University of Southern Queensland Behavioural risk at outdoor music festivals Aldo Salvatore Raineri Doctoral Thesis Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Professional Studies at the University of Southern Queensland Volume I April 2015 Supervisor: Prof Glen Postle ii Certification of Dissertation I certify that the ideas, experimental work, results, analyses and conclusions reported in this dissertation are entirely my own effort, except where otherwise acknowledged. I also certify that the work is original and has not been previously submitted for any other award, except where otherwise acknowledged. …………………………………………………. ………………….. Signature of candidate Date Endorsement ………………………………………………….. …………………… Signature of Supervisor Date iii Acknowledgements “One’s destination is never a place, but a new way of seeing things.” Henry Miller (1891 – 1980) An outcome such as this dissertation is never the sole result of individual endeavour, but is rather accomplished through the cumulative influences of many experiences and colleagues, acquaintances and individuals who pass through our lives. While these are too numerous to list (or even remember for that matter) in this instance, I would nonetheless like to acknowledge and thank everyone who has traversed my life path over the years, for without them I would not be who I am today. There are, however, a number of people who deserve singling out for special mention. Firstly I would like to thank Dr Malcolm Cathcart. It was Malcolm who suggested I embark on doctoral study and introduced me to the Professional Studies Program at the University of Southern Queensland. It was also Malcolm’s encouragement that “sold” me on my ability to undertake doctoral work. Secondly, I owe an inestimable debt of gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Glen Postle. In his quiet and unassuming manner, Glen introduced me to new ways of thinking and guided and challenged me through the research process with incisive comments and endless patience. Thirdly, I would like to thank my wife Michele and my children, Nadia, Alex and Laura. They are the bedrock that supports and propels me and the anchor that keeps me grounded. I cannot express in words their effect on, and contribution to, my life. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Filippo and Rosalia Raineri, and acknowledge the contribution that they have made to my development. They arrived in Australia in 1949 with nothing more than a huge capacity to work and persevere. They always provided support to ensure that I was able to pursue my ambitions. I cannot express the debt that I owe them. I know they would be proud of what I have achieved in the study reported in this dissertation. Accordingly, this dissertation is dedicated to my mother, Rosalia and to the memory of my father, Filippo. Sumus quod sumus Opus artificem probat iv Abstract “Safety is not an intellectual exercise to keep us in work. It is a matter of life and death. It is the sum of our contributions to safety management that determines whether the people we work with live or die” Sir Brian Appleton, after Piper Alpha (1988) Outdoor music festivals are increasingly common events on the summer entertainment landscape for youth in many countries around the world. Evidence indicates that attendance is associated with an increased risk of injury and death. Crowds are the principal hazard that needs to be dealt with, and without effective management, can become a significant problem with serious consequences. A considerable proportion of the safety risks associated with outdoor music festivals can be attributed to anti-social, irrational and unsafe behaviour by patrons. Encouragement of such behaviour has, to some extent, been a deliberate strategy on the part of music promoters and press agents, resulting in patrons attending music events becoming more aggressive and violent. While there is endorsement in the literature for a risk management approach, risk assessments for music festivals and mass gatherings generally tend to deal with the traditional hazards and risks, without taking into account the dynamics of the crowd or those factors that influence its behaviour. Influences on crowd behaviour are little understood and generally ignored, leaving a significant source of risk at this type of event unaccounted for. When managing risks at outdoor music festivals it is important, therefore, to understand the nature of the crowd demographic attending the event and the factors that impact on and shape the behaviour of the crowd. A number of attempts have been made to develop an appropriate method for assessing crowd safety at mass gatherings. While these approaches provide traditional (albeit contextualised) and contemporary approaches, none address the issue of behavioural risk. This dissertation outlines a model which draws together the various influences on individual behaviour which, mediated by theories of social psychology are translated into collective crowd behaviour and uses the model to ground the development of an instrument to monitor and assess behavioural risk at outdoor music festivals. v Publications The following presentations of a number of findings from the research conducted for this study have been made and published in the following proceedings and publications: Raineri, A (2014) Monitoring and assessing behavioural risk at outdoor music festivals – A model and instrument to facilitate the assessment of crowd safety at outdoor music festivals, Paper presented to the 1st Annual CQU Transport and Safety Sciences Conference, October, Rockhampton. Raineri, A (2013a) Outline of the development of a model to facilitate the assessment of crowd safety at outdoor music festivals, Paper presented to the Safety Institute of Australia Safety in Action 2013, Brisbane Safety Show, June, Brisbane. Raineri, A (2013b) Contextualising risk assessment – incorporating the psychosocial dimension in assessing crowd safety risks at outdoor music festivals, Paper presented to the Safety Institute of Australia Visions Conference 2013, October, Cairns. Raineri, A (2013c) A model to facilitate the development of an appropriate risk assessment methodology and instrument for crowd safety at outdoor music festivals, Paper presented to SAFE 2013, the 5th International Conference on Safety and Security Engineering, Rome, Italy, September. In Safety and Security Engineering V, Wessex Institute of Technology: WIT. vi Table of Contents Volume 1 Certification of Dissertation……………………………………………………………... ii Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………. iii Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….. iv Publications……………………………………………………………………………… v Chapter 1 - Introduction 1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………. 1 2. The issue under investigation……………………………………………………. 4 2.1 Planning based on a risk management approach…………………………….. 6 2.2 Identified weaknesses in risk assessment for crowd safety………………….. 9 2.3 Suggestions for improvement………………………………………………... 12 3. Aims and objectives of the study………………………………………………… 14 4. Formulating the research questions………………………………………………. 15 4.1 Improving crowd safety……………………………………………………… 17 4.2 The research questions……………………………………………………….. 19 4.2.1 Research question 1 - Hazard Identification…………………………. 19 4.2.2 Research question 2 – Risk Evaluation………………………………. 20 4.2.3 Research question 3 – User Requirements…………………………… 21 4.3 Aligning the research questions to the aims and objectives of the study…….. 21 5. The dissertation framework and format………………………………………….. 22 6. Outline of the dissertation………………………………………………………… 25 7. Summary….……………………………………………………………………….. 28 Chapter 2 – Theoretical Approach to the Study 1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………. 29 2. The USQ Professional Studies program………………………………………….. 30 3. What is work based learning................................................................................... 32 3.1 Work-based learning as contemporary education……………………………. 35 3.2 Informal learning…………………………………………………………….. 38 vii 3.3 Experiential learning…………………………………………………………. 40 3.4 Situated learning……………………………………………………………… 42 4. A theoretical approach for work-based learning……………………………………. 44 5. Activity theory…………………………………………………………………… 46 5.1 Overview of activity theory………………………………………………….. 50 5.2 First generation activity theory………………………………………………. 51 5.3 Second generation activity theory……………………………………………. 53 5.4 Third generation activity theory……………………………………………… 55 5.5 Using activity theory for the study…………………………………………… 57 6. Expansive learning……………………………………………………………….. 58 6.1 From concrete to abstract……………………………………………………. 63 6.2 Zones of proximal development……………………………………………… 63 6.3 Contradictions as a catalyst and springboard for change…………………….. 64 6.4 Summarising activity theory and expansive learning………………………… 69 6.5 Aligning the aims/objectives and research questions to the theoretical approach………………………………………………………………………. 71 7. Summary………………………………………………………………………….. 72 Chapter 3 – Planning and Methodology 1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………. 73 2. The Learning Portfolio - reflecting on the past and mapping the way forward….. 75 3. The Learning Plan - linking the historical with the aspirational…………………. 83 4. Identifying a suitable research design framework……………………………….. 85 4.1 Preliminary consideration……………………………………………………. 87 4.2 Building the framework……………………………………………………… 87 4.3 Aligning the research design framework to the theoretical approach, research questions and aims/objectives of the study……………………………………