Architecture As a Form of Erudition: Early Modern Priest-Architects Susan Klaiber

Home , Andrea Pozzo, Giuseppe Valeriano, Guarino Guarini, Palazzo Carignano

Articles Architecture as a Form of Erudition: Early Modern Priest-Architects Susan Klaiber

isjunctions between contemporary Catholic Darchitecture and the liturgical and representational needs of the Church often relect conlict between the client’s sacred concerns and architecture’s secular culture, or divergence between the architectural needs of other denominations and those speciic to Catholicism. But historically this was not always the case. A look at the early modern era—the period of Renaissance and Baroque architecture, and of the Counter Reformation— reveals a substantial tradition of the Church producing its own architecture, with architects drawn from the ranks of priests and other religious. Although such arrangements did not guarantee a lack of conlict between architect, clients, and donors, the practice generally met the needs of the Church in a period of rapid expansion. These priest-architects represent a unique architectural culture set somewhat apart from the rest of the early modern era, during which the architectural profession changed profoundly and secular architects sought to distance themselves from their origins in the crafts and trades through a process of professionalization. This involved, among other things, establishing a body of architectural literature, bringing architecture into the learned discourse of scientiic scholarship, and founding architectural academies. Priest-architects contributed to this process in the secular world, but also within the context of religious institutions. The new religious orders founded in Photo: Angelo Costanza the sixteenth century, both before and Sant’ Irene Church, Lecce, Italy by Francesco Grimaldi, begun 1591 after the Council of Trent, were at the heart of the priest-architect phenome- in decision making. Yet architects from teenth century, generally had obtained non.1 The orders of regular clergy, such the orders could always help evaluate their architectural training outside the as the Jesuits,2 Barnabites,3 and The- plans, fill in as construction superinten- order. These men with a background as atines,4 as well as the newly reformed dents, or provide designs themselves, craftsmen, such as the Jesuit Giuseppe branches of medieval orders, such as particularly when funding was precari- Valeriano (1542 – 1596) who originally the Capuchins and Discalced Carmel- ous. This essay furnishes an overview trained and worked as a painter, gen- ites, frequently drew on the architec- of some of these men and their build- erally joined the new orders later in tural talents of their own members ings across Europe from c. 1550 to 1750, life.5 The Theatine Francesco Grimaldi when constructing new churches, and situates their work within the insti- (1543 – 1613) also entered the order houses, and other institutional build- tutional culture of the religious orders. late, at age thirty-one, but had already ings. To be sure, the orders also em- The first generation of Jesuit, Barn- been ordained a priest prior to joining ployed secular architects during this abite, and Theatine architects, active the Theatines.6 Grimaldi provided the period, particularly when generous from the mid-sixteenth century first plans for Sant’Andrea della Valle local patrons played a prominent role through the early decades of the seven- in Rome, designed several churches in Sacred Architecture Issue 24 2013 11 Articles

buildings for the Jesuits, foremost Sant’Ignazio in Rome (begun 1626), the church of the Collegio Romano, but also at least portions of other buildings for the order, such as San Vigilio, Siena, and Sant’Ignazio (now Saint-Charles- Borromé) in Bastia on Corsica.11 Al- though Sant’Ignazio was not completed entirely to Grassi’s plans, it stands as a monument to the architectural- mathematical scholarship and practical skills promoted in the Jesuit curriculum at the Society’s colleges. Under Grassi, the Jesuit order insti- tutionalized the connection between architecture and mathematics, appoint- ing the professor of mathematics at the Collegio Romano the order’s consiliarus aedificiorum. The consiliarus re- viewed all plans for new architectural projects within the order, with his ap- © The Trustees of the British Museum proval necessary before projects could Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, black chalk drawing of Orazio Grassi’s proceed. The consiliarus commented Sant’ Ignazio Church under construction, Rome on the plans, and when necessary, made suggestions for improvements— Naples, and the Theatines’ Sant’Irene next century. These men were usually these were generally practical and eco- in Lecce (1588). In contrast to Vale- trained in mathematics through the nomic in nature, rather than aesthetic. riano and Grimaldi, Lorenzo Binago educational programs of the orders— The plans were submitted in dupli- (1554 – 1629), the first prominent Barn- mathematics in its early modern sense cate to the consiliarus, with one copy abite architect, joined the order while of quantifiable crafts and activities returned to the building site, and the young, at age eighteen. Yet Binago also such as mathematical seems to have had previous training in astronomy, perspec- drawing or architecture, since his earli- tive, and architecture est known drawing—made a year after (“mixed mathemat- entering the order—is already quite ac- ics”), in addition to complished.7 the developing field These priest-architects began to es- of what is now known tablish architectural identities for their as pure mathemat- religious communities as the orders ics.9 Thus equipped, moved from the temporary quarters the priest-mathema- of their earliest years to create perma- ticians pursued vo- nent architectural presences in rapidly cations as teachers expanding networks of churches and and scholars within houses across Italy and throughout their orders, and they Europe. Such early churches were often participated as archi- simple, since the immediate functional tects or consultants in needs during expansion and financial many of their orders’ constraints overrode wishes for more building projects. elaborate designs. Grassi’s career After this first generation, the Jesuit in the broad field of Orazio Grassi8 (1583 – 1654) marks the seventeenth-century transition to the later type of institu- mathematics unfold- tionalized scholarly priest-architects. ed primarily at the By the early seventeenth century, the Collegio Romano, new orders had established them- where he briefly con- selves as centers of learning and educa- sidered establishing tion as well as patrons of architecture, a Jesuit architectural constructing not only churches and school, but became convents, but also colleges and semi- most famous for his naries, hospitals, libraries, and other clashes with Galileo institutional buildings. The traits mani- Galilei regarding Photo: SXC 10 fested in Grassi’s career came to char- comets. Grassi San Lorenzo, Turin, by Guarino Guarini, 1670-80 acterize most priest-architects over the designed several 12 Sacred Architecture Issue 24 2013 Articles

other retained for the order’s archives; general logistic assis- these plans are now all preserved in the tance.16 For his two large Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.12 secular projects for the In addition to architectural skills cul- Prince of Carignano, the tivated for the order’s own immediate Palazzo Carignano and needs, the Jesuit colleges throughout the Castello of Racconi- Europe often instructed their secular gi, the surviving draw- pupils in military architecture, such as ings show at least two the art of building fortifications. This or three other draftsmen met a future need for young men plan- besides Guarini. These ning to pursue a military career, and draftsmen seem to have was therefore included within their been secular architects mathematics curriculum.13 hired by the patron to Similar architectural needs, educa- assist the priest busy tional programs, and—sometimes—in- with numerous publica- stitutional mechanisms led to similar tion projects as well as architectural cultures in other early other duties beyond the modern religious orders, particularly building site.17 those associated with the Counter Ref- After publishing phi- ormation. For these orders, architec- losophy and geometry ture fit into a larger vision of the schol- textbooks, and smaller arship that priests would normally works on astronomy, pursue, and indeed could be consid- fortifications, and con- ered a kind of apostolate for the order. struction measurement, In this sense, when a priest designed Guarini finally seems to churches for his order—or other build- have turned to writing ings for its patrons, thereby also sup- his architectural trea- porting the order indirectly—he was tise during the last five doing work that was part of his voca- or six years of his life. 14

tion as a priest. Indeed, right up to the Getty Research Library / Internet Archive The Theatine Guarino Guarini (1624 end of his life, Guarini Juan Bautista Caramuel’s treatise Architectura civil, – 1683) is perhaps the best-known of remained a scholar: he recta y obliqua, 1678, Part IV, Plate VI these architects, joining the ranks of died in Milan appar- major secular architects such as Bernini ently while there supervising the pub- works in diverse disciplines and trav- and Borromini in histories of Baroque lication of his two-volume astronomy eled extensively throughout Europe; he architecture. Yet precisely this success treatise Caelestis Mathematicae (Milan: became bishop of Vigevano in Lombar- has obscured his origins within the Ludovico Monti, 1683). Had he lived dy in 1673.20 Like Grassi and Guarini, architectural culture of early modern longer, he may well have written the Caramuel also approached architecture religious orders. His early works in theology textbook, a Cursum scholas- as a branch of mathematics, and he is Messina and Modena, while accom- ticae theologia, which he had intended best known for his architectural theory, plished and innovative in some re- to write at least since his time in Paris first included in his mathematics trea- spects, do not yet herald the radically in the 1660s.18 For Guarini and many tise Mathesis Biceps (2 vols., Campagna, inventive designs—particularly daring other early modern priest-architects, 1670), and then published separately as open-work domes—that he produced architecture and scholarship were not Architectura civil, recta y obliqua (Vigeva- at the Savoy court in Turin, such as the separate activities pursued in addi- no, 1678). The latter treatise is remark- Theatines’ ducal chapel of San Lorenzo tion to the priesthood, but rather inte- able for its system of “oblique architec- (1670 - 1680) or the Chapel of the Holy gral parts of their vocations. Richard ture,” which incorporated adjustments Shroud (1667 - 1694) between the ducal Pommer best expressed this in relation to architectural elements such as stair- palace and the cathedral. Guarini even to Guarini when he remarked, “for case balusters or colonnades on curved officiated at the inaugural mass in San him, architecture was a form of erudi- plans in order to avoid awkward tran- Lorenzo on May 12, 1680, although tion.”19 sitions between rectilinear and oblique considering the dozens of early modern Active priest-architects were not elements, or to compensate for other ir- priest-architects, this was perhaps not confined to Italy, but also based in regular optical effects. quite the unique occurrence Rudolf Spain, France, the German regions, and Caramuel’s single built work Wittkower imagined.15 the Southern Low Countries. Through is the façade of the cathedral of Guarini was so successful as a court the international ministries and mis- Sant’Ambrogio in Vigevano, Italy, architect for the Savoy that he seems to sions of their orders, they often trav- completed in 1680, which finished have had various assistants supporting eled extensively, spreading as well as off the fourth side of the city’s Piazza him toward the end of his career. Doc- gathering architectural ideas all along Ducale designed by Bramante in 1492- uments mention a Theatine lay brother the way. 94. The façade’s idiosyncratic design assigned to help him, although the The Spanish Cistercian Juan Bau- with four bays rather than three or five records do not specify if this help was tista Caramuel y Lobkowitz (1606 – masks the church’s skewed orienta- specifically architectural, or simply 1682) was a polymath who published tion to the square and thus breathes the Sacred Architecture Issue 24 2013 13 Articles © The Trustees of the British Museum © The Trustees of the British Museum

The title page of François Aguilon’s treatise on optics Façade of Jesuit Church, Antwerp (completed 1621), print of 1678 spirit of the architectura obliqua system. only with his high altarpiece of the De- façade. The solution was perhaps inspired by position and thirty-nine ceiling paint- The church suffered a devastating Guarini’s façade for Santissima An- ings installed in the side aisles (now fire in 1718 which destroyed much of nunziata in Messina of twenty years lost), but also contributing the design the interior, but one can still appreci- earlier, but Caramuel also looked to a for various sculptural elements on the ate Aguilon’s original design in the Roman model: the portal on the far left leads simply to a street as do the lateral portals at Pietro da Cortona’s Santa Maria della Pace in Rome (1656 - 1657), while the three other portals lead to the three aisles of the church. The Belgian Jesuit François Aguilon (1567 – 1617) was known chiefly for his scientific work in optics, Opticorum libri sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles (Antwerp, 1613) with its fron- tispiece and six illustrations by Peter Paul Rubens. He directed the Jesuit college in Antwerp with its famous mathematical studies, and he also designed the splendid Jesuit church in Antwerp (1615 - 1621), St. Ignatius (now St. Charles Borromeo), together

with the lay brother Pieter Huyssens © The Trustees of the British Museum (1577 - 1637) who took over the project Étienne Martellange, Jesuit novitiate church, Paris (begun 1630), after his death. Rubens also collabo- print by J. Marot, 1652-61 rated with Aguilon on this project, not 14 Sacred Architecture Issue 24 2013 Articles

around 1603 when he took his vows as a Jesuit frère coadjuteur temporel. The Jesuit lay brother Andrea Pozzo (1642 – 1709) worked primarily as a painter, particularly noted for his illu- sionistic quadratura frescoes with architectural elements, as in Sant’Ignazio, Rome, and for his altars. But he also was a prolific architect, designing churches in Dubrovnik, Ljubljana, Trent, and Montepulciano, among others. Perhaps inspired by the erudite publications of his more learned priest colleagues, Pozzo published his influ- ential treatise Perspectiva pictorum et ar-

Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington chitectorum (2 vols., Rome, 1693 - 1700) Preparatory drawing for the Sant’Ignazio vault fresco, by Andrea Pozzo, 1685-90 in a parallel Latin–Italian edition that was widely translated in similar bi- rich façade and the barrel-vaulted nave tects and construction superintendents lingual editions, thus addressing both with superimposed arcades, where the into the eighteenth century, although craftsmen and scholars. His younger upper gallery was accessible to stu- most of these men—lacking the formal brother Giuseppe Pozzo worked as a dents from the adjacent college. The in- education of priests—came from fami- lay brother artist of the Discalced Car- terest in optics at the Antwerp college lies already engaged in the building melite order in various churches in probably also stood behind the inno- trades or other crafts. A few of these Venice.25 vative indirect lighting effects in the lay brother-architects achieved particu- Caspar Moosbrugger (1656 - 1723) church’s Houtappel chapel, designed lar distinction. was a Benedictine lay brother from a by Huyssens and perhaps inspired by The son of a painter in Lyon, the family active in the building trades in Bernini’s early work at Santa Bibiana in Jesuit lay brother Étienne Martellange24 the Vorarlberg region around Bregenz Rome.21 (1569 - 1641) provided designs for in western Austria, one of the dynas- Many early modern priest-archi- numerous Jesuit churches in France, ties comprising the so-called Vorarl- tects remain relatively unknown even such as the Jesuit Novitiate church in berger school of architects and crafts- today, with their accomplishments Paris (begun 1630), closely modeled men. Moosbrugger trained and then often obscured by misattributions to on Giacomo della Porta’s Santa Maria worked as a stonemason until entering more famous secular architects. The ai Monti in Rome. Known also for his the order in 1682, around which time pilgrimage chapel at Telgte (1654 - drawings of French cities and land- he began taking on the responsibilities 1657) in northwest Germany furnish- scapes, Martellange entered the Jesuit of an architect. His architectural knowl- es an example of such an oversight. novitiate in Avignon in 1590, and is edge is preserved in the Auer Lehrgang, The chapel was commissioned by the referred to as an architect beginning a manuscript treatise and pattern book Prince-Bishop of Münster, Christoph Bernhard von Galen, soon after he established the Telgte pilgrimage in 1651, with its focus on the sculpted Gnaden- bild (a devotional Pietà) of c. 1370. Long attributed to the Danish architect Peter Pictorius the Elder active in Münster, twenty years ago the historian Helmut Lahrkamp uncovered evidence reat- tributing the original octagonal chapel to the Observant Franciscan Pater Jodokus Lücke (ordained 1642, died 1681).22 Lücke also designed portions of the Franciscan churches in nearby Hamm and Warendorf, and held ad- ministrative positions in the order, serving several times as the provin- cial superior.23 Interestingly, Lücke’s design for Telgte was preferred to that of another religious architect, the Fran- ciscan lay brother Gerhard Mahler.

Although gradually supplanted by Photo: Susan Klaiber academically trained priest-architects, Façade of the Benedictine Abbey Church of Einsiedeln, by Caspar Moosbrugger, lay brothers in the various religious begun 1721 orders continued to be active as archi- Sacred Architecture Issue 24 2013 15 Articles

52; Denis De Lucca, Jesuits and Fortifications: The Contribution of used by the Vorarlberg builders’ guild. architecture in Italy, France, and Germany. the Jesuits to Military Architecture in the Baroque Age (Leiden: Brill, Moosbrugger designed numerous Her publications include the book Guarino 2012). 14. See Klaiber, “Architectural Education and Early Modern churches and monasteries in Switzer- Guarini (Umberto Allemandi & C.), co- Religious Orders” (forthcoming, cited above). land, the most famous of which is the edited with G. Dardanello and H. A. Millon. 15. Rudolf Wittkower, “Guarini the Man,” in Studies in the Italian Benedictine Abbey Church of Einsie- She serves on the governing committee of the Baroque (London: Thames and Hudson, 1975), 178-186. 26 16. Archivio di Stato, Turin, Sezione Corte, Lettere di particolari, deln where he spent most of his life. European Architectural History Network, “V”, mazzo 40, letter of the Theatine Father General Placido Collectively, priest-architects, with and was founding editor of the Network’s Visconti, dated May 22, 1677. their lay brother colleagues, shaped EAHN Newsletter (2007-2010). Website: 17. On the other hands in these drawings, see Augusta Lange, “Disegni e documenti di Guarino Guarini,” in V. Viale, ed., substantial portions of the built envi- www.susanklaiber.wordpress.com. Guarino Guarini e l’internazionalità del barocco (Turin: Accademia ronment in early modern cities across delle scienze, 1970), I: 100-102. 18. Giuseppe Silos, Historiarum Clericorum Regularium (Palermo: Europe. The priest-architect phenom- Petri de Insula, 1666), III: 572. enon flourished during a specific his- 19. Richard Pommer, Eighteenth-Century Architecture in Piedmont torical moment lasting perhaps three (New York: New York University Press, 1967), 7. (Endnotes) 20. Augusto De Ferrari and Werner Oechslin, “Caramuel centuries. With the advent of modern This essay draws on material presented in my two forthcoming Lobkowicz, Juan,” in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (Rome: professional training in architecture articles: “Architecture and Mathematics in Early Modern Istituto della enciclopedia italiana, 1976), 19: 621-626, also Religious Orders,” in A. Gerbino, ed., Geometrical Objects: in academies and then schools like the available online: http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/juan- Architecture and the Mathematical Sciences 1400-1800, (in press); caramuel-lobkowicz_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/ (consulted French École des Beaux-Arts in the and “Architectural Education and Early Modern Religious May 29, 2013); for an overview of his architectural activity in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Orders,” Cambridge World History of Religious Architecture, Richard English, see also Werner Oechslin, “Caramuel de Lobkowitz, Etlin, general editor, 3 vols., New York: Cambridge University Juan,” in Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects, ed. Adolf K. the orders’ practical and theoretical Press (publication scheduled for 2013 / 2014). Placzek (New York: Free Press, 1982), 1: 380-383. training programs for their members The title of this article draws on a comment by Richard Pommer, 21. The exact division of labor and attribution of the various became superfluous. The various sup- cited at note 19 below. church components in Antwerp remain slightly unclear. On 1. See Rudolf Wittkower, Art and Architecture in Italy 1600-1750, Aguilon, see August Ziggelaar, François de Aguilón S. J. (1567 pressions of the orders at the end of the Pelican History of Art, 6th ed., rev. by Joseph Connors and - 1617): Scientist and Architect (Rome: Institutum Historicum eighteenth century also contributed to Jennifer Montagu (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 1: S. I., 1983), and the recent overview in Joris Snaet and Krista 2-3, 15-16, 80-81, 84-87; Richard Bösel, “L’architettura dei nuovi the demise of this architectural culture. de Jonge, “The Architecture of the Jesuits in the Southern Low ordini religiosi,” in Storia dell’architettura italiana: Il Seicento, ed. Countries: A State of the Art,” in La arquitectura jesuìtìca, ed. Although the nineteenth and twen- Aurora Scotti (Milan: Electa, 2003), 1:48-69. María Isabel Alvaro Zamora, Javier Ibáñez Fernández, and Jesús tieth centuries still produced some 2. Jean Vallery-Radot, Le recueil de plans d’édifices de la Campagnie Fermín Criado Mainar (Zaragoza: Inst. “Fernando el Catòlico”, de Jésus conservé à la Bibliothèque nationale de Paris (Rome: 2012), 239-276, esp. 273 on the Houtappel chapel in the Antwerp priest-architects, these were increas- Institutum Historicum S. I., 1960); church; also available online: http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publica ingly trained in mainstream secular Richard Bösel, Jesuitenarchitektur in Italien (1540 - 1773). Teil 1, Die ciones/31/96/08snaetdejonge.pdf (consulted May 29, 2013). schools of architecture, no longer Baudenkmäler der römischen und der neapolitanischen Ordensprovinz, 22. Helmut Lahrkamp, “Beiträge zur Hofhaltung des 2 vols. (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Fürstbischofs Christoph Bernhard von Galen – mit einem within the Church’s educational pro- Wissenschaften 1986), and Richard Bösel and Herbert Karner, Exkurs über Peter Pictorius d. Ä.” Westfalen 71 (1993): 31-71. grams. Some exceptions to this trend Jesuitenarchitektur in Italien. Teil 2., Die Baudenkmäler der The ornaments atop the exterior columns and the lantern were mailändischen Ordensprovinz (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen were priest-architects working in the apparently added later: for the engraving of Pater Lücke’s Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2007). original chapel in a 1660 Jesuit devotional book held by the mission field, where a general scar- 3. Jörg Stabenow, Die Architektur der Barnabiten: Raumkonzept und university library in Münster, see http://sammlungen.ulb. city of formally trained architects pre- Identität in den Kirchenbauten eines Ordens der Gegenreformation uni-muenster.de/hd/content/pageview/834482 (consulted 1600-1630 (Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2011). May 30, 2013). I thank Martin Raspe for drawing my attention to vailed—much as during the building 4. Because the early modern Theatine order lacked a central Lahrkamp’s work. boom of the Counter Reformation. repository for architectural designs, no comprehensive summary 23. Lahrkamp, “Beiträge zur Hofhaltung”: 54. The British Anglican priest William of Theatine architectural practice or production has yet been 24. This follows the recent study on Martellange by Adriana written. For aspects, see: Silvana Savarese, Francesco Grimaldi e Sénard, “Étienne Martellange: un architecte de la Compagnie de Grey (1819 – 1872) designed or remod- l’architettura della Controriforma a Napoli (Rome: Officina, 1986); Jésus en France au XVIIe siècle,” in La arquitectura jesuìtìca, ed. eled eleven churches in Newfound- Susan Klaiber, “Guarino Guarini’s Theatine Architecture” (PhD María Isabel Alvaro Zamora, Javier Ibáñez Fernández, and Jesús dissertation, Columbia University, 1993), 9-38; and Fulvio Lenzo, Fermín Criado Mainar (Zaragoza : Inst. “Fernando el Catòlico”, land according to the principles of Architettura e antichità a Napoli dal XV al XVIII secolo: le colonne 2012), 213-237; also available online: http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/ Ecclesiology, and also trained Cana- del Tempio dei Dioscuri e la Chiesa di San Paolo Maggiore (Rome: publicaciones/31/96/07senard.pdf (consulted May 30, 2013). “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 2011). 25. Vittorio De Feo and Valentino Martinelli, eds. Andrea Pozzo dian Anglican seminary students in 5. Pietro Pirri, Giuseppe Valeriano S.I., architetto e pittore, 1542- 27 (Milan: Electa, 1996); Alberta Battisti, ed., Andrea Pozzo (Milan: architecture. Other contemporary 1596, ed. R. Colombo (Rome: Institutum Historicum S.J., 1970); Luni, 1996); Richard Bösel and Lydia Salviucci Insolera, eds., priest-architects, as with the early and R. Bösel, “Giuseppe Valeriano,” in The Dictionary of Art, ed. J. Artifizi della Metafora: saggi su Andrea Pozzo (Rome: Artemide, Jesuits, came from families active in Turner (London: Grove, 1996), 31: 819-820. 2011). 6. Francesco Andreu, Oppidani illustri: Francesco Grimaldi 26. On Moosbrugger, see Werner Oechslin, “Moosbrugger, architecture, such as the Dutch Bene- (Matera: Arti Grafiche E. Liantonio, 1984), 23. Caspar,” in Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects, ed. Adolf K. dictine monk Dom Hans van der Laan 7. Stabenow, 34. Placzek (New York: Free Press, 1982), 3: 231-233; and Hardy 8. On Grassi, see Richard Bösel, Orazio Grassi: architetto e Happle and Werner Oechslin, editors, Auer Lehrgang, 3 vols. (1904 – 1991). Van der Laan studied ar- matematico gesuita : un album conservato nell’Archivio della Pontificia (Zurich and Bregenz: Vorarlberger Landesmuseum, 2008-2011). chitecture at the Technische Universit- Università gregoriana a Roma (Roma: Argos, 2004). Online resource: Moosbrugger in the Einsiedeln Professbuch, eit Delft and built austerely meditative 9. Antonella Romano, La contre-réforme mathématique. Constitution with images of his drawings for the abbey church http://www. et diffusion d’une culture mathématique jésuite á la Renaissance (1540- klosterarchiv.ch/e-archiv_professbuch_liste.php?id=1374 churches and Benedictine abbeys in the 1640) (Rome: École française de Rome, 1999); Gary I. Brown, (consulted November 30, 2012). 28 Netherlands, Belgium, and Sweden. “The Evolution of the Term ‘Mixed Mathematics,’” Journal of the 27. On Grey, see: http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/ For all these men, creating sacred archi- History of Ideas 52, no. 1 (1991): 81-102; and my two forthcoming articles/william-grey (consulted May 29, 2013). For Grey’s articles cited above, Klaiber, “Architecture and Mathematics in sole surviving church, St. James Anglican Church in Battle tecture comprised a facet of their reli- Early Modern Religious Orders;” and Klaiber, “Architectural Harbour, Newfoundland, and Labrador, see the entry on the gious vocation, helping them to serve Education and Early Modern Religious Orders.” Canada’s Historic Places website: http://www.historicplaces. 10. Bösel, Grassi, 29. ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=2137 (consulted 29 May the Church and their communities with 11. Bösel, Grassi, 31-33. 2013). I learned of Grey through a paper given at the European buildings to further spiritual goals. 12. Vallery-Radot, Recueil, 8*-11*. The several volumes of plans Architectural History Network’s Second International Meeting in Paris may now be consulted online through the Gallica in Brussels, May 31-June 2, 2012, “Periodicals, Patrons, and digitization project: http://gallica.bnf.fr/Search?ArianeWireIn Practitioners: The Transmission of Ecclesiological Gothic to the W dex=index&lang=EN&q=Recueil+...+contenant+tous+les+Plan Atlantic Colonies of British North America” (Peter Coffman, s+originaux+des+Maisons&p=1&f_typedoc=images (consulted Carleton University, Ottawa). Susan Klaiber (Ph.D., FAAR) is an May 29, 2013). 28. On van der Laan, see the website of the Van Der Laan 13. François de Dainville, “L’enseignement scientifique dans les Foundation: http://www.vanderlaanstichting.nl/en/index. architectural historian based in Winterthur, collèges des jésuites,” in Enseignement et diffusion des sciences en php (consulted May 30, 2013) with rich photographic and Switzerland, whose work focuses on Baroque France au XVIIIe siècle, ed. René Taton (Paris: Hermann, 1964), bibliographic resources. 16 Sacred Architecture Issue 24 2013