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Durham E-Theses Organisational learning from crisis : an examination of the UK football industry 1946-97. Elliott, Dominic Paul How to cite: Elliott, Dominic Paul (1998) Organisational learning from crisis : an examination of the UK football industry 1946-97., Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1045/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Abstract Elliott, Dominic Paul Organisational Learning From Crisis: An examination of the UK Football Industry 1946 - 97 This thesis examines organisational learning within the UK Football Industry during and after a series of crisis incidents. In particular, Turner's (1976, 1978) model of Cultural Readjustment is critically examined. In the thesis, it is argued that Turner's model is deficient in its treatment of organisational learning following public inquiries. In the case of the UK Football Industry, it is argued that there was little change to operating norms and procedures following each of the Bolton (1946), Ibrox (1971) and the Bradford and Heysel Disasters (1985). The thesis, drawing upon the relevant management literature, examines the roles played by organisational culture, structure and communication as barriers to effective learning. Effective organisational learning, it is argued, depends not only upon the development of explicit knowledge but also upon the organisational elements that influence the transfer of knowledge into changed behaviour. In the period since 1989, the research indicates that some cultural change has occurred. However, it is argued that those elements that thwarted learning in the earlier period have impeded cultural readjustment. Further, the thesis provides an analysis of the regulatory regime pertaining throughout the period, drawing in particular upon Gouldner's (1954) 'Patterns in Industrial Bureaucracy'. It is argued that the limited cultural change can, in part, be explained by the nature of the regulatory system operated by different local authorities. In the analysis of the post 1989 period extensive use is made of Pauchant & Mitroff's Onion Model of Crisis Management; an evaluation of which forms a part of this section. The thesis concludes by making a number of recommendations for the various bodies involved in the process for ensuring and promoting the safety of crowds inside sports stadia. Organisational Learning From Crisis: An examination of the UK Football Industry 1946 - 97 Dominic Paul Effiott University of Durham May 1998 A thesis submitted to the University of Durham for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the written consent of the author and information derived from it should be acknowledged. The research was conducted in Durham University Business School JAN 99 Contents Pages List of Figures 3 - 4 List of Tables 5 - 7 List of Appendices 8 Declaration 9 Acknowledgements 10 Glossary 12 Chapter 1 14 - 53 Crisis Management, Cultural Readjustment and Perspectives on the Stadia Crises of the UK Football Industry. Chapter 2 54 - 99 Crisis Management Theory and Organisational Learning Chapter 3 100 - 125 Research Methods Chapter 4 126 - 166 Structure, Finance and Culture in the UK Football Industry. Chapter 5 167-214 Disasters, Regulation and the Football Industry 1946 - 89 Chapter 6 215 -265 Organisational Learning from Crisis: The Football Industry response to the Hillsborough Tragedy Chapter 7 266-300 Conclusions and Recommendations for further research References 301 - 318 Bibliography 318-346 2 Appendices 347 - 384 List of Figures Figure 1.1 Disaster and Organisational Response Figure 1.2 Three Stages of Crisis Model Figure 1.3 Definition of terms in Crisis Management Figure 1.4 The Organisational Learning from Crisis Model Figure 1.5 Barriers to Learning from Crisis Figure 1.6 Seven C's of Crisis Management Figure 1.7 Three Stages of Post Crisis Turnaround Figure 2.1 Analytical Framework Figure 2.2 Stadium Crises in the Football Industry Figure 2.3 Onion model of Crisis Management Figure 2.4 Mintzberg' s Organi sational Configuration Figure 2.5 Stadium as a Socio-Technical system Figure 3.1 Cultural Readjustment Assessment Model Figure 4.1 Fortress Football Figure 4.2 The Football Stadium Organisational System Figure 4.3 A Four Stage Model of the Evolution of the Modern Stadium Figure 4.4 Push & Pull: Regulating the Football Industry Figure 7.1 Cultural readjustment Assessment Model Figure 7.2 Organisational Learning From Crisis and Cultural Readjustment Model 4 Figure 7.3 A Model for Controlling the Football Industry List of Tables Table 1.1 Stadium Disasters in the United Kingdom Table 1.2 Stadium Disasters World-wide Table 1.3 Models of Crisis Table 2.1 Common Patterns amidst models of Organisational Culture Table 2.2 Defence Mechanisms Table 2.3 Characteristics of Configurational Types Table 3.1 Crisis Events and Intervening Periods Table 3.2 Criteria for Sample Selection Table 3.3 Stages of Grounded Theory Methodology Table 3.4 Survey Respondents Table 4.1 Football League Gate Receipts 1958 - 89 Table 4.2 Stock Market Value of Clubs, April 1997 Table 4.3 The Seven Phases in Analysis of Hooliganism Table 4.4 Football Club Objectives Table 4.5 Objectives of Football Clubs by Division 1988 -97 Table 5.1 Patterns of Organisational Behaviour Table 5.2 Development of Regulation and Response 1946 - 71 Table 5.3 Ibrox Stadium Disaster: Three Stages of Crisis Table 5.4 Development of Regulation and Response 1971 - 85 Table 5.5 Bradford Stadium Disaster: Three Stages of Crisis 6 Table 5.6 Summary of Respondents views on Causes of and responsibility for the Bradford Stadium Disaster Table 5.7 Heysel Stadium Disaster: Three Stages of Crisis Table 5.8 Development of Regulation and Response 1985 - 89 Table 5.9 Hilisborough Stadium Disaster: Three Stages of Crisis Table 6.1 Patterns of Behaviour in the Football Industry 1989-97 Table 6.2 Who is in Charge of Matchday Operations Table 6.3 Football Stadium Disasters and Failures of Hindsight Table 6.4 Football Safety Officers' Attitudinal Survey Questions Table 6.5 Preliminary Factors Table 6.6 Rotated Factors Table 6.7 Factor 1: Variable Loadings Table 6.8 Factor 1: Nature of Crises and Crisis Preparations Table 6.9 Sunmiary of Respondents views on Causes of and responsibility for the Hilisborough Stadium Disaster Table 6.10 Factor 2 : Variable Loadings Table 6.11 Factor 2: Assessment of Crisis Preparedness Table 6.12 Factor 3 : Variable Loadings Table 6.13 Factor 3: Assessment of Crisis Preparedness 7 Table 6.14 Factor 4 : Variable Loadings Table 6.15 Factor 4: Assessment of Crisis Preparedness Table 6.16 How Would You Assess the Quality of Your Stewards Now? Table 6.17 Assessment of the Quality of Stewarding in the Post Hillsborough Period Table 6.18 Factor 5 : Variable Loadings Table 6.19 Factor 5: Assessment of Crisis Preparedness Table 6.20 All Factors: Assessment of Crisis Preparedness Table 7.1 Cultural Readjustment and Learning From Crisis Model 8 Appendices 1.1 Statistics from Selected world-wide Stadia 1.2 Selected Statistics from Rugby League Grounds and from UK Football Stadia 2.1 The Learning Process for Crisis Management 3.1 Interview Checklist for Football Club Executives 3.2 Football Safety Officers of England, Scotland and Wales Questionnaire 3.3 Chief Executive Interview Respondents Characteristics 3.4 Letter to Local Authority Safety Advisory Group Chairpersons 5.1 Plan of Heysel Stadium Layout 9 Declaration No portion of the work referred to in this thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other institution of learning Dominic Elliott Dominic Elliott obtained BA (Honours) and MBA degrees at the University of Warwick and Leicester Polytechnic (CNAA) respectively before carrying out research for the degree of Ph.D. at the University of Durham. 10 The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without their prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. 11 Acknowledgements Since commencing this research I have been assisted by a variety of individuals. Denis Smith who has advised and assisted throughout the research process, from inception through to completion. It has not been a work of love for Denis who prefers another sport! Steve Tombs offered critical comment on an earlier draft and provided much useful advice. A particular note of thanks to my colleagues at De Montfort University who offered a critical ear to my arguments. In particular to Cohn Egan, Brahim Herbane, Ethne Swartz and John Rendall for their support, critical comment and assistance in getting through this ordeal. The staff at the Kimberlin library for dealing with my requests for information so quickly. In the collection