9th INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

Changing Roles and Functions in Public Relations

Best Western South Miami South Miami, Florida March 9 – March 12, 2006

Edited by Marcia Watson DiStaso University of Miami

IPRRC - 337 Framing a Disaster FEMA Press Releases and Hurricanes Katrina and Rita Vanessa Murphree The University of South Alabama [email protected]

FEMA prepares the nation for all hazards and manages federal response and recovery efforts following any national incident. FEMA also initiates mitigation activities, trains first responders, works with state and local emergency managers, and manages the National Flood Insurance Program and the U.S. Fire Administration. FEMA became part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security on March 1, 2003 FEMA boilerplate

On August 23, 2005, the National Hurricane Center reported a “disturbed” weather pattern off the southeastern coast of the Bahamas that would soon become the most notorious hurricanes of our time—Katrina. Within three days, the storm was a Category 3 hurricane blowing through southeast Florida. Six days later, much of the Mississippi Gulf Coast and parts of the Louisiana coast were destroyed. Seven days later, the break in the New Orleans levees overwhelmed the city. And within a month’s time, on September 24, Hurricane Rita, a hit the Louisiana and Texas coastlines as a Category 3 storm causing extensive wind and water damage. In the days preceding and weeks following these storms, the Federal Emergency Management Agency distributed 584 press releases (between August 23 and October 31). This qualitative study examines these releases and compares the September and August messages presented with the timeline of events surrounding the hurricanes. The analysis demonstrates how FEMA framed messages and distributed crucial information during one of the county’s largest national disasters.

FEMA History FEMA was created in 1979 under Jimmy Carter’s administration. Known as a “political parking lot,” the agency underwent a number of scandals regarding the appointment of inexperienced people to high-level emergency planning positions.1 In 1992 with George H. Bush as president, a Category 5 hurricane, Andrew, hit the Florida Keys. This was United States’ harshest storm in twenty-three years. Thousands were stranded without electricity, food, or water. It took FEMA five days to respond. The Clinton administration appointed , the former Arkansas state emergency manager, director in 1993. He served until 2001 and was the first FEMA director with direct disaster management experience. Witt instigated a successful mitigation program and directed the agency through a number of major hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes without scandal. In 2001 George W. Bush appointed his campaign manager, Joe Allbaugh, to direct FEMA and Michael Brown as FEMA general counsel. Despite budget cuts and inexperienced personnel, FEMA worked well in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. At that time, President Bush created the Department of Homeland Security, and FEMA became a sub-department rather than an independent agency. At this point Allbaugh left the agency, and Brown took over. Under Brown’s leadership, FEMA ironically rehearsed for a Category 5 hurricane a year before Katrina struck. But during the exercise, FEMA funding was cut. So final planning decisions were not made and much was “left to be determined.” In a July 2004 FEMA press release, FEMA Regional Director Ron Castleman said the exercise illustrated “great progress.” “Disaster response teams developed action plans in critical areas such as search and rescue, medical care, sheltering, temporary housing, school restoration and debris management.”2

IPRRC - 338 But despite planning efforts, the response, especially in New Orleans, was by all accounts abysmal. While residents waited without food, water, or adequate shelter, it took six days to get troops the area. Two weeks later, in a nationally televised speech, President Bush declared that “the nation will learn the lesson of Hurricane Katrina.”3 Then less than four weeks after Katrina hit the Gulf Coast, Hurricane Rita hit the Florida, Texas, and Louisiana coasts. FEMA officials had promised a more organized response, but evacuation efforts created mayhem. A September 23 press release noted that FEMA had “pre- positioned enough commodities for four days.”4 But even with this planning, evacuation efforts were muddled, dangerous, and sometimes deadly. FEMA criticism continued. Investigations are still underway regarding the lack of proper emergency management in the days and weeks surroundings Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.

Literature Review Public relations scholars have studied the content and effect of press releases and recognize that organizations often frame themselves successfully for the news media. In today’s digital world, press releases have a secondary function of providing information directly to the general pubic via the organization’s web site. Moreover, these releases also serve as a historical record and are often archived on the web. Such an archive made this study possible. These new placements suggest the need for more research regarding the function, placement, and effectiveness of press releases beyond the traditional media relations scope. Much of the literature concerning framing involves the news media, but more and more scholars are considering the organizational tool from a public relations standpoint. For example, in her analysis of the National Organization for Women, Barnett concluded that the organizations use press releases to organize ideas but also to “correct journalistic frames.”5 Entmann discusses the notion of framing and defines it as making the issue “noticeable, meaningful or memorable to audiences.”6 Journalists and public relations professionals frequently use framing to achieve such goals. Moreover, other research suggests that framing is an organizational tool for journalist that can also help readers and viewers understand the issue and build upon familiar concepts.7 Along these same lines, Knight observed that “frames represent powerful mechanisms through which public relations practitioners can mediate debates related to public policy.”8 Andsager and Smiley agreed that framing is common in public relations and noted that government officials frequently “employ public information offices to communicate their frames.”9 In another political example Flowers, Haynes, and Crespin examine the 1996 Republican presidential nominee press releases and the subsequent news stories and found that the media responded to information-oriented messages while being less receptive to issue-oriented messages. They noted, however, that state press organizations were more receptive to issues-oriented messages.10 Yet another politically oriented analysis suggested that candidates presented distinct images and positions and were “differentially successful in getting news media to reflect their positions.”11 Rohlinger studied the abortion debate by examining how two opposing organization used frames to attract media coverage and determined that media strategy is important but that is almost always influenced by organizational structure.12 An examination of NAACP media message surrounding the 2000 presidential elections found that the media generally ignored the organization’s framing efforts. This article, however, also brings attention to the need to study the role of organizational messages that do not appear in the media but that are still effective and persuasive.13

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Methodology This qualitative analysis examines FEMA’s message frames and the relevance of FEMA messages as they compare to the events surrounding the hurricanes. Such a study is important because of the magnitude of hurricanes Katrina and Rita and the recent reorganization of FEMA and the Department of Homeland Security. These news releases offer insight into how FEMA responded to these catastrophic events and suggest that FEMA’s press releases provided both relevant and irrelevant information while often ignoring major news events of the day. On the other hand, it is clear that FEMA delivered information to the media though other outlets. For example, a number of press conference featuring FEMA representative were covered in the news but were not mentioned in the press releases. This study, however, is limited to a review of press releases and does not examine other media relations strategy and tactics. In order to examine the releases, I built two three-column matrixes. The first consisted of the date, the major hurricane-related news stories of the day, and the FEMA press release headlines. First I examined the releases and identified themes and categories. I then compared the events of each day with the messages that FEMA distributed via its press releases. The second matrix identified FEMA frames. This analysis examines news releases posted on FEMA’s web site from August 23 (seven days prior to Katrina hitting the Gulf Coast) to October 31. The news timeline is detailed through September and much more general in October. Therefore, the September analysis is more descriptive, while the October analysis provides a broad overview of frames without the detailed news timeline comparison.

Findings: Optimism, superhero, and instructor. I identified three frames—optimism, superhero, and instructor. These frames were consistent throughout and left little room for controversy or criticism within the releases. The Instructor The most common theme within the instructor framework addressed logistical matters related to the opening and closing of disaster relief centers. One hundred and thirteen releases addressed this topic. All of these releases were practical and straightforward indicating time and date of opening and announcing that disaster victims could register first via phone and come to the center to address additional questions and “meet face-to-face with recovery specialists.” In addition the releases generally indicated that written instructional materials and state, federal, and volunteer agencies along with Small Business Administration loan offers would be available.14 Related releases addressed the number of people served and the accomplishment of some of the centers. Other instructional topics addressed “Frequently asked questions” and “how to apply for assistance” matters, housing, safety guidelines, fraudulent disaster assistance claims, and emergency matters that were not related to the hurricanes. These releases informed readers on issues related to the application process, types of available assistance, checking the status of application, and assistance for undocumented immigrants.15 A release with the headline “Safety Our #1 Concern” focused on debris removal and the FEMA partnership with Mississippi’s Task Force Hope. The release included a list of safety guidelines and quotes the task force public affairs director: “Safety is our number one concern as heavy equipment and crews move from street to street removing debris. . .”16 Additional instructor-framed release themes included instruction of arranging “home inspections without going home,” applying for crisis counseling, the availability of FEMA-sponsored one-way travel tickets to get people out of Texas shelters, and using care when spending grant

IPRRC - 340 money.17 The counseling releases noted that “seeking emotional help is smart and practical” and that FEMA had approved more than $1.5 million for mental health assistance in Alabama Other general topics address “frequently asked questions” and “how to apply for assistance” matters, housing, safety guidelines, fraudulent disaster assistance claims, and emergency matters that were not related to the hurricanes. These releases informed readers on issues related to the application process, types of available assistance, checking the status of application, and assistance for undocumented immigrants.18 A release with the headline “Safety Our #1 Concern” focused on debris removal and the FEMA partnership with Mississippi’s Task Force Hope. The release included a list of safety guidelines and a quote from the task force public affairs director: “Safety is our number one concern as heavy equipment and crews move from street to street removing debris. . .”19 Another unusual release format the fell into the instructional frame was one “two-part series” concerning misunderstanding related to disaster aid. The releases stated “misleading rumors, half- truths and misunderstandings about available assistance may cause some hurricane-struck residents to miss out on much-needed help” and offered a list of myths and fact to assist hurricane victims. Some of the misunderstanding addressed included: • I got help from the American Red Cross, so now I can't get help from FEMA or the state. • I got help from the American Red Cross, so I'm already registered with FEMA. • I have insurance, so there is no other help available. I have to be poor to qualify for disaster aid. I have to wait for my insurance adjuster before I apply for disaster assistance. • I rent an apartment. I can't get help. • I'm self-employed and out of work; I can't qualify for disaster unemployment benefits.20 The Superhero Many of FEMA’s releases took on a congratulatory tone and repeatedly announced the many generous contributions of the organization along with explanations of how FEMA will correct the situations. These releases framed FEMA as superhero who was ready to jump in and save the day at a moment’s notice. The most common theme appearing within the superhero fame is the announcement of the amount of money that FEMA had granted to specific states for hurricane recovery. Seventy-two releases addressed this topic throughout the seven weeks examined. The essential nature of each of these releases was the notion that FEMA was improving the situation by providing money. In fact, many of these releases contained a congratulatory tone and suggested that the agency would continue to provide money to the affected areas. For example, on September 30, FEMA issued five releases indicating the between $8-37 million had been distributed to various states to assist Katrina evacuees. These releases noted that funds provided “food, shelter, clothing, medical and dental care, funeral expenses and other emergency needs” and “housing assistance to those persons who are eligible” and that evacuees should contact FEMA to register for assistance. These releases also suggested that evacuees contact the Red Cross for additional assistance and lauded the organization and other volunteer agencies for their efforts. 21 A second theme within the Superhero frame involved the president’s declaration of emergencies for states across that country that housed hurricane evacuees. These announcements are related to the grant announcement because they also report that FEMA money will be forthcoming. Forty-four releases made such announcements. Each generally noted that federal aid would supplement the local response to provide relief to evacuees.22 Moreover, a few releases referred to the declaration of “major disasters” in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. The assistance under this declaration included “grants to help pay for temporary housing, home repairs and other serious

IPRRC - 341 disaster-related expenses.” The releases also noted that small business loans were available to cover residential and business losses.23 A September 27 hero-framed release declared that more than 1,200 FEMA inspectors working to reach Louisiana residents and a September 29 release chronicle the use of “battlefield technology” during “operation blue roof, which entailed the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, operating under a FEMA mission assignment, installing blue plastic tarpaulin roofs on damaged homes. The technology used involved aerial photography and determining what homes to save before entering the affected areas.24 Optimism Headlines throughout the release included such phrases as “back to business,” “opportunity sessions,” “bringing hope to hurricane victims,” and “reaching out in many languages.” With very little exception, the FEMA releases contained an optimistic forward-looking tone. One headline, “Hit Twice? Register Twice!” encouraged victims of both Katrina and Rita to register twice while offering an out-of-place bargain basement tone in the headline. The body copy however retained the formal, but friendly FEMA qualities. FEMA also registered some concern regarding the awarding of contracts to multi-national corporations, but the agency did so within an optimistic frame. So even some of the harshest criticism was not directly acknowledged. FEMA sent an October 8 release stating that the agency “solicits small, local and minority-owned businesses for Katrina-related contracts” and that “small business account for 72 percent of contract dollars for Katrina recovery.” The release also noted FEMA conducted “outreach events” in Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi so that they could “share contracting information with small, local and minority-owned businesses 25 The overriding air of optimism continued. A summary of the October 11 Rita and Katrina recovery summary releases lauded the agency for a slew of accomplishment such as the opening of recovery centers, the number of grant applications, shelters, trailers, inspections, blue roof installations, meals served, commodities shipped, and the amount of debris removed.26 FEMA Press Releases and the Hurricane Timeline The three emerging frames in this study strongly suggest the FEMA was out of touch with the news and events surrounding the disaster. An examination of the events surrounding Katrina and Rita and the topics addressed in FEMA releases reinforces this concept and suggests the agency did not have a grasp of the public’s needs and concerns. This review compares news and releases from August 25 to September 13, two days after Brown’s resignation and the day that Bush accepted personal responsibility for the mismanagement of the disaster. A more general comparison follows for the following six weeks. It is, however, important to note that many of FEMA releases concerning logistical matters and instruction were indeed useful. People in the affected areas were in desperate need of information regarding assistance applications and disaster relief. And to a great degree, these press release likely provided this important and essential information. But from a broader perspective, the release simply did not acknowledge the dramatic events surrounding the hurricanes or the dramatic controversy the consequently surrounded FEMA. For example, Katrina hit South Florida on August 25 and killed eleven people. The day’s releases noted that Brown spoke at the Colorado’s governor’s conference. He mentioned that the country was prepared for natural disasters—“ We are prepared for all-hazards disasters, man-made and natural”— but he focused on terrorism rather than the hurricane threat stating that: “The President knows what we at the Department of Homeland Security know, and what all of you know – the strength of our response capabilities has the power to take

IPRRC - 342 the terror out of terrorism. And when all response entities work together, we provide a stronger, more effective response,” Brown said.27 Along with the Colorado governors’ conference release, other August 25 releases noted FEMA had provided $59 million for Hurricane Dennis (an early July hurricane that hit a lightly populated area in the Florida panhandle) and $6.5 million for winter storm aid. The organization also took on the instructor role and posted one notice urging Katrina preparedness featuring a list of “actions to undertake and supplies to gather.” Actions included evacuation, securing the home, and stocking up on emergency supplies.28 Ironically, the agency used a superhero frame to applaud itself for providing $3.1 million to Oklahoma to buy flood-prone homes and construct a “flood detention facility.” Brown was quoted: "Mitigation projects like this are wise investments in communities vulnerable to regular flooding." The next day Louisiana Governor Blanco declared a state of emergency. FEMA releases only mention the hurricane in the context of the suspension of disaster relief centers in the Florida panhandle that were operating as a consequence of previous hurricanes. Instead, topics fell within the instructor frame and addressed the need for New Yorkers to buy flood insurance, disaster planning in Oklahoma and Florida, and the need to use disaster checks “wisely.” Two days before Katrina hit the Gulf Coast, FEMA authorized emergency aid for Louisiana. The release stated: … Bush authorized the aid under an emergency disaster declaration issued following a review of FEMA's analysis of the state's request for federal assistance. FEMA will mobilize equipment and resources necessary to protect public health and safety by assisting law enforcement with evacuations, establishing shelters, supporting emergency medical needs, meeting immediate lifesaving and life-sustaining human needs and protecting property …29 FEMA issued three press releases on August 28, the day Katrina reached Category 5 status. One declared emergencies in Florida, Mississippi, and Alabama and two addressed preparedness issues. By this time, there were approximately 25,000 people at the Superdome. The National Hurricane Center predicted levee breaches and 28-foot storm surges and reported that much of the Gulf Coast could be uninhabitable for months to come. Hurricane Katrina’s eye struck Buras, Louisiana, at 6 a.m., Monday, August 29. Brown appears on CBS’s Early Show saying he is pleased with preparation and will send aid to affected areas. Blanco also appears and seemed satisfied with efforts. Both later noted concerns about flooding. Lake Pontchatrain breached the Industrial Canal and over 40,000 homes flooded. FEMA issues eight releases on August 29. Three of these are disaster declarations. One concerns a Nevada fire. Another notes that disaster relief centers will reopen in the Panhandle. And the two most notable instructed first responders wait for orders before dispatching to the affected areas: Michael D. Brown, Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Emergency Preparedness and Response and head of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), today urged all fire and emergency services departments not to respond to counties and states affected by Hurricane Katrina without being requested and lawfully dispatched by state and local authorities under mutual aid agreements and the Emergency Management Assistance Contract.30 The second such release ask for cash donations (and provided a list of organizations) while urging potential volunteers to stay away from “affected areas unless directed by a voluntary agency.31

IPRRC - 343 The August 20 Times Picayune headline announced “Catastrophic Lakeview Levee Breach …” That same day, the New Orleans Convention Center became the second New Orleans shelter while the I-10 overpass serves as transportation waiting area with no supplies. Flooding has reached 80 percent of the city. One August 20 releases instructed evacuees to “stay put” and away from damaged areas.32 Eight more releases that day announced the deployment of medical teams to the Gulf States. The releases quoted Brown: “FEMA is coordinating the mobilization of all available federal resources to help residents affected by this dangerous storm.…”33 The next day, FEMA issued five releases. One listed federal response activities such as the mobilization of trucks, rescue workers, and supplies.34 The others noted deadlines for Dennis assistance, advice for avoiding shady contractors, and disaster assistance center logistics. Meanwhile, the news media reported on FEMA’s plans to bus people to Houston’s Astrodome, Bush’s declaration that New Orleans is “under water” and that the Mississippi Coast was destroyed, increasing lawlessness in New Orleans, and the escalating situation at the Convention Center. FEMA reminded its Florida constituents on September 1 that it would continue long-term efforts in their state while addressing the needs of Katrina victims and instructed hurricane victims in logistical matters regarding paperwork requirements. The list of news events that day included: • Bush told Diane Sawyer that a transportation lift is getting people out. • Chertoff and Brown declare that they are not aware of Convention Center conditions • Superdome evacuation suspended due to violence • Bush holds press conference with his father and Bill Clinton. • Chertoff holds press conference and says Superdome is secure • Nagin sends “desperate SOS” on CNN saying he needs resources and buses • CNN runs graphic Convention Center reports • Blanco issues “shot to kill” order regarding looters. • New Orleans May Ray Nagin looses his temper in a WWL radio interview and calls more a moratorium on “God damned press conferences.” The events of September 2 were equally eventful and contentious. But again, the FEMA press releases largely ignore the news, even news that pertains to the agency. Amid chemical explosions, overturned buses, hospital evacuations, and press conferences praising FEMA, releases discuss disaster aid and centers, fuel restrictions, and the delivery of supplies. Instructions for FEMA hurricane victim registration giving money to appropriate organization run along side news of emergency declaration in Arkansas and Texas and the deployment of search and rescue teams on September 3. News headlines, on the other hand, note that Blanco hired former FEMA director James Lee Witt to help in Louisiana and that evacuations are beginning at the Convention Center. The Superdome is mostly empty, and Chertoff expressed confidence in Brown wile blaming state and local officials for the inadequate disaster management. Six days after Katrina hits the Gulf Coast, FEMA releases noted that housing plans were underway and that cruise ships would be available to some evacuees. A “Katrina Recovery Update” listed accomplishments including the evacuation of more than 22,000 people from New Orleans, the opening of 563 shelters, the shipment of MRE’s to affected areas, and the dispatchment of medical and rescue professionals.35 Despite these apparent accomplishments, the Times Picayune declared that “Every official at FEMA should be fired, Director Michael Brown especially.” One week after Katrina hit Buras, Louisiana, Barbara Bush toured the Astrodome and implied that many evacuees were better off than they were before Katrina. FEMA releases note that more emergencies are declared, more centers are opening, and more supplies are arriving. Similar FEMA

IPRRC - 344 messages addressing disaster recovery centers appear on September 6 while news stories report that firefighters are still in Atlanta waiting for FEMA dispatch orders; FEMA has denied journalists’ request to ride in rescue boats; senators have introduced legislation to separate FEMA and DHS; and forced evacuation orders are carried our in New Orleans. The following day, FEMA issued fifteen press releases. Most of these concerned disaster declaration and the recovery centers along with releases announcing Hurricane Dennis assistance deadline and lauding community organizations and FEMA for helping in affected areas. The releases quoted Ron Sherman, federal coordinating officer for Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) recovery operations: Despite our best efforts, some residents may have unmet needs … These specialists build on existing community networks, use local forums and, in many cases, go door- to-door in hard hit neighborhoods to encourage residents to get in touch with us about their losses.36 News stories addressed contaminated floodwaters, the announcement of an investigation into relief efforts, the distribution of federal funds to FEMA, the Defense Department, and the Corps of Engineers. On September 8, Bush suspended the Davis-Bacon Act of 1931, allowing workers to receive less than prevailing local wages in hurricane-affected areas and questions arose regarding Brown’s resume. FEMA releases ignored these issues and instead focused on the availability of legal, housing, and debris removal assistance. Over the next two days (September 9 and 10), Brown was first removed from the relief effort while retaining his directorship and then completely removed from duties. Thad Allen was now in charge of the relief effort. CNN filed a suit against Brown for a “zero access” media policy which was overturned the next day. None of these personnel or legal issues appeared in FEMA releases. Rather, the agency sent messages regarding disaster centers, emergency declarations, announcement of aid and money for affected areas, warning of fraudulent prices, and instructions for managing mold and preparing for Hurricane Ophelia. Allen made headlines on September 11 while working to coordinate recovery efforts in Louisiana. The next day, Brown resigned and R. David Paulison was appointed FEMA director. FEMA releases did include a short statement by Brown. But there was no mention of the personnel change or Paulison in the reports. The text of Brown’s brief statement follows: Today I resigned as Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. As I told the President, it is important that I leave now to avoid further distraction from the ongoing mission of FEMA. It has been an honor and a privilege to serve this President and to work shoulder to shoulder with the hard working men and women of FEMA. They carry out an unusually difficult task under the harshest of circumstances. My respect for these dedicated professionals and this organization is unyielding. There is no other government agency that reaches people in a more direct way. It has been the best job in the world to help Americans in their darkest hours. 37 Bush finally acknowledged personal responsibility for FEMA failures on September 13. FEMA releases only noted the declaration of disasters for twelve more states along with more advice about hurricane preparation and applying for assistance. Similar patterns of releases followed for the next week as recovery efforts continued along the Gulf Coast. By September 20, Hurricane Rita was a Category 2 in the Keys and was headed toward Galveston, Texas. FEMA messages as well as news stories focused on the potential disaster. Nagin

IPRRC - 345 suspended his plan to bring New Orleans residents home and told those who are there to leave again. Bush praises the work in New Orleans and tells reporters that FEMA will be better prepared for Rita. Amid emergency declarations and the announcement of recovery center, FEMA sends releases urging preparedness for Rita and announces that the agency has shifted to “high gear.” The release quoted Paulison declaring that FEMA was “working very closely with all of our federal, state, and local partners." Other releases noted FEMA activities included the distribution water, ice, and food and the dispatching of rescue and medical teams.38 The infamous Texas traffic began on September 21 and intensified on September 22. Other than issuing releases about disaster center closings, urging of preparation, and announcements of emergency aid for Rita-affected areas, FEMA made little mention of the impending disaster. Paulison and Bush do assure the media that they are prepared. Paulison tells an NPR reporter that he and Texas officials are speaking regularly and that there is “a coordination system in place” and that he is working to supply gas to stranded drivers. The day before Rita hits near the Texas/Louisiana, twenty-four nursing home residents die in a bus crash while five FEMA groups carry on with search and rescue efforts in New Orleans. One FEMA release addressed Rita preparation. Hurricane Rita resulted in flood water in Louisiana and Texas, knocked out power for 1.2 million people, and created an estimated $5 billion in damage. Two releases that day address FEMA assistance services in Alabama. Others announced disaster and recovery efforts. FEMA also address “Frequently asked helpline questions” such as: Does it take longer for my FEMA application to process if I apply online? Can I get assistance without having a Social Security number? How will I receive any information mailed to me if I am unable to return to my home right away? I have received my funds for disaster assistance. Do I have to use these funds in a certain amount of time?39 Throughout the remainder of September, FEMA continued to use optimistic, instructor, and superhero frames. As usual, most addressed disaster center logistics, the distribution of funds, how to apply for assistance, and the dangers or returning to flooded areas and misusing FEMA money. With the exception of an even-more optimistic tone, the overall frame and nature of October releases mirrored that of previous weeks. Although FEMA remained in the news on a daily basis, the breaking stories had general subsided until October 20 when Brown blamed Katrina failure on state and local officials and defended FEMA. Chertoff promised to “re-engineer” preparedness. He recognizes flaws in response, but defended the department. There was no mention of these speeches in FEMA releases, which instead urged Hurricane Wilma preparedness and instructed hurricane victims regarding repairs and assistance.

Discussion and Conclusions A cursory review of the news strongly suggests that the media received FEMA news from sources above and beyond the press releases that are listed in the official FEMA archive. This is itself it not so surprising. But it is surprising (at least to the author) to learn the FEMA press release writers generally ignored the controversy surrounding the organization in the wake of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita while framing themselves as instructors, optimists, and super heroes. Moreover, they took an almost a cookie-cutter approach and sent out a myriad of form-like releases that framed FEMA in a positive manner. The agency repeatedly announced its generosity and presented a paternalist view toward the victims in the releases. We read over and over about the millions upon millions that FEMA has given to survivors. And we also read over and over about the help centers that FEMA has provided to the needy. But again, it is important to remember that much of the information instructing victims about

IPRRC - 346 assistance applications and the opening and closing of disaster relief centers was extremely important and consequently appeared frequently in local news sources. The next stage of the qualatative component of this study is to determine the FEMA communication process, ideally with interviews from communication representatives. The hypotheses of such a study would assume that the press release writers and managers are not part of the dominate coalition of decision makers. Instead they offer news in a sort of template format and are restricted to these types of information that they can convey in the release. There is also room for a quantitative content analysis of the releases, but interesting, they were so easy to categorize by headlines and basic content, that this qualitative approach likely illustrates the essential nature of the releases and their content. It would also be interesting to compare the number and types of releases presented at different times and surrounding different disasters.

Endnotes 1. George H.W. Bush, appointed as director. He was a friend and advisor to Bush’s chief of staff, former New Hampshire governor John Sununo. FEMA history is based on FEMA website— FEMA.gov—and The Storm, a PBS Frontline production, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/storm/ 2. “Hurricane Pam Exercise Concludes,” July 23, 2004, FEMA press release, number R6-04-093. 3. The Storm. 4. FEMA Finalizes Preparation for Hurricane Rita Landfall, September 23, 2005, number HQ-05-296. 5. Barbara Barnett, “Feminists Shaping News: A Framing Analysis of News Releases From the National Organization for Women,” Journal of Public Relations Research, 14(4), 341-362. 6. Robert Entmann, “Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4)51- 58, 1993, 52-53. 7. William A. Gamson and Andre Modigliani, “Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A constructionist approach. American Journal of Sociology, 95(1), 1-37, 1989; Michael Karlberg, “News and conflicts: How adversarial news frames limit public understanding of environmental issues. Alternatives 8. M. G. Knight, “Getting past the impasse: Framing as a tool for public relations. Public Relations Review, 25, 381-398. 1999. 9. Julie Andsager and L. Smiley, “Evaluating the public information: Shaping news coverage of the silicone implant controversy. Public Relations Review, 24, 183-201, 1998. 10. Julianne F. Flowers, Audrey A. Haynes, and Michael H. Crespin, American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 47, No. 2, April 2003, 259-273.) 11. M. Mark Miller, Julie L. Andsager, and Bonnie P. Riechert, Framing the Candidates in Presidential Primaries: Issue and Image in Press Release and News Coverage, J&MC Quarterly, Vol. 76, No. 2, Summer 1998, 312- 324) 12. Deana Rohlinger, Framing the Abortion Debate: Organizational Resources, Media Strategies, and Movement- countermovement Dynamics. Sociological Quarterly, Fall 2002, Vol. 43. Issue 4. 479. 13. Stephanie Chapman Perkins, Un-presidented: a qualitative framing analysis of the NAACP’s public relations response to the 2000 presidential election. Public Relations Review, March 2005, Vol. 31, Issue 1, 63-61. 14. Disaster Recovery Centers Open in Ocean Springs and Pascagoula, September 5, 2005, Release number: 1604- 007. 15. Frequently Asked Questions on how to Apply for FEMA Assistance, October 29, 2005, Release number: 1609- 007. 16. Safety Our #1 Concern, October 14, 2005, Release number: 1604-069. 17. Colorado Evacuees Can Arrange for Home Inspections without Going Home, October 17, 2005, Release number: 3224-001. FEMA Opens Door for Crisis Counseling, October 3, 2005, Release number: 1605-048. Katrina Evacuees Have Transportation Option, October 19, 2005, Release number: 1606-040. 18. Frequently Asked Questions on how to apply for FEMA Assistance, October 29, 2005, Release number: 1609- 007. 19. Safety Our #1 Concern, October 14, 2005, Release number: 1604-069. 20. Misunderstanding May Cause Some to Miss out on Disaster Aid: Part One of a Two-part Series, October 7, 2005, Release number: 1603-067.

IPRRC - 347 21. FEMA Provides More Than $37 Million to Evacuees in Tennessee, September 30, 2005, Release number: R4- 05-124. Also see other September 30 releases. 22. For example: President Approves Emergency Declaration for New York, October 1, 2005, Release number: HQ- 05-318. 23. President Declares Major Disaster for Louisiana, September 24, 2005, Release number: HQ-05-300. 24. Corps of Engineers Operation Blue Roof Uses Battlefield Technology to Repair Homes Faster Corps Tops 1,600 Temporary Roofs in One Day, September 29, 2005, release number 1604-039. 25. FEMA Solicits Small, Local and Minority-Owned Businesses for Katrina-Related Contracts, October 8, 2005, Release number: HQ-05-332. 26. Hurricanes Katrina And Rita Recovery Summary, October 11, 2005, Release Number: 1603-075 27. FEMA’s Michael Brown Speaks at Colorado Governor’s Conference, August 25, 2005, Release number FNF- 05-016. 28. Official Urge Preparedness as Katrina Intensified, August 25, 2005, Release number LTR-05-015. 29. Emergency Aid Authorized for Hurricane Katrina Emergency Response in Louisiana, August 27, 2005, Release number: HQ-05-169. 30. First Responders Urged Not to Respond to Hurricane Impact Areas Unless Dispatched by State, Local Authorities, August 29, 2005, Release number: HQ-05-174. 31. Cash Sought to Help Hurricane Victims, Volunteer Should not Self-Dispatch, August 29, 2005, Release number: HQ-05-177. 32. Evacuee Cautioned not to Re-Enter Damage Areas Prematurely, August 30, 2005, Release number: HQ-05-180a. 33. Nevada Disaster Medical Assistance Team Deployed to Gulf States for Hurricane Katrina, August 30, 2005, Release number: R9-05-089. 34. Life Safety Tops FEMA Priorities, Supplies Pour In, August 31, 2005, HQ-05-186. 35. Hurricane Katrina Response and Recovery Update, September 4, 2005, Release number: HQ-05-198B. 36. Community Relations Teams Spearhead Disaster Outreach, September 7, 2005, Release number: 1605-006. 37. Statement by Michael D. Brown, Under Secretary of Department of Homeland Security Emergency Preparedness & Response and Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, September 12, 2005, Release number: HQ-05-MBR 38. Preparation for Hurricane Rita Shift into High Gear, September 20, 2005, Release number: HQ-05-283. 39. FEMA Addresses Some Frequently Asked Helpline Questions, September 24, 2005, Reference number: HQ-05- 299.