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A Study of Culture: Adolescent Experiences with Animé/ and in Taiwan Author(s): Jin-Shiow Chen Source: Visual Arts Research, Vol. 33, No. 1 (2007), pp. 14-24 Published by: University of Illinois Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20715430 Accessed: 26-09-2017 02:50 UTC

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This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms A Study of Fan Culture: Adolescent Experiences with Anim?/manga Doujinshi and Cosplay in Taiwan Jin-Shiow Chen National Chiayi University, Taiwan

Abstract 1992, p.2). For instance, the hip-hop sub culture or the anim?/manga1 fan culture is Fan culture has become a significant arena for associated with violence, drugs, and exotic communication studies, but art educators and obscenity, and so causes a great deal of researchers haven't paid enough attention to social anxiety and moral panic in society it. Such research is important because anim?/ manga , as a subculture, has an enor (Kinsella, 2000; Njubi, 2001). mous influence on youngsters. This study is an According to Jenkins (1992a), fans may exploration of youth anim?/manga fan culture not be the "cultural dupes, social misfits, from the viewpoints of six adolescents who are and mindless consumers" that they have anim?/manga fan artists. The focus is on the been labeled (p. 23). Rather, fans are able participants' experiences, opinions, and val to digest the media texts that they con ues in making manga doujinshi (self-published sume so as to produce their own artworks comic ), cosplaying (costume play), and and be creative on their own terms (Jen participating in fan activities. This study has the kins, 1992a, 1992b). This phenomenon potential for understanding youth anim?/manga can apparently be seen at anim? conven fans, their fan art and subculture, and ultimately, for providing insights to allow art educators to tions, at which anim?/manga fan arts like the gap between mainstream school cul manga doujinshi2 and cosplay3 are cel tures and adolescent subcultures. ebrated and circulated. These two forms of anim?/manga art are mostly the products Introduction: Re-viewing Fan Culture of anim?/manga fans' responses to their favorite manga or anim? texts. Fan culture, the body of people who are Originating in , anim?/manga fans of pop culture, has been an active and fandom has grown into an important so widespread feature in postmodern society, cial and cultural phenomenon there and but the diversity of its genres and dynam throughout Asia, especially in Taiwan, Ko ics of its forms make it difficult to paint an rea, Hong Kong, and mainland China. Even accurate picture of fan culture as a whole the United States has been caught up in (Bacon-Smith, 1992). Fandom, in fact, is this cultural wave (Wilson & Toku, 2004). a multicultural territory, where each fan Some art educators and researchers have community subscribes to its own unique been fascinated by anim?/manga's unique media substances, values, and contexts. fan culture, featuring millions of visual im Young people have their own fan cultures, ages, fictional characters, and broad spec as a part of youth subculture in general, trum of signs and signification invented and many of them are little known or com by and circulated among young people pletely unknown to most of us. Although (Chen, 2003a; 2003b; Wilson, 2003; Toku, numerous youth fan activities have be 2004; Wilson & Toku, 2004). Anim?/manga come increasingly public, they are still per is so powerful that its influence can even ceived as "a psychological symptom of a seen in children at early ages. Through a presumed social dysfunction" and who series of research studies (1998; 2001; becomes involved in them is perceived as 2006), Toku explored the strong influence "an image of the pathological fan" (Jenson, of manga over Japanese children's graph

14 VISUAL ARTS RESEARCH ? 2007 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ic narratives. Wilson and Toku (2004) put yond imitating characters with costumes, it into perspective: "Art educators need to most fans insist that a cosplayer should understand what's happening in Asia, how speak in the 's words, act in the it's spreading to the West, and its implica character's ways, think the character's tions for art and visual cultural pedagogy" thoughts, and assume the anim?/manga (p. 94). This paper attempts to understand character's soul. In other words, they are why anim?/manga fans are so passionate expected to attempt to bring their favorite about this mass-mediated artwork. It also anim?/manga characters into life. looks for meanings that dedicated young Cosplay is an opportunity for anim?/ fans may have found participating in this manga fans to dress up for playing their subculture. favorite characters from such sources as , , games, science The Research Site: Anim?/Manga stories, and . According to Fan Culture in Taiwan Santoso (1998), "In the U.S. and in Europe, cosplay is solely restricted to costuming of In the last decade, Taiwan's anim?/manga Japanese characters from anim?, manga fan culture has rapidly grown and changed and gaming" (p. 1). However, in Taiwan, from an unacceptable small undercurrent cosplay includes playing characters from of society to a popular social state (Chen, three sources: (a) Japanese anim?, man 2003a). Such a dramatic development did ga, and video games, (b) Japanese visual not happen at once but was accelerated bands,4 and (c) Taiwanese traditional gradually, yet speedily, by the fast-growing puppetry. The sophistication of the costum industry of Japanese anim? and manga. ing is amazing. It is if these simulated ani For years, about 95% of anim?/ m?/manga characters have actually come sales in Taiwan have been translations of to life. Such performance is not simply the Japanese anim?/manga, and this Japa result of many hours of hard work on cos nese dominance continues today and will tuming but also the result of anim? fans' in probably remain in the near future. Put dif fatuation with their favorite characters, an ferently, Taiwan's anim?/manga fan culture infatuation that drives them to play these has to do mainly with Japanese anim? and fantasy characters so well (Chen, 2003b). manga, and even fans' sociocultural activi ties conform with those of Japanese culture. Research Concerns Such Japanese influence became appar ent when the anim?/manga conventions, Anim?/manga fans have been forming a and Comic Market were introduced culture of their own specific type, in which in Taiwan in 1997. In Taiwan, these anim?/ a ComicWorld convention is the most in manga conventions are called ComicWorld tensive sociocultural event. This has an or Doujinshi Sales Convention. ComicWorld enormously influential effect on young has paved a new avenue for doujinshi hob sters as this subcultural phenomenon byists to display, exchange, and sell their propagates itself quickly among adoles self-published fanzines and manga-related cents in Taiwan. Why and how does this products (Chen, 2003b). subculture attract Taiwanese adolescents Like Japanese Comiket or American an to actively participate? Why do adolescent im? conventions, the convention in Taiwan fans attend and interact with each other in consists of a doujinshi sale and a cosplay the ComicWorld? Why do adolescents val in two different sections. For many fans, ue their experiences in doujinshi making cosplay is the soul of an anim?/manga and cosplay? This study was conducted to convention and a most important opportu answer these questions. The cultural phe nity to transform their into reality nomena of anim?/manga fan culture were by playing and dressing up in costumes of explored from the viewpoints and experi their favorite anim?/manga characters. Be ences of six adolescents.

A Study of Fan Culture 15

This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Methodology sis for setting up categories with respect to the anim?/manga fans' experiences in par Data Collection ticipating in cosplay and doujinshi drawing, and social interactions at the anim? con This study focuses on the study of the ventions. Based on these categories, ty cultural phenomenon of anim? conven tions in Taiwan. I selected two ComicWorld pologies and themes were developed from coding and sorting data. conventions as observation targets. One was held in July and the other in August of 2001. Both of them were held in Taipei, Findings and Descriptions the capital of Taiwan. These two conven In this section, I describe the findings of tions were the largest of the year because this study concerning the following: (a) they were held during the school participants' reasons for participating in break when many adolescents were able to attend. drawing doujinshi and in cosplay, ( b) par ticipants' preferences for fan art, and (c) I took the opportunity to talk to some participants' learning from participating in doujinshi artists and cosplayers whose the creation of anim?/manga fan activities. works were intriguing. From these con versations, I began to collect information and keep notes on the social interaction Reasons for Participating in Doujinshi at the two conventions, and found six fan Drawing and Cosplay artists with whom to conduct further formal Being a good fan artist takes time, effort, interviews. My criteria for selecting these and commitment. One must read manga interviewees were: (a) they had to be more regularly. Most fan artists begin to read than 16 years old, (b) They must have had manga at a very young age, around 8 or 9 considerable experience in making years old, and they try to doodle and copy shi or cosplay, and (c) they were willing to be interviewed. The six interviewees were their favorite comic characters. Only when all female. The formal interview was semi they become serious and concentrate on pursuing their anim?/manga art study does structured with a few questions that were their journey of being a doujinshi artist re designed to guide the course of the ally begin. Sunny5 explained her decision interviews and additional questions that to focus on doujinshi art. were drawn up according to responses in interviews. Each interview lasted Every one of us who like to read mangas will fall in love with these beautiful char at least one hour and was tape recorded. Other than observing all the events in acters and drawings. I consider manga a the two conventions, I also used video kind of art. But having passion for manga, or doodling and copying, are one thing, recording and photography to document and making a commitment to learning visual information. In addition, I collected it and practicing it is . I became two other sources of visual data for this serious about and concerned with devel study: (a) photos of some outstanding co oping my drawing skills when I was 13 splayed characters, and (b) some doujin years old. It was such an obsession, the shis and comic books bought at the con vision of being good at manga drawing, ventions. and it energized me to work hard on im proving my drawing skills and becoming more knowledgeable about the manga Data Analysis art. (, personal communication, March 16, 2002) For the detailed procedures and approach es of data categorization, classification, For both doujinshi artists and cosplay and description, I used content analysis ers, being infatuated with anim?/manga as a means of qualitative interpretations. art can bring one into the community of Content analysis also was used as a ba fan artists, but ambition and integrity are

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This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms key factors that keep them trying hard to Enjoying free imagination and fantasy become good fan artists. In addition, there through drawing or cosplaying. Two of the are four other incentives that seduce them six interviewees mentioned that reading to participate in doujinshi-making or co manga is fun and pleasant, but it is even splay. These four incentives are listed and more enjoyable to draw manga. Sunny described in the following. said: Enjoying the experiences of being a I like to adopt my favorite manga charac successful artist. Being able to make de ters and place them in a different story cent is highly valued in the that I create. It seems that I am travel comic/anim? community. If participants ing with them to whatever place I would continue to make good doujinshis, they will like to go and experiencing with them all be treated as professional comic artists. the adventures. It is free and wonderful. Their doujinshis will become popular and Once I get into these adventures, I never easy to sell in ComicWorld. Lisa said that want to quit. (Sunny, personal communi her doujinshis did not sell well, and that cation, March 16, 2002) had depressed her throughout the whole To many anim?/manga fans, cosplay summer. provides excellent opportunities for them I spent the entire summer finding the to act out their infatuation with their favor problems. Then, I knew that if I want ite characters. It is always pleasant and ed to be recognized as a good artist, I enjoyable to be recognized as their anim?/ should never draw something outdated manga characters. When the cosplay per or anything that was skillful but lacking formance begins, every participant seems of feelings or sensitivity. After that, I have to enter a fantasy world, where all the been working harder to improve those stress, worries, and problems in the problems in the hope of winning back my reputation. (Lisa, personal communica world disappear. tion, March 17, 2002) Fulfiliing the urge to per?orm and one's sense of curiosity. Cosplay should be con Thus, the ambition to draw well and to be sidered a kind of performance art. It is very recognized as a good doujinshi artist was similar to a stage drama. The difference is vital to draw her tightly into this anim?/ that the cosplayer decides which character manga doujinshi circle. to play and makes the costumes in imita In a similar way, a cosplayer who is tion. However, the challenge for acting is considered successful will receive honor similar. Many cosplayers said that they as well. Many young cosplayers can never participated in cosplay simply because forget the exciting moment of being in the they wanted to fulfill an urge to act and spotlight and surrounded by adoring peo perform. ple. Tina articulated: I like performing and acting, but there My first cosplay was so successful that I are not many chances for me to show attracted much attention at the conven off. Cosplay gives me a good chance to tion. Being the focus of all the camera get onto the stage and perform my favor spotlights is the most unforgettable expe ite characters. It is very challenging to rience that I have ever had, and it seems play well enough to make the simulated that I have been obsessed with cosplay character just like the original one. There ever since then. I should confess that it is a lot of work to do including costume is a sense of vanity driving me to keep design, needlework, and acting. Also, it participating in cosplay. Actually such a is not easy to interpret a character's per pleasant, enjoyable feeling also comes sonality, gesture, and language. To me, it from the feeling of success and achieve is just like a of art. (Kitty, personal ment, provided that one plays a simu communication, March 17, 2002) lated character very well and earns a lot of compliments. (Tina, personal commu In addition to refining performing skills, nication, March 23, 2002) many cosplayers are curious about how it

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This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms feels to play another person or a character ways starts with the characters. To many fan existing in a fantasy world. Such curiosity artists, their preferences for certain types of makes them want to participate in cosplay. manga depend on how expertly and beauti Only when they experience it, do they fully the main characters are drawn. Two of know what it feels like. the interviewees mentioned that they were Participating for social reasons. For not that interested in the story while reading young people, there is always a social manga. They usually paid more attention reason for being interested in a certain fan to the visual images of the characters and culture. Three participants mentioned that how drawing techniques were applied. they had become fond of drawing manga Plots as significant factors. Most of the because their friends were doing so. They participants in this study began their work felt excluded, if they could not draw manga on manga as by copying and drawing characters or make doujinshis. from shojyo manga, define such as Sailor Similarly, a few cosplayers stated that Moon and Cardcator Sakura, because their they were influenced by their friends' art main characters are pretty and charming. work. They went to cosplay simply because However, only two of the participants in their friends wanted to play and have fun terviewed for this study are still interested together. They would never go alone, be in shojyo manga. The other four said they cause the cosplay activity would not be fun have become more attracted to shonan if their friends weren't present. Because manga (boys' comics), which have a more the participants often went as a group, energetic style, after reading and learning they would work together as a team to play more about mangas. Lisa expressed her different characters from the same manga preference as follows: story. This type of team project is often I cannot stand a manga that is full of more attractive to the audience than the beautiful characters without interesting performance of just one artist. One more plots. Although a successful manga usu social reason for young people to partici ally has impressive and enjoyable char pate in fan activities is to meet friends with acters, the plot is the crucial determinant similar interests. Lily said, excited of my favorite ones. Five years ago, I and psychologically intimate while talking focused on drawing all types of manga to someone who knows what I am saying characters; but now I tend to focus on the and is often able to give me feedback. And story, or plot development, and I found it much more difficult than simply drawing then, I don't feel so alone" (Lily, personal characters. (Lisa, personal communica communication, March 23, 2002). tion, March 17, 2002)

Preferences for Manga and Fan Art Video games as inspiration. Some dou jinshi artists are sensitive and subtle in ap Anim?/manga fan artists not only produce proaching their favorite manga. They care high quality doujinshis and cosplay perfor not only about the visual qualities but also mances, but they are also very concerned about the creativity of the plotting or set with aesthetic values and evaluative cri ting, especially when the story intrigues teria. Certain aspects of youth fan artists' their imaginations and fantasies. preferences for manga and doujinshi are Lately, video games are getting more articulated in the following. popular among younger anim?/manga Good drawing techniques as deter fans. Three of the six interviewees tended minants. Manga is a type of visual narra to base their manga drawings on characters tive that relies strongly on the ability of its from video games. The reason that these characters to please readers. Most anim?/ participants switched their preference to manga fans are infatuated with the charac video games is that the video games pro ters rather than the stories. Whenever a fan vide them with characters, regulations, and artist copies manga drawings, he or she al a little story-background. After all, it is up to

18 Jin-Shiow Chen

This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms the player or the doujinshi artist to elabo The reason for doing so is because these rate the settings and plots. To develop a cosplayers want to experience personality story from a video game involves imagina types other than their own. They are excit tion and creativity. Video games are set in ed by the challenge of playing these new contexts different from that of conventional characters. anim?/manga, in which stories and plots Criteria for evaluating a cosplay perfor are more confined and less dynamic. mance. In addition to the preference for The cosplayers also had different rea choosing certain characters for cosplay, sons for choosing characters such as ap cosplayers also develop their own aesthetic pearance and physique as determinants, values. Ten criteria for evaluating how well and personality as a factor. a cosplay is performed are given below. Appearance and physique as determi These criteria have not been legitimated nants in cosplay A majority of cosplayers by any authority in this subculture; rather, understood that in order to achieve suc they have been accumulated through the cess in a cosplay, it is important to select process of participation and social experi a character that fits their own physique. In ences. According to the participants, these other words, if a cosplayer is fat and short, criteria, in the form of questions, are as fol lows: he or she should not choose to play a thin and tall anim?/manga character. Or, if the 1. Is the choice of a character appro cosplayer is tall and mature-looking, then priate or not? he or she should stay away from short, 2. Is the costume delicately made? cute, and young-looking characters. Many 3. Are the gestures and poses well experienced cosplayers suggest that a performed? new player should learn to choose a char 4. Are the gazes of the actors eye acter that is matched to his or her physique catching and similar to the referred rather than one with whom he or she is character? merely infatuated. 5. Is the make-up appropriate? Personality as a factor in cosplay Many 6. Are the outfits well and carefully cosplayers notice that personality is also made? a decisive factor in choosing an appropri 7. Is the cosplayer involved in the per ate anim?/manga character. Most fans formance and the character? play characters with a personality similar 8. Does the cosplayer demonstrate in to their own. That makes the reading and depth knowledge of the character acting of anim?/manga characters easier and the story? to achieve. 9. Does the cosplayer's physique While cosplaying, I would try my best to match the character portrayed? represent a character's nature in addi 10. If the cosplay performance is a team tion to appearance and outfits, in order to project, is it well integrated and is make my cosplay much like the original everyone in the cast creative? one. Thus, I usually choose characters whose personalities are similar to mine, Learning from Participating in Fan so it will be less difficult for me to perform Activities the characters in thoughts, words, and actions. However, once I decide to play Anim? conventions present the most inten a certain character, I study it carefully sive, expressive moments and experiences so as to be able to represent it naturally. for participants of this subculture. They are (Kitty, personal communication, March also the most effective medium for reveal 17, 2002) ing the culture itself. Anim?/manga fans Some cosplayers, however, choose are visible and identifiable at these events. anim?/manga characters whose person Because all of the participants in this study ality is completely opposite to their own. have attended ComicWorld many times, I

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This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms was curious about what they had learned On the one hand, it is good to let creative from participation. impulses express themselves and, on the Following are what the participants in other hand, it can be used as a medium the present study said they gained from for balancing a troubled adolescent life. cosplay activities: One participant told me that whenever she got upset, angry, or frustrated, she 1. Knowing how to make costumes and be creative, usually expressed it in drawing. She would transform someone she hated into a man 2. Making a variety of friends and ga character suffering from a miserable knowing how to conduct themselves life. in society, Being alienated from mainstream cul 3. Becoming more sensitive to and ca ture, adolescent anim?/manga fans argue pable of interpreting and portraying that they are not attempting to challenge one's own personality, 4. Becoming more knowledgeable the views of society or attack society through their media or activities (Chen, about human behavior and psycho 2003a). Cosplayers do not usually present logical states, themselves by their real names because 5. Getting a temporary release from they are recognized only through the the pressure and burden of the real names of their costumed characters. Simi world, larly, most cosplayers and doujinshi artists 6. Enjoying the pleasure of a free imag have virtual names in communication with ination and fantasy, other fans in the ComicWorld, forums in 7. Getting to know themselves better, and the Internet, or fan clubs. Also, they use these virtual names as signatures on their 8. Becoming more confident in posing artworks or doujinshis. In anim?/manga or presenting themselves to other fandom, young people experience a Utopi people. an dimension, in which they pay attention Some more detailed examples of what to their interests, artworks, creativity, and interviewees learned from their fan activi knowledge, rather than their sociocultural ties follow. and economic status. Improving personal drawing and paint Being motivated to read from literary ing skills. One of the interviewees said that materials to become skillful and knowledge she learned to color brightly by studying able in writing and storytelling. Three of the manga drawings. Such an improvement interviewees said that, in order to create earned some compliments from her wa a , they had to read novels, tercolor teacher at school and this en historical books, , and other couraged her to get even more involved in examples of writing. By doing so, they train manga drawings and practices. themselves to be more sensitive to use Learning to manage life in a better way. of language and more skilled at develop Anim?/manga fandom can be seen as a ing stories. It is not surprising that, along temporary means to deal with frustrations with the process of drawing manga, their in a stressful "real" world. Yet, it is more knowledge of history and literature in likely a symbolic outlet for self-expression creases, and their writing and storytelling and a sense of well-being through artis skills are improved. These young artists tic achievement (Chen, 2003a). Creative also explained that sometimes they would imagination is in fact the real substance talk to friends in the same circles in the and essence of anim?/manga fandom. real world or on line in order to get sug Free expression and creation is encour gestions, comments, and other information aged and valued. Many participants said about their work. In this fandom, everyone their life is better because they were in has to be self motivated in searching for volved in manga drawing and cosplay. new knowledge.

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This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Doujinshi artists come to the Comic to live through different times, experiences, World for at least two purposes: to ex and environments. change or sell their own manga artworks The production of fan art possesses a and to understand what other doujinshi psychologically therapeutic function. Of artists are making and what techniques the many reasons for anim?/manga fans they use. Lily told me that she found many to actively get involved in the recreation people drew well at the conventions and of imaginary characters, the most plau they were even younger than she. That was sible and appealing ones are their zeal for a big shock to her. She decided to work manga; their need to express their fanta harder to improve her own manga draw sies, longings, and suppressed impulses; ings. It is a good stimulus for these young and their desire to enjoy a momentary people who attend the ComicWorld to be release from the real world. Temporary in energized to continue their efforts and re dulgence of the fantasy world helps them fine their manga art. escape from problems and burdens in real life. Ironically, running away from reality by Discussion making doujinshi and cosplay serves as a positive function for personal adjustment Anim?/manga fans are active cultural pro and provides a harmless outlet for their im ducers who are engaged in the reproduc pulses to be expressed freely. tion of the materials they consume and in Anim?/manga fandom develops a the manipulation of ideas, meanings, and particular set of criteria, values, and cultural references that they perceive. Anim? expressive practices. A striking phenom conventions seem to function as an essential enon in anim?/manga fandom is the popu machinery to strengthen the social impulses larity of using such resources as the fan among anim?/manga fans and intensify the culture specific jargon, preferred comic distinct features of their sociocultural identi books or animation, criteria, and values. ties. In this study, five distinct characteristics This unique subcultural literacy can make of the anim?/manga subcultural interaction an outsider appear to be completely illit and production were formed. Each charac erate. Part of the process of becoming an teristic will be explained as follows. anim?/manga fan is to learn its cultural Anim?/manga fandom is based on the practices. The fan artists also hold similar circulation of images and signs for its pro criteria for judgment of what constitutes a duction and expansion. From both manga good doujinshi or a good cosplay. Such doujinshi and cosplay, it is evident that an experience and knowledge are usually ac im?/manga fan artists appropriate charac cumulated from practices and participation ters, signs, and techniques from sources in the fan activities. such as commercial manga, animation, Anim?/manga fandom catalyzes a and video games to create a broader and closed cycle of communication and inter more diverse world. These anim?/. In anim?/manga fandom (doujinshi fan artworks can be displayed, sold, or ex circles in particular), there is no clear-cut changed at anim?/manga conventions. It line between artists and consumers. All is the circulation of images and signs from fans are potential artists who can made both commercial anim?/manga texts and great contributions to the cultural wealth fan art that keeps anim?/manga fandom of a community, which is in turn a nurtur running. Jenkins (1992a) stated, "The aes ing place for one to seek technical help or thetic of fan art celebrates creative use of social needs. Normally, adolescent anim?/ already circulating discourses and images" manga fans use an alias in communication (p. 279). The meanings or values of such with each other; the anim? community is images and signs are changed or distorted equivalent to the fantasy world in that ev (Fiske, 1992); thus, the imaginary charac erything is fabricated and completely di ters take on a life of their own and continue vorced from the everyday world. Although

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This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms every fan artist in anim?/manga fandom which Wilson referred to as the "doujinshi is merely an imaginary character, all to rhizome." When teachers understand what gether they form a hyperreal fantasy world. and why students make those choices and Apparent in the cosplay activities in anim? filter out their prejudices toward students' conventions is a simulated world in which subcultural preferences, they can begin to one tends to be recognized by his or her respect students' choices and incorporate favored manga characters, rather than by these into their classroom practices. his or her real status in society. As was illuminated in this study, ani Anim?/manga fandom functions as an m?/manga fan artists develop their own alternative community. Although many techniques and criteria for making art and adolescent anim? fans believe that their develop aesthetic values that may be dif participation in fandom events offers an ferent from those of traditional art forms. I escape from real life, many others feel believe that these young fan artists' efforts anim?/manga fandom presents an alter in searching every possible way to improve native reality that functions as a more hu their own drawing or cosplaying reveal ar mane and democratic society than the real tistic values that can anchor their psycho world. Fan artists often feel a closeness emotional wanderings to visual media to many they meet in the fandom as they based territories. I would suggest that art share similar interests and inclinations. teachers who intend to integrate visual Additionally, in this interest-bound society, culture into their classroom practices listen one can find much assistance and inspira to their students' voices and enable them tion. Many doujinshi clubs are gatherings to find their sociocultural meanings and for no specific purpose other than shar values. For instance, art teachers could ing creative experiences, artworks, and employ their students' fan arts, such as information about anim?/manga. Because anim?/manga art, as teaching subjects, some cosplayers gather for team projects, themes, or media for exploring specific they have to cooperate with each other in techniques for artistic expression that in order to create casts, costumes, and plots. clude forms, symbols, meanings, criteria, It seems that peer influences and mutual and value. Meanwhile, art teachers also interactions can provide opportunities for can use students' fan arts as a catalyst for employing symbolic solutions to problems discovering hidden meanings beneath the in the real world. surface of the visual "texts" that they read and create. Implications for Art Education Endnotes To date, many art researchers and schol ars have been proclaiming the importance 1. Anim? is a short form for animation of expanding the old artworld-based ter and has been recognized as any animation ritories of art education to encompass made in Japan. Manga is the term used popular/mass culture and visual culture for Japanese comic books. Manga is not a in a broader scope, which implies a new synonym for anim?, but many anim? mov paradigm in art education (Duncum, 2001, ies are adapted from mangas so that the 2002; Freedman, 2000; Freedman & Wood, visual style in both media remains similar. 1999; Wilson, 2003). The problem is that Thus, in this study, anim?/manga is used visual culture is such a vast enterprise that to refer to a distinct visual style. everything visual can be material for study. 2. Doujinshi is a Japanese term used Wilson's (2003) proposal, that the disci to refer to coterie- or self-published fan pline of visual culture should start from distributed within specific groups or "the choices students have already made" communities. Although doujinshi becomes (p. 220), fits with young people's man well-known in manga fan culture, it is also ga doujinshi and cosplay in this study in used to refer to other media such as self

22 Jin-Shiow Chen

This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms published novels, stories, and science fic Education and Teachers College, Columbia tion. Thus, in this study manga doujinshi University. will be used to mean those manga pam Duncum, P. (2001). Visual culture: Develop ments, definitions, and directions for art phlets or magazines that manga fans or education. Studies in Art Education, 28(2), amateur artists publish. 101-112. 3. Cosplay is a Japanese fan term for Duncum, R (2002). Theorising everyday aes Costume Play and is similar to thetic experience: With contemporary visual masquerade (Santoso, 1998). Cosplay culture. Visual Arts Research, 40(2), 4-15. emerged in the late 1980s, and its popu Fiske, J. (1992). The cultural economy of fan larity has been escalating so rapidly that dom. In L. Lewis (Ed.), Adoring audience (pp. anim? conventions cannot be held without 30-49). New York: Routledge. it. Freedman, K. (2000). Social perspectives on art 4. Visual-rock band (called in education in the U.S.: Teaching visual culture Japanese) is a musical movement originat in a democracy. Studies in Art Education, ed from Japan that finds its roots in West 41(4), 314-329. ern rock from 1970s and '80s. It is termed Feedman, K., & Wood, J. (1999). Reconsidering visual because these types of bands have critical response: Student judgments of pur pose, interpretation, and relationships in vi a strong focus on image (their look) and sual culture. Studies in Art Education, 40(2), theatrical performance. Visual-rock bands 128-142. have a very complex image, shifting be Jenkins, H. (1992a). Textual poachers: Televi tween a variety of styles, such as punk, sion fans and participatory culture. New York: goth, and anim?/manga. Routledge. 5. The six interviewees' names are ficti Jenkins, H. (1992b). 'Strangers no more, we tious and their interview responses quoted sing': Filking and the social construction of in this research paper are translated into the science fiction fan community. In L. Lewis English by the author. (Ed.), Adoring audience (pp. 208-236). New York: Routledge. Jenson, J. (1992). Fandom as pathology: The Acknowledgements consequences of characterization. In L. Lew is (Ed.). Adoring audience (pp. 9-29). New The author would like to express her grati York: Routledge. tude toward Dr. Enid Zimmerman for her Kinsella, S. (2000). Adult manga. Honolulu: Uni thorough and insightful editorial sugges versity of Hawaii Press. tions. The author is also grateful to the Lewis, L. (1992). Introduction. In L. Lewis (Ed.). National Science Council, Taiwan, for the Adoring audience (pp. 1-6). New York: Rout grant support to this research study. ledge. Njubi, . N. (2001). Rap, race, and representa References tion. In. M. Oliker & W. P. Krolikowski (Ed.), Popular culture as educational ideology (pp. Bacon-Smith, C. (1992). Enterprising women: 151-183). New York: Peter Lang. Television fandom and the creation of popular Santoso, M. (1998). Cosplay/ costuming myth. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsyl and masquerade links. Available online at vania Press. http://www.nyx.net/-wsantoso/cosptext.html Chen, J. S. (2003a) The comic/ anim? fan cul Toku, M. (1998). Why do Japanese children ture in Taiwan: With a focus on adolescents' draw in their own ways? Unpublished doc experiences. Journal of Social Theory in Art toral dissertation, University of Illinois at Ur Education, 23, 89-103. bana-Champaign. Chen, J. S. (2003b). Exploration of the "real" re Toku, M. (2001). What is manga? The influence ality in the simulated fantasy of adolescent of pop culture in adolescent art. Art Educa anim? conventions and cosplay in Taiwan. In tion, 54(2), 11-17. P. Sahasrabudhe (Ed.), International conver Toku, M. (2004). The power of girls' comics: sation through art: Papers and workshops. The value and contribution to visual culture The 31st InSEA World Congress 2002. [CD and society. Paper published at the 2nd ROM]. New York: Center for International Art Asian-Pacific Art Education Conference (De

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This content downloaded from 140.127.170.112 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 02:50:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms cember 28-30, 2004) Hong Kong Institute Wilson, ., & Toku, M. (2004). "Boys' Love," , of Edu-cation. Retrieved from http://www. and art education: Issues of power and peda csuchicoedu/~mtoku/vc/Articles/toku/Power gogy. In D. L. Smith-Shank (Ed.), Semiotics _Girls_Comics.html and visual culture: Sights, signs, and signifi Toku, M. (2006). Influence of pop-culture influ cance (pp. 94-103). Reston, VA: National Art ence of pop-culture in children's Art: Pos Education Association. sibilities of implementing manga in art edu cational curricula. Retrieved from http:// www.geijutsu.tsukuba.ac.jp/%7Eartedu/ae_ tsukuba/toku/index.html Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jin-Shiow Chen, Wilson, B. (2003). Of diagrams and rhizomes: Visual culture, contemporary art, and the Department of fine Arts, National Chiayi impossibility of mapping the content of art University, #85 Wen Long, Ming Shyong education. Studies in Art Education, 44?), Village, Chiayi County, 621 Taiwan, 214-229. jschen@.ncyu.edu.tw

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