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A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details Gender, Sexuality and Contraceptive Advertisements in Bangladesh: Representation and Lived Experience across Social Classes and Generations Umme Busra Fateha Sultana Doctor of Philosophy University of Sussex March 2015 2 UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX UMME BUSRA FATEHA SULTANA DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GENDER, SEXUALITY AND CONTRACEPTIVE ADVERTISEMENTS IN BANGLADESH: REPRESENTATION AND LIVED EXPERIENCE ACROSS SOCIAL CLASSES AND GENERATIONS SUMMARY This doctoral thesis is the first comprehensive, feminist, qualitative study to take a cross-class and cross-generational perspective in exploring women’s experiences of gender, contraception and sexuality, as manifested in their narratives about real life and contraceptive advertisements, in post-independence Bangladesh. The existing scholarship on Bangladesh in the areas of gender, sexualities and contraception (see for instance, Caldwell et al., 1998; Cash et al., 2001; Karim, 2012; 2014; Khan et al., 2002; Rashid and Michaud, 2000; Rashid, 2000; 2006a; 2006b) remains largely restricted to providing a cross-class and cross- generational analysis. In fact there is no study that has focused on the experiences of sexuality in the upper class in Bangladesh. Despite their limited focus on the social classes and generations, the studies generalise and conclude that a highly gendered ‘sexually suppressed culture’ (Karim, 2012:40) exists in Bangladesh. Moreover, feminist media studies in Bangladesh (Ahmed, 2002; Ahmed, 2009; Begum, 2008; Gayen, 2002; Guhathakurota, 2002; Nasreen, 2002:95; Parveen, 2002) have repeatedly questioned the gendered stereotypes re/produced by the media (including advertisements) but without considering the context of production and/or audience reception of such representations. In contrast, my thesis, studying forty years (from 1971 to 2011) analyses interviews with women (across three social classes and generations) and a corpus of 166 contraceptive advertisements; it also takes into account the production issues. Women’s interpretations of these advertisements with regard to their ‘lived realities’ in the 3 heteronormative sexual structure of Bangladesh, provide nuanced insights to supplement the existing literatures on gender, media, contraception and sexuality studies. The thesis concludes: women are not entirely powerless in their sexual encounters, rather, the power balance shifts based on women’s various identities and the multiple determinants which shape their everyday lives. However, the ‘representation’ through contraceptive advertisements operates through a patriarchal ‘circuit of culture’ (Du Gay et al., 1997), which only presents a circumscribed ‘reality’ and offers a predominantly gendered construction of idealised femininity, masculinity and heteronormative sexuality. 4 Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to thankfully remember my God for giving me the inner strength and confidence to believe in myself. This is a moment of immense joy for me, to be able to say thanks to a few of the many people, who made this thesis possible. I would like to thank all the women who participated in this research, shared their intimate experiences, and allowed me to tell the world their stories. I am also grateful to the key informants for making time for me. I am indebted to Dr. Maleka Begum, Ayesha Banu, Dr. Nazmunnessa Mahtab, Dr. Abu Jamil Faisal, Aditi Sabur, Faruque Hossain and the University of Liberal Arts Bangladesh for putting me in touch with many of the respondents. I am thankful to Social Marketing Company (SMC) and Bitopi Advertising Ltd. for providing me access to electronic copies of contraceptive advertisements. Also, I thankfully acknowledge the University of Dhaka and the Prothom Alo press for allowing me to use their archives. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors at the University of Sussex: Professor Sally Munt and Janice Winship for their support and academic guidance throughout the project, for their critical feedback and for believing in my intellectual ability. I am highly indebted to Dr. Jane Traies who has supported me unconditionally all the way through this project, and spent countless hours proof-reading this thesis. I am grateful to my husband who accompanied me to carry out my fieldwork outside Dhaka, put me in touch with several of the respondents and took care of my home in Bangladesh, in my absence. Thank you my husband for being so understanding and supportive. Also, thanks to my friend, Vicky, and housemate, Jen, who provided their useful feedback and proof-read the earlier chapters of the thesis. I am grateful to my research assistants; without whose help it would not have been possible to collect the print copies of contraceptive advertisements. I would like to acknowledge the financial assistance I have received. I am grateful to the Commonwealth Scholarship Commission (UK) for providing me with a full scholarship to pursue my PhD at the University of Sussex. I am thankful to the University of Sussex and the School of Media, Film and Music for the conference grants that made it possible to share my work in intellectual environments where I received many useful insights. 5 I was privileged to have many members of faculty and PhD colleagues at the school of Media, Film and Music and in the University of Sussex, who were very keen to know about my project and suggested many creative ideas and valuable directions. Special thanks to Dr. Jane Traies again, and to Vicky, Kira, Mariam, Olessya and Ryan who have been my support system in the UK, and made me feel the warmth of home, far away from home. Thanks to my parents and siblings for always respecting my decisions and inspiring me to take up the challenge of a PhD and accomplish it. I am thankful to my nephews and nieces as well, whose love has always been very motivating for me. Finally, thanks to my examiners Lizzie Thynne (University of Sussex) and Dr. Sarah C. White (University of Bath) for making time to read and examine my thesis, and for their critical feedback that further contributed to make this thesis a better piece of work. 6 Acronyms and Abbreviations Ad Advertisement AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AV Audio Vision BDHS Bangladesh Demographic Health Survey BTV Bangladesh Television CPR Contraceptive Prevalence Rate CWFD Concerned Women for Family Development DGFP Directorate General of Family Planning DU University of Dhaka FPAB Family Planning Association of Bangladesh GO Government Organisation GoB Government of Bangladesh HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IEC Information, Education and Communication IUD Intrauterine Device KI Key Informant KII Key Informant Interview MOHFW Ministry of Health and Family Welfare NGO Non-Governmental Organisation SMC Social Marketing Company STD Sexually Transmitted Diseases TFR Total Fertility Rate TV Television UNFPA United Nations Population Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development 7 Table of Contents Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................... 6 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 11 A Gendered Journey ............................................................................................... 11 Research Questions ................................................................................................ 13 Chapters Outlines and Organisation ..................................................................... 14 CHAPTER ONE: Research Methodology ................................................................. 17 Issues Considered in Designing Research Instruments ........................................... 17 Methods and Preparations for Data Generation ...................................................... 19 Selection of Respondents .................................................................................... 20 Archives and Collection of Contraceptive Ads ...................................................... 24 Selection of the ‘Sample Ads’ for the Respondents.............................................. 25 Challenges Encountered in the Methodological Journey ......................................... 33 Finding Respondents on Sexuality Research ....................................................... 33 The ‘Class’ Paradox ............................................................................................. 34 ‘Space’ and ‘Time’ ............................................................................................... 37 The Note Book a Coping Strategy during Ethnographic Fieldwork .................... 38 From Ethical Concerns to Self-Reflexivity ............................................................ 40 CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review and Critical Reflection ................................... 47 Gender and Sexualities a Global Perspective ......................................................