of deities and spirits. The women are expert weavers and weave cloth with highly artistic designs. The men are expert in cane and bamboo crafts.

16] Adi (Minyong):- They have settled in east and west Siang district. Agriculture is their mainstay of life, they practice wet and dry cultivation. They follow Donyi-Polo religion and believe in the existence of a number of deities and spirits. The women are expert in weaving as the men are in cane and bamboo work.

17] Mishing:- Mishing inhabit the . Agriculture is the mainstay of life and they practice permanent cultivation. They believe in the existence of a high-God. The mishing women are expert weavers and weave most of their family requirements at home. Mishing language is akin to the Adis and Hill Miris.

18] Adi(Padam): -The Adis have two main divisions - the Begums and Bomis, and under each there are a number of sub tribes. Adi Padam have settled in east Kameng district. Agriculture is their means of livelihood and they practice both dry and wet method of cultivation. They follow Donyi-Polo religion and believe in the existence of a number of deities and spirits. The men are experts in cane and bamboo crafts, and some are expert in black smithy also. The women are very good weavers and weave beautifiil designs in their textile.

19] Idu Mishmi:-Idu Mishmi are inhabitants of Dibang valley district. During field trip it was observed that agriculture is their main occupation, but they are also keen traders by nature. They are trying to gain education and merge their identity in the national stream.(please see

125 PHOTOGRAPH NO.8

Research Scholar M.L.Sali With Idu Mishmi Family At 'Roiny (Debant, Valley District Of Arunachal Pradesh) photograph no. 8. Research Scholar with Idu Mishmi Family at "Roing" Dibang Valley District) They believe in the existence cf a high god and a host of spirits both benevolent and malevolent. Idu Mishmi women are expert weavers. The war coat woven by them with nettle fibres, cotton and human hair is a very strong body armour. The men are expert in cane and bamboo work. They are also called Chuli Katta Mushmis because of the style of cutting hair round the head.

20] Digaru (Mishini):-Digaru Mishmis are inhabitants of Lohit District. Agriculture is their mainstay of life. They believe in the existence of a supernatural being and a number of smaller deities and spirits. Both men and women wear their hair long. The women wear silver plates around the head and are good weavers. Their language has some affinity with Kachari Chin and Lepcha. They are also called Taraon Lepcha Mishmi.

21] Khamti:- The khamtis are settled in Lohit district. They are cultivators and enterprising traders. By religion they are Buddhist and follow the Hinayana sect. They have temples. Long ago they migrated from Burma and Thailand. They are believed to have migrated from the Shan states of Burma. They are the only tribe in Arunachal who have a script of their own. The women are expert in weaving as the men are in wood carving, and mask and doll making.

22] Miju Mishmi: -They are also inhabitants of Lohit district. Agriculture is their mainstay of life. They also practice inter village trade. They believe in the existence of a high god and a number of deities and spirits. Both men and women wear their hair long. The women are expert in weaving and have a beautiful sense of colour combinations. The men are expert in cane and bamboo crafts. They are also called Kaman Mishmi.

23] Singpho:-They are inhabitants of both Lohit and and represent a section of the Kachin of Burma. Agriculture is their mainstay of life and they practice permanent type of cultivation. They use plough and are experts in Black smithy. They have adopted Buddhism and simultaneously believe in the existence of a host of spirits. Singpho women are good weavers and they weave most of their requirements at home.

24] Lisu:-Lisus are a small group of people inhabiting remote and eastern most corner of Tirap and Changlang district. They are simple and gentle people having their own culture, religion, faiths, beliefs and dialect. Agriculture is their mainstay of life. They are recent migrants to this district and by religion they are Christian.

126 25] Tangsa: -Tangsa is a common name given to a group of subtribes such as Lungchang, Mavi, Yogli, Lungari etc., and they inhabit the Changlang district. Agriculture is their mainstay of life and they practice dry and wet cultivation. They believe in the existence of a supreme being and a number of deities and spirits. They nave migrated from Burma and many of their kinsmen are still there on the other side of Patkoi range, i.e. in Burma. Tangsa women are expert in weaving as the men are in cane and bamboo basketting.

26] Nocte: -They inhabit the Khonsa sub division of Tirap district. They are organised under powerful chiefs - Namsang and Borduria. Agriculture is their mainstay of life and they practice jhum cuhivation. They also cultivate betel leaves on a commercial basis. Noctes have adopted Vaishnavism. They also believe in the existence of a supreme being and a host of smaller deities and spirits. Chieftainship is prevalent among them and their menfolk are expert in cane and bamboo crafts.

27] Wanchos: -They inhabit the western part of Tirap district, bordering Nagaland. They are carefree, cheerful and hardworking people. Head hunting was customary with them in olden days. They have a strict sense of discipline, law and order of the society which is supposed to be maintained by Village Council. Tattooing is a social custom among them. The women are good weavers but the art is restricted to members of the chiefs family only. They are also experts in wood carving. ^5

4.4.2. Social Structure:-The tribals of Arunachal Pradesh have a highly ordered and organised system of functioning in their villages. All matters relating to the community as a whole are decided at the village level. The socio-administrative structure of the society as evolved over a period of centuries recognises democratic participation right down to the level of villages.

The traditional village Panchayat of an Adi village is locally known as Kebang which is a judicio-administrative body consisting of mature and influential elders. Kebang looks after the administration of justice in the society by settling all matters of dispute. Similar self-governing institutions exist among other tribes. They are variously called Jong among the sherdukpens, Mel among the Akas, Buliang among the Apatanis and so on.26

44 3 An Evolution of Socio-Cultural Environment:- The entire population of Arunachal Pradesh can be divided into three major cultural groups on the basis of their socio-politico- religious affinities:

127 1] In the first group the Monpas, Sherdukpens, Membas and Khambas are included. These tribes practice terrace cultivation and their pet animals i.e. pony, yak, sheep. They construct their houses with stone and wood and dress , costumes are made of wool.

2] The second group contains more tribes as compared to first group. This second group consists of Nishing, Hil Miris, Adis Mishmis, Nocte, Wanchos, Tangsa etc. These tribes practice shifting cultivation and hunting except among the Apatanis who practice mainly wet rice cultivation. They live in pile dwelling either made by bamboo or leaves. Their costumes are made by cotton and dresses are made from natural products.

3] In the third group Khamptis and Singphos are included. They practice wet rice cultivation and their pet animals are buffalo and elephant.

All the individual tribes have a rich cultural heritage. Polygamy is sanctioned and practiced by the society, there is nothing wrong in it. The people are highly democratic and each tribe has its own organised institution which maintains law and order, settle disputes and carry on welfare activities for the tribes and villages. The society within Arunachal Pradesh is caste less but is classified as chiefs, aristocrats,commoners, slaves, fi-eemen etc, The societies are governed by the chiefs and the elders group according to their age for distinct social fiinctions. The younger were organised around dormitory institutions to act as the implementers of the decisions and instructions given by the older generation who could act through village councils either independently or under chiefs,27

The religion of the bulk of the population of Arunachal Pradesh consist of belief in the existence of a high god or supernatural being and a host of other spirits and deities. The high god is named differently by different people. Some of them believe in the duel existence of God - one in the sky and other on the earth. The Adi, one of the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh coming under the influence of new religion i.e. Donyi-Polo religion (Donyi-sun, Polo- moon). Vaishnavism as propounded by Srimanta Sankardeva has also found its way into some tribes of east Kameng district and Tirap district. Buddhism (both Hanayana and Mahayana sect) is the religion of the tribes of Tawang, west Kameng, Lohit, west Siang district i.e. Monpa, Khambas, Membas, Singphos etc. In addition. Christian religion has also been adopted by some people in Subansiri, Siang, Dibang valley and Tirap district.^8

The economy of the people of Arunachal Pradesh is based on agriculture. The nature of terrain has compelled the people to follow jhumming cultivation. Apatanis, Singphos and

128 Khamtis are the traditionally practitioners of permanent cultivation. Besides agriculture another base of economy of the people is forest and its production i.e.- honey, bamboo, leaves, timber, cottage crafts, medicinal plants etc. Horticulture is also one of the important factors of their economy.29 A. large number of horticultural farms growing apples, pineapple are coming up in some parts. For example apple is grown mainly in west Kameng and . The industrialisation process already started and it will take some time to develop in appropriate manner.

4.4.4. Language:- Language is the means of conversation and medium to exchange the views and ideas and interaction etc. The 25 major tribal groups with their sub-groups speak some 60-70 dialects - independent of each other. All dialects belong to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Some language groups are very small, at least 2 being spoken by just 700 people in each. Out of 26 major tribes none of the tribes has any script for their own language. Only Khamti has its own script and a relatively important literature.

Language spoken by the various groups is mostly Bhotia which comes out of Tibeto- Burmese speech family. The "Tai" language bears some affinity to the Pali language which is taught among the monks, their spoken language however belongs to the Shan language.

Dafla, Pali, Shan, Bhotia, Tibetan, Buddhist and Bangui languages are well known in Arunachal Pradesh. Nowadays people of Arunachal Pradesh are catching up Hindi language rapidly. During my field trip to Arunachal Pradesh in Nov. 1994 at Roing, Jang, Tawang, Itanagar, it was noticed that people can speak as well as understand Hindi very easily. The Government of India has opened various schools and colleges in the border area. Central Schools of Government of India which are having Hindi and English medium branches in Arunachal Pradesh are getting very good response. You can find instruction Boards at common places in English. College students of Arunachal Pradesh are catching up English very easily and rapidly too.^^

4.4.5. Similarity between Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh and Aryan Traditions: -The Nishi and Hill Miri tribes of Tali and Raga circle of lower Subasiri district of Arunachal Pradesh who belong to the Mongolian stock closely follow the Aryan tradition in their social and religious beliefs. A study conducted by the Directorate of Research Government of Arunachal Pradesh into the cultural, religious and social customs of the two tribes found many affinities and similarities with the Rigvedic Aryan traditions in their marriage, burial system and

129 other social activities. Researchers M. Kan and A. Bourai recorded that both to nishis and the Rigvedic Aryans had the same ideas regarding Hfe after death, existence of the soul and its immortality. The marriage system of the Nishis and the Hill Miris revealed eight kinds of Aryan marriages.-'^

4.4.6. Ethnic Extent: An Assessment: -The great Himalayan range has undoubtedly played its part as an effective barrier separating the Tibetans of Mongoloid stock from the mixed Lobas of the cis-Himalayan regions. During the border talks the Chinese pointed out that there exists a Tibetan strain among the people of Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh (NEFA). On this basis the Chinese are always trying to mix up ethnic factors with boundary questions. It is true that the people of India's China border area are of Tibetan strain. But it is a real fact that watershed does normally check the movement and settlement of the people along the major part of the boundary; they do not ahogether prevent the migration of people which occurs periodically due to a number of pressures. Such migrations do not in any way affect the traditional basis of a watershed boundary. For example, the mountains of the north-west did not prevent the invasion of the Aryans, the Afghans, the Persians and the Mongols.^2

The people of Arunachal Pradesh are of Mongoloid race and distinctly of 4 main groups - The Bhotia, Nagas, Aboras and Daflas. The Bhotia group had migrated from Tibet to Arunachal Pradesh during Manchu regime in China. There has been a long tradition of trade and mutual friendship between the tribes of Himalayan border areas and the people of Tibet. Some sort of cultural intercourse between the people living on both sides of the frontier area, has resuhed in the mixed culture of Indo-Mongoloid as well as Indo-Tibetan people.

The migration of Tibetans in the border area through the difficult passes and the various routes did not affect the political status of the area. Such migrations and invasions might sometimes temporarily affect the political frontiers and even leave a permanent mark on the racial composition of the people but they do not change the national boundary. In the case of India China border there has been migration of people but no political invasions and the question of changes in national boundaries never arose.

It is true that the boundary of the two adjacent countries as not determined by the ethnic affiliations of the people living in these countries. There were migrations from Tibet to India and cultural intercourse between the people living on both sides of the frontier. ^^ j^g frontier between Tibet and Assam was eventually ascertained confirming to the traditional line

130 accepted by both Indians and Tibetans. Afterwards, the McMohan line confirmed as the conventional boundary in 1914.The McMohan line is the real, natural administrative and traditional boundary between China and India. Even Alistair Lamb, a scholar admitted that McMohan line is on the whole quite a fair and reasonable boundary between China and India along the Assam Himalayas. [Alistair Lamb - "India China Border: The origin of the Disputed Boundaries." Oxford University Press New York 1964, see page 169.]

4 5 POLITICAL DOMINANCE IN BORDER AREAS AND ITS LINKAGES:

Himalaya is regarded as the northern frontier of India since the ancient period. The evidence of political dominance during the Middle and Modem Historic are more valuable in determining the legality of claims of both contending powers on the disputed area of Himalayan border. The evolution of the boundary in the eastern sector witnessed a different set of historical processes. East of Bhutan the northern border of India encompasses the territory of Arunachal Pradesh. In the past this territory was always under control of Indians. [The early history of this region has already been covered in the beginning of this chapter under the title- Historical and Archaeological Evidences]

4.5.1 Kamarupa Rulers:(594 A.D. - 650 A.D) .-The present Arunachal Pradesh has always been a part of Assam since the earliest times (Now an individual Indian state). The kingdom of Kamarupa was headed by Bhaskara Varma at the time of the Dawaka Expedition. We have only few tantalising references to Bhaskara Varma as a contemporary of Emperor Harsha and a powerfijl king of the north-east who ruled up to the lands of Burma and China, His state extended over a thousand li in all directions from Pragjyotisha.^^ (li-means 1667 miles)

The early ruler of Kamarupa exercised a political control of sorts over it. Bhagadatta, before the first century A.D. had touched the confines of south-west China after a distance of about a months journey from the capital of Kamarupa. According to Sanskrit sources and the travel account of Yuan Chwang.-"The northern limits of Kamarupa including Bhutan extended much beyond the frontiers of modern Assam." After the death of Bhaskar Varma, due to constant political instability in north-eastern India, reduced ancient Assam to its natural confines in the eastern Himalayas. But the last ruler of Kamarupa (1050 A.D - 1228 A.D.) had authorised the northern hill chiefs to leave certain dues on the villages on their southern periphery in return of which they paid tributes.-^^

131 4.5.2. Arrival of Ahom (Ahom Dynasty 1228 A.D.-1780 A.D.) - In Assam the Hindu king - The Varman, the Salastambha and the Pala dynasties- found themselves from the eighth century onwards under pressure of the Ahoms, a branch of the Shan tribe. Finally in 1228 A.D. the kingdom came under the rule of Chukapha who is said to have been the first to assume for himself and his people the name of Ahom - the peerless - and to have given this name, now softened to Assam, to the country. The new rulers successfully resisted Muslims efforts to subdue them. In 1554 A.D., the Ahom ruler adopted the Hindu religion and changed his name Chatamba to Jayadhaja Singh. The Ahom kings always took Hindu names; and the Ahom Shans adopting the language and customs as well as the religion of the conquered people became absorbed in the Hindu fold.

Aurangzeb (Mughal King), sought to conquer Assam but though the Ahom Raja surrendered in 1662 A.D., he regained his territory 4 years later.^^

The decline of Pala dynasty resulted in several invasions from the east and the west as well as the rise of a number of chieftains. These invasions neither induced the Assamese to unite nor reduced their territory. The "Sukapha" from the Tai kingdom of Mong Mao in upper Burma conquered upper Assam in 1228 A.D. and became the founder of Ahom dynasty in 1228 A.D. Through force and strategies , Sukapha and his succesors consolidated their power over all the tribes of eastern India. After that Ahom annexed a country "Chutiya" around in 1524 A.D. when the contacts of Ahom with the northern hill tribes was established. The prajah of Darang and special agents were detailed for the Ahom relations with the northern frontier tribes. Many times when the Ahom armies ignoring the difficult terrain and the tactically suitable position of hill tribes marched into the northern hills, they suffered heavy casualties and defeat at the hands of hill tribes. This led the Ahoms to develop a policy of conciliation by assigning to each tribe certain number of paiks (Tax-paying household or settlements). The Ahom received tribute from all frontier hill tribes as a token of the Ahom sovereignty.

As regards Assam, the original Hindu king of the Varna Sabsthambha and Pala dynasty were slowly displaced by the Ahoms, a branch of the Burmese Shan tribe in to 13th Century. These Ahoms were assimilated into the Hindu lord accepting its customs and religions and adopting Hindu names.

It is quite clear that no time was the sovereignty of the northern territory to the crest of the Himalayas lost by rulers of Assam or acquired by neither the Tibetans nor Chinese. 37

132 4.5 3. Burmese Invasion and Arrival of British :- The history of North-east frontier entered in a new phase that is Burmese invasion at Assam towards the end of the 18th Century The Burmese king Bodawapaya at last conquered Assam (1781 A.D. - 1819 AD). Now this time, the British were trying to expand their dominion in India. British intervention in Assam led to the first Anglo-Burmese war of 1824 - 26 A.D. At last the British met success to the expulsion of all Burmese in Assam.

The Burmese were defeated by British and it resulted in concluding a peace treaty of Yandabo, which was signed on 24th February 1826. According to the peace treaty of Yandabo, lower Assam and parts of upper Assam, like the Matak and Sadia territories were annexed to the British India.^8

Actually the British came to Assam in 1692 when the Ahom prince Purandar Singh requested the British Government for help against Moamaria rebels. In response to these appeals lord Cornwallis sent an expedition into Assam and withdrew after it had completed its task. In 1819 A.D. the Burmese conquered a major part of Assam. As a resuh of the 1824-26 A.D. Anglo-Burmese war, Burma had to relinquish all its claim upon Assam, its dependencies and the border states of Cacher and Jainata. The British Government, took the place of the Burmese and David Scott was appointed as an agent of the Governor General of Assam.

The Ahom, during the 600 years of their rule seem to have been far more successful in their dealing with the tribes than the British were during the early years of their rule in the 19th century. At last the Ahom Rajas entered into an agreement with the British. However, except for the territories of Sadiya and Mattaka, upper Assam was handed over to the Ahom prince Purandar Singh who was set up as a Vassal King. In 1833, Purandar Singh's territory was retaken and the whole of Assam became a Non-Regulated Province of British India. Mattak and Sadiya were annexed and included in India in 1842.^9

4.5.4. NEFA-During British Period:-It is quite clear that the British adopted closer relations with the tribes. The government developed a few trade marts along the administrative frontier at Sadiya, Mazbat (presently known as Chardwar) and Udaligiri. The Adi and Dofla tribes claimed all the Miri Bhatia, Posa paying household or settlements that had sprung up in the adjacent British territory. As a result of it. Security and stability were maintained very smoothly.The administration also encouraged the tribesmen to join the army or police.

133 In 1873, the "Inner Line Regulation Act" came into existence, and it was the first time that any restrictions were effectively imposed by the Government on the free intercourse between the hills and the plains. It resulted in hostile attitude of the Adi Tribesmen towards Britishers. The Britishers faced the raids and various trouble by tribesmen during 1876-78. The constant trouble by tribesmen led to the establishment of 3 advance outposts at Nizamghat, Bomjur, and Bhismaknagar in the Adi and Mishmi hills.

In 1883, J F Needham, was appointed as the first assistant Political officer of the Dibrughar Tract with headquarters at Sadiya. He was subordinate to the Deputy commissioner, Lakhimpur. His tour of 1883-1905 A.D. was marked by significant tours in the tribal country and contributed valuable knowledge about the geography of the land of Mishmi tribe. His successor, Noel Williamson (1905-1910 A.D.) conducted extensive tours all over the Lohit and Siang frontier division right up to Rima on the border of country.

In July 1909. Charles A. Bell, political officer (Sikkim 1908-20 A.D.) expressed his worries to the Government of British. India regarding the dangers inherent in leaving this frontier undefined and unascertained and further expressed hisapprehensions that Tibet or China might advance and lay claim to the whole or part of the areas beyond the Inner Line. Meanwhile, Williamson and Dr. Gregorson (A Tea Garden Doctor) were murdered in 1911 by Abors when they were on tours at Pangi.'^^

The murder of Williamson by Adi tribes clearly shows their attitude towards the British Government. Another factor was that the Chinese had been sighted well within the Adi and Mismi borders contiguous with Tibet. This time the British had no doubt regarding the northern limits of the frontier hills.

In response to warning given by Charies Bell Political Officer regarding possible threat from Tibet or China in future, the British Government dispatched a strong garrison. This garrison which was known as "Abor Expedition" led by Maj Gen Hamitton Bower in 1911. The purpose of this expedition was:-

a) To establish peace and order in the Abor country.

b) Give suggestions for suitable measures for the consideration of the Government.

c) To obtain redress for Williamson's murder as well as.

134 d) To utilise the opportunity for survey, explore and map as much of the north-eastern frontier as possible to formulate and define a suitable fi-ontier line on the north and north-east of Assam.

Major General Bower recommended the division of the country into three sections i.e.eastern, central and western sections. These recommendations were accepted by the Government of British India. For smooth administration the new sections were known as:-

1) Central and Eastern North-East Frontier Tract.

2) Lakhimpur Frontier Tract and

3) Western section North-Eastern Frontier Tract.

The headquarters of the first two sections were at Sadiya and the headquarters of western sections was at Chardwar. As a part of Abor Expedition in 1913 a small detachment under Captain H.M. Bailey of the Foreign and Political Department and H.T. Marshead of the survey of India crossed the Dibang-Dihang watershed into pome and mapped the entire southern catchment area of the Tsangpo river up to Tsona Dzong near the Assam-Bhutan-Tibet trijunction."^^ British had made constant attempts and increased the geographical knowledge of north-east fi-ontier. The Survey of India had collected adequate information regarding topography and geographical knowledge of the Assam-Tibet ft^ontier area. (In the early past/history Arunachal Pradesh had been a part of Assam.). On the basis of Topographical information geographical knowledge prepared maps and the result of these reconnaissance surveys the Government of British India negotiated and delineated the Assam-Tibet boundary at the tripartite conference between Tibet, India and China were held at Simla in 1913-14 A.D.

The North-East Frontier was again forgotten and there was no progress or change in administration. The political officer of the Balipara Frontier Tract went to Tawang in 1938 as a part of an oflficial visit During his stay at Tawang he found that in spite of Tawang's location to the south of the 1914 boundary line, hence within India, official person of Tsong Dzong of Tibet were collecting tax and judicial authority over the Monpas of the area. This matter was brought to the notice of the Tibetan Authorities to explain the true importance of the 1914 agreement. As a part of precautions against Tibetans troubled at Tawang, some changes were made by the Britishers. In 1942 a unit of administration and the Tirap Frontier Tract was carved out the Sadiya Frontier Tract. In 1946, on administrative grounds, the Balipara Frontier Tract was divided into two separate districts, viz. Sela Sub Agency and Subansiri Area. The

135 headquarters of Subansiri area was located at with a base camp at Kimin while Sela Sub Agency was at Chardwar.42

During the era of British, they did not try at all to do anything for the upliftment of their conditions. The British knew that their upliftment would make them politically conscious and their political consciousness would undoubtedly create political problems on the border. The British intentionally kept isolated from the rest of the country. But at last, India achieved inde­ pendence on 15th August 1947. The British handed over their power to Indians and the overall Assam up to McMohan Line area came under the control of India as a part of "Inheritage".

4.5.5 NEFA-Since 1947: Overall Assam came under the control of India after 15th August 1947 as a part of "Inheritage". In 1948 minor changes were made by Government of India. The Sadiya Frontier Tract was divided into two administrative units, Abor Hill District and Mishmi Hill District. The headquarter formed at "" and that of the latter at "Sadiya".

On first January 1950, the headquarter of Subansiri area at North Lakhimpur was shifted to Kimin within the Inner line; on 24th March 1952, it was again shifted from Kimin to Ziro where it continues to date. Similarly the headquarters of Sela Sub Agency was shifted from Chardwar to Bomdi La with effect from 28th February 1953.^^

With effect from 26th January 1950, the Constitution of India brought about a change in the administrative setup of these excluded areas. The Government of Assam was relieved of its responsibility for the administration of NEFA, and the discretionary powers were reinvested in the Governor of Assam as the Agent of President.'^'^

NEFA formally came into existence in 1954 as a result of the promulgations of the frontier areas (Administration) Regulation in 1954. This regulation laid down that the Balipara Frontier Tract, Tirap Frontier Tract, Abor Hills district, Mishmi Hills district and Naga Tribal Area shall be collectively known as the North-East Frontier Agency. The Balipara Frontier Tract was also formally divided into two administrative units called Subansiri Frontier Division and Kameng Frontier Division. The names of the new administrative units and their headquarters were as:-

136 1. Kameng Frontier Division (Balapara Frontier Tract) Bomdi La

Subansiri Frontier Division Zero

3. Siang Frontier Division Along

4. Lohit Frontier Division (Mishmi Hill District) Tezu

5. Tirap Frontier Divsion KheLa

6. Tuensang Frontier Division (Naga Tribal Area) Tuensang

The rapid expansion of administration and development activities in the NEFA interior after 1951 quickly exposed the deficiencies of the existing administrative structure. The departments that were functioning in NEFA viz education. Public Health, engineering, forests, agriculture and community developments maintain officer at the divisional headquarters. The divisions were sub-divided into small units called administrative centres and administrative circles, headed by political officers of Base Superintendent Officer of the various technical departments were usually deputed to the administrative centres on a permanent basis, although occasionally through periodic towns of the area. Since 1957 NEFA consisted of five divisions i.e. Kameng, Subansiri, Siang, Lohit and Tirap.

From 1959 all of NEFA had been brought under effective administrative control. Administrative centres had been established throughout the northern half of the Agency although some of them were primarily dependent on airdrops for supplies. Twelve border posts had been setup along the major trade routes between NEFA and Tibet. While they were never intended to serve as defensive positions, they did provide the Indian Government with relatively effective control over access to NEFA from the north.^^

4.6. CHINESE PERCEPTION ON "EASTERN SECTOR": AN EXAMINATION.

4.6.1. Chinese perception on Eastern Sector: Apart from India's political dominance in the eastern sector i.e. Arunachal Pradesh (McMohan line border area) throughout the history and her social and cultural linkages, Chinese still consider Eastern Sector as a card to bargain with India. Therefore, it is essential to study the Chinese perception of McMohan Line.

The letter of 23rd January 1959 was sent to Pandit , Indian Prime Minister by Chou-En-La:', Chinese premier. In the matter of above mentioned letter, "Chinese

137 perception of McMohan Line" reflects enough to understand the Chinese views about Eastern Sector, (for details please refer chapter HI point - Origin of India-China Border Dispute) Chinese perception about Eastern Sector is a stranger one and very much concerned with bargaining tactics, (to acquire concession in the Western Sector from India).

The Chinese perception about Eastern Sector can be summarised under two points:

1) Objection about the "validity of McMohan Line"

2) Eastern Sector was a part of Chinese empire.

1) Objections about the validity of McMohan Line; China claims and considers that the McMohan Line is not valid, therefore for reference they called "." China still considers the McMohan Line is invalid because Chinese representative has never signed on Simla Convention of 1914 and the boundary line was determined between Tibetans and Britishers. China has not bounded by Simla convention of 1914 because Tibet was not an independent state and had no right or authority to sign an agreement or treaty with her neighbours. Further, the Tibetan authorities were dissatisfied with the unilaterally drawn line. The letter of 23rd January 1959 (written by Chou-En-Lai to Pandit Nehru) reflects a perception of McMohan Line i.e. Eastern Sector. "^^

2) Eastern Sector was a part of Chinese Empire: China claims that once upon a time i.e. during Chang Dynasty, Eastern Sector (Arunachal Pradesh) was a part of Chinese Empire but it was the British policy of aggression against Tibet region of China which permitted British to annex it.^^ The Eastern Sector, and particulariy the border region was under the influence of Buddhism, and further, even an expedition was led by Chao-Er-Feng up to in 1910 since it formed part of the then Chinese empire. "^^In addition, China claims the area on the Indian side of the McMohan line on the pretext of the "existence of Tibetan strain in it". However, the presence of the Tibetan strain is easily explained; it existed only on account of illegal immigration from Tibet, Tibetans crossed the Himalayan ranges and settled border area of Indian side. And another reason is socio-cultural intercourse between the border people of Tibet and Arunachal Pradesh. But during the "Border Talks," China failed to produce an authentic report or evidence regarding Chang Dynasty's rule over the eastern sector, or Chao- Er-Feng's expedition in support of her claim which could prove that China exercised control of this territory.

138 4.6.2. Chinese Perceptions on Eastern Sector: An Examination:-

1] The McMohan Line was given formal approval by a tripartite conference held at Simla on 27th April 1914. The Chinese claim is that-

"McMohan line was a product of the British Policy of aggression against the Tibet region of China; although related documents were signed by the representatives of the local authorities of Tibet region of China. The Tibetan local authorities were in fact dissatisfied with this unilaterally drawn line"

In support of the Chinese claims the Chinese Premier's letter asserted :

"The so called McMohan Line was a product of the British policy of aggression against the Tibet region of China and has never been recognised by any Chinese Central Government and is therefore decidedly illegal."

Before finalising the McMohan Line, in Oct. 1913a tripartite conference was held at Simla to define the status of Tibet and to demarcate the Tibet boundary with China on one hand and India on the other. The main objective of the British behind such a type of initiative to settle the dispute between Tibet and China was only to secure Tibet against Chinese pressure and to consolidate British influence in Tibet and not an aggression.

At the time of Simla Convention in 1914 it was the most propitious time for Britain to annex Tibet to its Empire because at that time China was too weak and it was very difficult for Chinese Imperial Power to maintain her hold over Tibet. ^^The reality is shown by the statement of Mr. Purushottam Trikanndas, Indian member of the International Commission of Jurists :-

"From 1912 to 1950 there was no Chinese Law, no Chinese judge, no Chinese policeman on the street corner and no Chinese soldier."^^

The above statement shows that how the Chinese imperial power became weak if the British had any intention about any aggression they would have subjugated Tibet to their Empire. Another factor i.e. Tibet was not so strong as to resist a British invasion designed to annex it. There were two reasons for the British reluctance to annex Tibet to British India:-

139 I) The first reason was that the age of British expansion had ended in the previous century.

II) The occupation of Tibet by Britain would have thrown them into the whirlpool of Central Asia's politics in which Russia was a very powerful rival. The British therefore restricted themselves to trade and in trying to obtain facilities and consolidate her influence in Tibet but not undertake an aggression.

2] The other Chinese argument is that "McMohan Line has never been recognised by any Chinese Central Government and is therefore decidedly illegal."

The Simla convention of 1914, although was a tripartite conference between Tibet, Britain and China, the border was finalised between Britain and Tibet. At the time of Simla Convention, Tibet had right to enter into, and the power to sign treaties and agreements with her neighbours. The convention was ratified by China because the border was finalised between Britain and Tibet. The Chinese Government raised no objection to the so-called McMohan Line. The Memorandum given by the Chinese Foreign Minister to the British Minister in Peking on 30th May 1919 indicated that the objection of the Chinese Government to the Simla convention concerned only the Boundaries between Tibet and China, to be precise, between Inner and Outer Tibet and not at all pertained to the boundary between India and Tibet.^2

When the border between Tibet and India were finalised at the time of Simla Conference, the Chinese representatives did not raise any objection to the boundary between Tibet and India as shown in the Map on which the subject boundary was delineated.lt is an accepted principle of an International Law that commitments entered into by previous Governments are binding on successor Governments. The Harvard research on the law of treaties best summarizes leading authorities by stating:-

"Unless otherv/ise provided in the treaty itself, the obligations of a state under a treaty are not affected by any changes on its Governmental Organization or its constitutional system."

For example when Mexico became independent of Spanish Rule in 1821, the existing Spanish-United States Boundary Line survived and when Canada became a Dominion, existing British-American b' undaries and boundary dispute survived the succession to autonomy by the Canadians. 53 This '.s the case with India as a successor to British rule. Hence China is bound by treaties and arguments which have been concluded in the past between India and Tibet. But it

140 seems that China wishes to avoid all treaties which have stood in the way of its territorial ambitions.

3] The next Chinese argument is that "McMohan Line was never discussed at the Simla conference but was determined by the British representatives and the representatives of the Tibet local authorities behind the back of the Chinese Central Government Representative, through an exchange of secret notes at Delhi on 24th March 1914 that is prior to the signing of the Simla treaty."

The Chinese representative at the Simla Conference was fully aware of the McMohan Line Boundary between India and Tibet. It is a documentary proof and it cannot be dismissed from consideration. The Map showing the McMohan Line quite prominently initialed by the British, Chinese and Tibetan Plenipotentiaries under the following superscription :-

We hereby initial in token of our acceptance this 27th day of April 1914. [In this map the names of boundary lines , places etc are given in the Characters of all three languages i.e. English, Chinese and Tibetan]

On 17 Feb. 1914 at the fourth meeting of the conference, the representatives of Chinese central Government were present. The accompanying map shows Tibet's entire boundaries (with China and with India) ringed by a red line. After full discussion, the draft convention together with the map was submitted at the seventh meeting of the full conference on April 22, 1914 and on 27 April the three plenipotentiaries initialed the map and the draft convention. The initiated map was an important part of the convention. Article 9 of the convention says:-

"For the purpose of present convention, the borders of Tibet and the boundary between outer and Tibet, shall be shown in red and blue respectively on the map attached hereto, (for details please refer Appendix No, 8).

[Inner Tibet was the part of Tibet adjoining China over which the latter was given some control in temporal matters. Outer Tibet was given flill autonomy]. Thus it is incorrect on the part of China to say that Indo-Tibetan boundary was not discussed at the Simla conference^^

4] The next Chinese argument is that the documents of 1914 Simla convention signed by a representative of the local Tibetan authorities,who was in fact dissatisfied with this unilaterally drawn line. But the fact is that the McMohan Line was drawn after full negotiations and

141 confirmed by the notes exchanged between British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries on 24-25 March 1914. Thus on 24 March 1914, Sir Arthur Henry McMohan wrote to Len Chen Shatra:

"In February last you accepted the India Tibet frontier from the Isu Razi pass to the Bhutanese frontier as given in the map- of which two copies are herewith attached, subject to the confirmation of your Government. The final settlement of the India-Tibet frontier will help to prevent causes of further dispute and this cannot fail to be of great advantage to both Governments."^^

At last, a McMohan Line of 1914 Simla convention was subsequently confirmed by a formal exchange of letters. A message from Tibetan representative to the British read as follows.-

"As it was feared that there might be friction in future unless the boundary between India and Tibet is clearly defined, I submitted the map which you sent to me in February last, to the Tibetan Government at Lhasa for orders. I have now received orders from Lhasa and I accordingly agree to the boundary as marked in red in the two copies of the maps signed by you, subject to conditions, mentioned in your letter dated 24 March, sent to me through Mr. Bell. I have signed and sealed the two copies of the maps. I have kept one copy here and return herewith the other, (for details please refer Appendix No.9)."^^

This statement is clearly based on explicit authority from the Tibetan Government shows that the British did not apply pressure upon the Tibetan representative. This statement also shows that they were satisfied and this was not an unilateral agreement but bilateral agreement between Tibet and British India.

5] Another Chinese argument is that "Tibet never had any right to discuss the matter and conclude any treaties with her neighbours. Therefore, the Chinese central Government do not recognise the McMohan Line as a Legal Line".

Further the Chinese Government questioned about Britain's right to treat with Tibet (fi-om China 26 December 1959) "It must be pointed out that it is beyond doubt that Britain had no right to conduct separate negotiations with Tibet. ^^

142 The present Chinese Government have a firm control over Tibet. In short, now Tibet is an internal part of China but the fact remains that the former Government (prior to 1949), had no control over Tibet. In this connection, the H. H. Dalai Lama, XIV remarks :-

"It is true that there were times when China was strong and Tibet was weak and China invaded Tibet. Similarly, looking further back into history, there were times when Tibet invaded China."

He fiirther adds:-

There is no basis in history for Chinese claim that Tibet was a part of China. From 1912, until the fateful year 1950, Tibet enjoyed complete defacto independence of any other nation".^^

History is witness to the fact that during the last 300 years, in several agreements regarding Tibet's boundary with neighbouring countries, Tibet had been a signatory in her own rights. These agreements included the treaty of 1684 A.D. between Kashmir and Ladakh on one side and Tibet and China on the other side. In 1852 she signed a treaty with the Maharaja of Kashmir. Both these were related to Boundary. The treaty was concluded in 1890 between China and Britain and when Tibet protested and successfully defined its terms, Britain had to sign another treaty with the Tibetan Government alone in 1904. China did not protest against it but confirmed it by the treaty of 1906 between Britain and her. In these treaties China does not figure anywhere in any capacity. Most treaties of 19th century about Tibet were signed either by the Tibetan Government or both by it and the Chinese Government.^^

When the Dogra General Zorawar Singh attacked Tibet in 1841, Nepal attacked Tibet in 1858 and when the British carried out their expedition under Sir Francis Younghusband into Tibet 1904 China was not in the picture. The fact remains that Tibet independently concluded agreements with Nepal after the second Gorkha war and with British after the Young Husband expedition. The peace treaty of 1816 with Nepal was signed by Lamas of the Lhasa Government who agreed to the annual payment of Rs. 10,000 to Nepal and to the admission of a Nepalese representative and trading post to Lhasa.

In the second half of the 19th century when Nepal invaded Tibet, China was unable to assist Tibet or to represent it at the conclusion of the peace treaty of 1856. Under this treaty, Tibet was to grant to Nepal certain extra territorial rights. Thus, unless Tibet had absolute and unrestricted control over its own territory, it could not have possibly granted to Nepal the said

143 rights and the latter accepted such extra territorial rights. As a matter of fact, the 1956 Sino- Nepalese treaty contained the clearest recognition, that Tibet had the power in the past to conclude treaties on its own with foreign states without participation or permission of China. So these events prove that Tibet was in position to enter into a number of treaties and agreements regarding Tibet's boundary with her neighbouring countries.

6) Another Chinese argument is that "Tibet was a vassal of China". Under international law the vassal states can enjoy treaty making power. For instance Bulgaria and Egypt conclude their own treaties with foreign Governments while they were vassal under Ottoman empire. The example of Bulgaria is even more instructive though nominally under Turkish suzerainty, Bulgaria had her own diplomatic agents in European Capitals and her representative of other countries in Sofia. She independently entered into various treaties of Turkey viz Italy, France, Austria, Great Britain and Germany. In a treaty with Austria (December 1896) the latter even acknowledged Bulgaria's right to conclude a customs union. The only answer to these facts and agreements is that the concept of vassal state is an imperialist one. If this was so it would amount to Tibet holding Ladakh as a vassal till the 19th century and the present Chinese claim being based on it. The McMohan Line was confirmed in 1936 and 1938 by Tibetan representative and has been, observed till recently when the Chinese began their present intrusion into Indian territory. Article II of the seventeen point agreement of 23rd May 1951 signed between the People's Republic of China and Tibet stated: [for details please see appendix no. 10 ]

"The Tibetan people shall return to the big family of the motherland, "The People's Republic of China".

The use of the word "return" shows that till agreement was concluded the People's Republic of China considered that Tibet was not concluded in their domain.^0 A study of Tibet's relations with China and India from 1914 to 1950 confirm this and would show that during this period Tibet was definitely controlling her destinies that Britain was in the habit of dealing directly with Tibet and that China fully acquiescence in their state of affairs.

The above discussions on "Examination of Chinese perception on McMohan Line & its border area" proves that in the past Tibet had the power to sign agreements or treaties on its own with foreign states. History of Tibet shows that Tibet was an independent state and had the power to sign an agreement or treaty with her neighbours. These agreements included the peace treaty of 1684 A.D. between Ladakh and Tibet. The treaty of 1842 A.D. was signed

144 between Kashmir and Ladakh on one side and Tibet and China on the other side The treaty of 1856 A.D. was signed between Nepal and Tibet and lastly the Simla Convention of 1914 between Great Britain (British India) and Tibet. China never raised any objection about Simla Convention of 1914 till 1958. In the past, Tibet had entered into a number of treaties which were not only considered as "valid" by the concerned parties, but were actually in operation for decades. And hence, Simla Convention of 1914 was not an exceptional one. Therefore, the validity of McMohan Line is beyond any doubt.

The Chinese claim over the wide areas of the South of the McMohan line right up to the foot of the Himalayan mountains (Indian side) comprising an area of Tawang, Limeking, Tuting, Mechuka and Walong. It seems that Chinese are interested in the areas (name of the places already mentioned above) where the Tibetan Lamaist Buddhism had influence. Chinese claim is mainly based on religion viz Buddhism and existence of Tibetan strain amongst the population of Buddhist pockets in the Eastern Sector.

China produced evidence in support of this claim. In 1960 during the border talks, Chinese produced account ledgers of the transborder Tibetan authorities showing various accounts as collected from her claimed area. But the fact remains that the amount was given as a contribution for religious purpose. Inhabitants of Chinese claimed area of India, had a tradition of paying to Dalai Lama and Tibetan Buddhist monasteries as a part of religious funds, contribution and donations and not a tax at all. The record of religious funds, donations and contributions should not be construed as a "record of tax collections". Chinese claim on this basis is "impracticable". If the Chinese claim in the eastern sector is considered as a legal claim on the basis of "religion", then tomorrow Iran or any Islamic country may lay claim over the territory of neighbouring countries on the same basis of "religion".

It is true that Tibetan, Indo-Tibetan, Indo-Mongoloid strains existing the area claimed by China, but the fact is that in the past there was no immigration; on the contrary, Tibetan families were attracted and settled in this area due to fertility of soil. In addition, there were transborder trade relationships and socio-cultural intercourse between the people which ultimately resulted in emergence of a mixed culture of Indo-Tibetan people. Existence of such a mixed culture in border area along the McMohan Line on the Indian Side does not mean that Tibet had any political influence over this territory or this territory was a part of China or Tibet.

4] There is no doubt at all that in McMohan Line border area, Tibetan influence was existing but that was only in terms of religion i.e. "Buddhism". Though they had religious links with

145 PHOTOGRAPH NO.9

Research Scholar With Nawanc,' Tseriny (Buddhist Monk) At The End Of Interview (Tawany Monastrey : Tawany) Tibet, but it always remained a part of India and at present voluntarily joined the "main-nation stream of India". It seems that they are very happy to be Indian. This fact is based on personal interviews and discussions with local of Arunachal Pradesh. This fact is also supported by Lama (of Tawang Buddhist Monastery.) Nawang Tsering and Gyalsay Rinpoche during field trip.(please see photograph no. 9. Research Scholar M.L. Sali with with Lama at Tawang Buddhist Monastery at the end of "Discussion")

5] The traditional boundary along which lie "Tawang, Limeking, Mechuka, Tuting, Walong" also coincide with the McMohan Line. It means that Simla Convention 1914 did not create a new boundary. It only clarified and confirmed the historic -traditional boundary which already existed between India and China in the eastern sector. Hence the Chinese always claim the crest of the last and highest range of the Himalayas from the Tibet side with a view to acquiring maximum area beyond the McMohan Line. The problem of Government of India is to choose the highest range for "watershed" as a dividing line. This problem can be solved by mutual understanding with minor adjustment between India and China.

At present except Thagla Ridge, Longju and Somdorung Chu Valley, the overall territory of the eastern sector is under India's jurisdiction. "Army has regained all territories up to India's perception of the McMohan line"

146 FOOT NOTES

I] Government of India , Notes Memoranda and Letters Exchanged Between the Government ofTndia and China" [March 1960, White Paper No.IV Ministry of External affairs, New Delhi] P.14

2] Government of Arunachal Pradesh , "Arunachal Darshan : Glimpses of Land And People" [Director of Information and Public Relations Itanagar 1985] Pg 2.D

3] Tejvir Singh and Jagdish Kaur, "Studies in Eco Development Mountain and Men "[Print House Lucknow 1983] P. 6,

4] Field Trip to Arunachal Pradesh in 1994, Information based on personal observation by research scholar[M.L. Sali]

5] S.C.Bose, "India : The Land and People : Geography of Himalaya"[Director. National Book Trust New Delhi 1972] P. 97.

6] Ibid pp. 99.

7] Government of Arunachal Pfadesh, op.cit. P. 5.

8] Major Sitaram Jhori (Retd), "Chinese Invasion of NEFA" [Himalayan Publication Lucknow 1968] P. 16.

9] Lt Col J.R. Saigal ."The Unfought War of 1962" [Allied Publishers 1979 New Delhi] P. 11.

10] Field Trip to Arunachal Pradesh by M.L. Sali Nov. 1994.

II] Op.cit. Major Sitaram Jhori (Retd), P. 250-51.

12] Ibid pp. 244-45

13] Ibid pp. 197-98

14] S.P Sen (Editor), "The Sino-India Border Question : A Historical Review". [Institute of Historical Studies ,Calcutta 1971] P. 146.

15] Lt. Gen V.k. Nayar, "Threats from within" [Lancer Publishers, New Delhi-49, 1985] P. 187.

147 16] Field Trip to Arunachal Pradesh Nov 1994, personal observation of Ita Fort by research Scholar [M.L Sali.]

17] Government of Arunachal Pradesh, "Arunachal Pradesh:India".rCross Sections Publications, New Delhi 1992]P. 21.

18] Y.A, Raikar and S. Chatterjee, "Archaeology In Arunachal Pradesh" [Director of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, Shillong 1980] pp. 28-29.

19] Field trip to Arunachal Pradesh Nov 1994 by research Scholar.

20] Dr. P.C Datta." Arunachal Pradesh : An Overview" [Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, Itanagar 1993] pp. 13-14.

21] Rana Satya Paul (Edit), "Our Northern Borders : India China Border Dispute." [The Books Times company 25b/l Rohtak Road New Delhi-5 1963] P. 20.

22] Government of India , A note on "Historical Background of the Himalayan Frontier of India" [Ministry of External Affairs , Historical Division New Delhi, 1959] pp. 126-128.

23] J.N. Choudhary, "Arunac^hal Pradesh From Frontier Tract To Union Territory". Cosmo Publications, New Delhi-1100021, 1983] pp. 67-70. Further Dr. R.C. Dutta op.cit. pp. 27-28.

24] Government of Arunachal Pradesh," Arunachal Darshan",op.cit P.9.

25] Information collected from State Museum Library, Museum Section, Itanagar during field trip Nov 1994 by Research Scholar.

26] Government of Arunachal Pradesh, "Arunachal Darshan",op. cit. p. 16.

27] Dr. PC. Datta op.cit pp. 23-25.

28] Government of Arunachal Pradesh, "Arunachal Pradesh : India". [Cross Section Publication, New Delhi Oct 1992] P. 14.

29] Ibid P. 13.

30] Interview with Director of Research Department at Itanagar and personal observation and experience during field trip to Arunachal Pradesh Nov 1994.

148 31] The Times of India. (New Delhi) dated 12th Sep. 1990.

32] G. Narayan Rao, "The India-China Border : A Reappraisal". [Asia Publication House, New Delhi 1968] P. 10.

33] Major Sitaram Johri (Retd), "Chinese Invasion of NEFA" [Himalayan Publications, Lucknow 1968.] pp. 18-19.

34] T.S. Murthy , "Paths of Peace " Studies on Sino-Indian Border Dispute". [ABC Publishing House, New Delhi 1983.] pp. 207.

35] Dr. R. Rahul, "The History of the Himalayas". Seminar Paper School of International Studies JNU New Delhi 1969.]

36] Government, of India, op.cit. White Paper No. II P. 130.

37] K. Krishnarao, "The Sino Indian Boundary Question and International Law". [Information Service of India New Delhi 1963]. P. 9.

38] Ibid P. 5-6.

39] Government of India, "Report- State Team on Administration of Union Territory NEFA.. [Administration Sectors Commission New Delhi 1965. pp. 194-195.

40] S.P. Sen op.cit. pp. 27-28.

41] Government of India, Report On State Team op.cit. pp. 196-197

42] S.p. Sen op.cit. P. 30.

43] Government of India Team, op.cit. P. 197.

44] P.L. Luthra, "Constitutional and Administrative Growth of The North East Frontier Agency.". [North-east Frontier Agency Office Shillong 1971] P. 16.

45] Government of India, (Team On Administration of Union Territory and NEFA) Op.Cit P. 197.

46] L.E. Rose and M. Fisher, "The NEFA of India". [Institute of International Studies, University of Califomia,Berkeley California 1967] P. 30-31.

149 47] Government of India, "Notes Memoranda and Letters Exchanged and Agreements Signed Between The Government of India and China 1954-59.:. [White Paper Ministry of External Affairs Government of India 1962] pp. 52-53.

48] Mira Sinha Bhattacharjee, "India-China Talks- The Long Hours To Normalisation" MCDS Bulletin. [Deptt, of Defence and Strategic Studies, University of Allahbad] pp. 18-20.

49] T.S. Murthy, op. cit. p. 167.

50] S.P. Sen, op.cit P. 160.

51] Ibid P. 159.

52] Ram Gopal, "India China Tibet : Triangle". [Pustak Kendra 1972 Hazratgang Lucknow 1964] pp. 108-109.

53 K. Krishna Rao op.cit : pp. 35-36.

54 Biswanath Singh, op.cit. p. 273,

55 Aitchison, "A Collection, of Treaties Engagement and Sanad Relating to India And Neighbouring Countries. [Calcutta : Government of India, Central Publication] pp. 34-35.

56 Ibid pp. 34-35.

57 Sudhakar Bhatt, "India and China" [Popular Book S«Jrvice, New Delhi 1967] pp. 108-109.

58 S.P. Sen, Op.Cit. P. 157.

59 Ram Gopal, Op.cit. P. 117.

60 K. Krishna Rao, Op.Cit. pp. 29-30.

150