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The Harem 19Th-20Th Centuries” Pt.II: Colonialism, Nationalism, the Harem 19th-20th centuries” Week 11: Nov. 27-9; Dec. 2 “Northern Nigeria: from Caliphate to Colony” Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Early 19th C. Jihad established Sokoto Caliphate: • Uthman dan Fodio • Born to scholarly family (c.1750) • Followed conservative Saharan brotherhood (Qadiriyya) Northern Nigeria: 19th-20th C. Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • 1790s – 1804: growing reputation as teacher • Preaching against Hausa Islam: state we left in discussion of Kano Palace18th c. (Nast) • ‘corruption’: illegal imposition various taxes • ‘paganism’: continued practice ‘pre-Islamic’ rituals (especially Bori spirit cult) • Charged political opponent, Emir of Gobir as openly supporting: first ‘target’ of jihad Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • 1804: beginning of jihad • Long documented correspondence/debate between them • Emir of Gobir did not accept that he was ‘bad Muslim’ who needed to ‘convert’ – dan Fodio ‘disagreed’ • Declared ‘Holy War’ Nigeria: 19th-20th C. Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Drew in surrounding regions: why attracted? • marginalization vis-à-vis central Hausa provinces • exploited by excessive taxation • attraction of dan Fodio’s charisma, genuine religious fervour Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • 1817, Uthman dan Fodio died: • Muhamed Bello (son) took over as ‘caliph’ • nature of jihad changed fundamentally: became one of ‘the heart and mind’ • ‘conquest’ only established fragile boundaries of state • did not create the Islamic regime envisaged by dan Fodio Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • New ‘Islamic state’ carved out of pre-existing Muslim society: needed full legitimization • Key ‘tool’ to shaping new society -- ‘educating people to understand the Revolution’ -- was education Nigeria: 19th-20th C. Nana Asma’u (1793 – 1864): - educated daughter of Uthman dan Fodio - fluent in Arabic, Fulfulbe, Hausa, Tamechek [Tuareg] - sister Mohamed Bello Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Focus: ‘community work’ • established organization parallel to men’s (Qadiriyya) tariqua: Yan-Taru • made up of women trained by her • disseminated information orally: songs, poems in vernacular languages like Hausa, Fulfulbe • personally translated written Arabic texts into Fulfulbe and Hausa, ‘recited’ them to illiterate audiences Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • many Hausa brought into Caliphate through conquest: needed to be educated in ‘reform’ Islam • bori’ of central concern: played important role in lives everyone but especially women • Asma’u tried to ‘Islamize’ it, as well as supplant it • Drawing on Qur’an: use of sura Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Specifically addressing women: SURAT AL-WAQIAH (no. 56) . One of the pious men said: “If it is read for a dead person, he will be relieved of his sins; if read for a sick person, he will be made comfortable. If written and worn by a woman undergoing child-birth, she will deliver the child by the grace of God the Exalted One. It is effective on everything to which it is attached.” SURAT AL-HAQQA (no. 69) He said: “Whoever reads Surat al- Haqqa will be judged leniently by God. If it is worn by a pregnant woman, then she will be protected from all ailments.” Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Also Addressed Social Issues: SURAT AL-JINN (no. 72) It was related by the Prophet: “Whoever reads Surat al-Jinn and then frees a slave will be rewarded according to the number of jinns who believed Muhammad and the number of jinns who did not believe him....” SURAT AL FATH (no. 48) It was related by one of the pious men [of old] that whoever reads it three times when he sees the crescent moon on the first night of Ramadan will have God increase his income until the end of that year. Nigeria: 19th-20th C. By teaching women, Asma’u was by extension training whole families in orthodox Sufi practices that focused on following the Sunna and the Qur’an, the two guiding lights of the Caliphate.” Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Key aspect of Caliphate: slavery [ie. note Nana Asma’u ‘s inclusion of surat al-jinn, #72 concerning ‘the freeing of slaves…’ in her important ‘popular teachings’] • 1000s captives ‘created’ in jihad, destined for Trans- Saharan slave trade • many taken into domestic service of wealthy landowners, merchants: concubinage widespread • even more absorbed into plantation economy: peanuts, cotton Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Cotton growing gave rise to textile industry: • flourished in 19th C., involved: • preparation thread (from raw cotton) • weaving (thread into cloth) • dying (of cloth – famous indigo blue cloth prepared in Kano) • labour: almost exclusively slave Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • In terms of understanding intersection Islamic state, Muslim society and Slavery: Royal Slavery is key [Stillwell ‘Ideology of Royal Slavery’, Additional Readings] - growth of Caliphate also saw growth of ‘state’ - following Middle Eastern models (Ottoman) while also absorbing earlier Hausa Offices Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Widespread use of slaves to occupy: • palace positions of power and authority • military roles (of equal power and authority) • “the Emir’s Harem” : Wives, children, eunuchs, concubines, domestic slaves [on the Harem, see Nast, ‘British Imperialism… Female Slavery, Add’l Rdg] Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Stillwell’s argument: • key to understanding role of Royal Slaves (administrative and military) is ‘honour’ • slaves stand ‘outside’ code of honour of free people • differences in perception: how slaves see themselves, how others see them We need to situate understanding of ‘harem’ in larger context of ‘Royal Slavery’ Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • while ‘free’ community compared slaves with children (who never grow up), saw them as somewhat ‘uncivilized’ • slave society developed ‘own’ code of behaviour, ‘honour’ • Stillwell looks at how BOTH understandings were cultivated during Sokoto Caliphate (and how they continue to resonate) Nigeria: 19th-20th C. “One obedient slave is better than 300 sons, for the latter desire their father’s death, the former his master’s glory” [Stillwell, opening adage of article] • articulating Emir’s perspective • slaves in most important positions assure loyalty, not competition • no possibility of passing on wealth: ‘goal’ is to acquire and enjoy what one can NOW • served purposes of state well Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Royal Slave’s Perspective: • combination lack of ‘social restrictions’ on behaviour with authority designated by Emir permitted exercise of real power in society: • as Emir’s representative able to extort (goods, taxes, services) from population • ‘demand’ respect • exercise violence in name of state Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Understood (by all in society): • slaves are both ‘tools of’ and ‘members of’ the state • because they are ‘slaves’, they cannot be held responsible (like children) or touched (by people to whom they do not belong) • because Emir himself is not directly implicated, he too cannot be criticized (for ‘slave’ behaviour) Slavery enabled state to function, whether ‘morally’ responsible to goals of jihad…or not Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Royal slaves in unique position: • legally ‘slaves’: ‘property’ (with no rights), inferior to free people, dependent of (and on) good master • (but) socially, politically superior: royal slaves exercised authority over other ‘free’ administrators in court “royal slaves did not have to treat other officials with deference, honour or respect” [Stillwell, p.404] Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • created powerful households, attracted other slaves: developed structures parallel to those of free-born • their sisters, daughters, aunts became the Emir’s ‘favourites’: with offspring [umm al-walad], they became really (legally) related to royal family • in conjunction with local cultural customs: could lead to prince bowing to slave! [see Stillwell’s discussion, also refers to Nast] Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Royal Concubinage and the Harem: • Emir could (and did) demand young girls, desirable women be delivered to him • royal slaves sent to ‘take’ the favoured concubine • some became ‘wives’: most Emirs sons of concubines/slave wives • some given to Royal Slaves as wives (Ottoman model) Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • royal slavery differed from most ‘normal’ slavery in that royal slaves were encouraged to marry, establish ‘royal (slave) families’ • affected both male and female ‘Royals’ • being taken into Royal Harem offered enormous possibility for influence, wealth, power over long term Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Story of Hajiya Ma’daki (a woman of the harem): [see Mack, “Hajiya Ma’daki”, Add’l Rdgs] • grand-daughter of a non-Muslim, Hausa [ “habe”] slave • daughter of Royal Concubine (Kano, emirate of Sokoto) • wife of Emir (Katsina, also emirate of Sokoto) • lived through later years of Sokoto Caliphate and British Colonial rule [Discussion Monday] Nigeria: 19th-20th C. • Sokoto Caliphate and British Colonialism • [to be continued Dec. 2].
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