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Dr.Sc. Lucia NOVÁKOVÁ, Dr.Sc. R Celebrating victory: art and war booty in

Classical Greece

Lucia Nováková, Romana Šályová

Abstract

The celebration of victory, along with the demonstration of power and invincibility, was one of the key elements of public art in advanced ancient civilizations. Ancient Greece was no exception. Classical Athenian art was largely funded by the Athenians’ military booty and the members of the Delian League. Every piece of work was designed to make the unity and power of the Greek world visible, led by Athens, to emphasize the difference between Greeks and those they called barbarians. Permanent monuments, tropaia, served to constantly remind people of the great triumphs of the Hellenes over defeated enemies. They began to appear during the

Greco-Persian Wars. These were community works that later omana ŠÁLYOVÁ became a model for the propaganda repertoire of the Romans and other nations. However, there were not the only Greek memorials celebrating victory. In individual city-states and temple districts were buildings, sculptures and paintings celebrating the power of Hellenes that were complemented by literary works of poets and playwrights. The effort to make military power and superiority more visible in art was also characterized by the fratricidal battles of the Greeks during the Peloponnesian Wars.

Key words: antiquity; art; booty; military history; war;

______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo 254 Dr.Sc. Lucia NOVÁKOVÁ, Dr.Sc. Romana ŠÁLYOVÁ

1. Introduction

The Classical period of history is full of Greek military conflicts with a much stronger enemy, the Persian Empire in the east, and the ever- repeated military encounters with the powerful rival of Hellenes in the west, Carthage. War in ancient times, just like today, was a traumatic experience for individuals and for communities as well. Its negative impact was - at least partially - eased by monuments reminding people of the heroism and sacrifice of the fallen, but mostly by celebrating the victories (Nováková and Šályová 2019, 191-201). A big part of the Classical period artworks, which form part of the European cultural heritage, was made thanks to the booty that the Greek city-states acquired in war. The Persian invasion in the fifth century BC had opened the way for a large influx of diverse exotic goods to the different parts of Greece, which undoubtedly affected the further development of Hellenic society. This wealth, which came to the country along with the first contact with foreign ethnicity, was multiplied by victories, especially in the battles of Marathon, Salamis and Plataea. lists the Athenian financial resources at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, which included the revenue from the conflicts with the Persians (Thuc. 2.13.3-5). Even though there is no summary left about the nature and quantity of looted objects acquired by the defeat of the enemies from Asia, it must have been high-value material that had a living impact on the Greek collective memory. Many of these were products made of precious metals such as gold and silver (Miller 2004, 29). Greeks mainly used the military booty to finance the construction of sacral and public buildings and reconstructions as well as the establishment of statues, along with other works, that celebrated and reminded people of the great victory. However, they also expressed their success by displaying looted Persian weapons within different architectural structures or by devoting them to shrines as votive gifts. To celebrate the defeat of the Persians in the Battle of Plataea, the Greeks placed valuables in important and visible spaces in and Athens. One of them was the Parthenon itself along with the Acropolis. Several ancient authors mention the installation of booty in this prominent place. It is, in particular, Demosthenes, who in his speech accused Timocrates of stealing Persian treasures from the Acropolis (Dem. 24 129), followed by Dio Chrysostom, who mentioned Mardonius’ sword (D. Chr. 2.36), then , describing votive gifts including the breastplate of Masistius, the head of ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo Celebrating victory: art and war booty in Classical Greece 255 cavalry at Plataea (Paus. 1.27.1), and finally Harpocration, who mentioned Xerxes’ throne with silver feet (Harp.a. arguropous difros). It is usually stated that it is booty from the battle of Plataea, which is confirmed by the sword of the Persian commander Mardonius and the breastplate of the head of cavalry, Masistius. However, the reference to Xerxes’ throne, on which he sat, observing the naval battle, may still bear a reference to another conflict (Duffy 2016, 510-11). Odeon in Athens, the venue for music and recitation competitions, most likely was built from the booty from the battle of Plataea around 435 BC. Written references from Plutarch (Plut. Per. 13.5) and Pausanias (Paus. 1.20.4) indicate that it was a replica of Xerxes’ royal tent, which after the battle, was in the hands of the Athenians (Duffy 2016, 514). According to Vitruvius, its roof was made of masts and beams of looted Persian ships (Vitr. 5.9.1). After the Greco-Persian wars, the Hellenes retrieved, in addition to finance, weapons, ship parts and booty in the form of ropes from bridges, mainly from Hellespont, which were built by Xerxes to reach Greece (Hdt. 9.121.1).

2. Battle of Marathon

The victory at the battle of Marathon in 490 BC was a great success for the whole Greek world. It was a decisive event that elevated the national identity of Hellenes and showed that even the numerous predominance of organized Persian troop could be defeated. On the other hand, it brought rich booty, about which mentions its magnificence. He states that the Persians were equipped in the most spectacular way of all, as each man was glittered with gold (Hdt. 7.83.3). Besides the traditional lance and bow, they also had a dagger of precious metal and some even wore bracelets and necklaces. The Greeks also managed to get to the entire Persian camp, from which they carried out many precious things in the form of silver and gilded deck chairs, gold jars and goblets (Hdt. 9.80.1). The revenue from this booty was used to build memorial monuments of various kinds in several places. Although we are talking about diverse works, they share some common features. The intention was, in particular, to celebrate military success, to finance their establishments from the acquired booty, and especially for the Athenians, placement in Delphi and Attica (Athens, Rhamnous, Marathon), which played a prominent role in the conflict, with the selection of deities and heroes for dedications (Athens, Apollo, Pan, Theseus). Finally, regarding buildings, they were also ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo 256 Dr.Sc. Lucia NOVÁKOVÁ, Dr.Sc. Romana ŠÁLYOVÁ connected by the choice of Doric style. The popularity of Doric style, as well as the Doric peplos, which became a national garment, is particularly evident at the beginning of the Greco-Persian wars. The combination of architectural styles, Doric and Ionian, was characteristic for a long period of Greek history. The connection of architectural styles in the Classical period can be understood as an effort to emphasize the unity of the Greek world, unifying both the and the Ionians. Permanent monuments, tropaion, made from Pentelic marble to honour the victory at the battle of Marathon, probably originated around 460 BC when other monuments celebrating this battle also originated (Vanderpool 1966, 105-6). Rich literary references suggest that the monument was well known and interesting to ancient authors for more detailed processing (Marks 2010, 14-15). Besides those from Critias (Crit. 88 B2), other authors in the Classical period also mention the Marathon triumph monument. It is mainly Aristophanes and his comedies, The Knights (Aristoph. Kn.1333-334) and The Wasps (Aristoph. Wasps 707-11), where it is no longer the praise of a simple tropaia, which after some time falls into oblivion, but a permanent monument because it was built on the same level as the city; Lysius’ Funeral speech praising the heroes fallen at Marathon (Lys. 2 20-6), Isocrates' Panegyric (Isoc. 4 87), Plato's dialogue Menexenus (Plat. Menex. 240d, 245a) and Plutarch's Biography of Themistocles, to whom the Marathon tropaion was allegedly taking in dreams (Plut.Them 3.4). Eugene Vanderpool discovered the remains of this monument in the 1960s, which were built into a medieval tower located near the present chapel of Panagia Mesosporitissa. Based on research, it is possible to reconstruct the triumph monument, which was supposed to stand out as a stand-alone Ionic column, approximately 10m tall, bearing a tropaion and a statue, probably representing Nike (Vanderpool 1966, 93-4). Other architectural monuments built from the booty from this battle included, in particular, sacred buildings such as the Euclidean Temple (Paus. 1.14.5, Plut. Arist. 20.3), the Sanctuary of the Pan (West 1969, 16, see also Paus. 1.14.5, Hdt. 6.105.1-3, Eur. Ion 938, Aristoph. Lys. 911, Paus. 1.28.4), the Shrine of Theseus (Plut. Thes.35.5, see also Thuc. 6.61.2, Aristoph. Kn. 1311, Strab. 9.396.40, Paus. 1.17.2), the "Old" Parthenon (West 1969, 20), the "Old" Propylon (West 1969, 21), the predecessor of the Propylon at the Acropolis in Athens, the Temple of Nemesis in Rhamnus (Paus. 1.33.2-3), Athenian treasure in Delphi (Paus. 10.11.5, see also Neer 2004, 66, Duffy 2016, 404) and columns, including Nike of Callimachus in ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo Celebrating victory: art and war booty in Classical Greece 257

Athens (Raubitschek 1940, 53-5, Marks 2010, 12-13, Duffy 2016, 409). Part of the booty that the Athenians gained after the victory at the battle of Marathon was used to make an offering dedicated to Delphi. However, it is still unknown what kind of dedication it was. It could have been weapons and gear looted from the enemy or even a group of sculptures made from the sale of booty. The dedication was based on a long limestone base funded by the Athenian Treasury (Paus. 10.11.5, West 1969, 8). The art works also celebrated the triumph. There were portraits of deities, the bronze statue of Athena Promachos (Paus. 1.28.2, see also Raubitschek and Stevens 1946, 110-12, Goette and Hammerstaedt 2004, 41) at the Athenian Acropolis, the statues of Athena, Apollo, Miltiades and heroes in Delphi (Paus. 10.10.1-2, Duffy 2016, 427-29) and the painting of the battle of Marathon at Stoa poikile in Athens (Aeschin.186, Dem. 94, Paus. 1.15.3, see also West 1969, 14). Besides the aforementioned monuments and the triumph monument, which was directly on the battlefield, other, rather intangible works such as various epigraphical references, epigrams - Marathon epigrams (Duffy 2016, 411-19), an epigram for the Athenians killed at Marathon, lists of fallen warriors or sacrifices - yearly sacrifice of goats for Artemis Agrotera (Xen. Anab. 3.2.12., Aristoph. Kn. 658 - 62, Plut. De Herod.26, see also West 1969, 22) remind us of the great victory. A special case is the introduction of regular games called Heracleia in Marathon (Duffy 2016, 396-70, Vander pool 1942, 335; see also Pind. P. 8.79-89). Pausanias states that the inhabitants of Marathon began to worship as a god for the first time (Paus. 1.15.3; 1.32.4). After the Athenians defeated the Persians in the battle of Marathon, they settled in the sacred district of Heracles and camped for some time in Heraklion in Cynosarges in front of the Athenian city walls (Hdt. 6.116.1). At the beginning of the fifth century BC, these two sanctuaries enjoyed a great amount of attention from the Athenians. After the battle of Marathon, a tradition began of having a festival, initially of local character, which evolved into a Panathenaic celebration, which is also supported by the discovery of a stele bearing an inscription (Duffy 2016, 398-99).

2.1 A victory in the naval battle of Salamis in 480 BC also brought the Greeks a great deal of booty and wealth from which they could ask the gods for help in achieving success by building memorial monuments. ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo 258 Dr.Sc. Lucia NOVÁKOVÁ, Dr.Sc. Romana ŠÁLYOVÁ

There were two triumph monuments, tropaia, on the mainland closest to the area of the battle. References to the Battle of Salamis victory monument appear from several ancient authors: in the Menexenes dialogue of Plato (Plat. Menex. 245a), in Lycurgus’ Speech against Leocrates (Lyc. 1 73), in the Aristides Biography from Plutarch (Plut. Arist. 16.4) and in Pausanias’ Description of Greece (Paus. 1.36.1). In Aristides Biography Plutarch (Plut. Arist. 9.2) mentions, in addition to the triumph monument at Salamis, one more monument on the nearby, strategically advantageous island of Psyttalea located in a canyon (West 1969, 15). The Greeks seem to have built a triumph monument celebrating the naval triumph at Salamis, and a second to remind them of the ground success at Psyttalea (West 2009, 52-3). The triumph monument erected in honor of the success of the naval battle at Salamis was most likely located on the eastern tip of the island, which is now called Kynosoura. It was later named Cape Tropaia, which was influenced by the presence of this glorious monument reminding people of the victory in the battle against the Persians (Wallace 1969, 299-301). Both monuments were at first in the form of a simple and temporary tropaia built immediately after the battle, but were later changed by being rebuilt in a permanent form in stone (Duffy 2016, 459). Their exact form cannot be traced due to the fragmentation of the finds (Wallace 1969, 299-302). Besides these monuments, works of a different kind were built in Delphi, Olympia, Isthmia and at capes of Sounion and Salamis. They were built from the profits of the Athenians, the Corinthians, the Panhellenic shrines, the amphictyoniai, the inhabitants of Aegina, and also those that were set up for the sake of the constant remembrance of significant triumphs. These were mainly works that were bound to victories at sea. Architectural objects included a bronze mast with gold stars in Delphi (Hdt. 8.122.1), art creations, a statue of Apollo on a fore (Hdt. 8.121.2, Paus. 10.14.5, See also West 1969, 29, Duffy 2016, 470-72), the swimmer Amphictyonis and his daughter Hydna in Delphi (Paus. 10.19.1, see also Hdt. 8.8.1-3, Duffy 2016, 555) and a Salamis painting in Olympia (Paus. 5.11.5, West 1969, 54). The consecration of ships, especially their front parts, sails, ropes and anchors, created adequate and frequent thankful gifts to the gods for victory at sea (Rouse 1902, 103). As a result, after the success in the battle of Salamis, the Greeks sacrificed three triremes that represented part of the gained booty. They dedicated two to for being a protective and helpful god to Isthmia and Sounion, while the last was dedicated to the local heroes directly on the island Salamis (Hdt. 8.121.2). This dedication ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo Celebrating victory: art and war booty in Classical Greece 259 probably took place shortly after the conflict ended (Duffy 2016, 469-70). Other memorials represented monuments in the form of epigraphic references, which mainly presented epigrams on the tombstones of fallen warriors.

2.2 Battle of Plataea While the victory at the battle of Marathon in 490 BC was the first great success of the Greeks over the Persians, a decisive triumph in the battle of Plataea in 479 BC was the last. It concluded a series of disputes between Europe and Asia and in addition to freedom, brought the Hellenes rich profit. Just like after the previous conflicts, they thanked the deities for help in the form of different landmarks located in several places. Their construction was financed either by the yield from the booty from Athens, , the Panhellenic shrines, Plataea, Tegea, Corinth, Megara and Phliunt or they were built to remind people of the success of each community’s own resources. The triumph monument, tropaion, celebrated the defeat of the Persians directly on the battlefield. Plutarch mentions it in Aristides’ Biography (Plut. Arist. 20.3) and in Pausanias’ work ‘Description of Greece’ (Paus. 9.2.6), but it has not been found by archaeological researchers (Duffy 2016, 479-81). Other monuments were mostly located in Delphi as votive gifts to Apollo, and as well in Isthmia, Plataea and Sparta, which played a prominent role in the battle. These were sacred architectural works such as the Altar of Eleutherios, the Temple of Athena Areia in Plataea (Paus. 9.4.1, Plut. Arist. 20.3, see also West 1969, 24, Palagia and Pollitt 1999, 34), public buildings including the Persian Stoa in Sparta, columns and a spiral column bearing a tripod in Delphi (Hdt. 9.81.1, Thuc. 1.132.2, Dem. 97, Diod. 11.33.2, Paus. 10.13.9, see also Ridgway 1977, 374- 77). The altar of Zeus Eleutherios (the Liberator), which besides being mentioned by Plutarch (Plut. De Herod. 42) was also mentioned by Pausanias (Paus. 9.2.5), was located just behind the eastern gate of the city Plataea. It held Simonides’ epigram and represented the only altar dedicated to a military act until the dedication of Lucius Mummius Achaicus in the second century BC in Thebes (Rouse 1902, 125). It showed a connection with the fourth clause of the Plataea agreement, according to which the inhabitants made a sacrifice to Zeus on behalf of all Greeks. Thucydides states that the Spartan general Pausanias brought a gift for Zeus to the Plataean agora shortly after the battle victory, which could have ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo 260 Dr.Sc. Lucia NOVÁKOVÁ, Dr.Sc. Romana ŠÁLYOVÁ initiated the origin of the cult for which the altar was subsequently built (Thuc. 2.71.2). Together with its inscription, it celebrates the decisive defeat of the Persians that took place at Plataea (Duffy 2016, 501-3). Based on the uncovered remains, the Persian Stoa was located in the north-western part of the agora in Sparta (Duffy 2016, 532). According to Vitruvius, the construction of this structure happened thanks to the booty obtained at the battle of Plataea, from which the wealth was divided among the allies. The Lacedaimonians, as the leaders of the forces, received the biggest part (Vitr. 1.1.6). Pausanias states that in his time, the colonnade was decorated with statues of famous Persians, among them Mardonius, and some of them were used instead of pillars as roof supports (Paus. 3.11.3). Among the artwork were portraits of deities, Zeus consecrated to Olympia (Hdt. 9.81., Paus. 6.10.6), Poseidon to Isthmia (Hdt. 9.81.1), and animals, specifically oxen, devoted to Delphi. The importance of this cattle sculpture consecration is a matter of concern. It is assumed that they represented the agricultural state or personified the whole act of sacrifice, including the procession (Rouse 1902, 145). Pausanias, on the other hand, states that this is an expression of victory over the ‘barbarians,’ which had ensured that the country could be freely plowed (Paus. 10.16.1). The oxen statue, given by the Plataeans from the booty obtained in the success in the battle of Plataea, was located in Delphi in the area of the eastern temple terrace (Duffy 2016, 520). Besides that, there were displayed looted Persian weapons at the Acropolis, probably in the Parthenon, on the architrave of the Apollo Temple in Delphi and parts of ships on the roof of the Odeon in Athens. Material monuments were supplemented by epigraphically references in the form of epitaphs for fallen warriors (epitaphs for Athenians, Spartans, Corinthians, and Tegeans), as well as yearlong rites taking place at the graves of Plataea warriors. Besides the monuments, the construction of which was conditioned by victories in specific battles (Marathon, Salamis, Plataea), there were also monuments built to celebrate the success of Hellenes in the Greco-Persian wars. These were monuments of various kinds set up in several places within Greece, such as Delphi, , Athens and Megara, from the booty obtained from the city-states, supplemented by Karystos, Hermione, , Epidaurus and the demos Peparetos. This group includes, in particular, sacred architectural objects such as the altar dedicated to Eleutherios which was made by the inhabitants of Troezen to celebrate the defeat of the Persians who worshipped the sun god the most (Paus. 2.31.5) ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo Celebrating victory: art and war booty in Classical Greece 261 and a "New" Parthenon with the depiction of the battles against the Persians on the metope within the public Stoa of the Athenians in Delphi where Persian weapons were displayed (West 1969, 43, Umholz 2002, 269, Duffy 2016, 533-36). The triumph monument near the Temple of Athena Pronaia in Delphi was built after the end of the Greco-Persian wars as thanks for the protection of the sanctuary during the conflicts. Initially, it was probably temporary and in the form of looted weapons and enemy gear. Later, however, it was rebuilt into a permanent monument, which is evidenced by an inscription from the fourth century BC. According to a style analysis, it appears it had been connected to the tropaia after its rebuilding (Duffy 2016, 557-58, see also Diod. 11.14.4). From the art works, there were three portraits of Apollo in Delphi dedicated to the inhabitants of Epidaurus (Paus. 10.15.1), the Peparetos in Thessaly and the island of Samos, of which only the bases have been preserved. There were also sculptures of women and children in Troezen, symbolizing the people that the Athenians sent to Troezen for shelter during the Persian invasion (Paus. 2.31.7), and a group of sculptures dedicated by the city of Hermione to Delphi, from which only the base with a part of the inscription is known at present. Finally, there was a sculpture of an ox given by the citizens of Karitsa in Euboea and dedicated to Delphi (Paus. 10.16.6). Epigraphic evidence include an epitaph for the Megarians (Paus. 1.43.3. See also West 1969, 68, Duffy 2016, 533-67).

3. Peloponnesian War monuments

Since the Peloponnesian War was an internal struggle among the Greeks, there should not have been any construction of permanent monuments after the victories that could have caused further disputes. Despite this rule, there were some situations when this happened. This is the case with the victories in Megara - 458 BC (Diod. 11.79.1-3) and Leuctra - 371 BC. These monuments can be seen nowadays in archaeological documents (Stroszeck 2004, 326-28). The victory at Leuctra brought leadership of the Greek states to Thebes and also broke the myth of Sparta’s invincibility. It was a custom for the successful party to build a non- permanent tropaion from the enemy's captured weapons immediately after the battle (Xen. Hell. 6.4.15), this was later replaced by a bronze monument at the high stone base, probably at the place where Cleombrotus fell (Tritle 1997, 85). Based on a law that forbade the construction of permanent ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo 262 Dr.Sc. Lucia NOVÁKOVÁ, Dr.Sc. Romana ŠÁLYOVÁ monuments after the triumph of one Greek state over another, the Thebenes were called to court (Cic. Inv. 2.69). The bronze triumph monument in Leuctra represented a new type of monument of its kind. The first fragments belonging to the monument were discovered by the German scholar Heinrich Nikolaus Ulrichs in 1839 and the Greek architect and archaeologist Anastasios Orlandos took care of its reconstruction in 1960. The finding of a single panel led him to believe that the top of the dome was on an elevated base. At present, the renewed structure consists of a round building with a diameter of 3.38m, built on a three-tier basis. At the top, it is decorated with a Doric frieze with triglyphs and me topes. The dome consists of nine large shields with a diameter of 0.97m and a circular balustrade. At the top, there was originally a bronze tropaion with a helmet, a shield, a sword and a lance, as is confirmed by third century BC coins. Nowadays, this monument can be compared with the Roman tropaion in La Turbie and Adamclisi, which have similar features. They contain a cylindrical central tower located at the top of a quadrilateral substructure as well as a central pillar bearing anthropomorphic stone tropaia (Stroszeck 2004, 321-22; Osborne 2003, 151). A little less clear is the finding of a building in Kerameikos (403 BC) (Mallwitz 1983, 117, Stroszeck 2004, 324-26). The possibility that the monument from this site appeared more as a triumph monument than a tomb is confirmed by the fact that this building lacks the details of Greek funeral architecture. On the other hand, other glorious monuments are known that represent parallels in terms of form or themes for their construction. It is mainly the stone sign of success in Argos described by Pausanias (Paus. 2.21.8) and the triumph memorial in Megara, which features a number of common elements with the Kerameikos construction, including a rectangular support wall, a central circular section with a massive rectangular pillar and a monument reminding people of the triumph in the battle of Leuctra. Besides the permanent triumph monuments that have been at least partially preserved in archaeological evidence, thus providing the possibility of their reconstruction, there are also those that only survived in references by individual ancient authors. Although the existence of these monuments cannot be confirmed with certainty and only on the basis of written reports, they still offer valuable information that helps expand upon the knowledge of non-existing ancient monuments. Eleans built a triumph monument, a tropaion, after the victory over the Lacedaimonians ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo Celebrating victory: art and war booty in Classical Greece 263 around 420 BC. It was located in the sacred district of Olympia, and according to Pausanias, it was made by Daedalus of Sicyon (Paus. 5.27.11; 6.2.8). The Ephesians built a tropaion after the defeat of the Athenian general Thrasybulus in 409 BC (Xen. Hell. 1.2.9; Plut. Alc. 29.1). reports that the commander sailed with an expedition from Athens to the island of Samos and led the battle on the coast of Asia Minor. After the failure in Ephesus, he went to Hellespont where he joined Alcibiades’ army. Although there are a few exceptions, during the Peloponnesian War, a simple tropaia was usually set up in the location of a battle clash, which symbolized the winner’s temporary triumph and the loser’s loss. However, the successful party, like in other disputes, gained rich booty for which they wanted to thank the gods for help in achieving victory by building an arbitrary monument. The architectural works included memorial columns, which in this case should not refer to success, but confirm a 50 year peace agreement, and the art works were presented to the statues of Nike, Apollo, Zeus, Poseidon and Artemis. They were exhibited in Athens, Olympia, Sparta, Delphi, Isthmia and Amykles (from the booty by the leader poleis), Megara or Messenia. The image of the winged goddess Nike, created by the famous sculptor Paeonius of Mende between 425-420 BC, was located near the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (Paus. 5.26.1. See also Furtwängler and Urlichs 1911, 29-32, Pedley 2005, 130). From the booty after the battle at Sphacteria, a bronze statue of Nike was also built, which Athenians placed at the Acropolis (Paus. 4.36.6). The other two portraits of the goddess Nike appeared in Sparta in the temple of Zeus with the description Kosmetes (Organizer), which was dedicated to the memory of a victory by General Lysander. One stood for the defeat of Antiochus at Ephesus in the battle of Notium in 406 BC and the second one for the destruction of the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami in 405 BC (Paus. 3.17.4). Other statues built to celebrate the victory at Aegospotami were also devoted by the Spartans at Delphi (Paus. 10.9.7-9). They were located in the temple district, along with a statue of Apollo with a spear in his hand, which was donated to Delphi by the Megarians after their victory over Athens in the battle of Nisai. Its dating is rather controversial because Thucydides dates the military conflict to 446 BC (Thuc. 1.114.1) but Pausanias (Paus. 10.15.1) and Diodorus Siculus (Diod. 13.65.1-2) prefer the year 406 BC. Both dates, however, refer to the defeat of the Athenians (Scott 2014, 103). Thucydides mentions the memorial columns that were supposed to be built by the leading poleis of ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo 264 Dr.Sc. Lucia NOVÁKOVÁ, Dr.Sc. Romana ŠÁLYOVÁ the Peloponnesian War, therefore Athens and Sparta, to confirm a 50 year peace agreement in 421 BC (Thuc. 5.18.9-10). They were supposed to be built in the Panhellenic shrines and in the city-states of both opponents.

4. Conclusions

War played an essential and irreplaceable role in society as well as in other ancient states. It was considered a somewhat necessary evil of human existence, which provided protection, brought triumph and rich booty, but on the other hand also loss and negative experiences. Military monuments represented unique art works that symbolized victory and carried its legacy for future generations. With the rebuilding of traditional tropaia with permanent materials, stone or bronze, Athens began restoring the decaying monuments in Marathon and Salamis in approximately the second quarter of the fifth century BC. Their example was followed by Sparta in the fourth century BC with the reconstruction the monument at Plataea. In archaeological finds, there are at least partially preserved triumph monuments in Salamis, Psyttaleia, Megara and Leuctra. Triumph monuments could have had any form, but mostly appeared in the form of a column or a simple building. Some buildings have only been preserved in the references of ancient authors like the triumph monuments in Argos, Delphi, Olympia, Ephesus, Athens, Rhodes and Mantineia. These previously stated monuments reminded people of the battlefield victories of the Greeks. It was also necessary to celebrate it in the individual poleis affected by the war or in the sanctuaries that every Greek could visit. After the end of the battle, the winning party could collect and divide the booty. One part was intended for the gods and the second part for sale. The revenue was then used to build a memorial monument of a certain kind. It was mostly the financing of the construction of sacral or profane buildings or their reconstruction, the construction of sculptures of deities, heroes, animals, as well as other works that celebrated and reminded people of the great victory. The amount devoted to the gods was in most cases a tenth and could have included slaves, land, money and cattle. The valuables gained during war, which the Greeks placed in important and visible spaces in sanctuaries, also served to celebrate the defeat of the enemy as well as to thank the gods. The study has been completed within project supported by the Slovak Grant Agency: VEGA 2/0146/18. ______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo Celebrating victory: art and war booty in Classical Greece 265

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______ILIRIA International Review – Vol 9, No 2 (2019) © Felix–Verlag, Holzkirchen, Germany and Iliria College, Pristina, Kosovo