Fossil evidence of hominins preying on rhinoceroses Jun Yana; Tuong-Vi Nguyena; Briana Pobiner, PhDb; Elizabeth V. Berkeley, PhDa a Biology Department, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA, b Human Origins Program, NMNH, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Introduction Results Currently, rhinoceroses are mainly hunted for their horns. In prehistoric times, hominins were likely interested in rhinoceroses for their meat. Evidence from butchered bones Figure 1. Interactive map containing 58 detailed specimen data entries and stone tools indicate that hominins first started consuming created using ZeeMaps. Different color pins correspond to the five meat from large animals at least 2.6 Ma5 and then migrated out different categories based on the interaction between rhinoceros and of Africa around 1.9 Ma9*, their diets became broader and more hominin (detailed descriptions of each category are available on the flexible. As the consumption of animal-based foods (especially actual map). Detailed data for each entry can be seen by clicking on meat) provided more calories for various amino acids and the “entry name” on the right list or by clicking on the actual pin point. micronutrients used for rapid development1, the selective Viewers of the map will be able to download the entire database as a pressure to consume these foods increased. We conducted a CSV file. Admin access will also be available for scientist to modify literature review to determine when and where early humans current data or add a data entry. started preying on rhinoceroses, and how rhinoceroses may have been used as food. We also intended explore the evidence for the interactions of hominin and rhinoceros species that inhabited the same geographical location during the same period of time and how often rhinoceros consumption events (a) 0 (c) 14.9KA took place. N/A -20,000 30KA -500,000 40KA 14.5KA -40,000 56.5KA 49KA 16.5KA 55KA 59KA 35KA Materials and Methods 60KA -1,000,000 sapiens H. -60,000 16.9KA 18.5KA 82KA 63.5KA 18.9KA • We searched for relevant scientific archeology, -1,500,000 -80,000 70KA

H.neanderthalensis 91KA 72KA paleontology, and evolutionary biology papers -100,000 100KA 64KA -2,000,000 sapiens 100KA in online and print journals and books using heidelbergensis H. 67KA

-120,000 H.

neanderthalensis Years Ago Years Years Ago Years 120KA -2,500,000 143KA keywords including “rhinoceros”, “cut marks”, H. 125KA H. erectus H. -140,000 “hunting”, “scavenging” “butchery”, and “stone -3,000,000 Literature H.habilis tools” . -160,000 Search heidelbergensis -3,500,000 -180,000 • We contacted relevant researchers by email to H. H. H. erectus 200KA obtain information about sites they have studied -4,000,000 -200,000 200KA or are currently studying that provide evidence -900,000 0 (b) (d) 40KA of rhinoceros presence and consumption. 113KA 1.40 MA 1.00 MA -100,000 143KA 127KA 200KA 200KA • We recorded information into a spreadsheet -1,400,000 rectus e -200,000 243KA 1.80 MA 200KA 171KA including the excavation site name, geographic H. 1.71MA 1.93 MA 1.93 MA -300,000 250KA 260KA

-1,900,000 habilis 350KA 350KA300KA coordinates, sample ID, estimated age of fossils, 1.89 MA 2.04 MA 2.04 MA 1.95 MA H. H. -400,000 Literature 2.04 MA 478KA lithic industry, species of hominin and 2.41 MA2.41 MA 420KA400KA -2,400,000 -500,000 Review rhinoceros present, NISP/MNI, age profile, 2.40 MA 2.41 MA 500KA

2.50 MA heidelbergensis 608KA

Years Ago Years Years Ago Years

-600,000 neanderthalensis

number of butchery marks presented, and other H. 582KA

-2,900,000 H. fauna found. 2.94 MA -700,000 H. erectus 3.00 MA 700KA -800,000 737KA • We color coded each entry in the spreadsheet. -3,400,000 -900,000 Data • We created a map of locations of relevant fossils 3.75 MA 866KA Visualiza and timeline of existing and our own hypotheses -3,900,000 -1,000,000 -tion regarding human predation on rhinoceroses. Estimated time interval based on rhino specimen Rhinos and hominins co-existed in Rhino fossils without butchery marks were Rhino fossils with butchery marks were Estimated time interval based on evidence other the same area but no hominin found in a concentrated area with evidence of interpreted as the hominin themselves than rhino specimen remains or artifacts were found hominin hunting / scavenging other prey actively hunted / killed rhinos Indicates time flow (before data point / after data Both rhinos and hominin remains Rhino fossils were found with butchery marks No actual dating information was provided point) or artifacts were found in the but it is unresolved whether hominids hunted for the archaeology site / rhino remains Discussion Estimated time has standard deviation correction same location, but no sign of or scavenged the rhinos Timeline of hominin species from (“MA” = “million years ago”; “KA” = “1000 years ago”) butchery activity were discovered Smithsonian’s Human Origins Programs It is clear that hominins interacted with rhinoceroses as food Figure 2. (a) summary of the timeline based on the dating information either provided by rhinoceros remains or other specimens found at each site. sources. Skeletal elements of rhinoceroses were frequently Data entries were reorganized based on the likely interaction between rhinoceros and hominins and the estimated age of the fossil specimen. The reported from zooarcheological sites across Africa, Asia, and left side of each chart is the estimated timeline of the major hominin species according to the Smithsonian’s Human Origins Program. The right Europe (Figure 1). According to our literature review, the side of each chart corresponds to the timeline for different sites. (b) detailed dating from 3.75 million years ago to 1.00 million years ago; (c) earliest hominin species to have coexisted with and possibly detailed dating from 150 thousand years ago to 14 thousand years ago; (d) detailed dating from 900 thousand years ago to 150 thousand years ago. had the ability to hunt rhinos were Homo erectus and Homo neanderthalensis2,3, who lived between 1.89 million and Conclusion Online Source Links / Email 143,000 years ago and from 200,000 to 40,000 years ago • Fossil records form prehistoric sites in Africa, Asia, and Europe showed Homo ZeeMaps: https://www.zeemaps.com/map?group=1113706 (respectively)4,9*.Rhinoceroses are large, usually solitary, often erectus and Homo neanderthalensis coexisted and may have been capable of hunting Human Origins Program: http://humanorigins.si.edu aggressive ungulates, which made them rare to encounter and rhinoceroses. Elizabeth V. Berkeley: [email protected] dangerous to kill. However, it may have been possible for • It is highly plausible that early hominins were able to deflesh and consume Tuong-Vi Nguyen: [email protected] hominins to obtain rhinoceros meat by scavenging after other rhinoceros meat. Many bone fossils show butchery marks (cut or percussion) on their Briana Pobiner: [email protected] 6,7 predators had killed the rhinoceros . In addition, numerous surface. Jun Yan: [email protected] skulls and a several bones of rhinos have been round in caves • However, it is difficult to confirm whether or not early hominins hunted rhinoceroses where hominins may have potentially lived or congregated, directly or scavenged the meat after another predator. Acknowledgements which suggests that hominins were at least capable of • It is unclear where early hominins processed the rhino meat. Rhinos are large T-V.N. and J.Y. thank the Smithsonian NMNH for their 8 animals that would have been difficult to drag complete, yet some of their bones scavenging meat and detaching parts of these animals . A main internship opportunity. Also thanks JMU 4-VA foundation have been found in caves. reason we were not able to confirm hunting by hominins on for providing funds to support this project. rhinoceroses is due to their size; it may be possible for an early • We are unable to find evidence of hunting through the fossil records because human to kill prey without leaving any marks on the bones7. hominins may have been able to kill and butcher rhinoceroses without leaving marks Although our literature review found very few butchery marks on their bones. on rhino fossils, the presence of cut marks on other species Key References such as elephants, buffalos, and deer suggest that early 1Aiello, L. C., & Wheeler, P. (1995). The expensive-tissue hypothesis: The brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution. Current Anthropology, 36(2), 199-221. 2Bocherens, H., Drucker, D. G., et al., (2005). Isotopic evidence for diet and subsistence pattern of the Saint-Ce ́saire I Neanderthal: Review and use of a multi-source mixing model. Journal of Human Evolution, 49(1), 71-87. 3Braun, D., Harris, J., Levin, N., et al., (2010). Early hominin diet included diverse terrestrial and aquatic animals 1.95 Ma in East Turkana, Kenya (R. Klein, Ed.). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(22), 10002-10007. 4Higham, T., Douka, K., hominins were capable of harvesting meat from large Wood, R., et al., (2014, August 20). The timing and spatiotemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance. Nature, 306-309. 5Pobiner, B. L. (2007). Hominin-carnivore interactions: evidence from modern carnivore bone modification and early Pleistocene archaeofaunas (Koobi Fora, Kenya; Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania); Doctoral dissertation. 6Rabinovich, R., Bar-Yosef, O., et al., (2004). Hominid-carnivore interactions in the Paleolithic site of Qafzeh 3,5,6,7 cave, Israel. Revue De Paleobiologie, Geneve, 23(2), 627-637. 7Smith, G.M. (2010). A contextual approach to the study of faunal assemblages from Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites in the UK. Doctoral thesis, UCL (University animals . College London). 8Tong, H. (2001). Age profiles of rhino fauna from the Middle Pleistocene Nanjing Man site, south China - explained by the rhino specimens of living species. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 11, 231-237. 9*Human Origins Website: http://humanorigins.si.edu/. (* indicates information source is from Internet)