Climate Adaptation on the Majapahit's Urban Settlement

International Journal of Innovative Research and Knowledge Volume-2 Issue-6, June-2017

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH AND KNOWLEDGE ISSN-2213-1356 www.ijirk.com

CLIMATE ADAPTATION ON THE MAJAPAHIT’S URBAN SETTLEMENT

Yosafat Winarto*, Sri Nastiti Nugrahani Ekasiwi**, Happy Ratna Santosa**

*Doctoral Student, Department of Architecture, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS) Surabaya, Indonesia. **Department of Architecture, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS) Surabaya, Indonesia.

ABSTRACT Majapahit was the largest kingdom in the 13rd until 16th century in Indonesia. The Majapahit’s culture was the origin of long period culture existing in Java and Bali right now. The Majapahit’s region was in a humid tropical climate environment, which was the most difficult climate to be anticipated. The region has extreme environments with high solar radiation conditions, high rainfall and also high humidity. This study aims to answer how the Majapahit’s urban settlements could adapt with the tropics- humid climate in Java so that it could be sustainable. The research used a qualitative research with descriptive-interpretative-transformative method. The main data of the research was interpretation of Majapahit’s urban settlement from researched by Winarto et al (2016). The main data was matched with the adaptation theory by Altman, Rapoport and Wohlwill (1980). Analysis considered some theories of local wisdom and local genius. The settlements studied by analyzing the five elements of settlement: nature, man, society, shell and network (Doxiadis, 1980), and added elements of culture (Sunarningsih, 2004). Studies were analyzed in a historical - interpretive research and descriptive research.

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The result of this study was a knowledge in the behavior- architecture about climate adaptation. Strategy of how the Majapahit’s urban settlement was able to adapt with the tropical-humid climate of Java. Majapahit’s urban settlement had three adaptation strategies: adaptation by adjustment, adaptation by intelligent response and adaptation by adequate protection.

Key Words: climate adaptation; Majapahit urban settlement; ancient urban settlement; Nusantara’s architecture; local wisdom; local genius; Majapahit

INTRODUCTION Adaptation is an effort to reduce non-conformance in a system. Adaptation can be response and anticipation, either individually or collectively, personally or publicly (Adger et al, 2005). Java region in the Majapahit era which is included in the territory of Republic of Indonesia in the present was a region with a tropics-humid climate. Qualitatively, the evidences show similarity of the climate as it is today. Zoetmulder (1983) recorded indications and seasonal features of ancient Javanese literary texts in the classical era of Hindu-Buddhism (including Majapahit-era literary texts). From Ma Huan's note, the Chinese traveler who came to Majapahit (Munandar, 2011) and also Sutikno's (2013) study, concluded that there were two seasons, wet and dry seasons. The main climate issues in this tropics-humid climate area were also the same: high solar radiation, high rainfall and also very high humidity (Lippsmeier, 1994). In the effort to find an answer to how the architecture can provide solutions to tropical-humid climate problems, so this study learns to the local architectural intelligence. The local architecture of Java was formed through the process of evolution over the centuries. In its evolutionary process, local Java architecture had gone through trial and error process to achieve its best form. In previous historical and archeological research, it was concluded that the Majapahit’s settlements were sustainable for centuries. Majapahit’s urban settlement sustainable since the 13th century until now in the form of traditional Balinese settlements.

Majapahit Civilization Majapahit Kingdom was a great history of culture civilization and architecture that was glorious for more than two centuries, in the 13rd – 16th century. Majapahit civilization was the long civilization culmination of culture in Java, and has become a sustainability pillar of Java and Bali civilization until now (Munandar, 2011). The Majapahit glory period began in 1293, it was after being founded by Raden Wijaya (Krtarajasa Jayawarddhana) until the end of Majapahit era in the Dyah Ranawijaya government (Girindrawarddhana) in the year around 1519. The Majapahit kingdom experienced its golden glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk (Rajasanagara) in the year of 1350-1389 with his Prime Minister Gajah Mada. During that period, Majapahit influenced a vast area including Java (and Madura), Malay (and Sumatra Island), Borneo, Bali, Sang Hyang Api, Bima, Seram, Makasar, Buton, Banggawi, Selayar including Papua and some regions in

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south east Asia such as: Siam, Ayodya Pura, Darma Nagari, Marutma, Cambodia and Yawana (Munandar, 2011; Djafar , 2012). Majapahit urban settlement as the object of this research is located on the site of Segaran settlement, was former capital of Majapahit kingdom in Trowulan, Mojokerto, East Java. The Segaran settlement site is the largest settlement site that was excavated by the archaeologist and national archaeological institutions. From the map of Majapahit city reconstruction conducted by Pont (1924) and from many results of research done previously, mentioned that Segaran site was a settlement of Arya society or Majapahit nobility (Munandar, 2013).

MATERIAL AND METHODS In the science of behavior-architecture, known the theory of Altman, Rapoport, & Wohlwill (1980). The theory described the three adaptation strategies in architecture: adaptation by adjustment, adaptation by reaction and adaptation by withdrawal. The concept of architectural adaptation was born from the western view that had four seasons. The concept was not necessarily applicable to the conditions of eastern architecture that have different climates and cultures. This research would like to dig deeper to find the concept of climate adaptation strategy in a more appropriate architecture that represents the eastern view. The case was chosen at the Majapahit’s urban settlement, which represents a sustainable settlement since the 13th century to the present, in the form of traditional Balinese settlements.

Cultural Wisdom of Nusantara Architecture Local cultural wisdom is an attitude of response form from human interaction and environment. Local wisdom is an environmental ethics form existing in the life cycle of society (Marfai, 2012). The cultural environment is a condition encompassing various human society activities that are guided by a complex of particular values, certain norms, customs and the mindsets that have been mutually agreed upon (Ritohardoyo, 2006). Overall there are interrelated and nematically among human, culture and nature. It is concluded that the physical and emotional attachment of human beings to the natural resource environment and the interaction in a system will produce a process which the results will be interrelated, give and take advantage each other over a long period of time, thus giving knowledge about the natural resources itself. The knowledge obtains local wisdom, especially in relation to the human attitude towards nature (Marfai, 2012). Local wisdom has a wider scope than just traditional knowledge. Local wisdom is the embodiment, implementation of articulation and embodiment. Local wisdom is the form of traditional knowledge understood by humans or communities that interact with the surrounding nature. The local wisdom is a cultural knowledge belonging to a particular society includes sustainable natural resource management models and how to maintain relationships with nature through wise and responsible (Widjono, 1998 in Marfai, 2012). Local wisdom is a system that integrates knowledge, culture and institutions as well as the practice of managing natural resources. Local wisdom is also a formulation of all forms of

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knowledge, belief, understanding or insight and customs or ethics that guide human behavior life in the ecological community (Marfai, 2012). Local wisdom must be communally proprietary and non-individual, which has the openness nature and can be practiced in life throughout the existing community lifetime. Local wisdom is applicative and pragmatic with a commonly understood philosophical foundation, concerning how to make good relationship to all contents of nature. Local wisdom is also holistic about the microcosms and macrocosms life, and has local values from the characteristics of local communities (Keraf, 2005). The climate conscious of urban settlement of the Majapahit community in Trowulan was a bioclimatic wisdom in the Majapahit culture society. It was a lofty knowledge of the local culture that responds to climate, based on ethical values, norms and contextual actions to the local environment. The knowledge process was gained through long and generational experiences in mutually beneficial bonds to achieve an ecological balance format (Winarto et al, 2015). Majapahit architecture was not against nature, but synergized itself with nature. Majapahit architectural concepts in synergy with nature beginning from the smallest scope of the universe, which was a human residence. This concept places architecture as an important science that preserves nature and the environment (Winarto et al, 2015).

The Majapahit Settlement The shape of Majapahit house based on the latest research in the form of reconstruction of Majapahit residence by Oesman (1999) and the shape and proportion of Majapahit residence as a result of Sasongko's (2009: 2010) research still gives many research gaps that have not been developed yet. Oesman (1999) reconstructed the shape only one of the mass of the dwelling house in the Segaran settlement complex (Figure 1). But the building is only one part of the pavilion of some mass of buildings in a courtyard of Majapahit (Oesman, 1999; Munandar, 2011). The images of Majapahit's house was intactly in this research interpreted from archaeological-architectural history studies and matched by re-observation of study objects from manuscripts, temple reliefs, artifacts, settlement sites and more of the Majapahit culture evidences existing in the current time.

Figure 1: The Illustration of Majapahit house according to Oesman (1999), which is part of Majapahit urban settlement (source : www.nationalgeographics.co.id)

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NāgaraKṛtāgama imaged that Majapahit people in the King Hayam Wuruk era was living very prosperous. From the notes of the Chinese traveler named Ma Huan also illustrates that the society life and the Majapahit economy at that time was relatively advanced (Munandar, 2011). Majapahit people that had inhabited in the research object sites in former settlement Segaran in Trowulan was the Arya Majapahit society (Munandar, 2011). Arya was a court official, whose position was lower than Rakyan Mantri (the ministerial council that assists the government). Arya could rise to become Wrddhamantri (senior minister) if considered meritorious (Munandar, 2008; Irawan, 2013). In other words, the highest government official under the king was Rakryan Mahapatih (prime minister), followed by other rakryans, juru pangalasan and the patih subordinates of Majapahit subordinate countries, then under it was Arya (Perkasa, 2012). The ancient Javanese community was in a civilization characterized by unilateral and organic (Coe in Rahardjo, 2011). The characteristic of an unilateral society was the mechanical solidarity pattern in relationships among its members of society. This pattern was characterized by the form of relationships that emphasize the values of uniformity, the system of sanctions which were coercive and faithful to the tradition. Religion was used as a moral basis and repressive social control. In general Reid (2014) concluded that people's housing throughout Southeast Asia including Java performed simply, but the temple was made so grand. Southeast Asian people including Java used very little of their wealth for their houses. This statement was also expressed by Edmund Scott who stopped in Java in the early seventeenth century, that all the houses in Java were built simple from large rattan (probably bamboo) and some small blocks (wood). Houses that look slightly different belong to public figures, usually completed with carving and brick skills (Rush, 2013). Presumably the weather in the tropics-humid climate as well as nature has provided abundant materials. This condition caused the society’s assumption that the house was not something that should be permanent. The public realized that dominant house materials were made of organic material which were easily destroyed or weathered due to climate. So, it periodically should be replaced with new material (Reid, 2014). Interpretation of Majapahit’s urban settlement refers to research Winarto et al (2016). The form of the settlement was analyzed from various evidence: the manuscript NāgaraKṛtāgama, Pont reconstruction map (1924), previous studies, reliefs of Majapahit temples, artefacts, Majapahit urban settlement sites and comparative studies with traditional Balinese settlements. Majapahit settlement consists of sub-groups of urban settlements. Sub-urban settlements formed a pattern of settlement blocks. Between sub-sub-districts are separated by roads with grid pattern. Complexity of road network pattern with variant of road level and settlements level. The settlement unit level was higher than the road level (Figure 2). Vegetation became an important element of the settlement and environment in the Majapahit’s urban settlement. Majapahit’s urban residential unit in Trowulan was a yard bounded by a closed wall fence. Kori was the entrance gate from the universe (big world / jagad gedhe) to the inner yard environment (small world / jagad cilik) in the Majapahit’s residential unit (karang kuwu). There were two types of buildings, the first type was an open building (bale), an open building without walls,

www.ijirk.com Page 68 International Journal of Innovative Research and Knowledge ISSN-2213-1356 with wooden columns called saka. The next type was a closed building (meten), with a wall cover. Basically, the buildings had the same structure as the bale, standing on a column or pole called saka. The column sat on the foundation which was called umpak. Open and closed buildings were erected on a base of terracotta brick stage arrangement called batur.

Figure 2: Road network pattern in Trowulan city with lower altitude than residential area. The road network also had functions as a drainage network of rainwater during high rainfall.

Figure 3 is a graphic illustration of the interpretation of Majapahit’s residental units from the results of the research from various manuscripts and literatures, temple reliefs, artifacts, settlement sites and comparations with Puri in Bali (Winarto et al, 2016). The interpretation was based on detailed building structure description of residential units in Minakjinggo temple relief, supported by relief data from Majapahit temples: Jago temple, Surawana temple, Penataran temple, Tegowangi temple, Jabung temple and Sukuh temple.

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The Reliefs Evidence The Result of Interpretation

Legends A : Main road a : The Gate (Kori) b : Open mass buiding (Bale) c : Wall-closed mass building (Meten) d : Inner courtyard (Natah/Natar)

Figure 3: The interpretation of the yard-shelter unit (karang kuwu) Majapahit urban settlement, composed of various evidences of artifacts and sites, based on mass composition in one relief of Minak Jinggo temple and supported by relief data from other Majapahit temples.

Research Methods This research used qualitative method (Neuman, 2006). Qualitative research involved the process of building practical logic by constructing interpretations of research objects. The results of these interpretations were expected to answer this research question. The research was divided into three stages. First, the theory studies, second, theoretical and empirical interpretation studies, and third, which are then analyzed later and evaluated to obtain the findings. The study compared to adaptation theory by Altman, Rapoport and Wohlwill (1980) with Java-Majapahit climate adaptation study on Majapahit’s urban settlement. The study took the main object from the interpretation of the Majapahit’s urban settlement (Winarto et al, 2016) from previous research based on the NāgaraKṛtāgama manuscript, Pont reconstruction map (1924), reconstruction of Majapahit house (Oesman, 1999), Form and proportion of Majapahit house (Sasongko & Winarto, 2009, 2010), and Pakuwon Majapahit (Munandar, 2011 & 2013). The research was elaborated on the adaptation of the main climate issues according to Lippsmeier (1994) based on local wisdom theories and local intelligence of Java-Majapahit architecture. The whole research method chart is shown in Figure 4. The study looked at five elements of settlement: nature, man, society, shell and network (Doxiadis, 1970) plus culture (Sunarningsih, 2004) for analysis on climate adaptation strategies. Nature included the natural environment including vegetation. Man was an individual of

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Majapahit people especially the knight-Arya group who lived in Segaran settlement. Man also included individual members of the Arya family who lived in Segaran settlements.

Figure 4: The research flow with qualitative method in this research

The Society was an Arya society that once occupied the Segaran settlement site. In research, the Society was translated more broadly to a community system where there was a social organization in a settlement environment. The Shells included facilities and infrastructure of Majapahit’s urban settlements serving as shelter or container and activities of individuals or communities within the scope of a settlement environment. The Network was a network system of facilities and infrastructure of transportation and utility of a Majapahit’s urban settlement. The elements of the settlement completed by Sunarningsih (2004) with the Culture or cultural system. From the discussion of previous chapters, it was known that the dominant cultural system at Majapahit’s urban settlement in Trowulan was classical Javanese culture with the Hindu Ćiwa and Buddha believes. In the study of settlement elements according to Doxiadis (1970) and Sunarningsih (2004), elaborated with the codification of environmentally friendly building aspect analysis by Riju (2009), as well as the criteria for climatic planning of traditional settlements by Afshari (2012). This elaboration resulted in research sub-focus on: settlement and environment pattern, direction and orientation, shape and function of residential unit, material, size and dimension and technology of Majapahit architecture.

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FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS Adaptation was an effort to reduce non-conformance in a system. There were three adaptation strategies according to Altman, Rappoport, and Wohlwill (1980). The first was Adaptation by adjustment. Adjustment means change or correct to make it right - become or make used to new conditions (Oxford, 1995: 5). In the context of climate adaptation, it can be translated into changes or improvements that make better in new environmental conditions. The environment can be a local climate that periodically changed throughout the year. Adaptation by Adjusment was an inward adaptation, which minimizes the conflict between behavior and the environment. This form of adaptation was the most harmonious adaptation to the environment. The second, was adaptation by reaction. Reaction was the response to an earlier action or activity; or opposition to changes; or change caused by substance by the effect of another (Oxford, 1995: 343). In the context of climate adaptation can be translated into: responses to counter environmental change. Changes in changing environments include climate. That was the season change for a year. This adaptation by reaction was not an adjustment effort into, this response or response may be in conflict with the environment. The third, was adaptation by withdrawal. Adaptation by withdrawal was an act of withdrawing (Oxford, 1995: 475-476). This effort was the removal of pressures from the adaptive areas of withdrawal or the avoidance of something in an environment. In the context of climate adaptation was defined as an attempt to withdraw and avoid changes in environmental conditions. Changes in environmental conditions in this case were seasonal changes in a year. Table 1 is a matrix that tests the theory of adaptation strategy of Altman, Rappoport & Wohlwill (1980) to explain climate adaptation in the Majapahit’s urban settlements. Adaptation theory by adjustment can be accepted and in accordance with the strategy of adaptation of Majapahit’s urban settlement. However, in the analysis, adaptation by reaction raised many questions and doubts. While adaptation by withdrawal was not found at all in the Majapahit’s urban settlements.

Adaptation of Solar Radiation Local wisdom in a yard- residential unit that bounded by walled walls created a shading system and wind corridor that able to reduce micro thermal environments. However this type of adaptation was difficult to be included into the classification of adaptation by Altman, Rapoport and Wohlwill (1980). It was not adaptation by adjustment, or adaptation by reaction, not even adaptation by withdrawal. Local wisdom built local genius systems. Wall shading system and wind corridor systems were capable of reducing thermal during the day on road corridors. Climate adaptation was categorized into a new classification: Adaptation by Intelligent Response. Intelligent response in translated local cultural and religious concepts into features in their built environment.

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Table 1: Findings Analysis and Interpretation Matrix of Majapahit Urban Settlement on Climate Issues and Adaptation Strategy Strategies of Discussion the Tropics- Adaptation Majapahit Humid Altman, Strategies Climate Rappoport & of Problem Wohlwill, Adaptation 1980

Protection

No. The Findings dan Interpretations HighSolarRadiation HighRainfall HighHumidity Adjustment Reaction Withdrawal Adjusment IntelligentResponse Adequate

The Settlement and Environment Pattern 1 Crossed Grid Corridor (Gridion) ? Difference between the courtyard height A 2 ? and the road 3 Vegetation in public spaces ? 4 Open Bale in public spaces ? Direction and Orientation Direction of building was 102° from B 1 ? north axis (East-Southeast direction) 2 Orientation to Mount Penanggungan ? The Form and Function of the Residential Unit 1 The fence (penyengker) boundary yard ? 2 Kori as the entrance of the house 3 The inner courtyard 4 Vegetation in the yard ? 5 The layout of building masses in the yard ? C 6 Batur as the building mass base ? 7 The mass typology of open buildings ? The mass typology of wall cover 8 ? buildings The roof of the building (dominance form 9 ? of limasan) 10 Roof tile material by terracotta ? The materials 1 Clay (burn or without burned) ? D Organic materials (wood, bamboo, 2 ? weeds, fibers, etc) 3 Mining materials (stone, sand)

Information : : Adaptation to the climate issues : Strategies of adaptation by Altman, Rapoport & Wohlwill (1980) : Majapahit strategies of adaptation as the findings of research www.ijirk.com Page 73 International Journal of Innovative Research and Knowledge Volume-2 Issue-6, June-2017

(Continuation) Table 1: Findings Analysis and Interpretation Matrix of Majapahit Urban Settlement on Climate Issues and Adaptation Strategy

Strategies of Discussion the Tropics- Adaptation Majapahit Humid Altman, Strategies Climate Rappoport & of Problem Wohlwill, Adaptation 1980

No. The Findings dan Interpretations HighSolarRadiation HighRainfall HighHumidity Adjustment Reaction Withdrawal Adjusment IntelligentResponse AdequateProtection

The technology 1 Burned terracotta ? Wood / bamboo frame building 2 ? construction E 3 Mud adhesives and plant sap ? 4 Wooden connections and pegs ? 5 Wood / bamboo wall covering ? 6 Drainage ?

Information :

: Adaptation to the climate issues : Strategies of adaptation by Altman, Rapoport & Wohlwill (1980) : Majapahit strategies of adaptation as the findings of research

Local wisdom of Majapahit culture put open buildings (bale) as a comfortable public space which was ideal to any types of seasons in Java. Both in the dry season and wet season. Culture also wisely incorporated the elements of vegetation (trees) into an important part in the built environment. This adaptation also had difficulty being included into the type of adaptation classification by Altman, Rapoport and Wohlwill (1980). It was not adaptation by adjustment, nor adaptation by withdrawal. It could be included in the adaptation by reaction, but it was not appropriate, because according to Altman, Rapoport and Wohlwill (1980) the adaptation made by this response might cause environmental conflict. The Majapahit people were intelligent and wise in responding to the climate. Adaptation efforts were comfortable in social and cultural activities. Adaptation by creating important features in the built environment. The existence of Bale and Trees in public spaces in the Majapahit’s urban settlement was a very smart and environmentally oriented strategy (Figure 5). This adaptation

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effort was more than adaptation by adjustment. This adaptation was more accurately as an Intelligent Response. The genius and wise efforts of the Majapahit community in shaping an adaptive climate-friendly bale were classified into adaptation by Intelligent Response and adaptation by Adequate Protection.

Figure 5: Cross section of the bale showing possibility shading patterns during the day

Adaptation of Rainfall Overflow of water during wet season channeled intelligently through a road network serving as a canal during high rainfall. This effort was not an adaptation by adjustment. But it was an effort by Java-Majapahit society to symbiosis with natural condition and climate. The analysis attempts to discuss this category of adaptation with the Altman, Rpoport and Wohlwill (1980) theory: adaptation by reaction was an adaptation made with responses to resist environmental change. In the study of Java-Majapahit’s local wisdom, the effort was not in accordance with the Javanese- Majapahit culture creating the harmony among human themselves, nature and the God as creator. In Javanese-Majapahit culture, harmonious was not by reacting or against the nature. The Javanese-Majapahit society placed themselves as part of the little universe (microcosm) and the big universe (macrocosm) seeking harmony with nature In a depth study of the local wisdom of Majapahit, thus adaptations were more appropriately classified into adaptation by intelligent responses. Intelligent Response was not the result of reaction to the problem but rather than the intelligent response of the local culture to manage and drain the overflow of rainwater before it reached reservoirs during wet seasons (Figure 6). Then, deposits of water could be used during the dry season. In a Bale at a public open space on Majapahit’s urban settlements. There was an ingenious effort by the Majapahit people to close the gaps in the roof and on the tile to avoid leaking during rainfall.

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Figure 6: Open buildings (bale) during heavy rains accompanied by wind and flood

This adaptation was not done by withdrawal efforts or avoiding anything from the environment as in the adaptation by withdrawal classified by Altman, Rapoport and Wohlwill (1980) theory. This adaptation was precisely the direct exposure to the environment but with the maximum protection that protects the occupants from the adverse effects of climate, both solar and rain radiant heat.

Adaptation of Humidity Adaptation by Intelligent Response was not the result of reaction to the problem, but rather the intelligent response of local culture to manage the urban spatial layout and plan an integrated road network system not only with urban drainage system but also forming a regional air corridor system. The impact of the Javanese-Majapahit intelligence community was able to provide thermal comfort to the environment that was maximizing the wind flow through the building. It was an important component of the building's passive design. The regional climate with various topography and existing buildings would affect the microclimate in a region (Idham, 2016: 72). So the movement of airflow could flows well and smoothly through the areas of Trowulan city which increase thermal comfort, that condition decreased the humidity in the environment. The Trowulan’s gridion pattern was formed under the consideration of the Javanese-Majapahit cosmic pattern which has orientation toward four directions (kiblat papat) and the cosmic universe, which was divided into two parts: upper and lower, begja-cilaka, susah-bungah, bapa akasa-ibu pertiwi (Endraswara, 2015: 110). Javanese cosmology was also associated with power. The Majapahit palace was made the center of the cosmos. Javanese cosmology was a Javanese human effort to explain its position in the universe. The existence of a gridion pattern of the city, the walls of the yard fence creates airflow corridors. It had been described in the previous analysis that the air corridor created a microclimate in the Majapahit’s urban settlement. These efforts could be classified into two categories. The first category was adaptation by adjustment. Adaptation was done by adjusting to environmental conditions. The existence of a cluster of mountains in the south and southeast Trowulan gave the potency of dominant airflow.

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The Javanese-Majapahit people adjusted the orientation of Trowulan city planning with gridion pattern. Adjustment provided an opportunity for maximum utilization of the airflow from the mountains in the East and Southeast. Good airflow could improve the microclimate of urban areas. The second category, adaptation by Intelligent Response. Adaptation was not the result of reaction to the problem, but rather to the intelligent response of local culture to manage urban spatial planning and plan an integrated road network system not only by urban drainage system but also formed a regional air corridor system. The municipal road network in the Majapahit capital Trowulan also served as an urban drainage network during high rainfall, especially during the wet (rainy) season throughout the year. The capacity of drainage volume was to accommodate such a large water discharge causing Trowulan community to make canals or drainage integral by road. The road network was dug in such a way that it had a lower level than the residential blocks area. The lower road surface was a rainwater channel network where in each of the Majapahit’s urban residental unit (Karang sakuwu) dumps excess water from the yard to the canal / road. The drainage network boiled down to ponds and river basins. This adaptation strategy was a smart and responsive effort to respond the high rainfall and managed the abundance of rainwater in urban environment in tropical-humid climate. The flowing water was given the maximum possible opportunity into the ground, both in the yard and in the road / canal network. This condition was an adaptation through intelligent responses. Adaptation through responsiveness and intelligently understanding nature, and acting in harmony with the surrounding environment. By these efforts and strategies, it could provide the minimum possible adverse impact on the environment.

Figure 7: The movement pattern of air flow through open buildings (bale) and closed buildings (meten) in a yard of Majapahit’s urban settlement.

The empty space in the yard (natar / natah ) that became an open area in the universe of the little universe (microcosm). An openness gave space among building masses, giving freedom to the air to flow into all parts of space in all building masses in Majapahit's yard (karang-kuwu) (Figure 7). This condition was an adaptation through intelligent responses. Adaptation through

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responsiveness and intelligent understanding of nature, united with the universe and God, and acted in harmony with the surrounding environment. Philosophically, natar / natah as an empty space bringing human beings, the universe and the God as creator to meet together. Trees shading would protect the yard from the scorching sun to reduce the environment temperature. Trees also overshadowed the surrounding environment from rain and create beautiful environmental. This condition was an adaptation through intelligent response. Adaptation through responsiveness and intelligent understanding of nature, united with the universe and God, and acting in harmony with the surrounding environment. Smart and wise efforts of the Majapahit community in providing vegetation elements in the open garden that adaptive to the climate were also classified into adaptation efforts with adequate protection.

CONCLUSION The results of this study revealed a different perspective on the Majapahit’s urban settlements in Java in the past. The humans, architecture and environment synergized intact in a settlement. In urban residential neighborhoods, occupancy took an important role in human interaction with nature and the environment. The synergy of Javanese culture and both Hindu Ćiwa and Budha religions formed the local wisdom and local genius of Majapahit that adapt to climate by aligning themselves and trying to harmonize with nature (Figure 8). From this research also revealed that adaptation strategy by fighting or giving reaction to nature (adaptation by reaction) or adaptation by withdrawal from local climate was not a distinct Javanese-Majapahit culture to shape residential and environment. Settlements and dwellings in Majapahit strived always to align themselves with the climate and environment to create a harmony. Majapahit’s urban settlement did not isolate humans with the environment. But the dwelling and settlement became important elements that made people live in harmony with the environment. When the weather and climate of Java's tropical-humid climate areas were completely unfriendly to humans, the shelter (kuwu) protected only from the source of its disturbance. The shelter (kuwu) also did not totally protect humans with their environment. For example, in the event of heavy rain, the Majapahit Society could remain comfortable in an open bale, without worrying about rain. Majapahit architecture did not withdraw, fight or over-protect themselves from the climate and the environment. The chart in Figure 8 is also the answer to the criticisms of the adaptation theory of Altman, Rapoport and Wohlwill (1980) in the built environment and architecture of Majapahit.

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Figure 8: Adaptation strategies chart for the Majapahit urban settlements on the local climate and the environment

From the analysis matrix shown in Table 1, it could be concluded that Majapahit settlements adapt with the climate and environment through three strategies:

Adaptation by Adjustment Architectural culture adapts itself to local climatic conditions where there were wet season and dry season. This adaptation strategy had the least impact on the environment as it minimizes the conflict between behavioral adaptation and environment.

Adaptation by Intelligent Response It was an active adaptation strategy through intelligent responses for the climate change through ideas, methods, features, engineering and tools that could anticipate the adverse impacts of the local climate. This strategy had relatively little impact on the environment. The effort of adaptation took responsibility for environmental sustainability.

Adaptation by Adequate Protection The actively adaptation through the intelligent efforts of preventive and anticipatory measures to protect specifically just only on the problems caused by adverse environmental impacts. Efforts to address climate issues through adequate protection measures. Efforts are made not by avoiding or withdrawing or fully isolate themselves from the environmental problem. The effort adaptation was to face all the natural conditions, and overcame the basic problems with intelligent and wise efforts. This effort was also relatively had less conflict with the environment. The effort to solve the climate problems in Majapahit architecture was not done partially, but the adaptation was pursued in an integral, comprehensive and sustainable manner in all architectural aspects.

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AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY Yosafat Winarto is the main author in this paper. The author’s background is architecture in the field of building science and environment. Since 2008 many have been involved in inter- disciplinary between architecture-archaeological-history studies. The author also intensively pursue research on the relics of Majapahit kingdom (in 13th until 16th ) in East Java, Indonesia. The author is very interested to explore the local wisdom and genius local, especially in Asia in the past. Currently the author is a student of doctoral program of architecture in Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS) Surabaya, Indonesia since 2013. The second author, Sri Nastiti Nugrahani Ekasiwi is the main promoter / supervisor on doctoral research study. The third author, Happy Ratna Santosa is a co-promoter / co-supervisor on research doctoral studies. The title of this paper is a theme that lifted from the title of the author's dissertation.

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