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Ammonia and the Fertiliser Industry: the Development of Ammonia at Billingham a History of Technological Innovation from the Early 20Th Century to the Present Day https://doi.org/10.1595/205651318X696341 Johnson Matthey Technol. Rev., 2018, 62, (1), 32–47 www.technology.matthey.com Ammonia and the Fertiliser Industry: The Development of Ammonia at Billingham A history of technological innovation from the early 20th century to the present day By John Brightling for their production, ammonia is the most complex Johnson Matthey, PO Box 1, Belasis Avenue, requiring the highest number of catalytic steps. Billingham, Cleveland TS23 1LB, UK Ammonia is one of the most important chemicals produced globally with approximately 85% being Email: [email protected] used as fertiliser for food production (3). The other 15% of ammonia production is used in diverse industrial applications including explosives It is over 100 years since the Haber-Bosch process and polymers production, as a refrigeration fluid began in 1913 with the world’s first ammonia and a reducing agent in nitrogen oxides (NOx) synthesis plant. It led to the first synthetic fixed emissions control. Ammonia synthesis from nitrogen, of which today over 85% is used to atmospheric nitrogen was made possible in the make fertiliser responsible for feeding around 50% first part of the 20th century by the development of the world’s human population. With a growing of the Haber-Bosch process. It remains the only population and rising living standards worldwide, chemical breakthrough recognised by two Nobel the need to obtain reliable, economic supplies prizes for chemistry, awarded to Fritz Haber of this vital plant nutrient for crop growth is as in 1918 (4) and to Carl Bosch in 1931 (5). The important as ever. This article details the historic development of ammonia synthesis directly background to the discovery and development of a addressed “The Wheat Problem” as foretold by Sir process “of greater fundamental importance to the William Crookes in 1898 (6) whereby a shortage modern world than the airplane, nuclear energy, of available reserves (of wheat) would only allow spaceflight or television” (1, 2). It covers the the world’s population to continue to expand to role of the Billingham, UK, site in developing the about two billion which would be reached around process up to the present day. The technology was 1930. Thus, in the early 20th century, the need to pioneered in Germany and developed commercially increase food production led to the development by BASF. In 1998 ICI’s catalyst business, now of the fertiliser industry. Johnson Matthey, acquired BASF’s catalytic Today, the global value of ammonia production expertise in this application and now Johnson is estimated to be over US$100 billion, with Matthey is a world-leading supplier of catalyst and the largest individual plants being capable of technology for ammonia production globally. producing 3300 metric tonnes per day (mtpd) or 3640 short tonnes per day (stpd) (7). To achieve 1. Introduction this scale many improvements have been made over the last 100 years in both process and Ammonia is the second most produced industrial catalyst technology. chemical worldwide. Of the four chemicals, After describing historical aspects of the original ammonia, methanol, hydrogen and carbon ammonia technology development by Haber, monoxide that rely on similar syngas processes Bosch et al. in Germany, and the background to 32 © 2018 Johnson Matthey https://doi.org/10.1595/205651318X696341 Johnson Matthey Technol. Rev., 2018, 62, (1) the requirement for efficiency improvements, this 450 paper uses perspectives from Billingham, UK, to Birkeland-Eyde electric arc method 400 describe some of the technological contributions 350 that came from there in the development of 3 NH 300 ammonia production. –1 Cyanamid method 250 200 2. The Growing Need for Nitrogen 150 Haber-Bosch synthesis In just over 100 years the ammonia production 100 Steam reforming natural gas Energy, GJ mt Energy, industry has grown massively and continues to do 50 } so to feed the ever expanding world population. 0 1910 2010 The development of the remarkable iron catalyst by Alwin Mittasch (8) and the technology for the Year synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen Fig. 1. Historical efficiencies of ammonia process by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch led to BASF starting technologies to operate the world’s first ammonia synthesis plant in 1913. Researchers estimate that about half consumption can only be reduced marginally, if at of today’s food supply is dependent on the nitrogen all, for the most efficient modern plants. originating from ammonia-based fertilisers (9). Worldwide ammonia production is largely based on Between now and 2050, while the world population modifications of the Haber-Bosch process in which will grow by 30%, the demand for agricultural NH is synthesised from a 3:1 volume mixture of goods will rise by 70% and demand for meat by 3 H2:N2 at elevated temperature and pressure in the 200% (10). This is linked with fundamental shifts presence of an iron catalyst. All the nitrogen used in the demand curve for food, especially caused is obtained from the air and the hydrogen may be by population growth, rising affluence leading to obtained by one of the following processes: changes in diet in many countries and in some • Steam reforming of natural gas or other light regions increasing use of food crops to produce hydrocarbons (natural gas liquids, liquefied fuel. The environmental, human health and climatic petroleum gas or naphtha) aspects of ammonia and fertilisers in the growth • Partial oxidation of heavy fuel oil or coal. scenarios have been reviewed elsewhere (11, 12). In ammonia production technology the type of Ammonia production technology has and feedstock plays a significant role in the amount continues to advance under the competitive of energy that is consumed and carbon dioxide challenges in the industry that demands an ever (CO2) produced. About 70% of global ammonia more energy efficient process, with lower emissions production is based on steam reforming concepts that can operate with high reliability for extended using natural gas, with the use of steam reforming periods between shutdowns. There have been of natural gas considered the best available dramatic increases in environmental performance technology from the point of view of energy use and energy efficiency over the last 100 years, but and CO2 emissions, Table I (14). The use of coal with modern steam reforming processes energy and fuel oil are predominately restricted to China, utilisation is nearing the theoretical minimum (13) which exhibits a strong divergence in the ammonia (Figure 1) and looking forward, specific energy feedstock versus the rest of the world. China Table I Comparative Energy and CO2 Emissions of Different Ammonia Processes and Feedstocks Energy, CO2 emissions, Energy source Process –1 –1 GJ t NH3 tonnes t NH3 Natural gas Steam reforming 28 1.6 Naphtha Steam reforming 35 2.5 Heavy fuel oil Partial oxidation 38 3.0 Coal Partial oxidation 42 3.8 33 © 2018 Johnson Matthey https://doi.org/10.1595/205651318X696341 Johnson Matthey Technol. Rev., 2018, 62, (1) accounts for 95% of global coal-based ammonia and Carl Bosch on the technology (5) the ammonia capacity with around 80% of the plants in China synthesis process came to Billingham, UK, in the being coal-based. early 20th century. An ammonia factory being The production of ammonia is a very energy located at Billingham, UK, grew out of the needs of demanding process, the energy use of the World War I when the British government needed to steam reforming process is about 28–35 GJ per develop technology to produce synthetic ammonia –1 tonne ammonia (GJ t NH3). Figure 2 shows the for producing explosives. Billingham was chosen theoretical, practical and operating level energy partly for its proximity to a then-new North Tees efficiencies for ammonia plants based on steam electricity generating station nearby; although reforming. Energy efficiencies vary widely for later developments to the process required less ammonia plants currently in operation due to age, electric power than had been assumed. It is worth feedstock, energy costs and utility constraints. noting that even before the plant was begun the Most plants operate well above the practical possibility for post-war use for fertiliser production minimum energy consumption with the best was recognised. This was recorded in a report by performers (top quartile) ranged between 28 and the Chemical Society in 1916: –1 –1 33 GJ t NH3 and an average efficiency of 37 GJ t NH3. It has been estimated that if all plants worldwide “With some foresight a plant erected were to achieve the efficiency of the best plants, primarily for a military purpose might be energy consumption could fall by 20–25% (15). easily adapted in peace time to agricultural A feature of the industry is that most plants are objects” (16). being continually reviewed for improvements and revamp ideas can be subsequently implemented However by the time the plant (known as the that improve efficiency. Government Nitrate Factory) was completed, World War I was over. The site was put up for sale in 1919 3. Technology Development at (Figure 3), and was purchased by Brunner Mond & Co Ltd (16) who converted it to make ammonia- Billingham, UK based fertilisers. The company was set up as a Following pioneering work by Fritz Haber on the subsidiary called Synthetic Ammonia and Nitrates process (4), Alwin Mittasch on the catalyst (8), Ltd. This became part of ICI in December 1926, Fig. 2. Energy requirements for Energy loss to Operating ammonia plants Most plants inefficient equipment, level operate in this poor design, limited energy region heat recovery and other factors 28.0 GJ mt–1 NH3 Energy loss to process Practical irreversibility, non- minimum standard conditions energy and byproducts 18.0 GJ mt–1 NH3 Theoretical minimum energy Energy based on ideal chemical reactions, 100% yield, standard state and irreversibility 34 © 2018 Johnson Matthey https://doi.org/10.1595/205651318X696341 Johnson Matthey Technol.
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