POLITICS OF MASS LITERACY IN INDIA A case study of two north Indian villages under the ‘Total Literacy Campaign’ 1988-95 By AJAY KUMAR Thesis submitted to the University of London in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 1998 Department of Politics School of Oriental and African Studies London University London ProQuest Number: 10672800 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10672800 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 ABSTRACT This project is a study of the politics of mass literacy in India. It sets the problem of literacy in the context of public discourses, institutional practices and formation of various identities related to educational and development goals in contemporary Indian society. The study is centered around specific case studies of two villages under the ‘Total Literacy Campaign’ (TLC) launched nationwide in May 1988 by the National Literacy Mission Authority (NLMA). Despite marginal improvement in literacy rates since independence, there has been a steady increase in the absolute number of total ‘illiterates’, which is bigger than the size of ‘literates’. Also the gap between ‘literates’ and ‘illiterates’ has been ever- increasing. The government admits its failures towards mass education and hence now it has declared promotion of literacy as a national mission. To counter its past failures, it has launched a ‘total campaign’ approach in adult literacy programme along with ‘Education For All’ (EFA) goal in general towards elementary education. Thus this project is a study of the pedagogic principles, practice and public policy on promotion^mass education and literacy in India. It seeks to study the cultural and linguistic bases of mass literacy and the democratic i.e. participatory and interactive/discursive methods of literacy promotion. The study is based on new socio-cultural approaches to language, discourse-learning, identity and culture (Introduction, Chapter 1). It is an interdisciplinary study in literacy practices (language and discourse learning) whose development is traced with colonial history of social, political and educational development in north India (Chapters 2&3). It traces these developments beginning with nationalist thinking on nation-building, mass literacy and education during the freedom movement before 1947 (Chapter 2), and the evolution of public policy goals on education and its culture after 1947 (Chapter 3). It looks into why highest ‘illiteracy’ exists in the Hindi- speaking states and how adequately our educational planners have addressed these complex problems. The policy principles and institutional practices in learning are further examined in case studies of two villages in Bihar and Haryana (Chapters 4&5). TLC’s pedagogic principles, practices and relevance as seen and understood by learners are examined in order to establish the real contexts of a learning. This is also done through a concrete area of language and content analysis of the TLC reading materials, the way TLC Primers (texts) have been presented to the learners and the ways these texts are interacted with, by the adult learners (Chapter 6). We thus endeavour to establish the issue of literacy-learning in terms of survival, cultural and identity needs of the learner. All these discussions are primarily based on adult learners’ and concerned people’s historical, social, and classroom experiences. ACKNOWLEDGMENT To Sudipta Kaviraj (SOAS) - a wonderful and an understanding supervisor, not as cool as he looks but because he’s got so much to deal with, who by his sheer vastness of insight and scholarship makes his student’s all academic efforts challenging. His intellectual wisdom and informed scholarship made me learn a lot. A mysteriously illuminating academic man who trains his students friendly yet in a critical and liberal way in the huge terrain of social sciences where discourses often conflict with each other. To David Taylor (SOAS) - an affectionate and helpful ‘Guru’, always on the go - to the conferences and meetings, a very hard-working person, both for his students and himself, fascinating to talk to, a genuinely helpful person who takes interest not only in your work but also in yourself - a teacher good for the self-esteem of students. To Brian V. Street (formerly University of Sussex, now Kings College, London) - an profound international scholar on literacy, accessible and humble, thanks for his intimate guidance and interest in my work. To Ms. Angela Little (Institute of Education, London) - for her personal interest and specific comments on my research proposal and the methodology of survey design. To Alan Rogers (University of Reading) - for his wann welcome and exceptionally valuable suggestions on ways to look at government-sponsored literacy programmes, and for sharing his ideas and experiences of literacy works in south India. To Francesca Orsini (University of Cambridge, earlier at SOAS), a reliable and very helpful friend indeed, who with her scholarship in Hindi literature always stood behind me to help, both emotionally and intellectually. My deepest gratitude to her. To Ashis Banerjee (INTACH, New Delhi), my old teacher-cum-friend, a personal ‘Guru’ of intimate compassion and scholarship, interaction with whom is a pleasure under his reassuring gesture. He combines affection and personal knowledge to suit the esteem of his students. To Commonwealth Scholarship Plan, Association of Commonwealth Universities, the British Council and Government of India (D/O Education) who made me available the entire expense of my study in London. Thanks for their overbearing patience, courtesy and professional help which was always available to me. To Ms. Catherine Guest (Department of Politics, SOAS), Mr. R.C. Dogra and other staffs of SOAS Library, and Library Staffs at Institute of Education, Senate Library and BLPES Library, who often even at odd times were considerate and eagerly ready to help me every way. My special thanks and gratitude to Ms. Catherine and Mr. Dogra. To Ms. Angela M Leeds, special thanks and deep gratitude for her care and empathy, and for her painstaking efforts to go through the entire draft. To my friends, Ashwini (Sussex), Sanjoy and Jenny (Sussex), Yashwanta (SOAS), Santosh (Glasgow), Mahendra Reddy (Institute of Education), Sudeshna (SOAS), Nick Hostelier (SOAS), Greg Cameron (SOAS), Tithi (SOAS), Tanmoy and Arah (UCL), Sumit and Mehnaz (LSE), Lopamudra (SOAS), Shahid Riaz and Munazza Shahid (Imperial College), Surya Kumar Singh (Imperial College) - a huge list - but to count a few for support and encouragement, intellectual remarks and comments. To my wife Rashmi and my son RITWIK, for the pains they suffered because of seemingly an unending struggle with this Ph.D. project, the love and bitterness which I encountered in my life as a new person (becoming a husband and a father), and ultimately my wife’s perseverance, hard work, discipline and constant encouragement. A woman of best substance from all the comers of the world. And finally to my parents and parents- in-law, the love and hope, the passion and expectations, and the things that the whole world couldn’t give me. With this project, I hope to fulfill a minute dream which all those above mentioned expected from me. ______________________ CONTENTS______________________ Tittle page of the Thesis 1 Abstract 2 Acknowledgment 3 Content page 4 Abbreviations 5 Map of India 6 CHAPTERS 1. Introduction : The Perspective on Literacy 7-39 Aim, Scope, Meaning, Rationale and Theoretical framework of the project Analytical Fields of a Field-based Research - survey design and approaches 2. Literacy and Nationalist Thinking in India 40 - 69 3. Evolution of Public Policy Goals: Education and Literacy 70 - 97 4. Literacy Development in Bihar (a) History of Educational Development (in Bihar) 98 - 118 (b) TLC in Bihar: A case study (of a tribal village) 119-155 5. Literacy Development in Haryana (a) History of Educational Development (in Haryana) 156 - 170 (b) TLC in Haryana: A case study (of Deshalpur village) 171 - 197 6. TLC’s Hindi Language Primers: An Analysis 198 -235 7. Conclusion 236 - 244 Appendixes (1,2 and 3) 245 - 249 Bibliography and References 250 - 260 Abbreviations BEP Bihar Education Project BGVS Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti (a national level voluntary organisation) BIMARU Hindi- speaking states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pra< CABE Central Advisory Board of Education (D/O Education, New Delhi) CBSE Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi) CUP Cambridge University Press DAE Directorate of Adult Education DC Deputy Commissioner or District Collector EFA Education For All FLAW Functional Literacy for Adult Women GNP, GDP Gross National Product, Gross Domestic Product GOI Government of India IAEA Indian Adult Education Association IP CL Improved Pace and Content of Learning JRY Jawahar Rozgar Yojna JSN Jana Shilcshan Nilayam KRPs Key Resource Persons MHRD Ministry of Human Resource