THE TURNING POINT

SOME THOUGHTS ON ADULT EDUCATION

INTERNATIONAL LITERACY DAY SEPTEMBER 8, 1992

NIEPA DC

Directorate of Adult E d u catio n Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Education, Government of India, Block No. 10, Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi - 110011. EDITORIAL BOARD

Shri A K Basu Dr. S.P. Sharma Shri G. Sivaswamy

Editing : G. Sivaswamy Dr. S.P. Sharma Cover design and Lay Out : L.C. Vohra Photographs : G.D. Sharma Typesetting and Page-makeup : Sushil K. Sharm a Our Contributors

* Shri T.S. SUNDARA RAJAN Shri Sundara Rajan is Under Secretary in the Ministry of Human Resource Development connected with the Total Literacy Campaigns. He has been associated with Total Literacy Campaigns right from the time the campaign method was adopted as the basic strategy under the NLM.

* Dr. M.P. PARAMESWARAN Dr. Parameswaran is very active both with Science and Literacy Movements in the country for the past decade. He is presently working for the Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti. He has also been a Member of the Executive Committee of the National Literacy Mission Authority and a great crusader against illiteracy.

* Shri R.K. SAINI A committed civil servant with progressive ideas, Shri R.K. Saini has been Deputy Educa­ tional Adviser in the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India for the past few years. He is in-charge of planning and policy formulation of literacy programme and their implementation.

* Dr. MALCOLM S. ADISESHAIAH Presently, Chairman of Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti and a former Member of Parliament, Dr. Adiseshaiah was connected with UNESCO for a number of years and was its Deputy Director General. He has been the President of the World Literacy Jury of UNESCO since 1988. He was also Vice-Chancellor of Madras University and Director of Madras Institute of Development Studies. An Adult Educator deeply involved in literacy activities in the country, he has published a number of books which include: ‘My Country Awake’; ‘Towards a Functional Learning Society’; ‘Learning To Do’.

* Dr. C.J. DASWANI Professor Dr. C.J. Daswani is a linguist with long experience in adult literacy and non-formal education. Educated in Edinburgh and Cornell (USA), he has taught in Delhi University, Jawaharlal Nehru University and Poona University. He was Consultant in the Directorate of Adult Education during the NAEP days. He is currently Head of the Department of Non-formal Education in the NCERT. * Prof. G.P. GAIN A well-known creative writer, thinker and journalist of repute, Prof. Jain has been aic:t'tivo; connected with the literacy movement in the country for the last few years. In fact, he hiass s bee trying to develop a new pedagogy for imparting literacy to illiterates.

* Shri SATYEN MAITRA An eminent educationist, Shri Satyen Maitra is presently the Chairman of the Bengali fSSocir. Service League in West Bengal, Calcutta. Shri Maitra has contributed a lot to the pnoirmnotio, of literacy in the country. His works include: ‘Why Should We become Literate?’ and mairry cothe publications.

* Shri R.S. MATHUR Presently Additional Director in the Directorate of Adult Education, Shri Mathur htaiss i bees connected with literacy programme in the Directorate of Adult Education for the l ais.tt two decades. He has specialised in Monitoring and Evaluation and Population Education.

* Mrs. RODA MEHTA Mrs. Roda Mehta is the Director of Media and Research of Ogilvy and Mather, a leiaading advertising agency in New Delhi. They have been undertaking publicity for literacy pronnioation Her articles have been published in the Economic Times and other leading newspapers iir.n the country.

* Dr. T.SUNDARA RAMAN A medical doctor from the Jawaharlal Nehru Institute of Post-Graduate Medical Rese;sarch, Pondicherry, Dr. Sundara Raman was in the forefront of the science movement in the IJJnion Territory of Pondicherry and also the literacy and post literacy campaigns in that Territtory. He is presently working for the Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti helping in implement a tiioon of literacy campaigns in different districts of India.

* Shri PREM CHAND Formerly a Deputy Director in the Directorate of Adult Education, Shri Prem Chand was connected with several Monitoring and Evaluation Studies. Presently, he is working forr the National Institute of Adult Education, New Delhi.

* Shri LAKSHMIDHAR MISHRA A senior member of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), Shri Mishra is in the foreffront of literacy movement in the country today as the Director-General of the National Literacy Mission Authority and Joint Secretary in the Ministry of Human Resource Developmient, Government of India. Shri Mishra’s tireless efforts contributed immensely to the success off the programmes of Total Literacy Campaigns under the National Literacy Mission since its imcep- tion. Preface

The setting up of the National Literacy Mission in the year 1988 was the fulfilment of a long-feh need of our people. NLM has been able to give a new impetus and vigour to the literacy and adult education activities in the country. It is a mission with a clear vision - that of a literaie and learning society. As o:’today in 166 districts of the country total literacy campaigns are going on for eradication of illiteracy involving all sections of the people - students, teachers, youth, women’s organisa­ tions, voluntary agencies, employers, trade-unions, para-military forces and others. In the total literacy campaigns it has been our endeavour to secure people’s participation in literacy and learning effort. International Literacy Day. every year provides us the opportunity to take stock of what we have done so far and to plan for the future. It is also an occasion to pledge ourselves afresh to work with missionary spirit to achieve the goal of total literacy. ‘The Turning Point’ talks of the various aspects of the literacy campaigns in the country under the auspices of the NLM. We are happy to bring out this compilation of articles on the auspi:i)us occasion of International Literacy Day for the benefit of all concerned. We are grateful to all our contributors for their valuable views and suggestions. We also regre', c ur inability to include all the articles received for want of time and space in the present publication. We shall however be using these in our future publications. I am thankful to Shri G. Sivaswamy, Consultant and Dr. S.P. Sharma, Deputy Director for editir.gthe articles and all members of our Publication Unit for its printing. Tie wisdom and advice of our contributors expressed through their articles should serve as a guile to all of us working in the field of literacy and adult education. Views and suggestions to improve the publication are most welcome.

A.K. BASU 8 September, 1992 (DIRECTOR) Contents

Literacy - Evolution of a Governmental Programme into a Movement

— T.S. Sundara Rajan ...... 1

The Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samithi - What it is and What it is not

— M.P. Parameswaran ...... 7

National Literacy Mission - Present Status and Strategies for the Eighth Plan

— R.K. S a i n i ...... 12

The Total Literacy Campaigns: Strengths and Weaknesses

— Malcolm S. Adiseshaiah ...... 18

Choice of Language for Literacy

— C.J. Daswani ...... 22

Go One More Step, N.L.M

— G.P. J a in ...... 24

Basic Literacy Primer and Teacher’s Guide - Important Points in the Development Process

— Satyen Maitra ...... 28

Learning Outcomes - The Central Concern in Total Literacy Campaigns

— R.S. Mathur ...... 34

Moving Up the Learning Curve

— Roda M e h ta ...... 42

Beyond Literacy Campaigns

— T. Sundararaman ...... 45

Ir.ternational Literacy Scenario

— Prem Chand ...... 50

Total Literacy Campaigns — An Unwritten Chapter in Indian History

— Lakshmidhar Mishra ...... 54 LITERACY - Evolution of a Governmental Programme into a Movement

— T.S. Sundara Rajan

Background cies, and recognition to the pedagogic impor­ There have been isolated and voluntary tance of libraries. "These were bold policies for efforts for adult literacy and adult education the forties, and more than forty years later, (AE) in the pre-Independence era, but the most they are mostly reflected under the National significant development occurred after the for­ Literacy Mission." 1 mation of popular Ministries (1936) in the In­ A sub-committee of the CABE headed by dian Provinces when Adult Education was Shri Mohan Lai Saxena was set up in January accepted for the first time as a definite respon­ 1948 to report on AE. In its report, the Com­ sibility of the government and adult literacy mittee said that although both literacy and was organised as a movement. The CABE general education formed part of AE, yet (Central Advisory Board of Education) in greater emphasis should be laid on general December 1938, appointed an Adult Education education to enable every Indian to participate Committee under the chairmanship of the effectively in the new social order. This concept Bihar Education Minister, Dr. Syed Mahmud, of General Education was further developed by who, in his address to the Committee, the Union Education Minister, Maulana Abul declared:- Kalam Azad, who termed it Social Education "No Government can make any appreci­ which was accepted by the CABE (1949) as the able headway with its schemes for the goal for the education adults. The concept of promotion of socio-economic welfare of its Social Education included Literacy, Extension people unless the people are prepared to work, General Education and leadership train­ meet the Government half-way and offer ing. Added to this was Social Consciousness it responsive cooperation." which included the inculcation of a spirit of This key-note statement emphasised social solidarity and a consciousness of the simultaneously the need for assumption of vital importance of planned development. responsibility by the government and for shap­ A report was submitted in 1963 on Social ing a movement of adult education. Education by a Committee on Plan Projects Subsequently in 1944, the CABE proposed (headed by Shri BN Jha, Vice-Chancellor of a Complete Scheme of AE identifying the tar­ Jodhpur University). The Committee inter alia get age-group of 10-40 years, a one-year time- observed - span, training of AE instructors, support of Adult literacy is largely a matter of leader­ cultural forms, involvement of voluntary agen- ship... The function of leadership in literacy is three-fold: providing the literacy movement a Giving the dialectics and the scenario, the prestige which it badly needs, integrating Education Commission propounded the literacy ideologically into the concept of new doctrine of mass approach. "The essence of the India emerging from the old making literacy Mass Approach", observed the Commission, into a popular movement, and harnessing "lies in a determined mobilization of all avail­ people’s energy to fight out illiteracy.” able educated men and women in the country The idea of taking the literacy movement to constitute a force to combat illiteracy and to the masses and to make them accept it as an effective organization and utilization of this their own was first experimented in 1959 in force in a well-planned literacy campaign. This district Satara, of Maharashtra. The annual approach is unorthodox but not untried.” average figure of persons becoming literate in The NAEP (National Adult Education the district rose from 3,000 in 1959 to 1,09,000 Programme) 1978, represented a major initia­ in 1960-61. The campaign was extended to the tive in the field. According to the NAEP docu­ other districts and during its peak in 1961-63 ment, "No country perhaps with the exception as many as 25 districts were covered and a of China faced the problem of illiteracy of the total of 10,08,100 persons in 1,109 villages magnitude we are facing. And hardly any were made fully literate. country has had such a long tradition of respect The Mohim (campaign) aimed at total for learning and knowledge or the vast resour­ eradication of illiteracy in the age group of ces which we have." The document proposed 14-50, providing library services and other that "The aim then would be to strive for a material for retention of literacy and all-sided learning society in which life-long education is development of villagers through social educa­ a cherished goal." The concept of life-long tion centres. The campaign lasted for 4 months education accords with an old saying - and was conducted by a Village Level Commit­ tees. TTT3' 3*T£T% The Education Commission (1964-66) ac­ fynaT: ^r^rePTT knowledged the achievements of the Mohim which had "exploited the local village T P ? cT patriotism to eliminate illiteracy from the vil­ lage and required the teachers and all local (One receives a quarter of one’s education educated men and women to work for literacy." from the teacher; a quarter through one’s own The Commission went on to observe, "Adult capabilities; a quarter from fellow-pupils, and Education is by nature a voluntary activity; a quarter over the course of time). the basic driving force is, therefore, the in­ The NAEP was chiefly based on the estab­ dividual motivation of the adult." This is to be lishment of AE centres in villages and urban read with Homer Kempfer’s observation that slums where learning was imparted in groups. "Basic internal motivation for literacy is the It created a base for AE. But considering the result of slow growing environmental pres­ magnitude of the problem of illiteracy, its in­ sures and rising personal aspirations." tensity and extent of spreading was limited. There has been an evolutionary shift in the tion of age 5 and above, and for 1991 to popula­ perception of education, It has gradually be­ tion of age 7 and above.) This remarkable im­ come an investment rather than as a mere provement has however to be viewed against social service. While education helps in en­ the fact that the absolute number of illiterate hancing human resources, literacy can be persons rose from 234 million in 1981 to 352 viewed as one of the factors contributing to the million in 1991. There had to be, therefore, a development of a nation’s human capital. The better and more viable alternative to the classic LEARNING TO BE5 identifies the real centre-based approach which was the core of objectives of the struggle against illiteracy and the NAEP 1978. states that "the aim is not simply to enable an The break-through came with the launch­ illiterate person to decipher words in a ing of the NLM (National Literacy Mission) in textbook but to become better integrated into 1988 with the time-bound objective of impart­ his environment, have a better grasp of real ing functional literacy to 80 million persons in life, enhance his personal dignity, have access the 15-35 age-group by 1995. The creation of the Mission represented political commitment to sources of knowledge which he personally at all levels reflecting a national consensus on may find useful, acquire the know-how and the need to harness all social forces and chan­ techniques he needs in order to lead a better nelise the energies of the people towards a life." It goes on to recommend that "mass qualitative change in their own lives. While literacy campaigns are justified so long as they the 1991 Census did reflect a purely quantita­ help the people participate in changing their tive, and significant, achievement, the environment". Strongly urging the exploita­ achievements of the NLM (over the short tion of the visual image and the spoken word period of its functioning to date) have to be in support of mass campaigns, it is observed assessed in qualitative terms. that they "provide a short cut for communicat­ The single most significant gain of the ing information which it would be wasteful not NLM is the positive value association that to use.... The fact is that audio-visual methods literacy is beginning to receive. This has made can also pave the way - by imparting practical for a great leap for literacy activists and ad­ information and prompting social action - to ministrators traversing from a climate of greater cultural awareness, stimulating the apathy and cynicism to a feeling of hope and desire for learning and for acquiring other optimism that change for the better is possible and achievable. styles of communication, including that of written expression.... A truly modern educa­ The NPE (National Policy of Education) 1986 calls upon the whole nation to pledge tion, from the level of elementary literacy itself to the eradication of illiteracy and for the training to the top levels of higher education, Central and State Governments, political par­ should integrate word, sound and image". ties, mass organisations, media, educational institutions etc. to commit themselves to this Total Literacy Campaigns cause. The NLM will be geared to the goals of The Decennial Census 1991 saw India cross national integration, environmental conserva­ the 50% level of literacy rate and reach for tion, small-family norm, women’s equality, 52.11%.as contrasted with the rate of 18.33% universalisation of primary education, basic in 1951. (The rates for 1951 applied to popula­ health etc. Management Structure for the interests between the district administration Mission Mode headed by the Collector and the volunteer The NLMA (National Literacy Mission groups spearheaded by the KSSP. The environ Authority) is an autonomous wing of the ment for this campaign was created in a man­ Government (in the Department of Education, ner that impelled people from all walks of life Ministry of Human Resource Development), to come forward and assume responsibility for vested with the necessary executive and finan­ the campaign work over a defined time-frame. cial powers. Its functions include the scrutiny The Ernakulam success was followed up and approval of proposals for TLCs (Total with the launching of TLCs covering the Literacy Campaigns), funding and facilitating remaining 13 districts of Kerala, and about the the campaigns in partnership with the States same time in districts of Dakshina Kannada (which are to bear one-third of the approved and Bijapur (Karnataka), Chittoor and Nellore budget of the TLCs), policy and planning, cul­ tural and media mobilisation for literacy, (Andhra Pradesh), Midnapur and Burdwan leadership training, development of literacy (West Bengal) and the UT of Pondicherry. The materials, research, monitoring and evalua­ launching of these TLCs has had a snow-ball­ tion etc. ing effect and, as of June 1992, TLCs have been The NLMA Council is headed by the Mini­ approved extending over 156 districts (with ster of HRD, and includes other Ministers, full or partial coverage). leaders of major national parties, Members of There are two striking features to the cam­ Parliament, besides educationists and volun­ paigns. Firstly, they are area-specific, time- tary agencies. The Executive Committee of bound, cost-effective and result-oriented, NLMA is headed by the Union Education which is in sharp contrast with the traditional Secretary and holds its meetings at regular centre-based model. Secondly, many cam­ intervals. paigns have integrated other important social The creation of this empowered structure and developmental issues like total immunisa­ has given the NLM the freedom and flexibility tion, the small-family norm etc. to innovate, experiment, reach out to people’s groups and work with them in partnership for eradication of illiteracy. The NLM is created Innovation and Experimentation as a societal mission and its efficacy rests on The strategy for TLC is not based on a mobilisation of social forces and harnessing ‘bureaucratic’ decision but evolved out, of the the findings of systematic research. daring experiment attempted in Ernakulam. The years 1989 and 1990 saw the launching of Total Literacy Campaigns - The some experimental programmes like the Breakthrough mobilisation undertaken through Gandhian At the time the NLM was pondering the and Sarvodaya agencies, the paidal jatthas, alternatives to the NAEP, the KSSP (Kerala and the Bharat Gyan Vigyan Jattha (Oct- Shastra Sahitya Parishad) volunteered with a Nov’90). A three-pillared organisational struc­ proposal for total eradication of illiteracy in ture for a district TLC has been evolved, district Ernakulam, Kerala. The campaign was consisting of (i) participatory committees at all launched on the Republic Day 1989. The cam­ levels from the district down to the village paign was marked by a complete unification of panchayats, (ii) a core-team of full-time

4 workers, and (iii) government officials. This political parties, NGOs, organisations of exemplifies an interactive and communicative women, students, teachers, artistes and process of management and monitoring. The writers can come together and effectively con­ use of folk media came to be accepted as neces­ tribute to the literacy campaign. The Antar sary for conscientisation and delivery of Bharati in Latur (Maharashtra), SWACH in Dungarpur (Rajasthan), the RK Mission in ‘modern’ and ‘progressive’ messages through Murshidabad (W.Bengal), SUTRA in Sirmour the TLCs. (H.P.), Samudaya in Raichur (Karnataka) are These initiatives at mass mobilisation for some of the activist organisations which are TLC in selected districts led the NLM to thus involved. These apart, the Bharat Gyan develop the strategy of persuading the State Vigyan Samiti provides management, Governments to allow a direct interaction with pedagogic and mobilisation support with its the district collectors to assume responsibility activists drawn from local teacher com­ for a TLC. At the request of NLM, the States munities, trade unions and other NGOs. nominated identified district collectors to at­ tend a series of orientation conferences which Standards of Attainments were organised with the single objective of A new technique of learning, called IPCL convincing the collectors that, as the principal (Improved Pace and Content of Learning) was officer of the districts, they could and should introduced by the NLM after interaction with take up TLCs. adult educators, linguists, field activists and State Governments. The new pedagogy has a Zilla Saksharata Samitis three-fold objective, namely, (a) to provide The TLCs are implemented by the ZSS learning materials which would enable (Zilla Saksharata Samitis, or, District Literacy learners to achieve sufficiently high levels of Societies) especially registered for the purpose ‘usable’ literacy, (b) to enhance motivation of and usually headed by the district collectors. learners to learn further by enabling them to The ZSS has representation for educationists, perceive their achievements, and (c) to instil district officials, social activists and voluntary greater accountability through a systematic agencies. The Executive Committee of the ZSS evaluation of learning outcomes. Local-specific is supported by task-specific sub-committees materials conforming to these principles are consisting of a mix of officials and literacy systematically produced and used in the TLCs activists made responsible for Environment to enable learners achieve the pre-determined Building and Literacy Survey, Training, levels of functional literacy. Production of Literacy Materials, Monitoring, Finance & Administration. Funds are paid Technical Support direct to the ZSS by the Centre and State in In order to assess the adequacy of the ratio of 2:1 against the approved budget of preparatory work undertaken in the districts the TLC. There are similar participatory com­ prior to formal approval of TLC proposals, and mittees at all the levels, the block/mandal, to assess the subsequent progress, teams con­ sub-block and village panchayat. sisting of members of the NLMA EC, officials The broad-based and participative struc­ of the NLM, and State officials are sent out on ture of the ZSS has made for a forum in which visits to the districts for interaction with the core teams working there and to discuss details Raichur TLC has a special focus on the of mobilisation and motivation, training, Devadasi women in the district. Examples are teaching and learning, management and galore, and every one of them oriented towards monitoring etc. The NLM is also attempting to development and one or the other of social evolve an arrangement to involve issues of the locality. It has been the involve­ educationists, evaluators, social activists and ment of the district collector as the leader of media experts as Literacy Consultants for literacy which has facilitated this confluence TLCs. This is necessary (i) for securing an of efforts and forces. Under the TLC, the col­ independent and professional opinion on lector is enabled to interact with the people as TLCs, (ii) for assessing the soundness of a TLC a natural community leader, losing himself in proposal before approving it, and (iii) for the milieu and securing their acceptance. Each providing support for timely mid-course TLC district has recorded fascinating episodes remedial action. of the participative campaigning for literacy, nugget examples of self-perceptions of in­ Use of the Mass Media dividual achievement and advancement, and The enormous financial investment in the almost a surge of revived nationalism working establishment and expansion of facilities for to liberate the illiterate fellow-citizens. The radio and television warrants an increased ac­ TLCs have admittedly promoted a feeling of commodation for programmes on literacy. Both participation and a satisfaction of giving on the the All India Radio and the Doordarshan are part of anyone who cares, triggering off a posi­ already broadcasting spots and features and tive action on the part of all sections of the documentaries on the theme of literacy, some citizens, in the noble Upanishadic tradition, times on specific TLCs, but a formal and clear Datta, Daamyata, Dayadhvam - (Sacrifice, policy formulation in this respect is of crucial Restraint, compassion). The NLM ‘doctrine’ importance so as to prioritise educational of mass mobilisation has thus the most needs over the standard considerations of com­ favourable prospect of getting translated mercial entertainment. into a viable programme through the TLCs. Properly nurtured and supported, Coordination with Development the TLCs could well constitute a salutary Programmes and new experience for the nation. The TLC strategy has room for flexibility to the ZSS to identify their thrust areas and References induct them with the TLC. A variety of ex­ periences has emerged. Midnapur took up total 1. ROLE OF ADULT EDUCATION IN DEVELOP­ MENT: Alok Rawat Setp’90 - Dissertation at immunisation along with TLC; Chittoor and University of Bath, UK). Nellore have incorporated in the literacy cam­ 2. ADULT EDUCATION IN INDIA, Readings: Anil paign messages on abolition of bonded labour Bordia, JR Kidd and JA Draper. and payment of minimum wages; in Jalna, the 3. A Source Book on Adult Education, Directorate of innovative scheme of Mahila Swastha Sanghas AE, Sept. 89, p.32. has been taken up, with 10 literate women in 4. ADULT EDUCATION IN IND IA: Anil Bordia et al. every village to join the literacy campaign; the 5. UN ESCO, Paris 1972, p.32. The Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samithi What it is and What it is not

— M.P. Parameswaran

The Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samithi, known and Shri Anil Bordia, the then Education in short as BGVS is, in many ways, a unique Secretary. Having understood and appreciated organization. It is a voluntary organization the effectiveness of the BJVJ 1987 which was and yet it is not so. Its activists come from the sponsored and catalysed by the National Coun­ ranks of people’s science movements, writers, cil for Science and Technology Communica­ teachers, doctors and the like. For them work tion, Department of Science and Technology, is not employment but a mission. For them in communicating to people and propelling every working day .is a "holy day", every them to action. During the very first meeting "holiday" is a "working" day. For them the the General Council of the National Literacy slogan is not statuesque or establishment , but Mission Authority together with the then Min­ change and movement forward. They have ister for Human Resource Development Shri joined the movement on their own, voluntarily, Shivshankar urged to the cause of literacy and without any special monetary inducement. plan and execute a jatha similar to the BJVJ The only inducement is the opportunity for but more massive one for literacy. The People’s work and the joy derived out of it. BGVS has Science Movements, on their side, had already got all the functional qualities of an ideal become convinced that the matrix of science voluntary organization; dynamism, flexibility, can be woven only on to a fabric of literacy. The accountability, creativity and commitment. Kerala Sastra Sahitya Prishat, one of the Yet it is not a voluntary organization in the oldest of the PSMs has already been associated traditional sense. It has been sponsored and is with literacy work, since the NAEP days. In being fully supported by the Government of fact it had even prepared a programme of ac­ India - the National Literacy Mission. It func­ tion, in 1978, to make Kerala fully literate tions as an informal arm of the NLM. within five years. Later in 1986 it prepared a revised programme of action. The two Genesis of BGVS programmes together had within them all the The BGVS was born from the happy union essential features which were to make the his­ of the experience of the People’s Science Move­ toric Eranakulam Total Literacy Campaign a ments and the Bharat Jan Vigyan Jatha - 1987 success. (BJVJ) on the one side and the political ad­ The concept of the Bharat Gyan Vigyan ministrative will of Shri Sam Pitroda, at that Jatha 1990 was born out of this discussion in time Advisor on Technology Missions to the the General Council of the NLMA. The author then Prime Minister late Shri Rajiv Gandhi of the present paper, who had been the Nation­

7 al Convenor for the BJVJ-87 was entrusted ganizations which are working for the crea­ with the job of preparing a draft proposal for tion of scientific awareness and literacy and the same. As a member of the General Council to create a favourable climate for such ac­ of NLMA and its Executive Committee and on tivities to flourish. its behalf, he prepared, with the help of his The quantitative objectives set out at that colleagues in the People’s Science Movement, time can be summarized as follows: a programme to initiate a massive churning - To launch approximately 500 district level process in the nation. It was named as Bharat jathas, one in each district in the country, Gyan Vigyan Jatha. The Programme en­ starting on 2nd October 1990 and continu­ visaged to: ing till 14th November 1990. Each jatha * Interlink, informally, all the literacy efforts would cover 100 to 150 centers and at each in the country, both governmental and non­ point there would be street plays and songs governmental, big and small and create and poster exhibitions, melas, slide shows* among them a feeling of being partners in etc. which would convey the objective of the one and the same national mission. jatha. * Instil into the field activists enthusiasm and - To organise approximately 5 to 10 excitement without which adequate motiva­ padayatras from each of the surrounding tion cannot be generated among the villages to cover at each of the 100-150 learners. points (centers) in a district. * Develop an informal machinery for rapid - Preparation and dissemination of necessary information transfer and mutual reinforce­ software in the form of booklets, video and ment among literacy workers at all levels. audio cassettes, posters and slides. * Reach to every corner of India a call to stamp - Dissemination of songs, plays and lectures out illiteracy from the nation. evolved by identified groups/organizations, discussed and finalized. * Communicate to the broadest audience a - Nucleating organizational structures at na­ perspective on literacy and scientific aware­ tional, state district and local levels to im­ ness both through the jatha and through plement the above activities and involve all activities prior to it and after it. socially conscious individuals, groups, * Create a demand for literacy centers and voluntary organizations, youth and adult education centers were they do not women’s movement, students and teachers exist. organizations, educational and research in­ * Nucleate, motivate and inspire new local stitutions, peasant organizations, trade level groups, voluntary organizations and unions, etc. in these tasks. individuals to take-up the task of eradica­ The Executive Committee approved the tion of illiteracy and creation of scientific proposal. However it observed that the target awareness amongst the people. set is extremely high and that even fifty per­ * Strengthen and consolidate the work of al­ cent achievement will be considered as very ready existing groups and voluntary or­ good. Some of the members also expressed the

8 doubt that being an ephemeral event how science movements have played a cardinal role much the jatha would be useful for actual in this. They knew that the matrix of science literacy work. Later events were to prove that can be woven only on to a fabric of literacy. these misgivings were out of place. It was also The Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad, in­ decided to register a society under Societies itiated this chain reaction with the Total Registration Act to carry out this project. The Literacy Campaign in Eranakulam district Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samithi comprising of and subsequently in the entire state of Kerala. communicators, educationists, academicians, The Pondicherry Science Forum, the Tamil social workers, people’s science activists, Nadu Science Forum, the Andhra Pradesh Jan government officers etc. was formed in Decem­ Vignana Vedika, the Madhya Pradesh Vigyan ber 1989 with Dr. Malcolm S. Adiseshiah, the Sabha. . . all these organizations followed suit. world renowned educationist as its chairper­ They provided the initial core of activists son. Since then BGVS has been working as an for the BGVS, which has since grown several informal field arm of the NLMA, in close times. Today literacy has become a people’s cooperation with it. movement which is characterized by: BGVJ and Thereafter * a massive and total area approach The Bharat Gyan Vigyan Jatha took place * involvement of the entire community in in 330 districts and visited in all about 40,000 some form or the other villages. It was a massive churning process and * predominantly voluntary nature one can confidently say that the cream that * clear objectives and a sense of excite­ emerged from this churning process constitute ment the back bone as well as the heart and the brain of the great literacy movement that is sweep­ * close cooperation of bureaucracy with ing the subcontinent presently. voluntary workers Today India is witnessing a movement, un­ * very high commitment precedented in its history; both in character * changes in the social outlook of the par­ and in magnitude. That, during forty years of ticipants independence could not be achieved is now * shift from cynicism to optimism, and being achieved. Today we can hope that il­ * shared joy literacy can be eradicated from this country. The problem is not small. But the effort too is This optimism is contagious. BGVS, it can not small. Nearly four million volunteers, be said, is mainly responsible for this new turn without being paid any thing at all, are now of events. helping to make nearly 40 million illiterates True, such a tremendous movement will literate and even beyond. In a country, where have its impact on the society. Different seg­ increasingly everything is being measured in ments of the society will, naturally respond terms of money, the emergence of partriotism differently to this. Our Constitution, in the and humanism as can be witnessed from the Directive Principles of the State Policy has tireless efforts of these volunteers is a silver- directed the State to provide universal and line, a ray of hope. Interestingly enough, compulsory education to all up to the age 14 with in ten years. Till now we have not kill the spirit of a people’s movement for achieved it. Consequently the number of il­ literacy. literate persons has been growing all the time. The second target of attack is the campaign There were both objective and subjective model for literacy. In the early phases the reasons for it. Illiteracy and poverty are the practicability of such campaigns, especially two sides of a coin. This has been recognized the availability of voluntary instructors, was even in the 1978 NAEP document. Similarly being questioned. People of India gave a fitting are, poverty and riches. And during the entire answer to these questions. They are coming post-independence period many have been forward in millions. In the process a totally poorer. It is one and the same process that new system of pedagogy, training, monitoring leads to this. Illiteracy of the majority as a etc. is evolving. Being in the thick of the move­ congenial condition for this process. Naturally, ment BGVS developed considerable expertise those interested in the continuation of this in all these areas. Those to whom illiteracy process will feel threatened by the literacy provided employment and a "permanent" movement. So long as it remained a rhetorical source of income feel threatened by this movement, their interests were safe. When it development. However literacy is no longer a became a real movement they began to feel topic for seminars and an area for employment. threatened. Naturally this would lead to ac­ It has become a chain reaction. There may be, tions on their side. The literacy movement that and will be, direct and covert opposition to the is spreading over the nation like a wildfire is literacy movement. But today no body can stop now being attacked on several platforms. this movement. The new character of BGVS enjoins it to: One target of attack is the Bharat Gyan * identify joint and network committed in­ Vigyan Samithi. It is being attacked on two dividuals and organizations so as to build a grounds (1) by attributing party politics to it people’s network to provide grass-roots sup­ which is purely a figment of imagination and port to total literacy campaigns. (2) by attacking its role as the informal arm of the NLM. The fact that many Zilla Sak- * work among the people and interact with sharatha Samities have registered themselves officials, intellectuals, teachers, political as district BGVS because of the goodwill this parties, voluntary groups, trade unions and name enjoys, has been also, a source of irrita­ service associations and people from all tion for many. Some State Governments have walks of life so as to continuously build an compelled the District Collectors, who normal­ environment that welcomes, encourages and ly head this samithis, to change the name. facilitates total literacy campaigns. BGVS is not a political organization. Its * assist in planning and conduct of all aspects members include people from all walks of life of literacy campaign-environment building, including government servants. Its activists training and monitoring — in such a way as have different convictions. But this does not to ensure that the spirit of a people’s move­ pose a problem so long they have the conviction ment is preserved and strengthened. that illiteracy can be and will be eradicated from the soil of India. Any attempt to politicize * contribute to the evolution of the district literacy movement, any attempt to reap elec­ literacy organizations and to build the toral political dividends from literacy work will BGVS organization in the district and state

10 level in such a manner that literacy cam­ have reached a breaking point. Conflicts paigns become the beginning of a sus­ take place at the slightest provocation, in tainable process. Such a process should lead the name of the caste and religion, lan­ to post-literacy immediately and sub­ guage and culture. And they easily esca­ sequently to universal elementary educa­ late into fratricidal riots. Under such tion, women’s development, a health conditions the positive and optimistic en­ movement, a cultural awakening and even­ vironment created by the sheer mag­ tually empowerment of the people. With the nitude of this cooperative effort offers a knowledge, organization and confidence ray of hope. In face, reports from districts gained from total literacy campaigns and traditionally known for caste excesses in­ subsequent programmes, these processes dicate substantial relaxation in tension, should lead to a more democratic society mainly because of the intensity of where people can decide the course of their cooperation demanded by literacy work development. and the joy they derive out of such work. Our country is in a grave crisis: Any act which will hamper the growth of economic and ethical, moral and political, this movement will be unpatriotic. social and cultural. Mounting tensions

II National Literacy Mission — Present Status and Strategies for the Eighth Plan

— R.K. Saini

Literacy in India is primarily understood - a new sense of urgency, seriousness and in terms of census literacy. In census, a person emphasis with fixed goals, clear is deemed to be literate if he/she can read and timeframe and age-specific target write with comprehension in any language. groups; This also closely corresponds to the UNESCO - firm belief that adults can be made definition of literacy. In the context of the literate according to certain pre-deter- literacy and adult education programme which mined norms within a stipulated time is being implemented by the National Literacy limit (200 hrs.) and that it is not too late Mission, literacy is an entry point to an under­ to learn; standing and awareness of a much wider world - emphasis on the close nexus between of information, communication and skills. It is literacy of adult parents and enrolment an essential tool for communication and learn­ of school-going children, on the one ing, for acquiring and sharing of knowledge hand and literacy and infant-mortality, and information and a pre-condition for immunisastion and child-care on the individual’s evolution and growth as also for other; national development. - a societal mission which believes that literacy is not the concern of one min­ National Literacy Mission istry or department or agency but is the Eradication of illiteracy has been one of the concern of the whole nation and all sec­ major national concerns of the Government of tions of the society; India since Independence. A number of - emphasis on institutionalisation of programmes had been taken up in this direc­ post-literacy and continuing education tion in the post-independence period culminat­ in a big way; ing in the launching of the National Literacy Mission in May, 1988. - a technology mission also in the sense that besides, emphasis on improvement The Mission was conceptualised and built of teaching/learning environment, it on an objective assessment of the strengths lays stress on improvement in the con­ and weaknesses of the earlier programmes. tent and process of teaching/learning The important aspects of the Mission include: on a continuous basis;

12 - envisages creation of an effective mis­ critical in literacy learning are programme sion management system to ensure duration, programme content and achievement of the mission objectives visibility of results. Keeping these factors within a broad framework of flexibility, in view, a motivation - centered technique, delegation, decentralisation and ac­ namely "the Improved Pace and Content of countability; Learning (IPCL)" has been designed. The - emphasis not on mere enrolment of new technique provides for 3 integrated learners but on attainment of certain primers, each primer integrating in itself pre-determined norms and parameters basic literacy/numeracy lessons, work of literacy, numeracy, functionality book, exercise book, details of evaluation and awareness. of learning outcome etc. Progression in learning from one primer to the other In quantitative terms, the Mission seeks to heightens the motivation of the learners impart functional literacy to 80 million il­ and provides for an inbuilt mechanism for literate persons in 15-35 age-group by the close self-evaluation. of 1995. (c) Environment Building : Organisation of In qualitative terms, functional literacy im- 721 major jathas and 1971 local jathas by plies:- the Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti and paidal * Self reliance in 3 ’Rs; jathas organised in 1098 blocks in five * Participation in development process; states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya * Skills improvement to improve Pradesh, Orissa and Assam by the or­ economic status and general well being; ganisations of the Gandhian and Sar- vodaya workers during 1990-91 have * Imbibing values of national integra­ helped in putting literacy firmly on the tion, conservation of environment, agenda of the national programme, sen­ women’s equality, and observance of sitised the literate and the educated to small family norm etc. take up literacy work with a sense of pride, and social obligation and helped in dispell­ Thrust Areas of NLM ing doubts, reservations and misgivings (a) Area Approach : Under this approach a about literacy. They have also helped in compact area is selected for complete motivating and mobilising the community eradication of illiteracy in a given time of learners for literacy, enabled them to frame, with thrust on attainment of perceive their need for literacy and inter­ predetermined norms of literacy and nalise the need for their individual and numeracy and not on enrolment. The collective well-being. They have also learner is the focal point in the entire helped to a greater extent, in bringing process and measurement of learning out­ about a close integration between literacy come is continuous, informal, participative and development, literacy and science, and non-threatening. literacy and environment. Such environ­ (b) Improved Pace and Content of Learn­ ment building efforts including activities ing (IPCL) : The three factors which are like wall writings, street plays, publicity

13 through radio, T.V. and newspapers, folk Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and traditional arts continue to be Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, strengthened with a view to motivating U.P. and West Bengal. and mobilising both the literates and il­ The characteristic features of the total literates to work for eradication of il­ literacy campaigns which make them unique literacy. The BGVS will organise the in relation to other programmes are: second round of country-wide jathas in December, 1992. * area-specific, time-bound, volunteer- based, cost-effective and outcome- (d) Total Literacy Campaigns : After ex­ oriented; perimenting with successive and alterna­ tive models of adult literacy and education * These are implemented through the programmes, we have now settled down to Zila Saksharta Samitis, which are a model which has given us lot of hope and registered under the Society’s Registra­ faith that illiteracy can be overcome in a tion Act under the leadership of the Dis­ time-bound manner with planned and trict Collector/Chief Secretary, Zila coordinated efforts and with mobilisation Parishad; of people belonging to all sections of the * TLCs catering both to the demand society. Systematic and planned efforts syndrome and the supply mechanism. have been made to arouse and awaken the In other words, a positive demand of unlettered masses and generate in them a the people for literacy is generated first positive demand for literacy and numeracy before the delivery mechanism is and to provide a delivery mechanism for provided; access to literacy, which is simple, inexpen­ * culture of equality is pervasive in a sive and credible. It is in this context that TLC. It is implemented in the nature of campaigns for total literacy have been a people’s movement where every one thought of as the alternative strategy to owns, contributes and participates; the traditional centre-based programme. * though meant to impart functional Starting with Kottayam city in Kerala in literacy, TLC can also be at the same April-June, 1989 and in Ernakulam dis­ time a campaign for the universal en­ trict in December-January 1989 such cam­ rolment and retention of children in paigns for total literacy were launched and school, immunisation, propagation of successfully conducted in the entire state small family norms, protection of of Kerala and UT of Pondicherry,Goa and maternity and child care, women’s the districts of Bhavnagar, Gandhi nagar, equality and empowerment, and peace Birbhum, Hooghly, Burdwan, Midnapur, and communal harmony etc; Dakshin Kannad, Bijapur, Wardha, and Sindhudurg. Such campaigns are present­ * a people - oriented well-knit manage­ ly being implemented in 156 districts (par­ ment structure at the district, tially or fully) through 96 projects in the talukas/block, mandal, panchayat or States of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, village levels. These management com­ Goa, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, mittees mostly consist of non-govern­

14 ment officials and function in a dents in literacy activities as apart of their debureaucratised, decentralised and work experience, the Central Board of Secon­ participatory manner which has dary Education has launched a Special Adult enabled them to obtain the participa­ Literacy Drive (SALD) in all its affiliated tion of the people at the grossroot level. schools for students in classes IX to XII. It is proposed that students are also involved in the About 50.00 million potential learners and literacy programme following the area ap­ 5.00 million volunteers are actively involved in proach. In other words, each school/college in­ the total literacy campaigns which are going terested in taking up literacy programmes on in different parts of the country. The focus would be advised to adopt a nearby area which in all these campaigns is on women, particular­ could be a village or group of villages or slums ly in the rural areas and persons belonging to for eradication of illiteracy in a given area SCs/STs mainly because it is in these areas instead of students taking up the programme in a sporadic manner. and in these groups that illiteracy is most per­ sistent. Post-Literacy and Continuing Education Involvement of Non-Government Organisations The 50 million learners enrolled in total literacy campaigns all over the country would The Central Scheme of Assistance to soon be acquiring the threshold level of basic Voluntary Agencies has been revised to con­ literacy and numeracy and unless immediate form to the principle of area approach for total arrangements are made for providing facilities eradication of illiteracy. The principal strategy of post-literacy and continuing education, in implementation of the programme through there is a threat of their relapsing into il­ non-governmental organisations is to be volun- literacy and the efforts made to enable them teer-based total literacy campaigns in a to acquire basic literacy proving infructuous. specific area in a given time-frame. The With shift in the strategy of imparting literacy detailed guidelines regarding the manner in from the traditional centre-based approach to which the voluntary agencies would be re­ the mass campaign approach, it is felt that quired to execute literacy programmes have Jana Shikshan Nilayams as a strategy been issued and the proposals have started designed to cater to the post-literacy and con­ pouring in. tinuing education needs of the neo-literates of Involvement of Students the centre-based programme, cannot be uniformly applied particularly in the area/dis- The number of students from schools and trict covered by the TLC. It is also felt that colleges/universities participating in literacy there are wide variations in the levels achieved activities increased from 2.00 lakhs in 1986-87 to about a million during 1991-92. Majority of by those who are supposed to have become the volunteers in the TLCs taken up in dif­ literates and there was enough evidence to ferent districts were also students. Whereas suggest that a substantial proportion of per­ the Boards of Secondary Education in the sons who acquire literacy skills through the States of Orissa, Maharashtra and West Ben­ Total Literacy Campaigns tend to relapse into gal have taken decisions to involve school stu­ illiteracy. Other Developments offices, autonomous bodies, central and In the recent past, following developments state government undertakings to work for have taken place in the area of adult education TLCs on secondment basis. and literacy: Strategies for the Eighth Five Year - The Eighth Plan document has attached the Plan highest importance to the programme of According to the 1991 census, the total il­ universalisation of primary education and literate population in the country (including adult literacy and education. J&K and Assam) was 336.00 million. Even - A Sub-committee of the National Develop­ though the break-up of illiterate persons in the ment Council has been constituted under age group 15-35 is not yet available, it is es­ the chairmanship of Chief Minister of Uttar timated that the percentage of the illiterate Pradesh which is expected to suggest ways persons in the age-group 15-35 is roughly 1/3 and means for making the literacy or 33% of the total illiterate population. Thus, programme more effective. the estimated number of illiterate population in the age-group works out to 112 million. It is - A Sub-group of the Executive Committee of further estimated that about 8 million persons the National Literacy Mission Authority has in this age-group would have become literate been constituted under the chairmanship of by the end of last financial year through the Shri Satyen Maitra, Hony. Director, Bengal total literacy campaigns which are already on Social Service League, Calcutta to suggest in different states. Thus, the number of il­ measures for making the post literacy and literate persons in the age-group 15-35 at the continuing education more effective so that beginning of Eighth Five Year Plan is es­ the incidences of relapse of neo-literates into timated to be 104.00 million. Out of this, about illiteracy is reduced to the minimum. The 83.50 million adult illiterates are estimated to Committee has already formulated its be in 270 districts, in the States of Assam, report which is under consideration of the Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Government. Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, - A Sub-group of the Executive Committee Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu, has been constituted under the chairman­ where the total literacy campaigns have either ship of Dr. R.H. Dave, formerly Director, not been taken up so far or have been taken UNESCO Institute of Education, Hamburg up only partially. to suggest norms and criteria for learner evaluation as also for total literacy declara­ During the Eighth Five Year Plan, the tion. This group has also submitted its main strategy would be on adoption of area report which is also under consideration of approach in all programmes of adult educa­ the Government. tion. In addition to about 156 districts which have been covered by total literacy campaigns - The Cabinet Secretary has written letters to either fully or partially, total literacy cam­ all Ministries/Departments, Chief paigns would be taken up in 200 additional Secretaries of the State Govts./UTs to districts (including districts with partial relieve the persons working in government coverage) with the objective of achieving total

16 literacy in 75% districts in the country i.e. the Eighth Five Year Plan is expected to be as 80.00 million persons would be made literate under: during the Eighth Five Year Plan period Year No. of TLC No. of Post-Literacy through the total literacy campaigns. The Campaigns remaining 24.00 million persons would be covered through voluntary agencies, Nehru 1992-93 50 50 Yuvak Kendras, school/college students, other 1993-94 50 110 agencies interested in taking-up the 1994-95 55 170 programme, following the area approach. The 1995-96 60 230 planning for coverage of illiterate persons through the total literacy campaigns and other 1996-97 602 95 programmes will undergo a slight change if ultimately it is found that the actual number Besides 30,000 JSNs functioning through of illiterates as on 1.4.91 is more than 112.00 various agencies,about 20,000 additional JSNs millions. would be sanctioned and made operational to meet the post-literacy and continuing educa­ tion needs of the neo-literates coming out of Each total literacy campaign would be fol­ the programmes other than the total literacy lowed by a post-literacy campaign which will campaigns. continue for atleast two years after the con­ During the Eighth Plan (1992-97), funds clusion of the total literacy campaign. The amounting to RS. 1400.00 crores in the central number of total literacy campaigns and post­ sector and Rs.407.64 crores in the state sector literacy to be implemented during each year of have been provided for literacy and adult education.

17 The Total Literacy Campaigns: Strengths and Weaknesses

— Malcolm S. Adiseshaiah

The Total Literacy Campaign is based on process into specific time periods, with learn­ some presuppositions which seem to be anti­ ing attainments set for each such period con­ education and therefore anti-literacy. tinues throughout the learning and research endeavour, at the undergraduate, post The Time Dimension Problem graduate and doctoral levels. In-fact the pos­ The first is the time dimension associated sibility of experiencing education throughout with the Total Literacy Campaign. That cam­ one’s life as a permanent, life long activity, is paign aims at making an illiterate adult dependent on completing successfully these literate in 150 to 200 hours of learning, com­ time bound educational attainments. In that prising 5 to 6 months. Against this specified sense, the time dimension of the Total Literacy and specific time dimension with which the Programme, under which the first phase of Total Literacy Campaign is associated is the literacy is to be completed by illiterate adult wisdom distilled over the ages, over the cen­ in the first two months, with the help of a turies, that Education is a permanent activity, carefully graded text for that stage, of being that Education is lifelong, that Education introduced to the world of alphabets and begins at one’s birth and continues till one’s numeracy; followed by the second phase which death. Does the time limitation of the Total continues over the third and fourth months, Literacy Campaign stands in contradiction to again aided by a reader which can help the this quintessence of Education, being in a subject to read simple words and directions, sense timeless. This contradiction is also posed and write one’s name and do elementary count­ because the Total Literacy Campaign is part ing; and going on to the third phase, compris­ of the National Literacy Programme which ing the fifth and sixth months when reading aims at (i) making parts of the country fully and writing abilities and the use of numeracy literate before the end of the current Eighth are developed further to certain set norms, Plan, and (ii) our entering the twentyfirst cen­ such as reading 30 words per minute, writing tury as a totally literate country. at 7 words per minute, doing simple calcula­ All education, which is timeless, is also tions; all this is in fact in the basic central timebound. Learning at school is divided into educational tradition. Thus is there not only yearly offering and periodic evaluations of the no contradiction between the time bound Total attainments with regard to such offerings. Literacy Campaign and the learning impera­ This methodology of dividing up the learning tives. The successful completion of the six months programme is the only sound means of

18 continuing onto the next phase centered in the village and district to take his/her place and Jana Shikshan Nilayams and further on to do his/her share in the literacy effort. The first participation in reading rooms, libraries, semi­ is expressed in the Total Literacy Campaign’s nars and lectures, which is the heart of the life unit of operation being everywhere the district, long learning complex. The Total Literacy of which there are 452 in the country, and in Campaign is the only key that can open the turn the district breaks down its operating unit doors to the illiterate adult of coding and into the village and cluster of villages. The decoding the signals represented by language, second expression of getting every illiterate vocabulary, along with the numerator and the adult man and woman taking his/her place and denominator of one’s daily life. doing his/her share in the programme from the very first initial stages is done through the The Mass Programme Jatha, in which every participant continues to Education is a 1:1 relationship. From the do so till that objective of universal participa­ ancient times of the Guru-Shishya system of tion is attained. learning relationship to the crowded classroom Thus the 1:1 relationship which is the basis of today, learning for it to occur involves the of all learning is preserved in the Total encounter of the object with the subject, of Literacy Campaign by the individual in the what is being taught with what is being learnt, village or town becoming in the early stage of the teacher with the student. This is behind his/her own tutor. This combined student - the principle of the teacher - students ratio by teacher role which the jatha helps each il­ which the effectiveness of the learning process, literate adult participant to develop is later, the efficiency of the education system is judged when the 6 month learning programme begins, everywhere. Is there then a contradiction be­ further concentrated in the relationship of the tween this 1:1 relation which is the fountain- instructor, or Prerak and the learner, which is head of all education and the Mass Programme in effect a 1:1 relationship. techniques that the literacy effort is forced to adopt? The illiteracy problem is in all countries A Dilemma massive, going upto 90-95 per cent in small Having said all this about the Total countries, like Papua New Guinea, Mali, Literacy Campaign conforming to the life long Raunde and running into millions in large learning imperative, the 1:1 interaction of all countries like India, China, Pakistan, education, the Total Literacy Programme, like Bangladesh, Brazil and Nigeria, and so the the School Programme, faces a dilemma which literacy programme has had to be a mass stems basically from the fact that each il­ programme to deal with this mass problem. literate adult, like each school child, has The Total Literacy Campaign attempts to his/her own learning path and capacity, it is resolve this dilemma between the 1:1 relation­ therefore not surprising that in the Total ship which all education is and the Mass Literacy Campaign, a district like Kottayam in Programme that adult literacy calls for, by (a) Kerala or Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu all the breaking up the mass of the illiterates into illiterate adults are able to attain mastery of small manageable units comprising villages, the first elementary phase which is the intro­ and districts and (b) getting each person in the duction to the 3‘Rs which the first text earlier referred to represent, while most of them ly advanced country) which recounts how the (about 60 to 70 per cent) state they are not able faculty of reading is being restored to those to follow the second and third texts with their who have lost it in accidents and speeded up small and close print and complex subject mat­ for those who speak hesitantly. Thus the prob­ ter. The dilemma here is, given the lack of lem of functional literacy is common to all countries and the literacy programme is resources and time and the need to make avail­ having to address itself to it everywhere". We able learning (the 3 ‘Rs) to all the illiterates in are worried at the slow progress of the Total the shortest possible time, how can literacy Literacy Campaigns in the districts for the become total in reality, which means reaching large number of drop outs which is more than out to the majority, if not to every individual. 40 per cent in some village areas. Also at the Is there a danger of this dilemma being over­ fact that only 50 to 60 per cent of those tested looked, the differing learning times required at the end of the six months, are able to read, by certain persons being ignored, in the pres­ write and count, without realising the greater sure to establish and achieve uniform norms insidious danger which functional illiteracy for the entire country and its 400 million il­ represents. literates? Is the answer to this dilemma a call for further study and research, to develop a Link with Primary Schooling system of "educational decentralization", It is related with another lacuna in the where, within the time and resources pressure, Total Literacy Campaign, that is absence of literacy can follow the learning ability of the relationship with the programme of univer- illiterate rather than it being the otherway salising primary education. In Pudukottai dis­ around, the illiterate being forced to follow a trict which is about to be declared a totally literate district in Tamil Nadu, the number of normative learning path. children outside the primary school is nearly Functional Illiteracy 40 per cent of those who should be in it. And that is the seed being sown for the increase in The Mass Programme of Functional the future cohorts of the illiterates. We are Literacy breaks down into the 1:1 learning doing in many of our districts without bearing relationship. This is important against the in mind its close relationship with the primary dilemma just referred to, as well as the prob­ schools Kerala, from where we borrowed this lem of what the developed countries call "func­ model of the Total Literacy Campaign, had tional illiteracy"; which confronts them developed universal enrolment linking with increasingly. Last year when presenting the Adult Education drive. five UNESCO literacy awards on the Interna­ tional Literacy Day, I said: "A third comment The Learning Process that I wish to make is that the submissions Further, both in the Total Literacy Cam­ this year show that in the literacy field increas­ ingly, the distinction which exists in the paign running in our districts and the univer- economic field between the advanced countries salising of our primary education system in and the lagging countries, is being replaced by those districts, too much of a concentration is all countries - both the economically advanced on attaining certain quantitative targets as and the economically lagging - being on the noted earlier. These targets are necessary and same footing (in regard to literacy). There is unavoidable. But what they represent is the one submission this year (from an economical­

20 learning of the 3 ‘Rs and accompanying skills. and the Primary Schools, as in each of them We have yet to ensure that in both programmes attaining their targets within the time set. - primary schooling and adult literacy - the learning process is such that real learning is The Gift and the Promise taking place. There is no such assurance at The Total Literacy Campaign and its present. In fact when we, in Tamil Nadu tried counterpart the Universal Primary to recruit for the Total Literacy Campaign at School, is a gift and a promise. It is a gift the 7th and 8th months of post literacy learn­ that our long lost and long suffering poor ing, some Preraks with the Elementary Educa­ villagers and urban slum dwellers are dis­ tion qualification (which is completion of covering for themselves, and using to at­ Standard VIII in the State of Tamil Nadu), we tain self sustaining development. What we from outside the village and urban found to our horror that not one of the seven slum can do is to provide both the young girls whom we interviewed could read a programmes with the technical skills and simple text, nor understand the meaning of the irreplaceable incentives in a fuller life what they were aiming at reading. And so we - of work, employment, concern for the are now paying as much attention to devising environment, and lessening inequality - means of identifying the actual learning that that is the promise of the programme, and is taking place in the Total Literacy Campaign which must be fulfilled.

21 Choice of Language for Literacy

— C.J. Daswani

Multilingual Reality toire of an adult illiterate is as extended as In a multilingual country like India, lan­ that of a literate. guage plays an important part in the day-to- In rural areas an adult illiterate may not actually speak many dialects or languages, but day communication between the people understands several varieties of the local speaking different languages. It is well known dialects, as well as the spoken standard lan­ that there is not a single district in India that guage of larger communication. For instance a is monolingual. This means that multilin­ rural adult illiterate may use his/her dialect at gualism is a fact of life. Every individual un­ home or in the neighbourhood, but under­ derstands a number of languages or dialects stands the other dialects spoken in the local and every individual may, in fact, be using settings. more than one dialect or language in his/her A rural adult illiterate male often travels day-to-day communication to neighbouring villages and towns and com­ In urban and semi-urban areas, people use municates with other people speaking dif­ more than one language, often mixing various ferent dialects and languages. He may employ languages in their oral communication. Dif­ a local standard spoken variety for such inter­ ferent languages are often assigned specific group communication. If he travels to the dis­ communicative roles so that an individual may trict headquarters he also comprehends the use his/her mother tongue at home, a local standard language spoken by the literate language for speaking to people in the work­ population there. place and a standard regional or second lan­ guage for communicating through writing. Dialect Vs Standard Very often the use of these languages is deter­ The purpose of an adult literacy mined by the communication situation in programme should be to impart to an adult which the individual is located. illiterate information and education in the most effective manner possible. At the same Language of the Adult Illiterate time, the function of literacy training should An adult Illiterate in India is as multilin­ be to make a neo-literte independent so that gual as his/her literate counterpart. An adult he is able to read a wide range of printed illiterate uses several dialects or languages in materials available in the area. This would different communicative situations. Although, entail that a neo-literate should be able to read he/she is not able to read or write any lan­ without difficulty the local newspapers, guage, the complexity of the linguistic reper- magazines and books related to his field of interest. At present, in all the States, most tion, an attempt should be made to use the newspapers and other materials are written local dialect as far as possible. Some part of and published in the standard regional lan­ literacy training should be devoted to making guages. a learner aware of the use of language and, therefore, the instructor may, where neces­ It must be realised that while the goal of sary, point out the differences between the literacy training should be to equip the learner local dialect and the standard variety without to read various materials in the standard making value judgements on either. regional languages, it would be difficult if a literacy programme introduces a learner to the Reducing the dialect to writing carries a written standard language right from the built-in consequence of the dialect becoming beginning. A literacy programme, therefore, standardised. Once this standardisation takes should be based on a sound comparison of the place, there is likely to be some resistance to local dialect and the standard regional lan­ the transition from the standardised dialect to guage. Such a comparison would reveal those the standard regional language. This is a areas where the learner is likely to encounter natural process of language development and problems in acquiring the standard variety. an instructor should not insist on the use of the standard language if the local sentiment is Particularly, it may be the case that the likely to be in favour of the standardised local dialect and the standard language differ most dialect. Communication needs will eventually in vocabulary and in certain features of syntax. determine the status of the dialect and the Such differences should be taken into account standard language. All encouragement should when literacy material is produced so as to be given to creative use of both the local dialect gradually take the learner from the dialect to as well as the standard language as far as the standard. It may, therefore, be necessary possible. to write the initial literacy materials in the local dialect followed by simple readers in the Standard Language standard language. In all likelihood, the demand for the standard language will come from the Use of dialect learners themselves; since the learners Since an adult education centre is not will quickly perceive the advantages of merely a literacy centre, it is envisaged that learning to read and communicate in the both the instructor and the learners would standard language. Once such a demand communicate orally in a variety of topics, is made, the instructor will find it easier which are meaningful and relevant for the to make the transition from the local learner. In all oral discussions and presenta­ dialect to the standard variety. Go One More Step, N.L.M

— G.P. Jain

In the erstwhile princely state of Aundh literacy should receive precedence over func­ (Maharashtra) all schools were shut down in tional literacy. In other words, the ability to 1939 and students sent home to teach their read and write simple sentences should be illiterate parents and neighbours for as many achieved throughout the country as the first hours a day as they were spending in schools. milestone. Numeracy and other essentials of The result was stunning. In three months, half functional literacy can wait. the people of the state learnt to read and write. Another essential thing to do is to revamp Not even a rupee was spent for student the existing primers and have them subscribe teachers! to one single formula or innovative technique This exercise met with unexpected success of equating the letters of the alphabet with because the Raja and Rani themselves went physical objects within the knowledge of the out to sing literacy songs in streets and teach learner, which look similar in shape as well as illiterates. Two lessons may be drawn from it. sound. Learning by this method, distinguished The first that seemingly endless task of univer­ from the rote method, is fast, easy and sal adult literacy can be completed in a few pleasant. It has, in fact, the underpinning of a months’ time and second that motivators joyful game. should be none other than top brass, that is, top politicians and top bureaucrats. Adults have a vast repertoire of words, but they cannot read or write what they speak. By a rough estimate, each of our 451 dis­ Literacy to them means levelling of the hurdle tricts have sufficient quantity of senior school obstructing familiarity with the straight lines students (of 10th, 11th and 12th classes) and and cirlces of the written alphabet. collegians than the desired instructor-learner ratio of 1:10 demanded for universalizing adult Illiterate adults have an uncanny way of literacy. Why, then, does our land continue to relating days and dates of the calender to suffer the monstrous indignity of holding more events in their own life or life around them. than half the world’s total illiterate popula­ For example, if you ask them when a particular tion? Why don’t we purge ourselves of the event took place, they would look askance scourge that has remained with us for decades about the specific date or year, but would soon in one academic session, and earn the world’s recall a birth, death or marriage in the family encomium of being its largest literate country? about the same time or a pleasant or un­ It is not a pipe dream. But to make it come pleasant visitation of Nature or some other true, N.L.M. must alter its priority. Simple unforgettable event.

24 Taking a cue from such behavioural response, all letters of the Hindi alphabet have been made identifiable by objects similar in shape and sound known to learners. For il­ lustration, alphabet ■rT looks like the water tap or

111. 2

111. 1 following it that of the alphabet. Even the densest person will waste no time in decipher­ ing the alphabet, because the object and al­ phabet show close similarity of shape as well as sound. It is easier to move from the known m. 3 to the unknown and from the familiar to the unfamiliar. Learning thus becomes a joy, in­ stead of a painful grind or even a demeaning exercises requiring wrestling with the al­ phabet such as the adult sees his/her child or grandchild doing. Take another illustration. Alphabet~

25 After about two weeks the learner is ready to read and write small words by identifying and joining the ‘akshars’ with ‘matras’ slowly in the beginning and speeding up after gaining confidence. At the end of four to six week, spending an hour a day on learning, the adult becomes passably literate. From here on learn­ ing will be self-guided. To saddle simple literacy simultaneously with numeracy, arithmetic and other com­ ponents of functional literacy, though essen­ 111. 5 tial for a complete literacy person, would be a drag and counter productive. The learner may lose his heart for learning and/or confidence in his capacity to learn. The result: he may soon be seen scurrying out of the classroom, never to return. UNESCO also distinguishes between literacy and functional literacy. It defines a literate as "one who can with understanding both read and write a short simple statement on his everyday life" and a functionally literate as "one who is able to engage in all those

111. 6 activities in which literacy is required for ef­ fective functioning of his group and community and also for enabling him to continue to use reading writing and calculation for his own and the community’s development." To universalize adult literacy, we must take the first step to simple literacy and, fol­ lowing it, proceed to functional literacy encom­ passing arithmetic and a wide spectrum of knowledge, securing for the learner his spurs as an active and useful member of the com­ munity. If efforts at generating literacy are to be held off from falling into a limbo, the clear 111. 7 distinction between literacy and functional shoe or -5JjFfT (ill. 6 & 7). Learning thus to literacy has to be recognized and preserved. identify the 10 ‘matras’ may not again take Universal simple literacy can be achieved in more than a week.

26 less than two months with the aid of the ob- NLM has already let the learning period be ject-alphabet association method. Blending of sliced from one year to six months and cost per the known object with the unknown alphabet learner from Rs 400 to nearly Rs 75. Con­ will take away most of the pain inherent in the centrating or zeroing in on simple literacy traditional learning method, and also cut down achievable in two months will give a mighty drastically on the time consumed and money push to the mired vehicle of adult literacy and spent. This method has been used successfully heave it over the intractable hump. After it, in several parts of the world. In India, it was we would be able to say as did a German farm used with good results in some Uttar Pradesh woman years ago in reply to my question villages in the past year. whether she could read and books laid on her mantelpiece: "Your question is like asking me Student volunteers may be asked to teach whether I can breathe!" for two months during their summer vacation, when adult learner in villages have very little A final roadblock to the fast spread of adult farm work. But, if deemed necessary, Govern­ literacy in our country is the lack of motivation ment should be ready to invest one academic among learners and instructors to come to the session to this task. In the materialistic West, classroom and stay still the last day of the young men and women are encouraged to gift learning period. An incentive in some form or a year or two of their young life for voluntary shape is necessary. For learners, for example, missionary work among the backward and dis­ it may be group insurance bought by NLM, advantaged in their own land or overseas in entitling a rickshaw-puller, a cart-pusher or a return for a small stipend for subsistence. Can labourer who comes to a literacy class to medi­ young Indians with hallowed national tradi­ cal expenses in the event of injury, and his tion of idealism and heroic self-sacrifice keep immediate family to a maintenance allowance back, especially when the stakes are so high? in the even of death. The breadwinner who is unable to save for the ‘rainy day’ will find the But the simmering embers of voluntary ser­ incentive irresistible. vice need to be stoked into a raging fire by, I For student instructors, the incentive may repeat, top politicians and bureaucrats, in the be a percentage of bonus marks awarded at the first instance. The gauntlet will be picked up next examination or weightage in obtaining by many in time at lower levels. The national admission to a coveted course or securing a job. will to succeed must descend from the heights of ‘gangotri’, roaring down through the No price is unaffordable to bring the light lowlands. of literacy to a darkened land.

27 Basic Literacy Primer and Teacher’s Guide - Important Points in the Development Process

— Sat yen Maitra

Introduction nourished, unhealthy and suffer from various All the learning/teaching materials in the disabilities - social, economic and political - non-formal education programmes need to be which keep them in a state of dependence and prepared with great care because (a) one is not prevent their active participation in the dealing with captive audience; (b) the potential development process. At the same time, they learners shoulder a number of responsibilities may be illiterate but they are also wise and which occupy most of their time and thoughts widely experienced with a large vocabulary at and (c) the motivation in the illiterate to be­ their command. These are some of the positive come literate is rather poor as they belong to factors which help in the construction of the a largely pre-literate society. right kind of primers for them. The primers in non-formal education must (1) enable the learners to progress quickly in Objectives a short period of time; (2) be able to rouse and Before any educational programme is sustain the interest of the learners to stay the taken up, objectives must be defined. Here, the full course; (3) be in accord with the psychology objectives can be viewed as both short term as of the learners; (4) include topics relevant to well as long term. The short term objectives their life; (5) help the learners to follow the are that through the use of three levels of lessons easily and the instructors to teach easi­ primers broadly following the APPEAL model ly; (6) develop literacy skill and functional con­ - basic, middle and self-learning - the learners tent areas progressively in a particular primer will reach the point where they will have ac­ and then continue the process in the following quired enough proficiency in literacy to meet two primers; (7) facilitate easy evaluation in the demands of reading, writing and counting literacy and numeracy. in their life without any external help. Another expectation is that the learners will gain Profile of the Target Group enough understanding in the process of ac­ * The target groups for this workshop are quisition of literacy about some of the impor­ the adolescents and adults in those less ad­ tant areas in their life, such as health, vanced regions of Asia and the Pacific, where nutrition and family welfare so that, to some the literacy rate is about 50% or more and extent, they will be able to improve their where the illiterates are poor, under­ quality of life.

28 The long-term objective is that through sary. In the workshop, certain decisions have post-literacy and continuing education, the to be taken, viz.- creation of a body of autonomous self-reliant (a) Is the primer going to use standard spoken learners who will be rational individuals, language? Experience has proved, dialecti­ responsible family members in a learning cal variations are not very important and society and be active agents in the develop­ by and large the learners want to be made ment of the country. literate in the standard language because of its definite functional value. Only if Survey there are different languages, then there It is not the purpose here to give a detailed may be an argument for constructing a account of survey tools and procedures. primer in those languages provided (i) Human beings are extremely complex and only there is a sufficiently large number of il­ a part of what they are may emerge out of even literates in that language and (ii) a a careful survey, so, instead of depending whol­ strategy is adopted to link it up later with ly on survey to learn about the learners, it will the standard language at some point in the be better if the primer writers are already literacy situation. acquainted with the life of the learners. In that (b) Is the primer going to serve both the adults case the survey will be an additional help to and the adolescents or should there be two identify some broad problems. The broad different sets of primers? problems then can be short-listed - so that only (c) Is the primer going to be an integrated one about four or five can be selected for gradual where in one book, reading, writing, arith­ development of certain concepts through the metic exercises and self-evaluation are three levels of the primers. The problems and combined or are there going to be separate issues need to be split up to be built into lesson work-books and numeracy books? units. Only those problems should be selected (d) Is the workshop going to construct only the where an effective educational intervention is basic level primer or should it address it­ possible. However, the primers should not con­ self to the construction of middle and self­ centrate exclusively on the problems but learning levels following the APPEAL should be ‘mix’ of relevant issues interspersed model? The basic level primer is the first with other entertaining and interesting items. important stage, but it needs to be closely It should always be borne in mind that the linked with the two subsequent primers to primers must have a ‘drawing’ or ‘pulling’ yield the desired outcome. power to claim the interest of the learners. (e) The expectations from the primers can only Primer Construction be fulfilled if there is scope for discussion It can be undertaken in a small workshop and dialogue on the issues raised in the with one or two writers who have some ex­ lessons. What arrangement can be made to perience of the focus group and who have the ensure the participation of the resource requisite technique of writing simply but effec­ persons for the purpose? tively, an illustrator and a linguist. Topic (f) The primers need meticulously planned specialists can be contacted if and when neces­ Teacher’s Guides to relate to all the users’

29 manuals. Should there be three separate quently used letters. This will make for a Teacher’s Guide for the three primers? congruence of literacy learning and develop­ ment of interest in the content areas which Writing the Primer is the aim of the primer. Writing needs to be given very careful at­ * The initial lessons, the first three or four, tention. The recognition of letters begin with will be the tricky ones, because with just a the primer. The lesson units needs to be con­ few letters, it will be difficult to construct structed in such a manner that the learners interesting lesson units. But as the stock of can read simple words and sentences from the letters increase, it becomes possible to very beginning. That gives them a sense of prepare richer contents with an enhanced achievement and quickens their rate of literacy skill. progress. In addition, the learners are getting acquainted with certain concepts and ideas There are a few important points regarding which may interest them and attract their at­ primer construction: tention. Here, we backtrack to what had been * No lesson unit should admit any letter which discussed earlier about the objective of the has not been introduced earlier or is not a literacy primers. It is not only the acquisition part of the present lesson. of self-reliant literacy, but also to enhance * Even in the basic primer, an attempt should awareness and develop functional skills. To be made to make the lessons readable and achieve all these, certain exercises need to be interesting. These should not be a string of undertaken. These are: didactic "do’s" and "don’ts". The reading ex­ * Frequency Count: In all the languages, cer­ ercises should contain questions and queries tain sounds (phonemes) and corresponding generating discussion. letters (graphemes) are used much more fre­ * Each lesson should have enough of drilling quently in building up of words and senten­ e.xercises. The learners should be en­ ces. These should be identified and used in couraged to read words and sentences making up the lessons from the start. formed with new letters learnt and the let­ * There are certain key words which are im­ ters learnt previously. Each new letter in­ portant for the content areas. These key troduced should occur at least 6 or 7 times words can vary. They can be so general and in the words and sentences. The words neutral that they are hardly noticed. But formed should be such that they are easily some have the quality of jolting the learners comprehended by the learners and are writ­ and rousing their interest. It means in other ten with the compass of their experiences. words that the learners become aware of * The lesson units should, as far as possible, these words and like to explore them a little be cognitive more deeply. It is not possible to find such * Impart some affective aspects which touch words in every lesson but even a few will their minds and psychomotor and help them keep the readers’ interest alive. to do something. All the lessons cannot be * An attempt should be made to select those constructed like this, but even if a few are, key words which are composed of the fre­ the relevance of the primers will increase.

30 Pre-primary Stage - Experience learn to function more as a help, a support and Charts a facilitator. Of course, there will remain areas One of the chief aims of this programme is in arithmetic and also in reading and writing, quick acquisition of literacy. Since the learners where the instructors’ role cannot be know the language, their chief obstacle is diminished, but a conscious approach has to be recognition of letters - the visual symbols or taken to make the learning process much more graphemes which represent the sound symbols ‘learner centered’. If that does not take place, or phoneme. It is a question of relating there will be too much of rote learning and phoneme to graphemes. Before the primers are memorization, which will distort and emascu­ started in the literacy centres, it may be a good late the programme. practice to introduce experience charts. These Illustration can be the blow-ups of the captions of the first, three or four lessons. The captions can also be Good illustrations are essential parts of a written on a blackboard. The teacher reads primer. They serve various purposes if they are them slowly and makes the learners repeat assigned specific roles and are not put in hap­ after him but does not at the moment attempt hazardly. to teach the letters separately. It helps to - An illustration should accompany each cap­ familiarise the learners with the shape and tion which contains the message and is used appearance of the letters. The familiarisation for literacy instruction. The illustration speeds up the learning process when the should help in understanding and decoding primer teaching commences, because the the message. learners are looking at something which are - The illustrations can also be used for intro­ not strange to them. ducing topics for discussion in an organised manner. Self-reading - The illustrations must present the existen­ It must be kept in mind that the final ob­ tial situation o f the learners as truly as pos­ jective of the programme is to make the sible. learners self-reliant in literacy so that they can rightfully take their place and contribute in a - The illustrations should match the visual learning society. But this self-reliance has to literacy of the learners and should not be be slowly nurtured and developed even from difficult for the learners to interpret. the basic primary stage. Necessarily, the basic - Colours must be used judiciously. Too much primary stage is more rigidly structured and of colour can be distracting. Even black and sequential and the approach necessarily is white illustrations can be quite effective. ‘teacher centered’. But here also it has to be interwinded with an approach which should Editing encourage the learners to practice self-reading When the draft copy of the primer has been as much as possible. In the middle level and prepared, it must be carefully edited. Lan­ the self-learning level, the instructor will have guage, layout, type faces, arrangement and to be trained to plan for his gradual distribution of the matter, the technical sound­ withdrawal from a dominant position and ness of the topics are all important parameters

31 of editing. Help of the layout artists and topic materials, training, competence of the instruc­ specialists may be necessary. tors and the supervisors. Finally, there should be impact evaluation to find out whether the Field Testing programme has succeeded in the behavioral The draft primer can be photocopied in the change of the learners in a way which would requisite number of copies for field testing. The be beneficial to them, their families and their testing must be done by people who are active communities. in the field of adult education. It must be done in a way which would elicit true response from Utilization the would-be learners. Testing must be done It is no use producing excellent learn­ about the illustrations also. The sample for ing/teaching materials and even a well con­ field testing should be chosen carefully. If structed Teacher’s Guide, unless there is a there is a mis-match between the testing scope for their utilization on a large scale. To materials and those who are being tested, the do that, there should be political will and com­ results would be misleading. mitment and involvement of the administra­ tive machinery to undertake the eradication of Evaluation illiteracy programme in a given area. Frag­ Each primer should have 3 in-built evalua­ mentary uncoordinated approaches have been tion schedules to test the progress of the utterly wasteful. learners with regard to both literacy and com­ In a recent International Symposium of prehension. These evaluations should not be Adult Education organised by the UNESCO treated as tests or examinations and should be and Osaka University, it was stressed that primarily used for self-evaluation by the there should be a National Adult Education learners. This will help the learners to assess Authority in each country with a clear state­ their own performance in a non-threatening ment of objective and a general outline of the way and in the process gain self-confidence. In programme. The first task of this authority is all, there should be 3 X 3 = 9 evaluation to create a positive environment for adult schedules in the three primers. The final education in the country and then mobilize evaluation can also be external, but should be men and resources to accomplish the task. It done by people who are acquainted with the is only then production and utilization of literacy programme and the psychology of the materials on a large scale becomes justifiable grown-up learners. In addition, the reading, and meaningful. writing and numeracy competence of the learners can be assessed through various The Teacher’s Guide learning games. The whole process and ATLP (APPEAL Training Materials for methods of evaluation should be conducted in Literacy Personnel) has stressed the importan­ a manner which will be convivial to the ces of relevant training for the teachers. If the learners, free from any fright or apprehension. learning/teaching materials do not have a clear Apart from learners’ evaluation, there objective and a logical structure of steps to should be evaluation of the different com­ reach that objective, training also becomes a ponents of the whole programme in respect of haphazard irrelevant exercise introducing and

32 dwelling on topics which have little practical following a time-schedule. Reading, writing, value for the teachers. But, with a planned arithmetic and discussion are all covered. Any curriculum, a well formulated syllabus, the teacher will find the Guide much more useful preparation of the right kind of learning/teach­ than some vaguely remembered observations ing materials, the thrust of training should be made by the trainer ages ago. All the lessons on the effective utilization of the materials - in the primer, in entirety, should be incor­ not only in the area of literacy but also in the porated in the Guide, so that the teacher does areas of awareness and creation of functional do not have to refer to the primer separately. skills. This makes it possible for the teacher to assess A great lacuna which existed earlier and the performance of the learners at the end of still exists was just some sort of induction the learning session; whether the targets set training - an one shot operation - which the for the day in terms of literacy, numeracy and teachers found woefully inadequate to deal discussion have not been attained. For this, a with the nitty-gritty of teaching. So they took systems approach, as indicated in ATLP is the line of least resistance and fell back on how helpful. There can be a systems approach to they had been taught in the formal schools and the total programme and there can be a sys­ not on how they have been taught to use the tems approach to each lesson unit or a manual methodology now. So, there was a hiatus be­ in respect of input of materials and teaching tween the learning materials and the teaching aids, process of interaction with the learners method. There was another great deficiency. and the output of what has been learnt. The There was no time-frame to follow in regard to teacher can than decide whether the objectives reading, writing, arithmetic and discussion. In for the day have been a bit too ambitious, this laissez-faire approach, some components whether the inputs have been properly intro­ were badly neglected, the whole literacy duced, whether the process of interaction can process became lop-sided. There were many be made a little more attractive and accept­ other defects, but the main shortcoming was able, so that the expected outcomes become that it was not systematic. possible. The Teacher Guide for the use of basic A good Teacher’s Guide is indispensable for literacy materials should overcome all these this programme. It can make up for the deficiencies. Each lesson in the primer is taken deficiencies or even the absence of a training up separately and a detailed direction about course! two the lesson is to be presented is given,

* This Paper was presented in the First Sub-regional workshop on the Basic Literacy Reading Materials in Asia & the Pacific - Calcutta, India 14 - 25 July 1992.

33 Learning Outcomes — The Central Concern in Total Literacy Campaigns

— R.S. Mathur

During the last two years of the Seventh whatever be the limitations of their situation, Five-Year Plan we all have witnessed the adop­ have envisioned literacy campaigns as part of tion of an approach to literacy promotion which fundamental socio-economic and socio-cul- has excited the whole nation. The approach tural transformation. These literacy cam­ has shown tremendous potential, promise and paigns were organised in a single party political system, which had the authority to also success in various parts of the country to compel all citizens to participate in the literacy check further growth of illiteracy and promote programme. The situation in India is quite the attainment of the goal of ‘total literacy’ in different. We cannot always hold out a promise a specified area through Mass Campaign in a of better future for the literate people, for the time-bound period. simple reason that mass education is not ac­ This is not to say that mass campaign ap­ companied by redistributive justice and dis­ proach was never tried out in India before. We mantling of age-old social, economic and have had mass campaigns for literacy in the political power structures. If, therefore, young thirties and again in early sixties (the latter people in India are to pursue their literacy only in Maharashtra). The significant aspect courses to a satisfactory level, it has to be out of both the campaigns was lack of attention to of respect for learning, assertion of personal will and a motivational environment created the levels of literacy and numeracy achieved. by mass mobilisation. The situation is full of While neither of the two campaigns involved ironies and contradictions. And yet the much financial expenditure, they did involve Government, non-government organisations, great investment of human resources - the and masses of people in several parts of the time of workers as well as the learners. If, as country are bracing themselves for a massive seems likely, those campaigns did not, in any literacy campaign. significant fashion, change the living and The National Literacy Mission (NLM) has working conditions of the people, we have to laid down specific levels of literacy to be make sure that those mistakes are not achieved by all learners. Even where short repeated. duration campaigns are being launched, and Parallel is often drawn between the Indian workers as well as learners are impatient to literacy campaign and the campaigns conclude the literacy campaign as early as pos­ launched in Tanzania and Ethiopia. Such com­ sible, an insistence is being made on achieve­ parisons are vacuous. Tanzania and Ethiopia, ment of the prescribed levels of reading,

34 writing and arithmetic. Indeed, there is con­ Guiding Principles stantly a danger that rhetoric and euphoria (a) The evaluation procedure and methods will have the better of the literacy campaign, should be simple, intelligible and non­ to a disregard of systematic application of threatening to permit their large scale use. teaching and learning processes and conse­ Any complexity would result in non-accep­ quently non-attainment of satisfactory levels tance and non-use. of achievement by the learners. An attempt is therefore being made here to (b) The procedures should be systematic and raise some of the questions concerning progressional and not ad-hoc. They should methods and procedures of evaluation of learn­ permit some comparability. ing outcomes whicy may be agitating the minds (c) The scheme of evaluation should be tech­ of the organisers of TLCs. As a result, it is nically sound and based on scientific possible that at some places, in the absence of criteria and accepted standards and fuller understanding of these factors, ad-hoc, norms. unsystematic and technically unsound (d) The evaluation process, and particularly measures and practices to evaluate the learn­ the testing design, has to be aligned to the ing outcomes may be or are being followed and norms of literacy attainment prescribed the TLC image may fall into disrepute. Before under NLM. Any deviation from these we move to the specific questions relating to norms would mean serious injustice to the evaluation of learning outcomes, it may be learners. worthwhile to list some of the broad guiding principles which should help us in formulating (e) The test construction could remain answers to fundamental issues and questions flexible, yet conforming to a commonly ac­ concerning evaluation of learning outcomes in cepted design. TLC situations. (f) To enable a proper and effective system of We, all are conscious that ‘Total Literacy learner’s evaluation, it is essential to iden­ Campaigns’ involve large sections of the tify broad elements of learning and design population and are massive in character; they a blue print which would help in evolving are characterized by complexity of operations; a number of parallel tests. This would per­ there are contextual variations in their mit the building of appropriate capabilities management structures and programme set­ in the testing teams to carry out evaluation ting, there is a lack of uniformity in the under­ and at the same time build an element of standing, appreciation and practice of ‘externality’. pedagogical requirements suiting to (g) The mode of testing or administration of programme design and consequently, substan­ the test has to be such which helps in tial ad-hocism in various components of discovering the degree of learning rather programme implementation prevails - more so than the failure. It should encourage in the area of assessment of learning gains and learners to come and participate in evalua­ evaluation of learning outcomes. There is ob­ tion and not discourage them to run away viously a need to recognize and follow in the from the testing situations. ‘Test anxiety’ conduct of learner evaluation certain guiding may affect the performance and show a principles enumerated below: shortfall in the achievem ent lev«;l- t*f

35 learners. Evaluation should therefore be mentioned below get evaluated and we should treated as an occasion for festivity, for find out whether the programme enabled the celebration, for enjoyment and not to learners: degrade or humiliate the learner. * to develop the desired levels of reading, Having agreed on the guiding principles, it writing and numeracy (literacy); has to be ensured that these get built into the * to raise their functional capabilities methodology of learner evaluation. Once it is with regard to their personal, economic done, it will be seen that it could facilitate its and social life (functionality); and large scale application. The answers to the * to acquire awareness regarding their questions that follow will explain how a seem­ personal and social predicament ingly difficult task could be carried out with (awareness). proper understanding, sufficient ease and reasonable degree of technical soundness. Practical considerations demand that while ‘functionality’ and ‘awareness’ con­ What should be evaluated? stitute important elements of functional The objective of the National Literacy Mis­ literacy, and would require to be evaluated the sion is to impart functional literacy to eighty present stage of the programme, in TLC areas million illiterates in 15-35 age group by 1995. (short duration, variance in level of Volunteer In concrete terms, ‘functional literacy’ im­ Competence) suggests that it may be enough plies:2 for the present to evaluate the learning out­ comes in literacy (3 Rs) and assume that these * achieving self-reliance in literacy and will automatically develop gradually, if they numeracy; reach NLM norms. Moreover, if tests included * becoming aware of the causes of in the package of materials are used and deprivation and moving towards preserved these would indirectly indicate the amelioration of these through or­ changes in areas of ‘awareness’ and ganization and participation in the ‘functionality’. Similarly, while testing for process of development; literacy, the passage meant for Reading could * acquiring skills to improve the be so written and questions on Comprehension economic status and general well­ so framed as would indicate the possible level being; and of awareness of the learner. This underlying inter-relationship of the three components and * imbibing the values of national integra­ their inseparability suggests that with any tion, conservation of the environment, women’s equality, observance of small single component being mastered, the prob­ ability of the learner not acquiring the other family norm, etc. abilities would be very rare. It is also well While thinking of evaluating the attain­ known that awareness is not ‘constant’. To ments of learners, it is obvious that all the determine the change, one may have to resort objectives mentioned above ought to be to other methods of evaluation which may go evaluated. Ideally, it is essential that during against the principle of ‘simplicity’ and may learners evaluation, all the three elements not be ‘technically sound’, if carried out imper­

36 fectly. Nevertheless, testing situations could outcomes. This has been one of the prime con­ be created to indirectly assess and estimate the siderations in including tests at regular peri­ gains in these areas. This, however, will have odicity in the package of materials designed to be content-specific and contextual and may under Improved Pace and Content of Learning vary from place to place in relation to what was (IPCL) pedagogy. The IPCL package treats taught. learner evaluation as an exercise in self- As far literacy is concerned (which is the evaluation for the learner and for the Instruc­ immediate goal of TLCs), it has to be tested tor/Volunteer as a device for diagnostic with total rigour and no person should be evaluation to adjust her/his pace of teaching declared literate unless he she has reached the with learners’ progress and performance. The NLM norms. Tools and instruments for evalua­ expectation in a scheme of learner evaluation tion of learning outcomes should be such as is that the Tests (1 to 9) provided in 3-part help us in knowing what the learners could Primers will be used during the teaching- learn, rather than what they could not learn. learning process and contribute to an improve­ ment in the quality of output and reduce the In short, efforts in TLCs should be specifi­ chances of shortfalls in performance levels. It cally directed to determine the gains of learn­ is, therefore of utmost significance that com­ ing in literacy, but wherever feasible, other pletion of these tests by the learners is insisted components could also be tested. Test in upon by TLC authorities. Apart from serving literacy is however, a must and has to be con­ this academic requirement, these tests also ducted with all seriousness and rigour. constitute an important record of learner’s per­ How should evaluation be done? formance, progress and final achievement. The methodology of evaluation of learning Step 2 outcomes has to be systematic and technically sound without being complex or complicated. Terminal Achievement Test As said before, in order to ensure large scale As indicated above, the matter of evaluat­ use and application, it has to be simple, easy ing the performance of adults has to be ap­ and intelligible to users. The steps and proce­ proached with great caution. Experience dures suggested here may therefore encourage suggests that any form of disapproval shown their use and hopefully, these would not be towards adult learners tends to discourage avoided or ignored. them so that they drop out of literacy courses. This can pose a problem since society and Step 1 employers expect a certain standard of literacy to be reached. So how can a satisfactory level Periodic Progress Evaluation of literacy be reached if you cannot criticise It is a known fact that one-time, terminal adults? It is now believed that, if the learning or summative evaluation causes unnecessary objectives have been clearly agreed at each stage of a literacy course by both the learner tension, anxiety and entails a threat element. and teacher, adults are capable themselves of On the contrary, continuous, in-built system of noting their progress and of putting right their evaluation reduces these undesirable effects shortcomings. Thus informal self-evaluation is and also helps in optimizing the results and particularly appropriate for adults and is a

37 good way of involving them in their own learn­ techniques and methods and have worked with ing. 3 adults earlier also. However, their exposure to However, apart from self-evaluation, some­ field realities may not be equally adequate. times evaluation of the achievement of the They, therefore require some guidelines about learners in the presence of outsiders also be­ the manner in which tests can be prepared comes necessary and therefore cannot be total­ which are comparable throughout the country ly ruled out. While it is desirable that the - What items could be included in the test terminal test/final test is given by the volun­ papers, what may be the scoring pattern, what teers/instructors. Some people do not place a weightage should be given to different ele­ high value on such tests and doubt about the ments of literacy skill and how much score veracity of the results of these tests. In such should a learner obtain in each of these skills situations it is useful to associate outsiders so as to qualify himself/herself to be a literate like school teacher, Village Pradhan, person and what should be the minimum score, Postmasters in the conduct of evaluation and out of the maximum fixed which should be their very presence may help in giving greater acquired by a literate person in the test. credibility to the test results.4 The last test in We will take up each of these points one by the IPCL package (T-9) serves as the final test one: and a person who completes this test and per­ forms equally well in reading, writing and 1. Test Construction numeracy can be regarded as having become While tests can be designed in numerous literate as per NLM norms because the tests ways, one major consideration in our context are in consonance with these norms. However, should be that it has to be based on the com­ it is essential that all learners should take the petencies laid-down under NLM and the align­ test, complete the portions in the primer which ment with each of the sub-competency under will serve as a useful record for any future reading, writing and numeracy had to be per­ reference and further verification, if neces­ fect. The tests items have to be chosen in such sary. a manner that they are in consonance with the elements of learning involved in each sub-com- Step 3 petency. In this sense, it may be preferable to design a test parallel to the one included in the Evaluation of learning outcomes primer as T-9. However, for the sake of unifor­ by external teams mity, some common principles of test construc­ In mass literacy campaigns, on account of tion have been enunciated in the Report of involvement of several thousands of volunteers Dave Committee constituted by Executive and lack of total belief in their objectivity in Committee of National Literacy Mission testing the learners, it becomes necessary to Authority and it may be advantageous if these also associate external evaluators to deter­ are followed for universal application. What mine the efficacy of the campaign and degree has been suggested by this Committee is in the of the success in making the people literate. nature of a ‘blue print’, on the basis of which These teams are generally composed of mem­ hundreds of tests with identical difficulty level bers who are knowledgeable in evaluation could be prepared by the evaluators.5 Thus, in

38 a district, one could prepare as many tests as caution. It will be unfair for the learners to be one desired without losing the element of com­ categorised into pass or fail because each parability. learner who has attended the programme and participated in the teaching-learning process is expected to gain something. What is that 2. Weightages something? The test should be such which in­ Under literacy, three components are in­ dicates this. The learner may not become a volved namely reading, writing and numeracy. proficient literate and may not have reached Reading is more than decoding letters and NLM norms but where has he/she reached in words on a page. Reading is understanding, the learning continuum needs to be understood absorbing, wondering at, getting lost in the and the change noted. Therefore, what is story or the information which the letters and proposed here is that the description of 6 - words convey. It is therefore considered that achievements of the learners should be by ran­ reading is the most important and highly used ges of scores obtained by them so that even if skill, particularly by those who are learning the persons are not classified as literate, their literacy. Therefore, while giving weightages to extent of learning may be determined. The different components, it may be worth con­ principle which guides us in this regard is that sideration that reading should be given a the test results should indicate what the learners know and how much they know rather slightly higher weightage than the other two than what they do not know? The following components of writing and numeracy. Assum­ ranges are therefore proposed: ing that if the test is divided into three parts and the maximum score assigned to the test is a) 50% or below b) Between 50 and 59% 100, perhaps it may be possible to assign a c) Between 60 and 69% score of 40 to reading, 30 to writing and 30 to d) Above 70% numeracy. However, while judging the perfor­ mance of the learners it is also necessary to However, it also needs to be admitted that observe that they develop fairly reasonable while those securing above 70% in the literacy degree o f competence in all the three skills. test would only qualify to be literates, the Hence out of the total score assigned to read­ others could be regarded as falling far below ing, writing and numeracy, they should obtain NLM norms, would need substantial help to a minimum of 50% in each. Thus, if a person reach NLM norms and some remediation, secures less that 20 out of 40 in reading, and respectively. It may further be mentioned that less than 15 out of 30 in writing and numeracy these ranges may need further examination each, she/he may not be considered to have after giving them a fair trial in the field. The become literate. experience of trying out these in some districts of West Bengal, however, gives us confidence 3. Cut-off points and hope that these are working fairly satis­ The analysis and interpretation of test factorily and can be adopted for wider use and results has to be done with lot of care and application on a country wide scale.

39 Step 4 several projects, programmes and campaigns in different countries and of conducting evaluation workshops for literacy workers in Test without threat: mode of Latin America, Asia and in African countries administration like Tanzania, Kenya, Botswana, Malawi and The mode of administration of a test makes Zimbabwe during the last decade confirms the all the difference. It can become most threaten­ faith in internal evaluation. ing if it is organised in a very formal and tense Moreover, it should be pointed out that situation. It can also become a pleasant ac­ external evaluations are by no means in­ tivity if the external element is kept to a min­ herently objective; and internal evaluations imum and the groups or the individuals are are by no means naturally lacking in allowed to take the tests is an informal setting. credibility. Both internal and external evalua­ But it all depends on the manner in which the tions can be highly political and, therefore, organisers of evaluation are trained. Therefore suspect. On the other hand, both internal and if the training is properly organised and if the external evaluations can be serve important participants have understood the spirit and purposes in the context of special needs. There the approach to evaluation, they will ensure may be instances when external evaluation is that it does not become threatening but necessary for making policy and planning remains an activity which is free from fear, decisions at some levels of decision-making. anxiety and tension. Any procedure or tool of Most of the time, however, it is internal evalua­ evaluation cannot as such make the process a tion that makes sense, enabling practioners to joyful exercise. Therefore, those who have to take control of their program and helping them administer the test and engage themselves in O to grow in the process. learner evaluation, require proper orientation so as to make it an exercise without threat. While recommending internal evaluation of the learning outcomes it is being suggested Who should do evaluation? here that external evaluation could be resorted In TLCs, we are committed to the ideology to on a sample basis only to verify facts and of internal evaluation. It is expected that establish credibility for the programme as well literacy workers and development agents, as for the achievements made in the total would pay serious attention to internal evalua­ literacy campaigns. tion. Such evaluations absorb relatively fewer resources and can be used immediately to im­ Education for All prove the effectiveness of literacy projects, In the World Conference on ‘Education For programmes, and campaigns. Literacy All’ one of the tenets was that apart from ac­ workers should leave external evaluations to cess and participation, achievement of satis­ outsiders, who may do them to fulfill their own factory standards of learning should be special policy and political needs. Indeed, if emphasised in literacy and continuing educa­ literacy and development workers have con­ tion programmes all over the world so that ducted their own internal evaluations, they wastages are minimum and results are more will be better able to collaborate with external permanent. It is in this context that evaluation evaluators. The experience of organising of learning outcomes is being emphasised and

40 the TLCs would have to address themselves to References this vital question so that the achievements 1. Bordia, Anil and Kaul, Anita. made by them are genuine, reliable and accept­ LITERACY IN INDIA - A paper presented in able. Philadelphia Conference. 1989. 2. India, NATIONAL LITERACY MISSION, New If after all this discussion is over, all of us Delhi, Government of India, Ministry of Human concerned with TLCs do not do self-analysis Resource Development, 1987. and initiate a multiplication process, then we 3. Unesco. International Literacy Year - LITERACY will belong to the group (as referred to by LESSONS, Geneva, International Bureau of Indonesians) - NATO group "No Action Talk Education, 1990. Only". 4. Mathur, R.S., EVALUATION OF LEARNING OUTCOMES - Guidelines on Learner Evaluation, To sum up, it may be useful to remind New Delhi, Government of India, Ministry of Education, Directorate of Adult Education, 1985. ourselves of the following quotation from 5. DAE, MODALITIES OF TOTAL LITERACY DEC­ United Republic of Tanzania LARATION & EVALUATION OF LEARNING "We view basic education for all, as an issue OUTCOMES:Report of the Expert Group submitted to the Executive Committee of NLMA, New Delhi, of survival or death. Either we win this war or Ministry of Human Resource Development, Direc­ we perish". The challenge must be faced and torate of Adult Education, 1992. with confidence, our hopes can be realized. 6. Unesco. A LITERATE WORLD, Geneva: Interna­ tional Bureau of Education, Unesco. 1991. 7. Bhola, H.S. EVALUATING LITERACY FOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS, PROGRAMMS AND CAMPAIGNS, Unesco Institute for Education Hamburg 1990. 8. ibid

41 Moving Up the Learning Curve

— Roda Mehta

The National Literacy Mission has been of Ahmedabad, Lucknow, Aligarh, Jaipur, more than a learning experience. Ever since Bombay and Delhi. the Department of Adult Education laid out its We spoke to as many people as we could- brief, the Mission has continuously evolved personnel at the State Education Departments into a full-fledged communication and re­ and Resource centres; administrators at search exercise and with remarkable success. universities, voluntary agencies and youth But, it indeed needed a lot of brainstorming bodies; and instructors, trainers, supervisors, all along the way: learners and potential learners who still * To make 80 million adults between the age needed to be enrolled. We attended day and of 15 and 35 years functionally literate by night centres and training programmes for in­ 1995; and structors and for supervisors. We met with village pradhans as well as villagers. * To achieve this by generating a "mass volun­ tary movement" in the country. In fact, one And so began the process of distillation. At that didn’t rely on the government as the the same time, we came to understand the sole catalyst. method by which the adult literacy movement had to be generated. The route suggested was to build a positive value association with literacy; to prepare and The Concept of a Mass Movement motivate learners to accept the learning A "mass movement" had to ignite itself process; and to motivate the educated to offer within a very short span of time - three months themselves voluntarily for the each-one-teach- at the outset. Once the momentum built up, one or teach-few programme. the perceived value of literacy had to be quickly felt and disseminated with the delivery system The Methodology responding to all enquiries, offering active en­ Urban areas in four States - Uttar Pradesh, couragement and guidance during the 150- Rajasthan, Orissa and Gujarat - and three hour learning process. Otherwise, the metropolitan cities were identified for the com­ heightened energy that was created would dis­ munication exercise. The first step involved sipate rapidly. travelling into the districts of Sabarkantha in The observation had an implication on the Gujarat; Unnao and Barabanki in Uttar target set - that is 10 million illiterates to be Pradesh, Sikar in Rajasthan; and to the cities made functionally literate each year for five years. Obvisouly, this pace wan’t be feasible.

42 It would more likely be a smaller amount in transformation route the Adult Literacy Move­ the initial years and then multiply exponen­ ment would take in India, with its momentum tially later. The total target would be achieved spurred by voluntary efforts and not relying this way. on the government as its catalyst.

In fact, our field visits also raised some major issues on the brief itself: * Who are the key target segments among

LITERACY PROGRAMME illiterates and neoliterates? Has 3 comoonents that are interlinked

Reading, writing, Building awareness ' Skill According to the brief, they were urban numeracy (environment, hygiene, development drinking water, etc) L worker, women and poor, and rural Adult Education D E L IV E R Y M E T H O D wfJ’/a Z th Centre (3-4 months) Jan Shlkshan Nllayam (6 „ 0;)thS) farmers/labourers, women and scheduled cas­ (Continuing) MEANS lor LEARNER------END lor LEARNER tes/tribes. Our field visits revealed the need to I NATIONAL END LEARNER'S redefine this group in a different order of PROGRAMME MOTIVATION CONCENTRATION (linked to economic need! priority. The first group was categorised as women (including SC/ST) in the age group of 15 to 17 years, unmarried; 15 to 20 years, married; and 20 years to 35 years, married.

The reason for segmenting women by age and marital status was that the motivation for a young married girl to become literate was higher value placed on a "literate bahu". For a A Mass Movement Cannot be married woman, the motivation was singular Structured - to give her children a better future. It cannot be planned formally, it has to However, the reason for segmenting this spring out of the action taken for the further by age was because (sadly) by the time programme. This can happen in one of the two a woman reached 20 years she was a mother ways. First, it can be led by an individual for of two or three. She believed that her "life was a common cause that has widespread appeal over". So, her motivation to become literater seeping downwards (as happened with Mahat­ was very low. ma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Nelson Man­ dela and indeed even Robin Hood). The second group in order of priority was men (including SC/ST) in the age group 15-20 On the other hand, the ignition can be years and 21-35 years. The reason was that the provided by an individual who responds to a younger men still aspired to do better while call. The movement would then grow from the men over 21 years were fatalistic and negative conviction and belief of many such individuals in their approach. They seemed unlikely to who influence their environment and their adopt the programme. The exception was the group. Which, in turn would change a com­ SC/ST men who perceived literacy as the only munity, create ripples in a state, and finally means of release from their conditions of galvanise a Nation. We believed this was the deprivation. In addition to these two groups, we recom­ * Was there a divergence in programme mended that children between 9 years and 14 means and learner’e ends? years - who were school drop-outs - should also We observed that the learner’s interest lay be covered if the programme was to succeed. in skill development with the aim of improving Otherwise the inflow into the tank of illiterates his or her economic status; reading, writing in the 15-35 years age group would be faster and numeracy that aided this process was all than the outflow. that was desired. On the other hand, the con­ In summary then, the order of priority was centration of the literacy programme was in women (15-35 years), and men and women imparting the 3 Rs while the national objective (SC/ST, 15-35 years old); children (9-14 years); was to build awareness for economic, social and men (15-25 years). and civic advancement.

44 Beyond Literacy Campaigns

— T. Sundararaman

It is still too early to evaluate the impact different sections of people in a developmen­ of total literacy campaigns at the national tal programme and provides them with an level. Nevertheless from available experience experience of organisation and mobilisation. and evaluation reports one can safely surmise The skills, confidence and optimism the following achievements: generated by such participation is itself a - A considerable increase in educational valuable force. awareness as a result of the entire cam­ - The new experience and precedence that it paign. The campaign elements that create provides for various government officials, this awareness include not only the teach- especially the collectors and senior district ing-learning process in which millions are officials to work with people in a non- involved but also the thousands of rallies, bureaucratic participatory mode. padayatras, public speeches, publicity - The improvement in performance in fulfill­ through media and above all the use of cul­ ment of various related developmental tar­ tural forms in the ‘kala jatha’ mode, that gets either as part of its integration into the communicate the message of literacy and campaign strategy or as an unintended out­ education for all. come. For example, campaigns have - The development of literacy and numeracy reported massive increases in school enrol­ skills in millions of illiterate every year and ment, total immunizations and achievement empowerment of those people who usually of family planning targets. belong to the weakest sections of our society. Despite the impressive list of such achieve­ - The creation of a large voluntary force with ments these outcomes are limited by a number varying degrees of training. Even if such a of factors. Many of these arise out of the short force is not permanent, the social impact of duration or the relatively restricted focus of the mobilization of lakhs of youth in the the campaign. prime of their life for such a patriotic task The major limitation of the campaign is the has its great positive relevance, taking into fragile nature of literacy that it provides to the consideration the disturbing trends which neo-literate. Thus a significant number are developing in contemporary Indian remains semi-literate. Many of them even society. remain uncovered. - The creation of participatory structures at Another major limitation of the campaign the village, panchayat, block and district is the relatively transient nature of the volun­ levels which allows the wide participation of tary force as well as participatory structure

45 that are created as well as their weakness in Some of the campaigns that can or indeed terms of knowledge, skills and organisational must be taken up after all the literacy cam­ experience. paigns are the post-literacy campaigns, the A third major limitation arises from the library movement, campaigns for gender equi­ fact that though literacy is a pre-condition for ty and for universalisation of elementary development both individual and social, such education. Others like health and local area development does not automatically flow from planning need more preparatory work but are literacy. The levels of knowledge, skills and also possible to be initiated in the near future. organisations necessary for development, The Post-Literacy Campaign especially in view of the prevailing inequities and the active play of numerous vested inter­ This programme aims to help the neo­ ests that perpetuate social, economic and cul­ literate to stabilise and upgrade his or her tural backwardness, is much higher than what literacy and numeracy skills and become more is achieved by a literacy campaign. capable of autonomous learning. It also help them apply their newly-acquired skills for Unless subsequent programmes and par­ their daily needs. Equally important, it assists ticipatory action is planned for, there is a real them in acquiring the skills, knowledge and danger that much of the benefits gained by the organisational experience necessary for a bet­ campaign including the excitement and aware­ ter participation in the development process. ness generated, will be subsequently lost. Equally important is that even if it is retained, The learning strategies envisaged for it in­ the tremendous potential for further develop­ clude the neo-literate covering a post-literacy ment that these campaigns create is altogether text designed to stabilize their literacy skills missed. and help them become autonomous learners. The provision of adequate quantity of To some organisations and individuals, pedagogical and context wise appropriate neo­ especially those not involved in the campaigns, literate reading material in the form of these limitations become a reason for decrying newspaper, periodicals and books and a the campaign. This is unfortunate for these strategy to ensure their utilization is another campaigns do represent solid advances by the bulwark of the post-literacy strategy. Unstruc­ people in the midst of a number of disturbing tured learning opportunities provided by trends. What is needed is a greater unity and creating a ‘literate environment’ by the use of mobilisation to consolidate, plan for and work literacy wall-writings, posters etc will also for building upon whatever achievements have help. Special programmes for specific clientele been made. Otherwise it would only represent groups e.g. non-formal education courses for another lost opportunity for various committed children, vocational training courses for young sections who are working for a positive social adults, income generation schemes for weaker change. sections, further upgradation of courses for It is, with this understanding that the sections which seek entry into the formal Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti is working to educational stream may also be built into the develop various strategies beyond the literacy programmme. campaign.

46 The entire post-literacy programme must against inequities and discrimination, help impart the neo-literate, a multiplicity of media them to organize and find self employment or methods and a programme of non-formal enhance their income are all possible in the education that may help them to provide with post-literacy period. However, the task of a better understanding of the world, nature, training a suitable women’s leadership for science and the society, and the optimism that these programmes and the actual implemen­ can transform their collective action for trans­ tation of such strategies have yet to be in­ formation and Development.. itiated.

The Library Movement Universalization of Elementary Ar. integral part of the post-literacy Education programme and yet in some ways distinct from A participatory strategy for integration of it, is the concept of a library movement. It UEE in the Total Literacy Campaigns has played a vital role in our independence move­ remained elusive due to many factors. Infact ment as cultural centres for charge, especially the problems and the tasks of UEE are so much in the states of Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and larger. The thrust in the emerging plans are Bihar Unfortunately after independence, it however directed to survived only in Kerala. There is much to be - retraining the primary school teachers to learnt from that experience. Today, in the energize the school atmosphere, making w ake of the literacy campaigns, there is a scope teaching and learning an enjoyable process, for building up a library in every village and and to make the curriculum locally adapt­ h amlet, not only for the neo-literate but for the able and relevant. This itself will help to village as a whole. The limited experience reduce wastage in primary education by available so far also indicates a good response both reducing drop-outs and ensuring for such a move. However much work is needed higher attainment levels. for preparation of suitable books in a wide range of subjects. Larger state-funded - mobilizing the community to create a librar.es could be made available at every demand for better access and quality of p;anchayat, perhaps as a part of this campaign. primary education. This will not only help to utilize available local resources in abetter Campaigns for Gender Equity way but will provide additional available A majority of the participants of the resources in the community. This will also literacy campaign - both learners as well as facilitate the teaching learningn process as volunteer teachers - are women. The teaching well as ensure total enrolment, better reten­ learning process has provided self confidence tion and optimal functioning of non-formal amd skills to both the learner and the volunteer education. teacher. To many it has been their first ex- - Micro planning - on the basis of village level perier.ce of a social role or working for women’s child survey and ensuring that a child by organisation. child strategy is evolved by the community Programmes that generate awareness with such an educational system that every albout gender equity, that mobilize women child goes to school, is retained there or at least has an access to qualitative non-formal strategies that benefit the majority of the education. population is immense.

Such a ‘campaign’ for U.E.E. will be of a longer duration requiring different and variety Unanswered Questions of mobilisational strategies than the campaign The postulation of so many possible cam­ for literacy. paigns and action plans in the post-literacy and beyond literacy phase also brings with it a number of new question and problems. Campaigns for Health Will the voluntary force and par­ A number of health targets especially im­ ticipatory structures created by literacy munisation, control of water-borne diseases by be sustainable? the provision of safe drinking water and sanitation measures, eradication of certain en­ Will the conceptual and technical in­ demic diseases e.g. guinea worm or leprosy puts needed for such action plans be etc., may be achievable through time-bound available in time to make use of the op­ participatory campaigns. Specific inputs into portunities? certain areas like nutrition and maternal and Will the nature of whole-hearted ad­ child health care may lead to a perceptible ministrative co-operation that literacy measurable change in the health status of the secured be available for such program­ population. Programmes in these areas have mes? suffered because though technical inputs are usually available, the necessary societal will Will the vested interests, who are and understanding has not been generated for alarmed by the literacy campaigns successful implementation of these schemes. tolerate further campaigns? The post-literacy campaign situation offers Will the political will be available to unique possibilities for implementing innova­ carry through these programmes? tive programmes with the full participation of the people. Various models for such an ap­ There are no easy answers to these ques­ proach have been worked out by various tions. people’s science movements, though they are Indeed already a number of post-literacy yet to be projectized or field tested. programmes are floundering due to a lack of political will. Local Area Planning However there are also enough indications Campaigns for developing local action that there are administrators and voluntary plans for sustainable development based on organisations who are coming forward to plan resource mapping and optimum land and and lead further programmes. water utilization are currently being tried out by the Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad. Perhaps the only answer that we can be Though such planning requires larger techni­ secure in, is that such programmes that neces­ cal inputs and organizational work, the poten­ sitate further mobilisation, organisation and tialities it offers for alternative development participation of the people will gradually build up the knowledge, skills, organisational ex­ Though one need not claim any ex­ perience, confidence and optimism of people at clusivity to these processes as the deter­ the village level. It will provide them with the minants of change. However, it is clear understanding of science and society and that new possibilities have been created causes of their deprivation and sufferings, that to the extend that such change is possible. is needed to transform their lives.

49 International Literacy Scenario

— Prem Chand

Introduction Latin America and Caribbean (2.1 percent). Growth rate of population during 1980-90 was Problem of illiteracy is mainly dependent only 0.6 percent in case of developed countries on factors like population growth, progress of and it was 2.1 percent in case of developing primary education and adult literacy program­ countries. Arab States with a population mes. While higher growth rate of population growth rate of 3.0 percent and some other affects literacy adversely, faster progress of countries including India contributed to the primary education and adult literacy improves higher rate in the case of Asia. the literacy situation. Economic development normally has positive effect on literacy through decrease in population growth and Global Literacy Position increase in investment on primary education According to Unesco’s estimates and and literacy programmes. Population growth, projections as assessed in 1989, the number of enrolment ratios at primary stage and literacy adult illiterates aged 15 years and over in the rate are considered very important elements world for 1990 was estimated at 962.6 million of social indicators of development. There is no (Unesco 1990). The Unesco estimates and conflict between growth and human develop­ projections based on actual country data sup­ ment. Literacy is one of the basic needs of plied by the United Nations Statistical Office, human development. have however, estimated the number of il­ literates aged 15 and over for 1990 at 948.1 Population Growth million (Unesco 1991). It has been estimated Estimated population of world in 1980 was that the literacy rate of this age group was 4.45 billion, it increased to 5.29 billion by 1990. 73.5% for the world in 1990. Past trends indi­ The average annual growth rate of population cate that till 1985 the number of illiterates during this period was 1.8 percent. Population continued to rise despite increase in li;eracy of the world is expected to cross 6 billion mark rates from 61.5% in 1970 to 70.6% in 1985. before the end of this century. Growth rate of These estimates also indicate that the increase population was higher in case of continents of in the number of illiterates has stablised by Africa (3.0 percent), Asia (1.9 percent) and

50 1990 and a declining trend has been set in siderations. As compared to the literacy rate motion as may be seen from the following data: of 80.6% for males aged 15 years and over, it was projected to be only 66.4% for females for Table: 1 Estimated Illiterate Popula­ the year 1990 for the world as a whole. This tion and literacy rates for the population shows a difference of 14.2 percent. Projections 15 years and over for the year 2000 show that this gap is expected to reduce to 12.8 percent by the year 2000. It (in millions) means that this disparity is likely to continue Year No. of Illiterates Percentage of for a few more decades. The literacy scenario Literacy of the developed and developing countries in­ cluding the least developed countries also shows that with economic development not 1970 890.1 61.5 only the literacy rate improves, but the dis­ 1985 949.5 70.6 parity in literacy rates based on gender also 1990 948.17 3.5 diminishes. Disparity in the literacy rates of 2000 935.4 78.2 males and females of developed countries is only 0.5 percent (Male 96.6 percent and female 96.1 percent) whereas it is as high as 19.9 Economic Development and percent in case of developing countries. It is Disparity in Literacy Rates still higher in the case of least developed countries, at 23.5 percent. Even among the According to these estimates, literacy rate developing countries, this disparity is still of the developing countries was 65% for 1990 higher in the regions where the benefits of as compared to 96.7% for developed countries. development have not reached the womenfolk Southern Asia with a literacy rate of 46%, due to social, religious and other considera­ Sub-Sahera Africa with 47.3% and Arab States tions. The disparity in literacy rates of males with 51.3% are main regions of low literacy. and females is estimated at 26.3 percentage The above analysis brings out that there is a points for Arab States and 26.9 percentage strong positive co-relation between economic points for Southern Asia. 28 countries of development and the rate of literacy as is clear Africa, 14 countries in Asia and one country in from the literacy scenario of the developed and Oceania were having more than 20 percentage developing countries. This relationship is also point disparity in illiteracy rates between males and females. established by the fact that the literacy rate in the economically most developed countries is Higher Illiteracy Areas/Countries 96.7 percent whereas in the economically least developed countries it is only 39.6 percent. An analysis of the illiteracy situations From Asia only two countries, namely Japan among the 102 developing countries of the and Israel, are included among the developed world indicate that there are only 3 countries countries, whereas six countries of Asia name­ which have illiteracy rate of less than 20 per­ ly Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Mal­ cent. Another 23 countries are such where the dives, Myanmar and Nepal are included illiteracy rate ranges between 20-40 percent, among the least developed countries. 14 countries have illiteracy rate of 40-50 per­ Gender based Disparity in Literacy cent. 34 countries have illiteracy rate of more Rates than 50 percent for the population aged 15 and Disparity in literacy rates is based not only over. Some of the important countries having on the economic factor but also on gender con­ more than 50 percent adult illiteracy rate in centrated in these ten countries. Even though, 1990 were Angola, Central African Republic, there are countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh Chad, Egypt, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, and Sudan, among these ten countries where Liberia, Mali, Mauritenia, Niger, Senegal, Siera Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Togo, Uganda in the illiteracy rate is higher than India, yet in Africa and Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, terms of number of illiterates India has the Cambodia, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Yemen distinction of having the world’s largest num­ in Asia. This analysis indicates that the con­ ber of adult illiterates. 281 million out o f 948 centration of the problem of high illiteracy is mainly in the continents of Asia and Africa. million of the world’s illiterates representing Country-wise analysis on the basis of the num­ about 30% are in India. India and China taken ber of illiterates indicated that the major part together represent more than half (53.2%) of of the problem of illiteracy of the world exists the world’s adult illiterates. No country other in 10 most populous countries of the develop­ than India & China has more than 50 million ing world. About three fourth of the illiterates of the world reside in these 10 countries of or 5 percent of the world’s illiterates. Problem Asia, Africa and Latin America. Each of these of illiteracy of the world is thus closely linked countries were having more than 10 million or with the illiteracy of these two countries in more than 1 percent of the world’s illiterates particular and the above ten countries in aged 15 years and over in 1990. Percentage of illiteracy, number of total illiterates and per­ general. centage to the world’s illiterates in respect of these ten countries is given in table 2 below. Conclusion Table-2 Countries with 10 million and UNESCO’s programme of Education For more illiterates aged 15 years and over in 1990: All aims at reduction of adult illiteracy rate to about one half of 1990 level by the year 2000;

Sr. Country Illiteracy Number Percentage with sufficient emphasis on female literacy to No. Rate of of all illiterates significantly reduce the current disparity be­ illiterates to world tween male and female illiteracy rates. The (in million) Total projections of illiteracy by the office of Statis­

1. India 51.8 280.7 29.6 tics Unesco basically using the trend analysis 2. China 26.7 223.7 23.6 indicate (Table 1) that the illiteracy rate is 3. Pakistan 65.2 43.5 4.6 4. Bangladesh 64.7 42.0 4.4 likely to decrease from 26.5 percent in 1990 to 5. Nigeria 49.3 28.7 3.0 only 21.8 percent in 2000. This analysis there­ 6. Indonesia 23.0 27.0 2.9 fore shows that if the total of education for all 7. Brazil 18.9 18.4 1.9 8. Egypt 51.6 16.5 1.7 by 2000 is to be achieved, the existing trend 9. Iran 46.0 14.6 1.5 will need to be improved substantially, par­ 10. Sudan 72.9 10.1 _LL ticularly by the high illiteracy areas/countries Sub-Total 705.2 74.4 of the world and the countries having large World total 26.5 948.1 100.0 gender disparity in the literacy rates.

The above table indicates that about three fourth of the world’s illiterates are con­

52 References 3. Human Development Report - 1991 - UNDP, New York 1. BASIC Education AND LITERACY World Statisti­ cal Indicators - 1990, Unesco office of Statistics, 4. World Development Report - 1991 - The challenge UNESCO, Paris of Development - World Bank, Washington 2. World Education Report - 1991 - UNESCO, Paris

53 Total Literacy Campaigns — An Unwritten Chapter in Indian History

— Lakshmidhar Mishra

The National Literacy Mission (NLM) was potential learners reached the NLM launched on 5th May, 1988 by the former levels of literacy and numeracy thus rais­ Prime Minister - late Shri Rajiv Gandhi at a ing the rate of literacy of Ernakulam Dis­ formal function held at Vigyan Bhawan, New trict from 77% to 98%. Delhi. The National Literacy Mission It is on this day that a campaign for total Authority (NLMA), having two wings, namely literacy was also launched for the whole of a Council and an Executive Committee, was Kerala State by the then Prime Minister of formed in June, 1988. India - Shri V.P. Singh, who had earlier Two months later in a meeting in August launched the International Literacy Year 1988, Shri K.R. Rajan, the then Collector and (ILY) on 22.1.1990, reinforcing the solidarity District Magistrate, Ernakulam exuded a lot and support of Government to NLM. of confidence that Total Literacy Campaign Successful accomplishment of TLC in Er­ (TLC) was possible, feasible and achievable in nakulam and taking up the TLC venture for India and that a beginning could be made in the whole of Kerala State, with so much of Ernakulam. political will and commitment acted as a Despite initial reservations, the proposal powerful spring-baord and spurred several was supported by the NLMA and the State State Governments, District Administrations Government and a campaign for total literacy and Voluntary Organisations to launch similar in Ernakulam was launched on 26th January initiatives in the direction of total literacy. 1989. The campaign, which was implemented by the Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad, was The entire process was facilitated by for­ a collaborative effort of the District Ad­ mation of a Non- governmental organisation ministration and Non-governmental organisa­ called "Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti" in August tions and was successfully concluded in 1989 reinforced by a countrywide Caravan for December 1989. Literacy during October, 1990 known as On 4th February, 1990 Ernakulam was Bharat Gyan Vigyan Jatha sponsored and ex­ declared as the first fully literate district ecuted by the Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti and in the country. Out of 1.85 lakhs 1.35 lakh another Caravan for Literacy in five States of

The views expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author and not that of the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Education, Government of India.

54 Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Birbhum, North 24-Parganas and Bankura in Uttar Pradesh sponsored and executed by the West Bengal; Sindhudurg and Wardha in Gandhian and Sarvodaya organisations. Maharashtra, Gandhinagar and Bhavnagar in The two caravans taken out at one of the Gujarat, Pasumpon and Pudukottai in Tamil most difficult periods of India history, had suc­ Nadu and Narsingpur in Madhya Pradesh ceeded to a large extent to spread the message have also concluded the first phase of their of literacy and science for self-reliance and to total literacy campaign, some successfully and create the desired churning in favour of some not so successfully. literacy and lifelong continuing education to While some have declared themselves as fully literate in a formal ceremonial function, inculcate a national, secular and scientific some have simply closed the first phase of TLC temper alongwith values of rational concern and have started the post-literacy and continu­ such as national integration, small family ing education phase after having shared the norm, women’s equality and conservation of outcome of the first phase of the campaign with environment. These will remain as two impor­ the people on whose mandate they had tant milestones in the history of literacy and launched the campaign. adult education in India and the world. In all, 17 projects in 33 districts have been As already mentioned, Ernakulam had an approved for post-literacy and continuing infective effect on other districts and TLCs in education, while about ten proposals for basic Bijapur and Dakshina Kannada in karnataka, literacy and post-literacy (five each) are await­ Burdwan and Midnapur in West Bengal, ing the approval of the Executive Committee, Karaikkal, Mahe, Yanam and Pondicherry in NLMA. the UT of Pondicherry and the State of Goa There have been several interesting and followed in quick succession. During the last inspiring fall-outs of these campaigns (both three and a half years since launching of the TLC and PLC) which will be enumerated at a TLC in Ernakulam, the number of TLC later stage. projects and TLC districts has grown progres­ What has been listed above is just not a sively and as on 1st August 1992, as many as catalogue of dates and events nor a calendar 106 projects (including combined projects of of months and years when certain events were some cistricts in a state) involving 165 dis­ launched and certain activities took place. tricts Lave been approved by the Executive Each one of them represents an important milestone in the history of development of Committee of the NLMA for being covered adult literacy and education in India and will under TLC, which is an impressive indication continue to stand erect, evoking powerful by any account. memories, generating new hope, faith, convic­ Wh:le the State of Kerala and the UT of tion and optimism and spurring millions to Pondicierry were declared as fully literate on action in a new direction. 18.4.1991 and 30.11.1991 raising the rate of Historians and politicians, alike social literac\ to 93.5% and 89.5% respectively, the scientists and economists as media and com­ districts of Bijapur and Dakshin Kannada in munication experts, could study these events Karnataka; Chittoor and Nellore in Andhra and activities and could record them as impor­ Pradesh; Burdwan, Midnapur, Hooghly, tant chronicles in the history of mankind out

55 of the distilled wisdom which they might Instead of bemoaning the progressive derive out of the TLC experiment. deterioration in educational standards and its Regretfully TLCs on the whole have not total devitalisation, it may be worth-while to found their way into the corridors of history in ponder over ways and means of restoring the the same manner in which comparatively less centrality of education and according it its important and rather insignificant events rightful place so that it can ensure the dignity centering round the lives of Emperors and of the individual and the unity of the nation. Kings, Generals and Ambassadors, Zamindars In countries like Myanmar, Cuba, and Middlemen, Courtesans and others have found place. Nicaragua, Vietnam and Ethiopia, an attempt What could be the reason? was made to restore and primacy of literacy and education through rather unconventional The question is complex and there could be and unorthodox means. In these countries, no straight and simple answer. there was a revolution which put an end to the Education is One Which Liberates tyranny of the prevailing dictatorial system and which, in turn, brought about a radical It is well-known that education is not an change in the social, economic and political autonomous system; it is a sub-system of the system. Education and literacy were the off­ broader socio-economic and political system. shoot of that historic change. They were To the extent, it is able to influence the struc­ prompted and facilitated by the change and ture and operations of the total system, it can they came to occupy the centre-stage. Immedi­ be a tool of liberation of men, women and ately, in the wake of change of Government, it children, who are often prisoners of the sys­ was thought and rightly so that these tem. This is how, lot of faith and hope has been countries which have been groaning under the reposed in education from time to time as an wheels of colonialism and imperialism and had agent of bringing about a qualitative change been economically ruined by years of misrule, in the lives of millions. can be put back on the rails of progress and Education is one which liberates. Thus goes development only if the pride and patriotism the ancient adage. of the people could be evoked. In reality, however, education has been the It was also thought that there could not be victim of the total system and is hardly in a a better weapon to do so than the mass educa­ position to influence the former in order to tion and literacy. Mass education and literacy channelise it in a positive and reformative were to be imparted in a campaign mode which direction. The sectarian, divisive and disrup­ involved democratisation of the entire educa­ tive forces which affect the total system do not tional process through establishment of a com­ spare the educational system; the same fads, mon school system for all races and classes, taboos, mercenary interests, diehard backed by a common curriculum and common obscurantist ideas and practices which blur medium of instruction. the vision of the total system and rob it of its It implied injection of a new awareness and elan vital also devitalise the education system consciousness based on political liberty and and are responsible for its degeneration. social and economic equality.

56 It meant that one who knew could share be useful to examine the nomenclatural iden­ with the other and particularly the women and tify of literacy and adult education and other disadvantaged groups, who have been whether they should be treated as co-terminus deprived of the access to educational oppor­ or parts of a larger system or independent tunity due to forces and circumstances beyond entities. their control. To state it rather firmly and without any ambiguity, literacy and education are not It also implied imparting skills of economic repetitive or co-terminus; they may be production to the masses to prepare them to parts of a larger system but certainly they have build the foundations of individual and collec­ a uniqueness and identify of their own. tive self-reliance. To state it with further precision and As history has documented it, in Vietnam, clarity, literacy is a minimal, though very im­ backs of buffalos and brick-kilns became slates portant, entry point; it provides a gateway to and blackboards as also shade of the trees and the world of information, communication, harvesting yards where the peasants and modernisation, innovations and skills. Most agricultural labourers thresh the rice. The significantly the life-skills, vocational- juice extracted from the plants and the trees enterpreneural skills, communication-skills, became the ink. In Vietnam rains and floods, survival-skills etc. It is essentially a tool for and in Nicaragua volcanic eruptions and red- communication and learning, for acquiring hot lava, contaminated water and gushing and sharing of knowledge and information and streams did not deter scores of learners and a pre-condition for individuals’ evolution and volunteers from plunging into the campaign growth. for total literacy which was also a campaign for social regeneration and national Research studies and human cognitive reconstruction. development have established beyond doubt that literacy enhances our ‘critical It restored the national pride which was consciousness’ and enables us to think, analyse badly maulded by years of colonialism; it and reflect the existential realities of the situa­ created a new society which values and prizes tion in which we have been placed. the literacy and education as tools of social * It enhances our cognitive faculties. action. It reinforced this faith and belief that you can do it and you have to do it for your * It promotes objectivity, capacity for clear sheer survival and for the survival of your dear perception, clear thinking and logical and nation and the countrymen. coherent analysis. * It promotes a sense of history and helps to Literacy and Education combine individuality with universalisation Before proceeding to analyse the relevance of education. of total literacy in a campaign mode which was * Literacy certainly includes readings, writ­ successfully carried out in countries like ing and arithmetic skills but it goes beyond Myanmar, Cuba, Nicaragua, Vietnam and Eh- alphabetisation. It is something deeper than tiopia and drawing a worthwhile parallel, as mere mechanical skills of reading and writ­ may be appropriate to our requirement, it may ing.

57 * Understood in its broadest perspective, tions, weaknesses and failings as any other literacy could free us from the narrow con­ human being. fines of our individual pride and prejudice, - He/She operates in an environment which is ignorance, fads and taboos and direct our not amenable to any precise regulation and creative energies to flow unhindered which generally has not been very positive towards a search for and discovery of the and supportive of his/her education. true meaning of our existence. - Remaining illiterate is not a matter of It is a kind of open sesame which enables his/her discretion or volition but due to cir­ men and women to transcend the barriers of cumstances (social, economic and cultural) their restricted lives an establish and easy often beyond his/her control. outreach with the wider world of information, - It is only when we bring ourselves down to communication, modernisation innovations the level of a potential learner and speak to and skills. him/her in an intelligible language, the gap If literacy is a sub-structure, adult separating the teacher and the learner could education could be a super-structure. disappear and the urge and motivation to If literacy is an entry point, adult education learn could acquire a new form. is its continuum in the direction of lifelong The second guiding principle rests on un­ learning. derstanding and internalising the nexus be­ Adults in 15-35 age-group, who con­ tween the demand and the supply stitute the most productive and reproduc­ syndrome. tive segments of the society and whose - No worthwhile programme of literacy can be acquisition of a literate status is crucial launched without generating a demand for to the survival of our nascent democracy, literacy and without creating a climate are certainly not fools or goofs, they are which will be positive, supportive and ap­ intelligent, mature, sensible and often preciative of literacy. sensitive. They have a world of informa­ - Demand generation must precede delivery tion and wisdom with them which may and demand should be generated in as not be adequate or foolproof but could simple and natural a manner as possible. certainly be tapped for many a produc­ tive endeavour and could be profitably - Harnessing the folk culture and tradition used to our advantage. could be one of the ways by which the poten­ tial learners could be aroused and awakened Education of such an adult has to be viewed and an emotive bond established with somewhat differently from education of a child, literacy. who is in one of the most formative years of a human being and has, therefore, to be based The third important guiding principle is on certain guiding principles. based on an objective understanding of the interface of literacy, adult education and The first and the most important guiding development. These are undoubtedly dialec- principle is that every adult, who is not tically inter-related. Paulo Friere, the literate, is first a human being and then Brazilian revolutionary and adult educator a learner, having the same hopes and aspira­

58 had, as a matter of fact, redefined development - Post-literacy and continuing education can and redirected the efforts of many adult begin only at that stage when the fragile educators working for social change. Being level of literacy has been replaced by a self- highly critical of most development efforts, he reliant level i.e. one where the need for had proposed an alternative paradigm based guided-learning has been fully dispensed on the development of ‘critical consciousness’ with. as different from the state of ‘naive - It is important that there is a simultaneity consciousness’. in planning for both basic literacy and post­ Julius Nyrere, yet another outstanding literacy programmes, so that there is no adult educator and the former President of avoidable interregnum and the latter com­ Tanzania, had also perceived this nexus be­ mences quickly at the close of the former tween literacy, adult educator and develop­ with of course adequate preparations. ment with great deal of clarity, imagination Yet another principle which is important and vision. in our context is related to the issue of lan­ - It :s quite true that literacy perse, and even guage. adult education at a fairly advanced stage, - Unlike most other countries, we are in a may not lead to a radical or qualitative multi-lingual situation where in addition change in the lives of individual learners. It to 18 languages listed in the 8th Schedule of may not lead to an end of the status of land­ the Constitution, we have as many as 1642 lessness, assetlessness and bondage but dialects, many of whom are spoken by large they can certainly be a tool of ‘critical groups of people. No literacy or adult educa­ consciousness’ and in that sense can be an tion strategy can be meaningful if it does not important tool to induce or stimulate change take cognizance of this multi-lingual situa­ - social, economic, cultural and even politi­ tion and does not proceed to respect the cal. linguistic identify and preferences of the Tne fourth guiding principle is related to adult learners. the level of literacy and the stage at which - It is in this context that bilingualism be­ post-literacy and continuing education comes an important principle in any teach­ should begin. ing-learning process, both for children as According to a statement made by Madam well as for adults. Bilingualism implies Helen Butt, the level of literacy is as important learning literacy in the dialect spoken by or even more important than the content of large groups of people at the initial or in­ literacy. cipient stage of literacy and providing a bridge at an appropriate stage for switch­ - We need a level which is reachable, which over from the spoken dialect to the state’s can be precisely and scientifically defined standard language. and which is sufficiently high to ensure - Yet another important aspect of this prin­ retention and application. Such level can ciple is that since all spoken dialects may aiss be described as a switch-over from the not have a script of their own, the script of syndrome of guided-learning to that of a the state’s standard language may be self-reliant learning.

59 adopted, so that the process of learning These were small, isolated and scattered literacy through that script becomes easier efforts with a limited coverage. There were, for every basic learner. however, several silver linings. - Illustratively, in Bihar a campaign, which Evaluating the Campaign Approach in the words of Dr. Frank Laubach can be It is in this perspective of a correct under­ said to be the "most impressive Government standing of the inter-relationship between campaign conducted in India in that time' literacy, adult education and development that was under the inspiring leadership of Dr. we may proceed further to critically analyse Syed Mahmud. the rationale and efficacy of the campaign ap­ - In the city of Bombay, the literacy movement proach. was launched under the auspices of the It may be stated straightway that there is Bombay Adult Education Committee under nothing new or innovative in this approach; it the chairmanship of Shri B.G. Kher, is a continuation and renewal of the approach Premier and Education Minister. obtained even in the pre-independence era. - The Mysore University unit launched a In the 20s, 30s and 40s, when the country literacy campaign in 1940 and the Mysore was reeling under the weight of an oppressive State Literacy Council was born in 1941. colonial era, the rate of literacy was barely 5% - Dr. Frank Laubach inspired a large number and in terms of absolute number, the country of teachers in Moga in Punjab and launched had millions of illiterates, who were also vic­ a campaign for "Each One Teach One" which tims of social discrimination and economic gave rise to literacy leagues in almost all the deprivation. districts of the State. How could they unite and fight the colonial - The campaign oriented movement for basic regime and obtain freedom for the country literacy during this period also gathered when they themselves were not free from the momentum due to Granthshala Movement shackles and fetters of ignorance, illiteracy in Kerala and Village Library Movement in and bondage. several parts of the country which provided It is this predicament of millions of people the much needed spurt for post-literacy and which had haunted the conscience of the continuing education. Father of the Nation and which had made him - It is interesting to note that Chakravarty to utter those historic words with a lot of an­ Rajagopolachari (popularly known as guish. 'It is a matter of sin and shame that Rajaji), the then Chief Minister of Tamil millions in India continue to be illiteracy; Nadu had, in clear recognition of the need they have to be liberated". for post-literacy and continuing education, Popular Ministries which were formed wrote a primer for neo-literates known as in the provinces in 1937, under the act of "Thambeeva" and also short stories for neo­ 1935, responded to the call of the Father literates "Kuttikathaiagal". of the Nation and launched Mass Cam­ paigns for Total Literacy as well as adult People of the status like Shri Harisar- education programmes. votham Rao and Smt. Durgabai Deshmukh in

60 Andhra Pradesh, Dr. Syed Mahmud in Bihar, ure of persons becoming literate increased Shri Morarjibhai Desai, Shri B.G. Kher and from 3,000 in 1959 to 1,09,000 in 1961. Shri J.P. Naik in Bombay, Dr. Frank Laubach In the State as a whole, a total of 10,08,000 in Punjab, Sir M. Visversvaraya in Mysore, Dr. persons in 14-50 years age-group in 1109 vil­ Wealthy Fisher in Uttar Pradesh and Dr. lages were made literate. The Mohim aimed at Mohan Singh Mehta in Rajasthan (popularly total eradication of illiteracy, provision of known as Bhai Sahib), had acted as poineers library services and other materials for reten­ in the field of adult education and are known tion of literacy and all round development of for their monumental contribution. villagers through social education centres. In its range and ambit, the programme has Even the Kothari Education Commission grown over the years at a remarkably rapid (1964-66) had acknowledged the achievements pace and there have been experiments with of the Mohim that harnessed the local village one model after another in quick succession, patriotism to eliminate illiteracy from the vil­ such as, Gram Shikshan Mohim in lages and required the teachers and all edu­ Maharashtra in the late 50s, Farmers’ Func­ cated men and women to work for literacy. tional Literacy in the late 60s, Functional The enthusiasm and the tempo generated Literacy for Adult Women (FLAW) and Non- by the Mohim could not, however, be sustained Formal Education programme for the youth in due to want of adequate back up support and the early 70s, Polyvalent Education for urban services, particularly in the field of post­ slum dwellers, industrial workers and their literacy and continuing education and there family members under the caption of "Shramik was large scale relapse of neo-literates to the Vidyapeeth" in the 60s and 70s, National Adult old world of illiteracy. Education Programme in the late 70s and now National Literacy Mission in the late 80s and Notwithstanding this major weakness, 90s. the Mohim continues to be an important silver lining in the history of adult educa­ Alike in the field of institutionalisation of tion in India. and experimentation with one model after another, there have been changes in the con­ The Farmers’ Functional Literacy, Func­ tent and process of literacy and adult educa­ tional Literacy for Adult Women and Non-for- tion programmes from year to year. Each one mal Education for the Youth in the 60s and had its own peculiarities of strategy and 70s were essentially sectoral or methodology and strengths and weaknesses in departmental programmes confined to operationalisation. few Ministries of Education, Agriculture, Information and Broadcasting. Their Illustratively, Gram Shikshan Mohim scope and ambit was limited in as much was one of the first experiments to take as no serious effort to achieve nation­ literacy to the masses by way of A Movement. wide coverage and promotion of literacy Launched initially in the district of Satara in on a universal scale was either concep­ Maharashtra in 1959, it covered as many as 25 tualised or accomplished through these districts of the State during the period 1961- programmes. 63. In these districts, the annual average fig­

61 The National Adult Education succeeded in stirring the imagination and criti­ Programme launched on 2nd October, 1978, cal consciousness of the unlettered masses to undoubtedly represented a major initiative in come forward and participate in the literacy the field and a radical departure from the sec­ programme. toral and departmental approaches in the past. The programme became a victim of its It was intended to be a Mass Programme in­ own hierarchy and out-moded rules and volving all sections of the society with a view procedures and failed to inspire the to making 100 million illiterate adults literate policy formulators, opinion moulders, over a period of 5 years i.e.. 1978-83. representatives of the people, etc. The NAEP document was crystal clear in It did attempt degovernmentalisation by its perception and insight. It said "No country encouraging involvement of voluntary agen­ perhaps, with the exception of China, cies which in implementation of the faced the problem of illiteracy of the mag­ programme on a large scale but a target- nitude we are facing and hardly any oriented approach without an effective screen­ country has had such a long tradition of ing mechanism to screen and certify the respect for learning and knowledge or the credentials of implementing agencies brought vast resources which we have". It discredit to the programme and became its proceeded to add "The aim then would be to major causality. strive for a learning society in which life-long education is a cherished goal, a goal which is It was also short-lived in as much as the enunciated in our scriptures. programme was subjected to a review in Oc­ tober, 1979 even before it could barely com­ Intended to be a Mass Programme, the plete one year of its existence. Even though the NAEP, however, remained a traditional review brought out several positive aspects of centre-based approach programme (which was the programme and made several positive also honorarium based, hierarchical and recommendations to impart it a new strength Government-funded and Government-control- and resilience, it could not retrieve the same led). Undoubtedly, it imparted a national euphoria with which it was launched on 2nd and holistic dimension to adult education October, 1978. programme, which has been later recognised The critical consciousness about the limita­ in Kothari Review Committee Report sub­ tions of a traditional Government-funded and mitted to Government in April 1980, and Government-controlled programme like NAEP created an infrastructural base for adult (which was also honorarium-based) was rein­ education. forced with submission of as many as 56 Given, however, the magnitude of the prob­ Evaluation Study Reports which had a lem of illiteracy, its intensity and spread were catalogue of debits and very few credits to the limited and given the dangers of too much of programme on the one hand and also due to centralisation in a governmental and hierar­ the projections made by the World Bank and chical mode, it failed to evoke any positive UNESCO about the magnitude of problem of initiative and interest in the minds of illiteracy of the country in terms of percentage as also in absolute number on the other. numerous Government functionaries and least

62 The Radio broadcast of late Shri Rajiv three decades could be converted into a Gandhi on 5th January, 1985, putting women’s people’s movement. education centre-stage in the conceptualisa­ It is not, as if nothing happened after tion and formulation of the National Policy of launching of the Mission. The Advisor to PM Education and according a very high priority on Technology Missions - Shri Pitroda had in­ to literacy and adult education as an area of deed assumed the gauntlet on his shoulders national concern therein, and a detailed immediately after the formal launching. He Programme of Action laying down the strategy used to take the Mission Directors to the State of implementation of NPE, were also positive Capitals, to the district and block head­ indicators of the direction in which the new quarters to have a direct inter-personal com­ Government wanted to go and stimulant to the munication with the political leaders, the future course of action. administrative bureaucracy, media and the The NLM is partly a by-product of the Na­ people in a climate of total openness and criti­ tional Policy of Education - 1986, but largely cal reflection. the outcome of an evaluation of the strengths There was a lot of learning through sharing and weaknesses of the NAEP by the Institutes to search for a workable strategy in the direc­ of Social Science Research and Management; tion of a goal which we had set for ourselves. it derived its inspiration and strength from the Immediately in the wake of the launching, new urge for application of the findings of the National Literacy Mission Authority was scientific and technological research to im­ constituted with two wings, namely the Coun­ prove the environment and pedagogy of cil and the Executive Committee, the former literacy learning. headed by the Minister of Human Resource In terms of content, it tried to imbibe and Development and the latter by the Education assimilate values of national concerns which Secretary. were reflected in the National policy of Educa­ State Literacy Mission Authorities were tion and in terms of process, it tried to impart also formed simultaneously and State Mission a new sense of urgency and seriousness by Directors were appointed. adopting the mission mode of implementation of a hitherto Government programme. All the ongoing conventional programmes were given a critical look, reviewed and Soon after the Mission was launched by revised. A number of joint study teams went late Shri Rajiv Gandhi on 5.5.88, all of us, round different States and Union Territories, including Shri S.G. Pitroda, the then Adviser districts, blocks and villages to gauge the mood to PM, Incharge of all Technology Missions, of the people, to spread the message of the who continues to be so now, started, in all Mission with clarity and conviction and to cre­ earnestness, the exercise to translate the ate a climate for a people’s movement for laudable objective of the Mission into a reality. literacy. Some of the significant developments We did lot of introspection and asked ques­ which had taken place both before and after in tions to ourselves as to how a programme the wake of launching of NLM could be which was traditional in character for nearly chronicled in a historical perspective as below:

63 * Launching of "Sampoorna Saksharata Ab- was demonstrated for the first time in Kot- hiyan" by Gujarat Vidyapeeth - 1.5.1988. tayam city o f Kerala. It was also demonstrated that small is beautiful. The district and the * Launching of a campaign for total literacy city had the highest rate of literacy in the for Coimbatore by Adviser, Technology Mis­ country (81% and 97% respectively). There sions on - 11.5.1988. were only 2000 persons in 6-60 age-group to be * Launching of Mass Campaigns for Total made literate. The Collector and District Literacy in 20 taluks @ 1 taluka per district Magistrate, Kottayam, succeeded in mobilis­ in Karnataka in a massive convention of VAs ing 200 volunteers from NSS Unit of Mahatma and NGOs at Nanjangoud (Mysore) on Gandhi University for forging a link with the 7.11.1988. 2000 potential learners to make them fully * Initiative taken by Dr. (Miss) Bengalee, Vice literate within a period of 3 months (April - Chancellor, Bombay University for a Mass June, 1989). The city was declared fully Programme of Functional Literacy with the literate on 25.6.89 and the story of this first help of teachers and students of Bombay great experiment in total literacy has been University on 15.8.1988. encapsuled in shape of a book - How we did * Initiative taken by Committee of Resource it in 100 days - written by Shri A. J. Alphonso, Organisations (CORO) for launching a Mass the Collector of Kottayam. Campaign for Total Literacy with the help What started as a time-bound one-shot af­ of student and non-student youth volunteers fair, though on a modest scale in Kottayam, in Dharavi BARC belt on 15.11.1989. soon grew into a massive movement, first in * Literacy as a movement of the people the district of Ernakulam, then in the whole of (LAMP) - Convention organised by Dr. B.V. Kerala State, Gujarat, Pondicherry and now in Parmeshwara Rao of Bhagavatula 106 projects involving 165 districts. The Charitable Trust, Yellamanchilli in Ban­ methodology which was adopted in Ernakulam galore from 1st to 3rd July, 1989. and later in the whole of Kerala State was unique in many respects, which need to be Lot of communication with the States, UTs, listed. These are: districts, etc. took place. Lot of solidarity, rap­ * Massive approach - entire district taken in port and bonhomie was established but the one go. government-funded and government-control- led programme did not become a people’s move­ * Total coverage to the point of saturation - no ment. Despite best possible intentions and member of the society, literate or illiterate, efforts, literacy continued to be the stero-typed could escape from the impact of the cam­ conventional centre-based programme. Volun­ paign for total literacy. tarism and mass mobilisation remained a far * Transformation of literacy work from cry. Outcome oriented results, which are also avenues of employment to a duty/obligation measurable and deliverable within a tinged with pride and patriotism. prescribed time span, were elusive. * Meticulous spatial and temporal planning The first opportunity came in April, 1989 as in a war for mobilisation and deployment when the efficacy of the campaign approach of human and material resource.

64 * Integration of people’s enthusiasm with ad­ It is quite natural that these and many ministrative machinery on the one hand and other questions should agitate those who are a professional project structure on the other. actively engaged in conceptualisation, plan­ * Delinking the implementing machinery ning and actual implementation of the Mission from governmental bureaucracy to increase at the national, state and district levels as also dynamism and flexibility and at the same at the grass root level. time ensuring accountability by stringent Before we squarely address ourselves to monitoring by the people themselves. these questions, it may be interesting to un­ derstand some of the doubts, disputes, misgiv­ The total literacy plan for Ernakulam was ings and reservations in somewhat greater launched on 26.1.89 with the following detail so that we can also simultaneously prophetic words: counter them with all the force at our com­ 'There are no prospects for a literate mand, not so much with a view to silencing the Kerala within an illiterate India. critics, cynics and skeptics but to restore the Kerala has to play a leading role in primacy and centrality of literacy and to put making the whole of India Literate. the Mission and its objectives, strategy and This is imperative for the progres­ methodology in a proper perspective. sive of Kerala. Only by eradicating illiteracy from its own soil and shar­ To start with, both before and after the ing the experiences and excitement Mission was launched by the former Prime there-from that Kerala can play this Minister - Late Shri Rajiv Gandhi, questions role". were raised about the status of the Mission in a manner which is a sad reflection of our think­ Doubts and Criticisms ing and ethos. Why are people indifferent to literacy? The Mission was being linked by many to Why is there so much of cynicism and scep­ the handwork of a particular political party in ticism towards literacy? power, even though the late Prime Minister Why is it, that people, after so many silver had stated in so many clear and unambiguous linings on the horizon, are indulging in endless words," This is not the Mission of any par­ debates and disputes on literacy ticular Ministry or Department or Agency; this is the concern of the whole nation. Literacy - "Is it necessary? should be viewed by the people as important - Is it desirable? as drinking water and immunisation". - Can literacy not wait? After sometime, when the Adviser to PM - Can’t the resources meant for literacy be on Technology Missions started playing the diverted towards elementary education?” role of a nodal institution to intensively Such endless debates go on in the outside monitor and coordinate the activities in all the world to the total exclusion of millions of National Technology Missions, similar confus­ learners and volunteers participating in the ing and disturbing questions continued to be literacy programmes with boundless en­ raised linking the Mission to be the handwork thusiasm and commitment. of an individual.

65 It was clarified again and again that a It is true, that it was comparatively easier National Mission cannot be the handwork of a to launch the campaign experiment in Er­ particular individual or even groups of in­ nakulam than in other districts but this, by dividuals. A Mission is a national endeavour itself, did not imply exclusion of other districts and time-bound search for a new identify of nor did it imply exclusion of the poor, the literacy, a new expression of the cultural ener­ deprived and disadvantaged people of less en­ gy and creativity of the people and the outcome dowed regions. All that was simply intended, of accumulated research and wisdom and, simply was therefore, cannot be equated with just one in­ - the concept of Total Literacy in a Campaign dividual or one political party or one political mode, treating the district as a unit was personality. comparatively new; When the Total Literacy Campaign (TLC) - a countrywide awareness of all the proposal was received from Ernakulam, this parameters of success of a campaign cannot was straightway dismissed as an attempt to straightway be generated; and carry coal to the new castle. It was clarified - we should try it out, in an area where it that even though the rate of literacy in Er­ was likely to succeed better. nakulam was high (as high as 77% according to the 1981 Census), the Ernakulam model, if By now, it is matter of history that Er- successful, could have a very good spin-off ef­ nakula did succeed admirably well in the wake fect in as much as it would inspire and of that success, TLC for the whole State of motivate several other districts that total Kerala, for the UT of Pondicherry, Goa and literacy is not something which is utopian, but several districts of Karnataka, Andhra something which is possible and achievable. Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, After the Ernakulam experiment was suc­ Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar cessfully concluded, it started acting as a Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan, were taken up powerful stimulant for several other districts, in quick succession. alike in the North as well as in the South. In All of them cannot be said to be the exact other words, one K.R. Rajan could nucleate replication of the Ernakulam model, even many potential Rajans who came forward to though they have derived a lot of inspiration assume the leadership for similar experiments and strength from the latter adapting the es­ with lot of enthusiasm and self-confidence that sence of the Ernakulam experiment profitably they can also do it as good as Rajan could do. to their advantage. The fact that all districts are not uniformly What exactly is the essence of that ex­ placed and endowed and that there is a great periment? deal of geographical, topographical, socio­ It means that despite social heterogeneity, economic and cultural diversity obtaining in caste and stratification factor and despite different regions, in different districts and numerous divisive and disruptive forces, there even within the same district, did not under­ are number of good, well-meaning, conscien­ mine their enthusiasm to go ahead with the tious and progressive minded people in the idea of TLC.

66 society, who can be mobilised and whose sup­ anything has gone wrong, the correctives need port can be harnessed for literacy work. to be applied instantaneously; so that there It means that like minded people can come can be no let up or slip-off. It also means that together, think together, plan together and act the results sought to be achieved are not only together for a common cause like literacy. It deliverable but also measurable in clear, also means that notwithstanding the euphoria precise and scientific term. of the stock market, notwithstanding the call After the new approach i.e. TLC started of the God of Mammon and numerous corrupt­ gathering momentum, every increase in the ing mercenary forces obtaining in the society. number of TLC districts was accompanied by a near increase in the number of cynics and There are still people who have retained skeptics. The first attack came from those who the spark of altruism, the impulse of volun­ are protagonists of elementary education. tarism and who are willing to work for others Their guns were targetted against so much of without any expectation of award or reward or concentrated attention to adult literacy, to the incentive as teacher, trainers, evaluators and exclusion of elementary education in the for­ environment builders. They are willing to part mal system. with a portion of their energy, ingenuity and Some of them were undoubtedly well- skill in favour of those who do not havo them, meaning and had years of track record of dedi­ who have been deprived of them for no fault of cated service in the field of basic education. In theirs and yet who are in need of the same. a sense therefore, they were justified in dis­ Once such innate goodness in human couraging efforts to sweep the floor when the tap was on. Some of their attacks were also beings is recognised and the basic premise is equally ill-conceived and ill-designed. Univer- established that voluntary work for literacy is salisation of elementary education, non-formal possible and feasible with the help of a number education for non-school goers and school drop­ of good samaritans, it is not difficult to build outs in 9-14 age-group and adult literacy are a super-structure on the sub-structure. This inextricably interwounded; one is as important super-structure, however, need not be a as the other. They are, as a matter of fact, skycrapper; it needs to be a structure which is mutually supportive and inter-dependent simple, inexpensive, with few layers, credible programmes, one supporting and reinforcing and accountable, open and accessible to all. the other. This nexus has been recognised in The importance of the structure, however, reports of successive Education Commissions, remains in as much as a campaign for total Kothari Review Committee on Adult Educa­ literacy is essentially a short-duration en­ tion (1980), NPE Review Committee headed by deavour and if the results are to be achieved Ahcarya Ramamurthy, NPE Review Commit­ tee headed by Janardan Reddy, NPE (1986) as in a process which is extremely difficult and modified in 1992 and the POA (1986) as complex, the entire effort has to be a planned, modified in 1992 and is otherwise known as coordinated, systematised with well-struc­ the ‘Dual Track’ Approach. In the districts tured effort. There must be close monitoring, where TLCs are being taken up, there has been supervision and coordination so that we get to a planned and systematic effort to carry know that the right things are happening at children in 9-14 age-group alongwith adults in the right time, in the right manner and if the first phase of the campaign, while creating

67 better conditions in the formal school system mulated there-under, what we are saying is for enrolment of children in 5-8 age-group. that parental illiteracy and child illiteracy go In majority of the TLC districts, there is a together and no learning society can be created realisation that children who are enrolled in in any household by sending children to school the first phase of the campaign alongwith while parents remain illiterate or by imparting adults would be in need of a more stringent functional literacy to adult parents and not and systematic non-formal education span­ sending children to school. ning over a period of one and half years, is the Creation of a learning society is essen­ minimum to reach the minimum levels of tially the outcome of constant inter-ac­ literacy. This consciousness is reflected in the tivity between parents and children Action Plan for TLC as also in the actual im­ which ensures learning by sharing and, plementation at the basic literacy and post­ therefore, there is no question of permit­ literacy stage in several districts and ting one at the cost of the other or to the therefore, the criticism levelled against TLC, exclusion of the other, but promoting that it ignores and belittles the early childhood both together with the same urgency, and elementary education with over-riding same seriousness, same emphasis and preference for adult education is rather unfair same thrust. and unfounded. If as a result of the cultural campaign, In our scheme of development, family is as an integral part of the campaign for treated as the lowest unit and a family com­ total literacy, parental demand for enrol­ prises of parents, adolescents and children. ment and retention of the children in the There can be three types of situations in a formal school system has been generated, family in relation to literacy. the demand has to be met regardless of - In the first category both parents, adoles­ the financial implications, otherwise the cents and children are illiterate. In such a entire experiment will be counter­ situation, no worthwhile interaction can productive and the gap between parental take place amongst the family members. illiteracy and child illiteracy will get - In the second category, the parents are il­ widened. literate but the children are literate. The The Collector and District Magistrate in latter, in such a situation cannot communi­ most of the TLC districts occupies a pivotal cate to the former on the same wave-length. position. As chairperson of the Zila Saksharata - In the third category, the parents may be Samiti, he/she acts as the principal mobiliser literate but due to peculiar circumstances, and coordinator of the campaign and provides children may have been deprived of the ac­ the leadership and overall direction to the cess to educational opportunity. Such a pace, tempo and rhythm of the campaign. This situation may be more of an exception than is quite natural as every campaign is a short rule. duration affair, where both the process and outcome are important and where it is impera­ In the Dual Track Approach which we have tive to unite and coordinate a number of adopted for ourselves in the National Policy of defused and uncoordinated elements and for­ Education and the Programme of Action for­ ces who would otherwise tend to act at cross­

68 purposes. Who else is better placed to unite which results in acquisition of skills necessary and coordinate these inchoate and^ uncoor­ for development. Literacy also creates condi­ dinated elements than the head of the district tions for acquisition of a critical consciousness administration? We are, however, not looking of the ironies and contradictions of the society at the Collector and DM in a TLC as one who in which we live. Literacy provides certain will be the regulator of a mechanism or the competencies to the youth required for produc­ controller of the destiny of others but as one tive participation in the affairs of the family, who will be the first amongst the equals, who of the society and the larger affairs of the will be able to carry a number of discordant Nation. elements and make them think together, plan Access to literacy stimulates the desire for together and act together, so that there is some training in diverse skills and motivates the symmetry and harmony in an otherwise highly poor and the deprived to intensify their efforts heterogeneous society. to break-out of the poverty cycle to adopt more This calls for lot of modesty and humility, effective modes of production and distribution. lot of respect for the dignity and equality of all Access to literacy heightens political beings, lot of catholicity and tolerance. It may awareness and would enable people to par­ not be uniformly forthcoming from all District ticipate more effectively in civic affairs and Collectors but wherever these characteristics affairs of the body politic - both local and na­ are present, they will contribute most towards tional. the success of the campaign and where the It would promote democratisation of the style of functioning is highly personalised, ar­ working of Government and NGOs, local self- bitrary and authoritrian, it is bound to be governing bodies, voluntary agencies and counter-productive. would improve the quality and content of con­ Criticisms have been levelled that Collec­ ducting the entire democratic process through tors and DMs are principal instruments of Parliament, Legislative Assemblies, Corpora­ maintenance of law and order, peace and tran­ tions, Municipalities, Notified Area Councils, quility; they also constitute the focal point of Panchayats, etc. coordination of all development efforts in a More than anything else, access to literacy district. Excessive pre-occupation of the Col­ would also ensure access to the development lector and DM with the total literacy efforts in parameters such as access to credit, access to a district could result in a situation where seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, access to water other components of development may get both for irrigation purposes as well as drink­ sidelined or neglected and, therefore, accord­ ing, and access to a world of information of ing to them, it is doubtful whether such over­ direct interest and relevance to the leaners riding priority to literacy promotion efforts on (healthy, family welfare, immunisation, nutri­ the part of Collector and DM urgurs well for tion, maternity protection, child care, small the district. Such criticisms are as unfair and family norm, etc.). unfounded as they are in the case of earlier ones. Viewed in this perspective, literacy be­ comes the key to the entire development In whatever manner we may look at it, effort, not merely by expanding the flow literacy creates motivation and awareness

69 of information but by way of promoting useful link between different development awareness,, empowerment and eventual­ departments and human beings who are the ly leading to formation of organisation of beneficiaries as well as participants of the en­ the unorganised and strengthening of the tire development process. entire collective bargaining process. Several doubts have been raised in the past It is important that access to informa­ and even now that literacy can ill-afford to tion in matters of public policy in the level or unite divergent elements and forces in areas of age of marriage, age of employ­ a society which is hierarchical, stratified and ment, prohibition, untouchability, caste-based. It has also been observed that dowry, etc. is viewed as important as ac­ illiteracy is synonymous with poverty, depriva­ cess to acquisition of vocational skills. tion and economic backwardness while literacy Literacy being an important tool of ac­ is synonymous with affluence, rank and status quisition in both, it assumes paramount in society. Nothing can be farther from the importance for all development depart­ truth. ments and development functionaries. It is true that those who are high up in They need to own literacy as their own society generally come from the landed aris­ programme and as the key to the success tocracy and by virtue of their power and posi­ of their programmes. tion and capacity to garner resources, they Attention to literacy promotion efforts can­ may look down upon the need for and relevance not, therefore, be wished away in the name of of literacy as an important entry point for the maintenance of law and order, peace and tran­ poor, the deprived and the disadvantaged. quility nor in the name of departmentalism. They may even dissociate themselves from There have been two principal banes of our literacy promotion efforts and demonstrate entire development effort - their hostility to it. - targetitis i.e. fixing artificial targets in While launching a campaign for total terms of number and making the entire literacy, one cannot wish away the harsh socio­ planning process revolve round the game of economic realities obtaining in an inequitable numbers; and system surrounded by all pervasive poverty - viewing development in terms of water-tight and deprivation. compartments such as health, hygiene, The campaign may not put an end to the state of landlessness or assetlessness or sanitation, agriculture, animal husbandry, bondage. The campaign can, however, unleash veterinary, etc. several good, positive and progressive ele­ Since a human being is one and indivisible, ments of the society and bring them together we cannot afford to divide a human being in to work for literacy as a movement of the the name of different development depart­ people and in that process, may appeal to their ments and functionaries which will not only good conscience that they owe in no uncertain terms an obligation to those who are less for­ amount to compartmentalisation but direction tunate but whose sacrifice has in no small of a living being. measure contributed to the total evolution, ad­ As a matter of fact, literacy can be an im­ vancement and growth of the society. It may portant uniting factor to forge a practical and so happen that as a result of social churning,

70 which may be caused by the cultural campaign capability for hard work, ungenuity and their for literacy, there may be an attitudinal change contribution to the development of the family, even in the minds of those who are otherwise the community and the nation as a whole. averse or indifferent to literacy. The moment they are enabled to think, Such a process may be a slow and gradual reflect, critically analyse and question the one but judging by the trend of development aura of false consciousness surrounding their taking place in some of the TLC districts, it is lives, it will unfold vistas of a new vision for quite likely that the campaign could act as a them. Once they are aroused and awakened powerful tool to induce certain changes which and perceive the importance of organisation, are healthy and in the larger social interest. they will come together and constitute a Undoubtedly, all such efforts will have to be cohesive force which will be a formidable one. backed-up by simultaneous measures for land reforms, for asset distribution and reduction This unity and solidarity will make pos­ of economic disparity and for creation of cer­ sible the liberation of the women-folk from the tain outlets which will promote democratic numerous fads, taboos and diehard conserva­ participation of all sections of the society. tive ideas which have confined their lives to a cocoon like existence and reduced them to com­ This brings to our mind certain mistaken modities. This way of conscientising women to notions relating to people’s empowerment. organise themselves has been attempted This is an important concept which has through WDP in Rajasthan and is being tried been laid down in the NLM document and is out, though selectively, through Mahila an object to be cherished and achieved through Samakhya, a Dutch assisted project in 10 dis­ total literacy efforts. tricts of Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Empowerment of the people basically Gujarat with many positive fall-outs. means that people are enabled to understand and internalise the causes and factors of social NLM Achievements discrimination and economic deprivation; they Having made an attempt to respond to are also enabled to perceive their strengths some of the oft-repeated criticism or rather and weaknesses vis-a-vis the strength and misgivings about the NLM and the new cam­ weaknesses of the diverse elements of the paign approach for total literacy, it will be society which surround their day-to-day lives. appropriate now to turn attention to the latest Efforts which go to promote empowerment status of the Mission and share with the of the people cannot, therefore, be treated as readers some of the ground level achieve­ subversive or a sign of belligerence. If that is ments. so, all that is being done in the NLM will have The most important strength of the cam­ to be negatived or given a go-bye. paigns lies in the fact that it provides an am­ People’s empowerment becomes all the bience of political parties, representatives of more important in the context of women, who the people and cross-sections of the society to have been for successive generations sidelined come together, plan and work together in a or marginalised and who remain at the mercy common direction despite internal contradic­ of the menfolk despite their enormous tions or ideological differences.

71 The campaign has also proved that carpenters, mechanics, primary school learners, despite caste, class and gender teachers (serving and retired), ex-servicemen, divide, can learn and today nearly 55 million bank employees, employees of public sector learners are learning with the help of about 5 undertakings, government employees, million volunteers with a lot of zest and self- employees of cooperatives and elders - all im­ confidence. They can see for themselves the bued with a new pride and patriotism, a new pace and progress of learning. They can retain spirit of service and sacrifice. and apply the benefits of learning to real life A leprosy afflicted middle aged person in situations. the district of Midnapore, who at one time was It is a most satisfying experience to see ex-communicated from the society (for being a people belonging to multiple strata of the victim of leprosy), now discovers in teaching a society such as small and marginal farmers, new elixir of life. landless agricultural labourers, share crop­ Such stories can be recounted in good num­ pers, rural artisans, fishermen and women, ber. beedi workers, leather workers, tribal collec­ Several volunteers have succeeded in tors of minor forest produce, are learning mobilising scheduled caste and minorities together, sharing the same concern, the same women to break the barriers of purdah and excitement and joy of learning. transcend the shackles and fetters of a conser­ A widow of 65 years in Mehbubnagar dis­ vative society to join the literacy class; many trict finds in the slate and pencil a silent com­ others have succeeded in motivating the panion in a dark and lonely corner of her learners addicted to alcohol to give up drink­ existence, deriving lot of solace and comfort ing. from reading and writing. There are numerous instances (in Mid­ Campaigns in this sense have promoted napore and Burdwan TLC in West Bengal) social and emotional integration. They have also promoted linguistic integration and com­ where wife is the volunteer teacher (VT) while munal harmony. Learners, who are domiciled husband is the learner and vice-versa. Hindu in a State and who have assimilated the his­ volunteers have been teaching Muslim tory, geography and culture of that State, are learners and vice-versa; there are volunteers willing to learn in the State standard language belonging the SC and ST while learners belong (in preference to learn through their mother to upper-caste, for former representing one of tongue) so that they can identify themselves the finest specimens of dedication. The cam­ better with the mainstream. About 5 million paign has converted nisidhapalli (red-light volunteers, about 2.5 to 3 lakh master trainers, areas) to pavitrapalli (decent and civilised about 15 to 20 thousand resource persons and colony). The activity in a learning centre itself about 1000 key resource persons are rendering remained affected by the fury of communal riot voluntary service of a scale and quality which affecting the whole village and eventually was not witnessed before. helped in defusing the communal situation. Majority of them are student volunteers around 60% while about 40% of the volunteers In several villages of Andhra Pradesh, come from the non-student youth belonging to where the campaign has been successfully con­ a varied strata of the society, such as tailors, ducted, untouchability and feuds on account of

72 cast and stratification bedevilling day-do-day As Shri Poromesh Acharya, a distinguished existence are issues of the past. historian and management expert and mem­ Teaching-learning process has created and ber, Executive Committee, NLMA writes: reinforced an awareness of the needs, rights "The strongest point of the West Bengal and obligations. This awareness has programme, as we have observed, is the manifested itself in terms of enrolment and perfect coordination between the ad­ retention of children in the school system, im­ ministration and the panchayat. In every munisation of pregnant mother and their district that we have visited, we noticed that the District Collector and the Sab- children, health, hygiene, environmental hadhipati of the Zilla Parishad were work­ sanitation, children, ORT and small family ing in unison. The District Collector and norm. Yet another strength of the campaign is his team became whole-time workers. that women are participating in the teaching- There is, for the first time, that the entire learning process in much larger number (about district administration went to the people 70%) and with much greater enthusiasm than instead of the people coming to them. It men. They are more vocal, more articulate and was a unique exposure for them and they more assertive than before. enjoyed it. I saw District Collectors walk­ Through literacy, they have been able to ing through the muddy roads, their hair perceive the generative sources of their disad­ greyed with the dust. There was hardly any difference between a political worker, vantage and are guarding up their loins to a volunteer and an administrator. All the fight these sources. barriers got broken. This wan no mean Hundreds of women’s groups in Andhra achievement. Pradesh and Karnataka have been made The campaigns have also produced a uni­ aware of the evils of bootlegging and have been que confluence of creative forces and energies. raising their voice against alcoholism. A num­ Creative writers, thinkers, artists, en- ber of grass root level institutions, such as viornmentalists and women activists have village and panchayat level committees are come together to write sons, slogans, nukkad emerging through which the learners can nataks, role-plays and simulation exercises transform themselves from the status of pas­ and to render them soulfully in myriad forms in different parts of the country. Every activity sive beneficiaries to that of active participat- in the campaign in general and in the learning ings of the process of development and manage centres in particular acquires the shape of a their own affairs with strength, courage and festival. Whether it is Independence Day or confidence. Some of these institutions have Republic Day or Ganesh Chaturthi or Sarswati struck deep roots and have acquired the Puja or Onam or Pongal or Durga Puja or capability of managing the formal school sys­ Diwali or World Literacy Day (8th September) tem, NFE and AE programmes. or World Population Day (16th July) or World As more and more districts get covered by Environmental Day (5th June) or World the TLC, the governmental bureaucracy gets Women’s Day (8th March), every activity is closer to the people; it becomes more positive, converted to a mass festival and every mass sensitive and empathetic. festival is celebrated in such a manner that the

73 celebration is harnessed to the advantage of These are (a) Sociological impact of Total literacy. They arouse and awaken the whole Literacy Campaign - the case of Midnapore community for literacy work. A good number conducted by Shri Chandan Dasgupta of Tata of songs, slogans, drama, eloquence, essay and Institute of Social Sciences; and (b) Towards poster competitions on literacy are being held developing a conceptual framework for sus­ on these occasions which bring out the in­ taining literacy based on some field experien­ genuity, creativity, innovativeness, and ces conducted by Ms. Nitya Rao of National resourcefulness of individuals and groups. Institute of Adult Education. There is also a third study captioned "Total Evaluation of TLCs Literacy Campaign in West Bengal’ a Study of The narration in the preceding paragraphs Midnapore, Hooghly and Birbhum conducted is only a miniature of numerous positive in­ by Shri Poromesh Acharya and Associates of dicators on the impact of TLCs on attitudes, Indian Institute of Management, Calcutta, approaches and consciousness of individuals which is primarily a study on the soundness, as also on the overall quality of their day-to- adequacy and effectiveness of planning, day life. preparations and execution of the TLC though We have been generally speaking of two it does throw some light on the impact of the types of evaluation in relation to a TLC district campaign on the level of general awareness of i.e. (a) evaluation of learning outcome and (b) the people, their motivation and participation programme evaluation or impact evaluation. in the campaign. Successive evaluation studies of the TLCs It would be useful to critically examine the which have been conducted so far Ernakulam findings of these studies with reference to the (Kerala), Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, objectives of the NLM. People’s empowerment Hooghly, Midnapore and North 24 parganas is the most important objective of the Mission (West Bengal), Sindhudurg and Wardha in qualitative terms. The objective has thus (Maharashtra), Shittoor and Nellore (Andhra been stated: Pradesh), Durg and Narsingpur (Madhya "Functional Literacy implies becom­ Pradesh), Muzaffarpur (Bihar), and Bijapur ing aware of the causes of their depriva­ and Dakshin Kannada (Karnataka) have tion and moving towards amelioration of primarily concentrated on the number of per­ their condition through organisation and sons actually made literate and numerate in participation in the process of develop­ terms of the levels laid down in NLM docu­ ment." ment. Some of them have thrown some light on the bridge or partnership built between the "Functional Literacy implies acquir­ Government departments and functionaries, ing skills to improve the economic status representatives of the people, social and educa­ and general well-being." tional activists, media and communication Who are the people and what is people’s channels, etc. empowerment? In ordinary parlance, people There are two reports to have come to light would mean all categories of persons working so far which have thrown some light on the and living in an area who would be the sociological impact of total literacy campaign. beneficiaries of all development programmes.

74 For our purpose and the context in which male alcoholism i the State, making men’s functional literacy has been used the NLM contribution to household income almost document refers to people or certain target negligible. Women work very hard to sup­ groups who constitute the rural poor, the port their families and, therefore, aspire deprived and the disadvantaged. They con­ for better employment opportunities and earnings. Development programmes stitute the small and marginal farmers, land­ specifically for women, like DWACRA do less agricultural labourers, the share croppers, exist in the State but no purposive effort the rural artisans, the fishermen and women, to integrate it with the literacy movement the leather workers, the building and construc­ has been made whether in terms of iden­ tion workers, the forest labourers, salt tifying the most needy beneficiaries or workers, the contract labourers, migrant even in terms of developing DWACRA workers. They are not uniformly placed in groups around learning groups which terms of employment and wages, but there are could facilitate the growth of a common two common threads running through their group purpose." predicament. These are (a) they are victims of Analysing the present sorry state of affairs malfunctional and dysfunctional middlemen in Puduvai Arivoli Iyakkam and the factors and work in a situation which is akin to contributing thereto, she writes: bondage for all practical purposes; and (b) they "The inability to address local problems are not aware of the viciousness of the on the spot and work out solutions for the phenomenon. They do not know what they do same has led to a decline in enthusiasm not know. over the months. To take an example, If ‘critical consciousness’ is an important twice there were floods in a fishing hamlet index of true development according to Paulo whereby three rows of houses got washed Friere, they lack that critical consciousness away. The people wanted financial assis­ which can enable them to understand their tance for housing but this issue was not strength and weaknesses vis-a-vis the taken up. Similarly, the fisherwomen take the catch to the fish market in the morn­ strength and weaknesses of their adversary(s) ing and again return there to work for and which can also enable them to acquire the contractors in the afternoon as their earn­ wherewithal to grapple with the hostile forces ings are very low. An attempt to introduce and eventually overcome them. Let us analyse the Fish Aggregation Device to increase the extent to which TLCs have fostered this collection/production was made. However, critical consciousness and to what extent this privately owned launches came and is being used us a tool of people’s empower­ smashed these devices. The other method ment. of increasing earnings by plugging the Two examples may be taken from Ms. Nitya holes at the marketing end through or­ Rao’s study of TLC in Pondicherry and ganisation of marketing collectives was Pudukottai. To quote from the study on TLC not discussed or attempted." Pondicherry: The above example is indicative of the viselike grip of middlemen (contractors) which "The response from women was tremen­ dous at all levels during the campaign. drive the people - the poor, weak and disad­ There is widespread, almost universal vantaged to a state of penury and desperation.

75 The middlemen act as agents of the principal tives is certainly a way out but can be mean­ employer in matters of recruitment of migrant ingful only if the following two conditions are labour, in matters of payment of nominal ad­ fulfilled i.e. (a) the entire process of organisa­ vances (more as a tool of allurement than as a tion must be preceded by meticulous planning positive incentive), in matters of supply of raw and systematic execution, by orientation, con- materials, often of poor quality, collection of scientisation and awareness building through the finished product, rejection (Chat) on the literacy; (b) government cannot bring about ground of poor finish, sale of those finished organisations of the rural poor but can certain­ products of alleged poor quality and appropria­ ly act as a catalystic agent to enable and tion of the sale proceeds to their full advantage facilitate the entire process with empathy and (as in the case of beedi workers), denial of sensitivity and not view the process as a threat remunerative price to the workers for their to status quo. hard labour and product of their labour (both In the context of Puduvai Arivoli Iyakkam, by way of cheating in weightment and calcula­ Ms. Nitya Rao cites two case studies on the tion, particularly in piece rates relevant in process of organisation of the rural poor, one brick kilns and stone quarries, taking full ad­ very encouraging and the other not so en­ vantage of ignorance and illiteracy of the couraging. To recount the first: workers) so on and so forth. They virtually rule "Father Anthonisamy of the Holy the roost. The fishermen and women who Redeemers and also on the Executive receive the advances from these middlemen for Committee of the Arivoli Iyakkam purchase of boat and net for deep sea fishing, believes in learning by doing. He con­ do so often at a discount and are forced to part ducted a debt survey amongst a Arivoli with a major share of their produce (catch) to group and found that 85% of the learners the middlemen - a practice which is akin to the were in debt. Through the Holy theory of unequal exchange in Economics or Redeemers, those paying more than 10% bonded labour system under section 2 (g) of the interest per month were redeemed imme­ Bonded Labour System Act. Same is true of all diately. The same amount apportioned other categories and sub-categories of unor­ into principal, interest and savings is ganised rural labour masses. They lack the deposited in the group that was organised. power to individually bargain for their ir­ In one area, this thrift and credit group reducible barest minimum (for sheer biological has even taken a space and employed the volunteer to maintain their records and survival) against organised onslaughts and accounts. Almost all the money collected vested interests which are too powerful for is being revolved amongst the members, them. As the wily middlemen thrive and in the form of small loans. Such an initia­ prosper by manipulation and cheating at the tive, by actively involving the people in expense of the poor, the latter sunk in loans, finding solution to their problems, has not debts and advances to slide lower and lower on only generated discussion and awareness the scale of humanity. about the whole issue of debt, interest rates, savings but has also motivated the Is there a way out? Organisation of the group members to explore the various al­ unorganised rural poor into aggregations, in­ ternatives available to them, made them formal groups, formal formations like coopera­ realise the importance of maintaining

76 records and hence desirous of strengthen­ declared so on 11.8.92 by Governor of Tamil ing their own cognitive skills." Nadu - Dr. Bheesmanarian Singh at a special The example of the second category which function held at Pudukottai parade ground. is not so encouraging is narrated by Ms. Roa There are a host of exciting, soul-stirring is below: and inimitable features in Arivoli Iyakkam, "An attempt has been made to develop Pudukottai. They transcend the limited fron­ village level committees. As a part of this, tiers of mechanical reading, writing and arith­ women’s sub-committees have been metic and encompass the process of making a formed. Women are more forthcoming, as complete man or woman or child. It is impos­ this gives them an opportunity to interact sible to recount them. in society and gradually bring about chan­ In terms of forming organisations or collec­ ges in social and more particularly, gender tivities of the people, using the literacy cam­ relations. They, however, desire some paign as a tool to forge the solidarity of the financial assistance in terms of seed money for progressing towards a situation people in general and women in particular and of economic independence as well. This promote their empowerment, however, it has aspect has, however, not yet been worked few parallels. Whether it is training 60,000 out, leading to some frustrations. The women to learn cycling while learning to read women, therefore, have also not gained and write or it is organisation of women quarry the confidence to take up social issues workers or women gem cutters and gem Like alcoholism, and face social conflicts polishers or women potters or women palm due to their position of economic depend­ basket weavers, each has its unique innova­ ence." tiveness. It is evident that the objective of NLM in Behind the entire effort to organise the terms of promoting ‘participation’ through or­ unorganised, the less privileged and deprived ganisations of the ‘people’ has not been fulfilled sections of society lies the imagination and to any worthwhile extent even though sincere ingenuity of many committed activists and or­ efforts have been made in that direction. ganisers but one person stands out clear and Let us turn to Pudukottai, the second case distinct. She is Sheila Rani Chunkath, the study of Ms. Rao to see if there is any concrete energetic articulate and dynamic Collector of answer to this dilemma of people’s empower­ Pudukottai and also the Chairperson of Arivoli ment. Iyakkam. Almost anything and everything which centred round Arivoli bears the indelible Pudukottai, which a year ago, was a small stamp of her personality, transparent sincerity and comparatively unknown, comparatively and total commitment to Arivoli. To quote a under-developed district, is today something small fraction of her initiative to organise the more than a geographical expression. It is women quarry members of Pudukottai as vibrant with a new spirit, a new ethos, a new recorded by Ms. Rao: identify. Pudukottai along with Pasumpon "The district has about 450 quarries and Muthuramalingam Thevar (PMT) district has 4500 women quarry workers. Last year earned the unique distinction of being the first when the quarries were brought in for fully literate district in Tamil Nadu. It was auction, the contractors refused to bid at

77 the offset price as they wanted to depress Puduvai Arivoli Iyakkam became the sym­ the price further. The Collector, however, bol of hope, pride and resurgence for many organised the workers into groups of 20 other States/UTs. As, however, the campaign women each and gave them the quarrying acquired the character of a mass movement rights at nominal rates for period of 3 and became a tool of empowerment of the mas­ years. Currently, there are about 150 such ses, it was perceived as a threat to the women’s groups. They were provided sacrosancitity and constitutional inviolability loans of Rs. 1,000/- each from Indian bank of private property rights and the status quo. for purchase of tool kits, uniforms and It is at this crucial stage that the campaign initial working capital. They take a daily wage of between Rs. 20 to 30 and then has almost lost its momentum as a movement share the profits every week. Men can also of the people and has got into a jam. It could work in these quarries on daily wages. have matured into one of the finest movements The workers, mostly women, have of Indian history but sadly these lofty expec­ gradually learnt to write out their own tations have been belied. bills and receipts and maintain their Pudukottai TLC experiment stands on its production accounts. Two of the group own and in sharp contrast to that of Puduvai leaders, Vasantha and Sholai showed us Arivoli Iyakkam. Every campaign is primarily their accounts. They were totally illiterate a movement and secondarily a programme but and have learnt this only through attend­ it has to be conceptualised, planned, initiated ing the Arivoli classes. They also collect all the members of their groups for the and implemented in a well-structured and classes. Some are not too interested still, well-coordinated manner, so that the desired as they feel exhausted after their hard results are achieved in a short time. day’s work and prefer to go to sleep. It is here that Government functionaries Gradually, however, more are getting have a major role to play, not so much as a motivated. They want to understand their control mechanism but as a catalytic force, production accounts, in order to avoid con­ enabling and facilitating mechanism. Such a flicts over distribution of wages and role was played admirably by the District Ad­ profits, to read their loan and savings pass ministration, Pudukottai and more particular­ books and so on. By knowing to read and ly by the Collector and Chairperson of Arivoli write, the contractors and transporters can also not cheat them." Iyakkam. Organisation of 3000, out of 4500 women quarry workers, into cooperatives and One can draw several interesting and use­ giving the quarries on lease to them is a case ful lessons from the two examples of Pon­ in point. This was an unusual, unconventional dicherry and Pudukottai. and extra-ordinary step. This required lot of In Pondicherry, the campaign was spon­ grit, courage and determination which the sored and supported fully by Government at energetic Collector, Pudukottai had possessed in abundant measure. Once it was made know the initial state. It is as a result this support that she was empathetic and sensitive to the that the first phase of the campaign in the genuine needs of the poor and her commitment basic literacy stage could be brought to its to alleviation of their plight through organisa­ logical and successful conclusion. tion was made known, others followed suit.

78 This is how the Assistant Director (Mines) It is acknowledged that neither the spread at the District headquarters, who would have nor the impact of the campaign strategy is ordinarily followed the conventional approach uniform, being far less dramatic. Like any in matters of grant of lease, was found sensi­ other social policy, the campaign is also the tive to the women’s need at every step. product of a particular point of time or milieu As Ms. Rao writes, "Seeing poor, rural or setting and it has to weather all the storms women struggling hard to break out of their and vicissitudes of that time. It cannot get social barriers and overcome economic hurdles, away from it. Having said this, however, we seems to bring out the goodness and desire to will not be doing justice to the campaign ap­ help in Government officials and ordinary proach if we do not acknowledge its rationale people as well". and force. It needs to be told and retold with full conviction that after having experimented It was, however, not all a smooth sail. As with successive and alternative models of the contractors felt deprived of their quarry literacy and education over a time-frame of rights and hence profits, they refused to allow more than 4 decides (1950-92), we have now trucks entry into the area. The threat con­ settled down to a model - the campaign mode tinues and help from law and order authorities of total literacy which has given us lot of hope, has to be sought time and again. But the prob­ faith and conviction that this is one model lem arising out of the threat is not intractable which can assure us of the right results in the or unresolvable as the sympathy of an em­ right time in the right manner in the most pathetic administration lies with the quarry participative, democratic and cost-effective workers, the poor SC women who deserve help. way. The freedom and spontaneity with which CONCLUSION people have taken to this mode, the cultural renaissance which it has generated, the In a pluralistic, multi-lingual and multi­ literacy friendly environment which it has cultural country like ours, where conditions created and sustained and the glitter of hope, vary widely from region to region, from district excitement and joy which it has left in the face to district and even within the same district, of millions of learners and volunteers, are all it will be a travesty of truth to say that only factors which have renewed and reinforced our one approach, far less the campaign approach, commitment to this mode. It has, however, to should be adopted and implemented for be remembered that campaign is a mode and uniform results. Those of us who have been not the goal. Total Literacy is our goal, our with the Mission since its inception have ac­ polestar, the cinosure of all eyes. The paths cepted the limitations of a uniform social policy may be more than one but all of them must being valid for the whole country at one point lead to the primacy or centrality of that goal. of time. Instead of advocating the inflexibility There cannot be any compromise with this and sacrosanctity of any policy or any ap­ supreme truth. Even if we have suffered some proach, we have all along made ourselves reverses due to extraneous factors or cir­ amenable to new ideas and suggestions and cumstances beyond our control, our faith in the have advocated a policy of learning by sharing efficacy of the approach which is now fairly in a climate of total openness and flexibility. well-proven and well-tested must remain un­

79 shaken. Since success in areas of social policy surrendering in the midst of this long journey and their execution is rather elusive and not to eternity. To conclude in the words of the uniform and is also short-lived, it was all Kattopanishads: throughout being contended that stories of such success which are also stories of absorb­ ing human interest must be documented for history, failing which posterity will not forgive «T7T*T 17TTT f^TcTT T T F W us for not telling the strategy we chose oursel­ >3 vS ves and the direction in which we have moved ^ f' WTTrT W fr so far. We have certainly not achieved any miracles through the campaign approach and we have to traverse a rather long and thorny Arise, awake (O Man) ! Realise (that path to reach the ultimate goal but every single Atman) having approached the excel­ milestone (be it Kerala or Burdwan or lent (teachers). Like the sharp edg

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